THE PSYCHIATRIC STUDY OF JESUS

The Psychiatric Study of Jesus Expositio ad

Criticis!
By
ALBERT SCHWEITZER
Translation and Introduction by CHARLES R. JOY
For!ord by WI"FRE# O$ERHOLSER
THE BEACO" %RESS & BOSTO"
CO%YRI'HT( )*+,
THE BEACO" %RESS
All rights reserved
Third printing, January 1956
%RI"TE# I" -.S.A.
In t. /no!ld0 t.at . is t. co1in0 son o2 1an( Jsus
lays .old o2 t. !.l o2 t. !orld to st it 1o3in0 on
t.at last r3olution !.ic. is to brin0 all ordinary
.istory to a clos. It r2uss to turn( and . t.ro!s
.i1sl2 u4on it. T.n it dos turn and crus.s .i1.
Instad o2 brin0in0 in t. sc.atolo0ical conditions( .
.as dstroyd t.1. T. !.l rolls on!ard( and t.
1an0ld body o2 t. on i11asurably 0rat 1an !.o !as
stron0 nou0. to t.in/ o2 .i1sl2 as t. s4iritual rulr
o2 1an/ind and to bnd .istory to .is 4ur4os( is .an0in0
u4on it still. T.at is .is 3ictory and .is ri0n.
55 ALBERT SCHWEITZER
PREFATORY "OTE
Albrt Sc.!it6r 4assd .is stat 1dical 7a1inations
in t. 2all o2 )*)). T. sur0on !.o .ld t. 2inal
7a1ination( 8adlun0( told .i1 t.at it !as only bcaus
o2 .is 7cllnt .alt. t.at . .ad 0ottn t.rou0. a 9ob
li/ t.at. T. 4r3ious 1ont. . .ad 4layd t. or0an
acco14ani1nt 2or Widor n! Symphonia Sacra( Widor
.i1sl2 ladin0 t. orc.stra. Sc.!it6r:s 2 2or .is
or0an !or/ !as usd to 4ay 2or t. 1dical 7a1ination.
T.r !as still .is intrns.i4 to co14lt and .is
doctoral t.sis to sub1it b2or .is d0r !as assurd.
For t. lattr . c.os to !rit on rcnt 1dical
tratiss !.ic. s.o!d( at last to t. aut.ors:
satis2action( t.at Jsus !as 1ntally disasd. W.il
Sc.!it6r:s boo/ !as 1ainly concrnd !it. t. !or/ o2
t.r di22rnt 1n . 2lt it .is duty to 2a1iliari6
.i1sl2 !it. t. !.ol litratur o2 4aranoia b2or
undrta/in0 .is tas/. T. rsult !as t.at t.is s1all
tratis too/ .i1 o3r a yar to co14lt. On s3ral
occasions . !as on t. 4oint o2 c.oosin0 an asir
sub9ct 2or .is t.sis.
T. boo/ !as 4ublis.d in 'r1an in )*);. It !as 2irst
translatd into En0lis. by W. 8ont0o1ry undr t. titl
<T. Sanity o2 t. Esc.atolo0ical Jsus(< and 4ublis.d
in t. Britis. 4riodical( The Expositor( $III sris(
3ol. =. T. 4rsnt 3olu1 is a 2rs. translation( and
constituts t. 2irst a44aranc o2 t.is i14ortant !or/
in boo/ 2or1. For assistanc in t. translation o2
tc.nical 4syc.iatric 4.rasolo0y( t. translator !is.s
to rcord .is dbt to #r. Win2rd O3r.olsr.
CR.J. Neton !ighlands "assachusetts
CO"TE"TS
%A'E
%REFATORY "OTE >
FOREWOR# ))
I"TRO#-CTIO"
Sc.!it6r:s
Conc4tion o2 Jsus )>
%REFACE TO THE )*);
E#ITIO" ?>
THE %SYCHIATRIC STY#Y
OF JES-S ;;
I"#E@ >A
FORE#ORD
T. )*t. cntury 0a3 birt. to 1any scinti2ic
ad3ancs( to a44lications o2 t. scinti2ic 1t.od o2
inBuiry in 3arious 2ilds. T. radinss to d1and
3idnc !.ic. is an ssntrial 4art o2 t. scinti2ic
4rocss( and !.ic. .ad alrady u4st 1an:s idas o2
0ocntricity C Co4rnicusD( cclsiastical aut.ority
C Lut.rD( and ori0inal cration C #ar!inD( b0an to b
a44lid to t. study o2 .istory. To t.is study o2 .istory
t. Bibl !as not i11un( and lat in t. )>t. cntury
C )=>ED t.r ca1 about t. b0innin0s o2 t. <.i0.r
criticis1(< !it. t. a44aranc o2 S4ino6a Tractatus
Theologico#$oliticus. So1 o2 t.is <.i0.r criticis1< !as
basically .ostil to stablis.d bli2( but t. bttr
4art o2 it !as .alt.ily s/4tical instadF t.r !as a
0nuin s/in0 2or .istoric trut. and 2or a study o2
1oti3s.
It !as in3itabl t.at in t. Bust 2or 1oti3s so1
considration s.ould b 0i3n to t. 4ossibility t.at t.
bli2s o2 Jsus 1i0.t b 74laind as t.os o2 a
1ntally abnor1al 4rson( 4r.a4s 3n o2 on clarly
dran0d. %ossibly t. 1rly nascnt stat o2 4syc.iatry
2urnis.d on rason !.y 1or o2 t. iconoclasts did not
3ntur arlir on t.is 4at. o2 inBuiry. "oac/ C %ie
&eschichte Jesu( ?nd d.( ),>=D r2rrd to Jsus as an
<cstatic(< but did not i14ut 1ntal disas to .i155
t.at !as l2t 2or t. ?Et. cntury.
In t. 2irst t!o dcads o2 t. 4rsnt cntury no
lss t.an t.r 1dical !ritrs 1bar/d u4on a
4syc.iatric <intr4rtation< o2 Jsus55a 'r1an( #r.
'or0 Lo1r( !.o !rot undr t. 4sudony1 o2 'or0 d
LoostnF a Frnc. !ritr( C.arls Bint5San0lGF and an
A1rican( #r. Willia1 Hirsc.. A 2ourt. !ritr( E1il
Ras1ussn( %..#.( includd Jsus a1on0 a 0rou4 o2
4ro4.ts !.o1 . classi2id as 4syc.o4at.olo0ical ty4s.
It is to a r2utation o2 t.s 2our boo/s t.at our aut.or
ddicats t.is 3olu1( .is t.sis o22rd 2or t. d0r
o2 #octor o2 8dicin at Strassbur0 -ni3rsity in )*);.
#r. Sc.!it6r( alrady t. .oldr o2 d0rs in
4.iloso4.y and di3inity( .ad s.o!n .i1sl2 a sound
.istorian in .is &eschichte der 'e(en#Jesu)orschung in
)*E=F in .is 4rsnt study . 1ars.als .is .istorical
data 22cti3ly( to0t.r !it. t. /no!ld0 o2 1ntal
disordr as it t.n 7istd in Euro4.
Sinc t. aut.ors discussd by #r. Sc.!it6r a0r
on on 4oint( na1ly t.at Jsus su22rd 2ro1 so1 2or1
o2 <4aranoia(< a 2! !ords concrnin0 t.is ty4 o2 1ntal
disordr 1ay not b out o2 4lac. T. !ord is an old
on55 it !as usd in t. Hi44ocratic !ritin0s( t.ou0. in
a 0nral sns( as 1anin0 1ntal disas. It !as
introducd into 'r1an 4syc.iatry as arly as ),), by
Hinrot.( but !it. so loos a d2inition t.at at on ti1
2ro1 >E to ,E 4rcnt o2 t. 4atints in Euro4an 1ntal
.os4itals !r dia0nosd as su22rin0 2ro1 <4aranoia.<
Indd( as lat as ),,> a Frnc. 4syc.iatrist
CS*glasD r2rrd to it as a !ord !.ic. .ad <la
signi+ication la plus vaste et la plus mal d*+inie.<
'radually it ca1 to includ a 3arity o2 clinical 0rou4s
c.aractri6d by idas o2 4rscution and 0randur( in
3aryin0 4ro4ortions. So1 o2 t.s 0rou4s 7.ibitd
al1ost ntirly a distortion and 1isintr4rtation o2
actual 2acts( ot.rs so1 laboration !it. 2abrication(
!.il so1 s.o!d suc. a loss o2 contact !it. rality as
to caus t. 4atint to su22r 2ro1 .allucinations in on
or 1or o2 t. snsory s4.rs. A rli0ious colorin0 o2
t. dlusions is 2ar 2ro1 unco11on. Hra4lin( t. 0rat
'r1an dscri4ti3 4syc.iatrist( d2ind t.s 3arious
0rou4s554aranoia( 4ara4.rnia Cno! 0nrally r2rrd to
as 4aranoid conditionD and d1ntia 4raco7 o2 t.
4aranoid ty4( .is 2inal 2or1ulation a44arin0 about
)*);. To Hra4lin and .is sc.ool( as to t. Frnc.
sc.ool o2 4syc.iatry( 4aranoia !as lar0ly a Bustion o2
constitutionF it !as basd on t. 1a/u4 o2 t. 4rson(
d3lo4d insidiously and 4ro0rssi3ly( and !as
ssntially una1nabl to trat1nt. T.y loo/d on it as
al1ost i2 not Buit ntirly a disturbanc o2 t.
intllctual 2unctions. It !as only in )*E= t.at Blulr
14.asi6d t. i14ortanc in t. disordr o2 raction to
li2 situations( as o44osd to a 2atalistic
intr4rtation( and it !as a2tr t. a44aranc o2
Sc.!it6r:s ans!r to t. 4syc.iatrists t.at a 1or
dyna1ic intr4rtation o2 t. 1c.anis1s o2 4aranoia and
t. 4aranoid conditions ca1 about as a rsult o2 Frud:s
4ntratin0 obsr3ations. C Frud:s nots on t. Sc.rbr
cas( 4ublis.d in )*))( !r 3ry li/ly un/no!n to
Sc.!it6r as . !rot.D W no! /no!( o2 cours( t.at t.
1otional and .o1os7ual 2actors ar .i0.ly i14ortant(
and t.at 4aranoia is no 1or a 4urly intllctual
disordr t.an any ot.r 4syc.osis.
T!o 0nral co11nts 1ay b 1ad on 4syc.iatric
dia0nosis. First( on 1ust .a3 a 0ood cas .istory. In
t. cas o2 Jsus( ! .a3 3irtually non. T. 2irst
'os4ls !r 4robably !rittn +E or 1or yars a2tr t.
dat. o2 JsusF as suc.( t.ir accuracy as to dtail( at
last as 4syc.iatric docu1nts( 1ust b Bustiond.
Furt.r1or( ! /no! not.in0 7c4t by tradition o2 any
but t. last yar or so Cat t. 1ostD o2 Jsus: li2( and
in all accounts t.r is a 0a4 o2 at last ), yars. W
/no! 3ry littl o2 .is rlations !it. .is 1ot.r and
siblin0s and( !.il ! /no! so1t.in0 o2 t. 1ulti2arious
social( rli0ious and cono1ic in 2luncs o2 t. ti1(
! /no! 3ry littl o2 t. 1annr in !.ic. t.y 4layd
u4on .i1 and 1ouldd .is 2lin0s and ractions. T.
4rils o2 dia0nosis , distance ar 0ratI
In t. scond 4lac( ! cannot study any 4atint in a
3acuu1( 2or nobody li3s in on( and 3ryon is
conditiond by .is n3iron1nt55its rli0ious and social
!ays and bli2s( inter alia. Sc.!it6r discusss 3ry
22cti3ly t. rli0ious bli2s o2 Jsus: ti1 as lar0
2actors in .is 1inistry55t. 4rsnt control o2 t. !orld
by 3il s4irits( t. co1in0 o2 t. 8ssia. and .is
Hin0do1( t. 8ssia.:s su22rin0( t. 9ud01nt( t.
rsurrction( and t. trans2i0uration o2 natur55!.ic.
!r 2a1iliar to Jsus and .is .arrs( and !.ic. !r as
i14ortant in t. li2 o2 t. co11unity as our bli2 in
d1ocracy and t. Constitution( 2or 7a14l. To t.
Haitian nati3 a bli2 t.at ncro1ancy 1ay b 14loyd
a0ainst .i1 is a 4art o2 t. 2ol/!ays( is <nor1al<552or
t. ducatd rsidnt o2 %ar/ A3nu suc. a bli2 !ould
b 4ro4rly classi2id as dlusion. In t. sa1 !ay to
ta/ Jsus: bli2s and tac.in0s out o2 t.ir cont7t(
as Bint5San0lG and t. ot.r !ritrs ! .a3 1ntiond
do( is 4syc.iatrically unsound.
Sc.!it6r co11nts u4on t. 2act t.at .allucinations
55t.at is( snsory i14rssions !it.out an 7trnal
sourc55 ar not to b 2ound only in t. 1ntally ill.
His stat1nt is ntirly corrct. Suc. 74rincs ar
not unco11on in a stat o2 consciousnss bt!n sl4in0
and a!a/in0F t.y ar r2rrd to as .y4na0o0ic
.allucinations. So1 4rsons d3lo4 .allucinations !it.
rlati3ly s1all doss o2 t.ra4utic dru0s( suc. as
atro4in. A0ain( in 4rsons o2 stron0ly rli0ious naturs
.allucinations 1ay b 2ound in 4riods o2 intns
rli0ious 1otion( as 4ointd out 2or 7a14l( by Willia1
Ja1s. T. rcordd .allucinations o2 Jsus( 3n
assu1in0 t.ir .istoricity( t.n( ar 2ar 2ro1
stablis.in0 t. t.sis o2 Bint5San0lG( Hirsc. and d
Loostn.
On 1ay disa0r !it. Sc.!it6r on on or t!o 1inor
4oints. H ta/s 2or 0rantd t.at t. 2ailur o2 Jsus to
d3lo4 idas o2 in9ury and 4rscution ruls out t.
4ossibility o2 a 4aranoid 4syc.osis. T.is is not
ncssarily truF so1 4aranoids 1ani2st idas o2
0randur al1ost ntirly( and ! 2ind 4atints !.os
0randur is 3ry lar0ly o2 a rli0ious natur( suc. as
t.ir bli2 t.at t.y ar dirctly instructd by 'od to
con3rt t. !orld or 4r2or1 1iracls. A0ain( . o22rs
as 3idnc o2 2rdo1 2ro1 4aranoia t. 2act t.at Jsus
1odi2is .is 3i!s as to .is 1issions. So1 4aranoids
substantially 1odi2y t.ir dlusions in accordanc !it.
t.ir 3i! o2 n3iron1ntal 2actors( and 1ay indd
a44ar to rason lo0ically concrnin0 3nts o2 intrst
to t.155lo0ically( t.at is( i2 on 0rants t.ir
4r1iss.
T.s ar( .o!3r( 2ar 2ro1 2unda1ntal 4oints o2
disa0r1nt. #r. Sc.!it6r:s 4rsntation 7.ibits a
4ro2undity o2 sc.olars.i4( t.olo0ical( .istorical( and
1dical( and at t. sa1 ti1 t. d4st 4ossibl
r3rnc 2or t. 1anin0 and t. 1ssa0 o2 t. 8an o2
"a6art..
WI"FRE# O$ERHOLSER( 8.#.
%rsidnt( A1rican %syc.iatric Association
Was.in0ton #istrict o2 Colu1bia )*+,
$I$%IO&RAPHY FOR FORE#ORD
Frud( S.J -ertain Neurotic "echanisms in Jealousy.
<%aranoia and Ho1os7uality(< 44. ?;?5?+;. Fro1 Collctd
%a4rs( $ol. II( London( )*?A.
Frud( S.J $sychoanalytic Notes upon an Auto(iography.
<Account o2 a Cas o2 %aranoia Cd1ntia 4aranoidsD.<
)*))( 44. ;,>5+>E. Fro1 Collctd %a4rs( $ol. III(
London( )*?A.
Ja1s( W.J .arieties o+ /eligious Experience. "! Yor/(
)*E?.
Jouannais( S.J 0tude -riti1ue des 0tats $aranoides.
CT.sis( -ni3. o2 %arisD( %aris( )*+E.
Hirc..o2( H.J 2linischer 3eitrag 4ur %i++erentialdiagnose
paranoider Er5ran5ungen. CT.sis( -ni3. o2 BrlinD( 44.
+A( Brlin( )*;>.
Hra4lin( E.J "anic %epressive 6nsanity and $aranoia.
Edinbur0.( E. K S. Li3in0ston( )*?).
Lacan( J.J %e la $sychose $aranoia1ue( 44. ;,)( %aris(
)*;?.
"oys( A. %.J "odern -linical $sychiatry7 C.. ?>.
%.iladl4.ia( )*;*.
%i7oto( A. t 8orira J.J 'a $aranoia l*gitime8 son
origine et nature C )*E=D( 44. =;5,;. In %i7oto( A.J
$aranoia. SLo %aulo( Bra6il( )*+?.
I"TRODUCTIO" SCH#EIT'ER(S CO"CEPTIO" OF JESUS
Albrt Sc.!it6r is on o2 art.:s tru nobl1n and .is
nobility is s.o!n in .is touc.in0 .u1ility. As si14l as
a c.ild( as .u1bl as t. 0rass( . .as 0on .is c.osn
!ay Buit obli3ious to t. anti4.onal c.oruss o2 4rais
and bla1 !.ic. .a3 surroundd .i1. T.os !.o .a3 co1
to acclai1 .i1 al1ost as a saint today .a3 o2tn
2or0ottn t.at . .as bn t. cntr o2 3iolnt
contro3rsy in 3ry s4.r !.r . .as 1o3d so
Buitly( so sincrly( so unobtrusi3ly.
His intr4rtation o2 Bac. !as n! and r3olutionary
alt.ou0. undoubtdly it !as a rturn to t. s4irit and to
t. 1anin0 o2 t. cantor o2 Saint T.o1as. T.at it !as
not t. currnt 3i! in t. 1usical !orld is su00std by
an un4ublis.d doctoral t.sis on t. s.l3s o2 t.
Widnr Library at Har3ard -ni3rsity ntitld <T.
Sc.!it6rian Hrsy.< T. .rsy alludd to is a
1usical( not a t.olo0ical( .trodo7y.
As a 4.iloso4.r o2 ci3ili6ation( . .as so1ti1s struc/
t. not( as #r. A. A. Robac/ .as said( <o2 a Jr1ia.
sittin0 a1idst t. ruins o2 .is battrd city5stat.<
Wit. 0ntl but incisi3 clarity . .as cond1nd our
1odrn ci3ili6ation !it. its in.u1an 1c.anis1s( its .rd
1ntality( its scorn o2 .u1an 3alus( its t.ou0.t
4aralysis( its s4iritual
ban/ru4tcy. H 4ro4.sis its al1ost crtain dcay and
sounds a not o2 !arnin0 t.at t.r ar no ot.r
ci3ili6ations to ta/ t. 4lac o2 t.is 4rsnt on i2 !
2ail to rscu it.
Yt no!.r ls .as t.is si14l( Buit( .u1bl 1an
4ro3o/d so stirrin0 a contro3rsy( so 3iolnt an
u4.a3al( as . .as in t. ral1 o2 t.olo0y. His study
o2 t. .istoric 4rsonality o2 C.rist .as bn dscribd
by on co11ntator as <indd a dra1a55a tra0dy so1
!ould say.< 8or t.an 2orty yars a0o .is boo/( The 9uest
o+ the !istorical Jesus( a44ard and still t. circls
!idn 2ro1 t. initial disturbanc causd by t. 2allin0
o2 t.is boo/ into t. 4lacid sur2ac o2 1odrn .istorical
t.olo0y.
Sc.!it6r .i1sl2 !as !ll a!ar o2 t.is. In .is boo/ .
4ointd out t.at t.r could b no co14ro1is bt!n t.
libral t.olo0y o2 1odrn ti1s in its trat1nt o2 t.
li2 o2 Jsus and t. sc.atolo0ical Jsus( t. Jsus !.o
bli3d in t. abru4t co1in0 o2 t. 8ssianic Hin0do1(
!.ic. . .ad disco3rd in t. "! Tsta1nt sourcs. H
saidJ <T.r .as ntrd into t. do1ain o2 t. t.olo0y
o2 t. day a 2orc !it. !.ic. it cannot 4ossibly ally
itsl2. Its !.ol trritory is t.ratnd. It 1ust it.r
rconBur it st4 by st4 or ls surrndr it.< <8odrn
t.olo0y(< . 0os on( <is no doubt still 2ar 2ro1
rco0ni6in0 t.is. It is !arnd t.at t. dy/ is lttin0
in !atr and snds a cou4l o2 1asons to r4air t. la/F
as i2 t. la/ did not 1an t.at t. !.ol 1asonry is
undr1ind and 1ust b rbuilt 2ro1 t. 2oundation.<
"o ato1ic bo1b could .a3 .ad so s.attrin0 an 22ct
u4on a city as t.is t.ou0.t o2 Jsus .ad u4on t. stron0
citadl o2 1odrn t.olo0y. Indd( its 22ct !as
uttrly d3astatin0. T. libral conc4tion o2 Jsus
currnt at t. b0innin0 o2 t. t!ntit. cntury
disint0ratd undr t. i14act o2 it. It lay in ruins as
ab9ct as t.os o2 Hiros.i1a a2tr t. dat. dalin0
attac/ 2ro1 t. s/is. But t. ruins
!r ali3 !it. a n! and stran0 2orc li/ t. radio5
acti3ity in t. dsolat Ja4ans city. T. librali6d(
1odrni6d( unral( n3r 7istin0 Jsus( t. Jsus !.ic.
! .ad constructd to .ar1oni6 !it. our o!n idals o2
li2 and conduct( 0a3 !ay to t. 1a9sty o2 t. .roic
2i0ur !.o can b co14r.ndd only in t. li0.t o2 .is
ti1( !.o s.ard all t. ardnt 74ctations o2 .is day(
!.o s.a4d .is li2 and .is tac.in0( and 3n 4lannd
.is dat. in accordanc !it. crtain 8ssianic
con3ictions !.ic. subsBunt 3nts 4ro3d to b
co14ltly 1ista/n. Yt t.r r1ains so1t.in0 su4rb(
so1t.in0 dyna1ic about t.is .istoric 2i0ur. Out o2 t.
ruins a 0ratr city is risin0( a stron0 city( a lo3ly
city on !.ic. t. 0lo!in0 rays o2 t. risin0 sun o2 trut.
b0in to s.in.
Sc.!it6r .i1sl2 said o2 .is !or/J <T. 9ud01nt 4assd
u4on t.is ralistic account o2 t. li2 o2 Jsus 1ay b
3ry di3rs( accordin0 to t. do01atic( .istorical( or
litrary 4oint o2 3i! o2 t. critics. Only !it. t. ai1
o2 t. boo/ 1ay t.y not 2ind 2aultJ to d4ict t. 2i0ur
o2 Jsus in its o3r!.l1in0 .roic 0ratnss and to
i14rss it u4on t. 1odrn a0 and u4on t. 1odrn
t.olo0y.< And a0ainJ <W 1ust 0o bac/ to t. 4oint !.r
! can 2l a0ain t. .roic in Jsus. B2or t.at
1ystrious %rson !.o in t. 2or1 o2 .is ti1 /n! t.at
. !as cratin0 u4on t. 2oundation o2 .is li2 and dat.
a 1oral !orld !.ic. (ears his name( ! 1ust b 2orcd to
lay our 2acs in t. dust !it.out darin0 3n to !is. to
undrstand .is natur. Only t.n can t. .roic in our
C.ristianity and in our :Wltansc.auun0: b a0ain
r3i3d.<
Albrt Sc.!it6r !as born in Haysrsbr0 in -44r
Alsac( on January )+( ),>A. T. !ar o2 ),>E .ad brou0.t
Alsac undr 'r1an rul and as a 'r1an citi6n t.
youn0 1an !as sub9ct to co14ulsory 1ilitary sr3ic. On
A4ril )( ),*+( .is yar o2 trainin0 b0an but . !as abl
to continu so1 o2 .is t.olo0ical !or/ t.rou0.
an arran01nt 1ad !it. an indul0nt ca4tain. In t.
2all o2 t. yar . 2ound .i1sl2 on 1anu3rs nar
Hoc.2ldn in Lo!r Alsac. It !as c.aractristic o2 .i1
t.at t. 1ost 4ri6d articl in .is /na4sac/ !as a 'r/
Tsta1nt !it. !.ic. . !as !or/in0 in 4r4aration 2or an
7a1ination in t. Syno4tic 'os4ls to b ta/n at t.
b0innin0 o2 t. !intr tr1. E3ry 3nin0( 3ry rst
day t. tirlss youn0 1an studid. On day in t. to!n
o2 'u00n.i1 .is 1ind !as stirrd to intns acti3ity by
.is radin0 o2 t. tnt. and l3nt. c.a4trs o2
8att.!. As . rad and 4ondrd t. 3rss in t.s
c.a4trs .is intrst and .is b!ildr1nt 0r!.
At t.at ti1 Hinric. Julius Holt61ann !as lcturin0
about t. Syno4tic 4robl1 on t. t.olo0ical 2aculty o2
t. -ni3rsity o2 Strassbur0( and .is t.ory t.at Jsus:
li2 and tac.in0 could bst b undrstood 2ro1 t.
0os4l o2 8ar/( sinc 8ar/ !as t. oldst o2 t. 0os4ls
and !as t. 2oundation on !.ic. 8att.! and Lu/ .ad
built( !as 0nrally acc4td. But no! in t.s t!o
c.a4trs o2 8att.! !.ic. ar not 4arallld in 8ar/(
Sc.!it6r 2ound a situation t.at could not b
.ar1oni6d( . t.ou0.t( !it. Holt61ann:s t.oris. In
8att.! )E( Jsus snds out t. disci4ls to 4rac.
t.rou0.out t. land o2 Isral( and tlls t.1 t.at t.y
!ill b sorly 4rscutd( but t.at b2or t.y .a3
co14ltd t.ir 1ission t. 8ssianic Hin0do1 !ill b
us.rd in. Jsus( t.r2or( did not 74ct to s t.1
a0ain. It turnd out( .o!3r( t.at t.y !r not
4rscutd and t.at t. 8ssianic Hin0do1 did not a44ar
b2or t. nd o2 t.ir 9ourny. To Jsus: o!n a1a61nt
t.y ca1 bac/ to .i1( .is 4rdictions Buit un2ul2illd.
Holt61ann .ad said t.at t.is discours !as not .istorical
and t.at it .ad bn 4ut into Jsus: 1out. at a latr
4riod( but Sc.!it6r !as sur t.at no latr 0nration
!ould 3r .a3 attributd to Jsus stat1nts 4ro3d
2als by 3nts.
In 8att.! ))( ! .a3 t. story o2 t. Bustion 4ut to
Jsus by Jo.n t. Ba4tist( and Jsus: r4ly. Sc.!it6r
ca1 to bli3 t.at !.n Jo.n as/s Jsus( <Art t.ou .
t.at s.ould co1M< . !as r2rrin0( not to t. 8ssia.(
but to Eli9a.( !.o in 4o4ular bli2 !as to 4rcd t.
8ssia.. T.is Bustion( and Jsus: 3a0u r4ly to it(
4ro3 t.at nit.r Jo.n( nor t. i11diat disci4ls
bli3 .i1 to b t. 8ssia.. A2tr Jo.n:s 1ssn0r .as
d4artd( Jsus turns to .is disci4ls and says C 8att.
))J))DJ <A1on0 t.1 t.at ar born o2 !o1n t.r .at. not
risn a 0ratr t.an Jo.n t. Ba4tistJ not!it.standin0 .
t.at is last in t. /in0do1 o2 .a3n is 0ratr t.an
..< Sc.!it6r 4u66lin0 o3r t.s !ords ca1 to r9ct
t. usual intr4rtation t.at Jsus !as rl0atin0 Jo.n
to a 4lac in2rior to t. 4lac o2 t. last o2 .is o!n
disci4ls. His o!n disci4ls !r born o2 !o1n. Jsus
could not .a3 1ant t.at. "o( Jsus !as t.in/in0 o2 t!o
di22rnt !orldsJ on( t. natural ordr in !.ic. t.y
all t.n li3d( !.r Jo.n !as t. 0ratst o2 allF and
on( t. 8ssianic Hin0do1 t.at !as to co1 so soon(
!.r t. last o2 t. su4rnatural bin0s !.o s.ould
4o4l t.at !orld !ould b 0ratr t.an Jo.n.
T.s conclusions rac.d in t. 1idst o2 t. 1ilitary
1anu3rs c.an0d t. !.ol cours o2 Sc.!it6r:s
t.in/in0( and in so doin0 c.an0d t. !.ol cours o2
1odrn t.olo0y. <W.n I rac.d .o1 a2tr t. 1anu3rs
ntirly n! .ori6ons .ad o4nd t.1sl3s to 1. O2
t.is I !as crtainJ t.at Jsus .ad announcd no /in0do1
t.at !as to b 2oundd and rali6d in t. natural !orld
by .i1sl2 and t. bli3rs( but on t.at !as to b
74ctd as co1in0 !it. t. al1ost i11diat da!n o2 a
su4rnatural a0.<
T. /y to all t. 4u66ls t.at Sc.!it6r .ad
ncountrd in t. 0os4ls . 2ound in Jsus:
co11issionin0 o2 t. disci4ls( in t.is intrc.an0
bt!n Jo.n and Jsus( and in t. !ay Jsus acts !.n
t. disci4ls rturnd
2ro1 t.ir tour o2 4rac.in0. For !.n t. disci4ls
rturn !it.out .a3in0 su22rd any 4rscution Jsus is
Buit 3idntly 3ry 1uc. 4r4l7d. T. <Wos o2 t.
8ssia.< .a3 not 2alln u4on t.1( t. 8ssianic Hin0do1
.as not a44ard. Jsus( t.n( !it.dra!s !it. .is
i11diat 2ollo!rs 2ro1 t. 1ultituds t.at t.ron0d
around .i1( rtirs into t. nort. and b0ins to rt.in/
.is 4osition. "o!( at last( . co1s to bli3 t.at .
.i1sl2 1ust su22r dat. b2or t. a44aranc o2 t.
Hin0do1( and t.at by .is dat. . !ill aton 2or t.
lct and sa3 t.1 2ro1 t. days o2 tribulation. T.r
can b no Bustion t.at t. A;rd c.a4tr o2 Isaia. !it.
its 4assa0 about t. sr3ant !.o su22rs 2or t. sins o2
ot.rs .as .l4d to 2or1ulat t.is con3iction.
At Casara %.ili44i t. n! con3iction t.at . is to
su22r dat. and t.n !ill bco1 t. 8ssia. !.n 'od:s
Hin0do1 is us.rd in( is disclosd to t. disci4ls( and
!.n . la3s .is rtir1nt to 9oin t. band o2
4il0ri1s 2ro1 'alil !.o 0o u4 to Jrusal1( t.
disci4ls alon /no! !.at . bli3s .i1sl2 to b. On
o2 t.1 btrays t.is scrt to t. San.drin but Jsus
1a/s .is cond1nation and dat. crtain by ad1ittin0
t.is 2act to t.1 !.n . is brou0.t to trial. T.y !ill
s .i1 co1in0 on t. clouds o2 .a3n and sittin0 at t.
ri0.t .and o2 'od( t. 74ctd J!is. 8ssia.. T.is !as(
indd( blas4.1y. And so( a2tr a 4ublic 1inistry o2
4ossibly not 1or t.an 2i3 or si7 1ont.s Jsus !as
cruci2id.
T.is( in bri2 outlin( is t. 4ictur o2 Jsus !.ic.
Sc.!it6r dr! as t. rsult o2 .is 2irst disco3ris on
t.at rst day in 'u00n.i1. 'radually . laboratd
t.1( tstin0 t.1 2ro1 3ry 4ossibl 4oint o2 3i!(
att14tin0 to 1t 3ry criticis1 o2 t.1( s/in0 only
2or t. trut. in Jsus and .is tac.in0. His studis too/
t. 2or1 o2 boo/s( a bri2 boo/ on The $ro(lem o+ the
'ast Supper 3ased upon the Scienti+ic /esearch o+ the,
19th -entury and the !istorical Accounts, pu(lished in
19:1; a slightly longer (oo5 on The Secret o+ the
"essiahship and the $assion7 A S5etch o+ the 'i+e o+
Jesus, also pu(lished in 19:1; and a much longer (oo5 on
The 9uest o+ the !istorical Jesus7 A -ritical Study o+
6ts $rogress +rom /eimarus to <rede, pu(lished in 19:67
Wit. t. 4ublication o2 t.s boo/s t. old libral
%rotstant 3i! o2 a Jsus !.o s4o/ about a Hin0do1 o2
Ha3n t.at !as to b ac.i3d 0radually .r on t.is
art. bca1 2or3r untnabl. W all r11br t.at
4ortrait o2 a Jsus !.o no lon0r !as t. scond 4rson
o2 t. Holy Trinity but a .u1an bin0 li/ t. rst o2
us( a .u1an bin0( .o!3r( !.o sa! clarly t.rou0. t.
2ollis and 2oibls o2 .is ti1( !.o !as brou0.t u4 !it.
all t. stran0 idas o2 a su4rnatural 8ssianic
Hin0do1( but !.o !as .i1sl2 1anci4atd 2ro1 t.1. To
t. libral %rotstant o2 t. lat nintnt. and arly
t!ntit. cntury Jsus !as t. 4ro2oundly intlli0nt(
!.olly lo3abl 714lar o2 .u1an 4ossibilitis( <t. Lord
and 8astr o2 us all.< W san0( <O t.ou 'rat Frind to
all t. sons o2 1n( !.o onc a44ard in .u1blst 0uis
blo!( sin to rbu/( to bra/ t. ca4ti3:s c.ain( and
call t.y brt.rn 2ort. 2ro1 !ant and !o.< It !as a
4lasant ins4irin0 4ictur. T. only troubl !it. it !as
t.at it !as !.olly a 2iction o2 t. 1odrn i1a0ination.
T.r !as no Jsus o2 t.at /ind 4icturd in t. t!o 1ost
i14ortant sourcs( 8att.! and 8ar/. T. Jsus o2 1odrn
%rotstant libralis1 !as a con3ninc cratd to
con2or1.
T. Jsus o2 t. "! Tsta1nt:s 1ost trust!ort.y sourcs
!as a Jsus !.o 74ctd t. i11innt nd o2 t. !orld(
!.o bli3d .i1sl2 to b a44ointd by 'od as t. rulr
o2 a su4rnatural Hin0do1 about to a44ar. T. .istorical
Jsus !as not t. <0ntl Jsus( 1/ and 1ild< o2 our
c.ild.ood:s .y1n( but t. sc.atolo0ical Jsus !.o s.ard
!it. .is ti1 t.os stran0 and stirrin0 bli2s on hich
late Judaism pinned its hopes7 Scheit4er (elieved that
most o+ the riddles a(out the li+e and teaching o+ Jesus
could (e solved hen once e accepted this conception o+
the man o+ Na4areth7 !e 5ne that this conception ould
not (e popular7 !e as ell aare o+ its destructive
potency7 !e 5ne hat ould happen to conventional
-hristian piety as a result o+ it7 =et he as una+raid7
>6 com+orted mysel+,> he said, >ith ords o+ St7 $aul?s
hich had (een +amiliar to me +rom childhood8 ?<e can do
nothing against the truth, (ut +or the truth7? Since the
essential nature o+ the spiritual is truth, every ne
truth means ultimately something on7 Truth is under all
circumstances more valua(le than non#truth, and this must
apply to truth in the realm o+ history as to other 5inds
o+ truth7 Even i+ it comes in a guise hich piety +inds
strange and at +irst ma5es di++iculties +or her, the
+inal result can never mean in@ury; it can only mean
greater depth7 /eligion has, there+ore, no reason +or
trying to avoid coming to terms ith historical truth7>
On rsult o2 .is 2indin0s Sc.!it6r 4r.a4s did not
antici4at. H could .ardly .a3 2orsn t.at
su4r2icial t.in/rs !arin0 t. 0arb o2 4syc.olo0y and
4syc.iatry !ould 2ind in .is sc.atolo0ical 4ictur o2
Jsus su44ort and co12ort 2or t.ir contntion t.at !
.a3 to do in t.is 1an o2 "a6art. !it. 1ntal
dran01nt( !it. .ystria 4r.a4s( !it. 4aranoia
crtainly. T.is n! sc.ool o2 4syc.o4at.olo0y 2ound .r
a 1an !.o su22rd 2ro1 .allucinations( 2ro1 idas o2
r2rnc( 2ro1 dlusions o2 0randur. In t. 2irst
dcad o2 t. t!ntit. cntury( boo/s a44ard !.ic.
disturbd Sc.!it6r 4ro2oundly. T.y as/d i2 Jsus !as
an cstatic( t.y 2ran/ly 4ronouncd .i1 to b an insan
1an( t.y analy6d t. 'os4ls 2or 3idnc o2
4syc.o4at.ic sy14to1s. T.y !r 3ry littl Buali2id
2or t.ir tas/. T.y .ad no critical undrstandin0 o2 t.
sourcs. T.y basd t.ir 2indin0s on .istorically
discrditd material7 =et Scheit4er?s +riends pointed
out to him that his on studies ere in part responsi(le
+or them7 The riting o+ this little (oo5 as, there+ore,
to Scheit4er an inescapa(le duty7 !e himsel+ as sure
that Jesus as completely sane7 That Jesus shared the
"essianic ideas o+ late Judaism, that he ho as really a
descendant o+ %avid had come to (elieve that in the orld
to come he as destined to (e the "essiah, are in no
rational sense evidences o+ mental disease7 The little
(oo5 that +ollos came out o+ a deep inner compulsion7 6t
had to (e ritten7 6t made its case7
Sc.!it6r 4oints out t.at it is conci3abl t.at
rli0ious trut. 1i0.t b 4rac.d ind4ndntly o2 any
a0( trut. t.at is uni3rsally and 3rlastin0ly so(
trut. t.at is 3alid 2or 3ry succdin0 0nration and
cntury. T. si14l 2act( .o!3r( is t.at t. trut. t.at
Jsus tau0.t is not o2 t.at /ind. H .ad a 0os4l o2 lo3
to tac. and t.n . !ra44d it u4 in t. idas o2 .is
cont14oraris. W cannot a44ro4riat to oursl3s t.is
0os4l o2 lo3 by r2usin0 to rco0ni6 t. !ra44in0.
Eac. a0 1ust un!ra4 t. 0os4l and t.n a44ly it a2rs.
to itsl2( !.ic. 1ans( in all 4robability( n3lo4in0 it
a0ain in t14orary co3rs. A2tr all Jsus is 4ro2oundly
concrnd !it. lo3 itsl2 !it.out !.ic. no 1an !ill
ntr into .is 8ssianic Hin0do1. T.r is( t.n( t.is
ndurin0 /rnl in .is tac.in0 !.ic. ! 1ust larn to
1a/ our o!n in our o!n !ay.
Sc.!it6r .i1sl2 bst 74rsss itJ <E3n i2 libral
C.ristianity .as to 0i3 u4 idnti2yin0 its bli2 !it.
t. tac.in0s o2 Jsus in t. !ay it usd to t.in/
4ossibl( it still .as t. s4irit o2 Jsus not a0ainst it
but on its sid. Jsus no doubt 2its .is tac.in0 into
t. lat J!is. 8ssianic do01a. But . dos not t.in/
do01atically. H 2or1ulats no doctrin. H is 2ar 2ro1
9ud0in0 any 1an:s bli2 by r2rnc to any standard o2
do01atic corrctnss. "o!.r dos . d1and o2 .is
.arrs t.at t.y s.all sacri2ic t.in/in0 to bli3in0.
Nuit t. contraryI H bids t.1 1ditat upon religion7
6n the Sermon on the "ount he lets ethics, as the essence
o+ religion, +lood their hearts, leading them to @udge
the value o+ piety (y hat it ma5es o+ a man +rom the
ethical point o+ vie7 <ithin the "essianic hopes hich
his hearers carry in their hearts, he 5indles the +ire o+
an ethical +aith7 Thus the Sermon on the "ount (ecomes
the incontesta(le charter o+ li(eral -hristianity7 The
truth that the ethical is the essence o+ religion is
+irmly esta(lished on the authority o+ Jesus7
<Furt.r t.an t.is( t. rli0ion o2 lo3 tau0.t by Jsus
.as bn 2rd 2ro1 any do01atis1 !.ic. clun0 to it by
t. disa44aranc o2 t. lat J!is. sc.atolo0ical
!orld5 3i!. T. 1ould in !.ic. t. castin0 !as 1ad .as
bn bro/n. W ar no! at librty to lt t. rli0ion o2
Jsus bco1 a li3in0 2orc in our t.ou0.t as its 4urly
s4iritual and t.ical natur d1ands. W /no! .o! 1uc.
t.at is 4rcious 7ists !it.in t. cclsiastical
C.ristianity !.ic. .as bn .andd do!n in 'r/ do01as
and /4t ali3 by t. 4ity o2 so 1any cnturis and !
.old 2ast to t. C.urc. !it. lo3( and r3rnc and
t.an/2ulnss. But ! blon0 to .r as 1n !.o a44al to
t. sayin0 o2 St. %aulJ :W.r t. S4irit o2 t. Lord is(
t.r is librty(: and !.o bli3 t.at t.y sr3
C.ristianity bttr by t. strn0t. o2 t.ir d3otion to
Jsus: rli0ion o2 lo3 t.an by acBuiscnc in all t.
articls o2 bli2. I2 t. C.urc. .as t. s4irit o2 Jsus
t.r is roo1 in .r 2or 3ry 2or1 o2 C.ristian 4ity(
3n 2or t.at !.ic. clai1s unrstrictd librty.
<I 2ind it no li0.t tas/ to 2ollo! 1y 3ocation( to 4ut
4rssur on t. C.ristian 2ait. to rconcil itsl2 in
all sincrity !it. .istorical trut.. But I .a3 d3otd
1ysl2 to it !it. 9oy( bcaus I a1 crtain t.at
trut.2ulnss in all t.in0s blon0s to t. s4irit o2
Jsus.<
CHARLES R. JOY
PREFACE TO THE 1913 EDITION
I .a3 undrta/n in t. 4rsnt boo/ to 7a1in
t.orou0.ly t. con9ctur !.ic. 2irst a44ard in #a3id
Fridric. Strauss( and !.ic. 1or rcntly .as bn
r4atd by 1any a .istorian and doctor( t.at t. Jsus
!.o li3d in t. !orld o2 idas containd in t. Boo/ o2
#anil and in t. lat J!is. a4ocaly4tic litratur and
!.o considrd .i1sl2 t. <Son o2 8an< and t. <8ssia.<
soon to a44ar in su4rnatural 0lory( is to b ad9ud0d
in so1 2as.ion as 4syc.o4at.ic.
I .a3 2lt a crtain co14ulsion to undrta/ t.is tas/(
sinc in 1y &eschichte der 'e(en#Jesus#)orschung)
C TObin0n( )*E=F scond dition( )*);D( I .ad brou0.t
out t. a4ocaly4tic and !.at in 1odrn conc4ts is
considrd t. 3isionary in t. "a6arn:s t.ou0.t !orld
1or 3i3idly t.an any o2 t. in3sti0ators !.o 2or1rly
!or/d in t.is 2ild( and so .ad bn constantly r1indd
by H. J. Holt61ann and ot.rs t.at I .ad 4ortrayd a
Jsus !.os ob9ct !orld loo/d li/ a structur o2
2antasis. T.r !r !arnin0 allusions55on occasion55to
t. 1dical boo/s !.ic. bli3d t.at t. <4aranoia< o2
t. J!is. 8ssia. .ad bn 4ro3d.
As 6 had carried on studies in (oth historical theology
and in medicine, 6 considered mysel+ 1uali+ied to examine
the surmises, the @udgments, and the (oo5s a(out Jesus?
mental condition @ust as it is possi(le +or me to +orm an
opinion a(out (oth the results o+ the critical and
historical investigation and the standards o+ psychiatry
that are applica(le7
T.at I co11and t. i14artiality ncssary 2or t.is
undrta/in0 I bli3 I .a3 4ro3d by 1y 2or1r studis
in t. 2ild o2 t. li2 o2 Jsus. S.ould it rally turn
out t.at Jsus: ob9ct !orld 1ust b considrd by t.
doctor as in so1 d0r t. !orld o2 a sic/ 1an( still
t.is conclusion( r0ardlss o2 t. consBuncs t.at
2ollo! 2ro1 it and t. s.oc/ to 1any t.at !ould rsult
2ro1 it 1ust not r1ain unuttrd( sinc r3rnc 2or
trut. 1ust b 7altd abo3 3ryt.in0 ls. Wit. t.is
con3iction I b0an t. !or/( su44rssin0 t. un4lasant
2lin0 o2 .a3in0 to sub9ct a 0rat 4rsonality to
4syc.iatric 7a1ination( and 4ondrin0 t. trut. t.at
!.at is 0rat and 4ro2ound in t. t.ical tac.in0s o2
Jsus !ould rtain its si0ni2icanc 3n i2 t.
conc4tions in .is !orld outloo/ and so1 o2 .is actions
.ad to b calld 1or or lss disasd.
In t. cours o2 1y in3sti0ation( .o!3r( it .as bco1
clar to 1( t.at t. studnts !.o .a3 2ound so1t.in0
4syc.o4at.ic about t. a4ocaly4tically51indd Jsus .a3
idnti2id !it. t. 1orbid !.at3r in .is t.ou0.t !orld
is 4culiar and stran0 to us !it.out Bustionin0 1or
closly !.t.r t.is a44arntly ob3ious idnti2ication is
it.r 0nrally or 4articularly 3alid in t. 4rsnt
cas. I2 on 0os into t.is dcisi3 4robl1( it d3lo4s
t.at t. standards stablis.d by 1odrn 4syc.iatry do
not 4r1it suc. an idnti2ication as t. abo3( !.ic.
a44ars in t. uttrancs o2 .istorians and doctors
concrnd !it. t.is sub9ct. T. co14ltion o2 t. study(
!.ic. !it. t. 7c4tion o2 additional obsr3ations
concrnin0 t. !or/ o2 Ras1ussn and its broadr
consBuncs constituts t. contents o+ my medical
dissertation, ould have (een impossi(le ithout the
valua(le supervision o+ $rivy -ounsellor $ro+essor %octor
<ollen(erg A Strass(urgB and the +arseeing counsel o+
$ro+essor %octor $+ersdor++ A Strass(urgB7 To (oth o+
them 6 express my heart+elt than5s7
I o! a dbt o2 0ratitud also to %astor Lyrr
CSc.ir1c/( Lo!r AlsacD and to Licntiat 8n0o6
C Strassbur0D 2or rli3in0 1 o2 t. burdn o2
4roo2radin0.
"arch, 191C
ALBERT SCHWEITZER
THE PSYCHIATRIC STUDY OF JESUS
T!E $S=-!D$AT!D'D&6-A' "ET!D%, hich conceives its tas5
to (e the investigation o+ the mental a(errations o+
signi+icant personalities in relation to their or5s, has
recently +allen into disrepute7 This is not (ecause o+
the method, hich ith proper limitations and in the
hands o+ pro+essional investigators can produce and has
produced valua(le results, (ut (ecause it has (een
+aultily pursued (y amateurs7 The prere1uisites hich are
essential +or success+ul or5 in this +ield##exact source
5noledge, ade1uate medical, and particularly psychiatric
experience, (oth under the discipline o+ critical
talents##are very seldom +ound together7
On o2tn ncountrs in t.is 2ild o2 study( t.r2or(
1isconc4tions o2 t. 0rossst /ind( causd by t. lac/
o2 on or anot.r o2 t.s 4rrBuisits and so1ti1s by
t. lac/ o2 all o2 t.1.
To 2or1 a 9ud01nt about any 4rson on t. sol basis o2
.is acts is contrary to all 4syc.iatric 4ractic and .as
al!ays so1t.in0 sus4icious about it. I2 t.is is tru 2or
t. 4rsnt a0( .o! 1uc. 1or rstraint 1ust b
7rcisd !.n ! ar dalin0 !it. 4o4l 2ro1 a 3ry
distant 4oc. and !it. i14r2ct and uncrtain
traditionsI For t.is rason t. constantly rcurrin0
instancs o2 .istorical 4il4tics( li/ 8o.a11d( Julius
Casar( and 3n "a4olon I .i1sl2( s1 to us 3ry
Bustionabl and l0ndary. E3n 1or uncertain is the
ground on hich e tread, hen e endeavor to investigate
in the light o+ modern psychiatry the minds o+ people
+rom a +ar distant epoch7
Bcaus o2 t.is( today:s 4syc.iatrists ar also
disinclind 2or t. 1ost 4art to us t.
4syc.o4at.olo0ical 1t.od( 4artly bcaus t.y do not
considr 1odrn 4syc.iatry so 4r2ctd and stabili6d
t.at t.y can 2ind a us2ul critrion in it 2or all t.
acts o2 1an/ind( 4artly bcaus t.y /no! t.at 3ry
3ital .u1an acti3ity 1ust b undrstood !it.in t.
conditions o2 its o!n a0.
E3n t.ou0. t. 0nral considrations .ra2tr
1ntiond 9usti2y crtain 4r9udics a0ainst t.
4syc.o4at.olo0ical litratur( t.r ar also in t.
natur o2 t. 4robl1 s4cial rasons 2or disinclination
and t.s lattr ta/ on an 7traordinary 1otional 3alu
!.n it is a Bustion o2 dalin0 4syc.o4at.olo0ically
!it. t. li2 o2 Jsus( as .as actually bn don by
3arious 4o4l.
All t. 1or clarly indicatd( .o!3r( s1s to b t.
ncssity o2 assurin0 onsl2 .r o2 t. 4rrBuisits
nu1ratd abo3.
T. ob9cti3 o2 t.is boo/ is so conci3d( t.n( t.at
t. o4inions ad3ancd by t. 1dical !ritrs !.o .a3
dalt !it. Jsus s.ould b car2ully 7a1ind 2ro1 t.
4syc.iatric and critical 4oint o2 3i!.
T. sus4icion t.at t. 1ind o2 Jsus 1i0.t so1.o! .a3
1orbid c.aractristics 2ound uttranc in .istorical
rsarc. lon0 b2or 4syc.iatry bca1 intrstd in t.
4rson o2 t. "a6arn. W.n #a3id Fridric. Strauss
b0an 2irst o2 all to !or/ dirctly !it. t. .istorical
1atrial( . 2lt obli0d to dclar t.at Jsus( as .is
bio0ra4.y r3als( li3d !it. t. Bui7otic ida t.at .
!as dstind to a44ar in t. nar 2utur in a bla6 o2
su4rnatural 0lory( surroundd by an0ls( on t. clouds
o2 .a3n( to 9ud0 t. !orld as t. 74ctd 8ssia. and
to stablis. t. Hin0do1 !.ic. !as to 2ollo!.
In .is 2irst 'i+e o+ Jesus) . assrts( in s4a/in0 o2
t.is 1attr( t.at Jsus 1ust b considrd 2ro1 our 4oint
o2 3i! a 2anatic. I11diatly( .o!3r( . tris to
74lain t.at t. "a6arn( 3n t.ou0. t.at 2anatical
ida .ad 0ri44d .i1( can b considrd( nont.lss( as
on in 2ull 4ossssion o2 all .is 2acultis( 4artly
bcaus o2 t. 2act t.at .is 74ctation .as its roots in
t. 0nral conc4tions o2 lat Judais1.
W.n . !rot .is scond 'i+e o+ Jesus in ),=+( . !as so
3i3idly conscious o2 t. 2anatical in t. t.ou0.t o2 t.
scond co1in0( t.at( as . says in a lttr to Wil.l1
Lan0( . !as inclind to considr t. ida as 3ry clos
to 1adnss( and accordin0ly doubtd !.t.r t. sayin0s
t.at r2r to t.is rally ori0inatd !it. Jsus.
T.r2or( . dcidd to lt t.1 2all co14ltly into
t. bac/0round in .is 4ortrayal o2 Jsus( and !as
r4roac.d by 3arious critics 2or a4ostasy 2ro1 t.
bttr 9ud01nt . s.o!d in ),;A.?
In t. last dcad .istorical rsarc. .as 1or and 1or
clarly 4rci3d t.at t. 74ctation o2 t. scond
co1in0 o2 t. 8ssia. is at t. cntr o2 Jsus: t.ou0.t(
and t.at it do1inats .is 2lin0( .is !ill and .is
action 2ar 1or ri0orously t.an ! .ad 4r3iously
su44osd. At t. sa1 ti1( .o!3r( t. idas 74rssd
by #a3id Fridric. Strauss !ould not b silncd. A0ain
and a0ain t. r4roac. !as 1ad t.at t. 4ortraits o2
Jsus( !.ic. 4lac in t. 2or0round !.at Strauss calls
t. Bui7otic and t. 2anatical in t. !orld o2 Jsus:
idas( 4ictur a 4rsonality !it. clarly r3ald 1orbid
traits.;
PPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPP
)
#a3id Fridric. Strauss( %as 'e(en Jesu AThe 'i+e o+
JesusB( t!o 3olu1s C TObin0n( ),;A( )+,E 44.D.
?
#a3id Fridric. Strauss( %as 'e(en Jesu +Ers deutsche
.ol5 (ear(eitet AThe 'i+e o+ Jesus /evised +or the &erman
$eopleB( C ),=+( =;) 44.D. T. stat1nt in t. lttr to
Wil.l1 Lan0 is citd in T.obald Zi0lr:s %avid
)riedrich Strauss( %art II C )*E,( 44. =E, 2.D.
;
Studnts li/ H. J. Holt61ann and Adol2 JOlic.r( a1on0
ot.rs( 74rss t.is 4oint o2 3i!. S H. J. Holt61ann(
%as messianische3eusstsein Jesu
In t. 1ost rcnt 4.as o2 t. study t. discussion
turns al1ost ntirly u4on t. Bustion o2 t. d0r to
!.ic. suc. idas o2 Jsus 1ay b considrd aut.ntic.
Indd( a sris o2 att14ts .a3 bn 1ad !.ic.
ssntially r4rsnt t. 8ssianic clai1s o2 Jsus and
t. 74ctation o2 .is scond co1in0 as un.istoric.
Accordin0 to t.is .y4ot.sis t. "a6arn !as a si14l
J!is. tac.r( !.os 2ollo!rs a2tr .is dat. l3atd
.i1 to t. ran/ o2 8ssia. and t.n 4rocdd to 4lac in
.is 1out. allusions and 74rssions rlatin0 to it.+
"3rt.lss( t.is /ind o2 distinction bt!n aut.ntic
and unaut.ntic !ords in t. sourcs cannot b
1aintaind. It 1ust( t.r2or( b ad1ittd t.at Jsus
considrd .i1sl2 to b t. 8ssia. and 74ctd .is
1a9stic rturn on t. clouds o2 .a3n. T.
4syc.o4at.olo0ical litratur about Jsus !.ic. is .r
in Bustion includs t. !or/s o2 #r. d Loostn(A #r.
Willia1 Hirsc.(= and #r. Bint5San0lGF> alon0sid o2
t.s s.ould also b 1ntiond
PPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPP
+
T. 1ost in0nious att14t o2 t.is sort !as by Willia1
Wrd in .is !ll5/no!n study( %as "essiasgeheimnis in
den Evangelien; AThe "essianic Secret in the &ospelsB(
C 'Qttin0n( )*E)( ?== 44.D.
A
'or0 d Loostn C#r. 'or0 Lo1rD( Jesus -hristus vom
Standpun5te des $sychiaters AJesus -hrist +rom the
Standpoint o+ the $sychiatristB( C Ba1br0( )*EA( )E+
44.D.
=
Willia1 Hirsc.( -onclusions o+ a $sychiatrist C "! Yor/(
)*)?D. Translated into &erman under the title, /eligion
und Fivilisation vom Standpun5te des $sychiaters
A/eligion and -ivili4ation +rom the Standpoint o+ the
$sychiatristB( C 8unic.( =A? 44.D. >Ge(er Jesus> C
>-oncerning Jesus>D( 44. ,>5)=+.
>
C.arls Bint5San0lG( 'a )olie de J*sus AThe %ementia o+
JesusB. $ol. I C ;d Edition( %aris( )*))( ;>? 44.DJ Son
h*r*dit*; sa constitution; sa physiologie A!is !eredity;
!is -onstitution; !is $hysiologyB. $ol. II C ;d Edition(
%aris( )*)E( A)= 44.DJ Ses connaissances; ses id*es; son
d*lire; ses hallucinations A!is 2noledge; !is 6deas; !is
%elirium; !is !allucinationsB. $ol. III C )st Edition(
%aris( )*)?( A;= 44.DJ Ses +acult*s intellectuelles; ses
sentiments; son procHs A!is 6ntellectual )aculties;
!is)eelings; !is Trial
7
3eusstsein Jesu CT. 8ssianic Consciousnss o2 JsusD(
C )*E>( 44. ,E 2D. T.obald Zi0lr 0i3s an 3n 1or
3i0orous 74rssion to t.s r2lctions( #a3id Fridric.
Strauss( $olu1 II( 4. =E*. S also Hr1ann Wrnr (
<#r .istorisc. Jsu dr libraln T.olo0i( in
'ists/ran/r< C >The !istorical Jesus o+ 'i(eral
Theology, a $sychotic>D( "u /irc.l. Zitsc.ri2t( @@II(
)*))( 44. ;+>5;*E.
A1on0 t. non51dical boo/s on Jsus: 1ntality s.ould
also b 1ntiond t. !or/s o2 Os/ar Holt61ann( <ar Jesu
E5stati5erI A<as Jesus an EcstaticIB( C )*E;( )+; 44.D(
and Julius Bau1ann( %ie &emEtsart Jesu, AThe -haracter o+
JesusB( C )*E,( *E 44.D.
t. study o2 E1il Ras1ussn( %..#.( !.o .as doubtlss .ad
1dical counsl.,
Hr 2ollo!s a bri2 su11ary o2 t. 4rinci4al contnts o2
t.s !ritin0s.
# Loostn arri3s at t. 2ollo!in0 conclusion.* Jsus(
. insists( is 3idntly a .ybrid( taintd 2ro1 birt. by
.rdity( !.o 3n in .is arly yout. as a born
d0nrat attractd attntion by an 7tr1ly
7a00ratd sl25consciousnss co1bind !it. .i0.
intlli0nc and a 3ry sli0.tly d3lo4d sns o2
2a1ily and s7. His sl25consciousnss slo!ly un2oldd
until it ros to a 2i7d dlusional syst1( t.
4culiaritis o2 !.ic. !r dtr1ind by t. intnsi3
rli0ious tndncis o2 t. ti1 and by .is on5 sidd
4roccu4ation !it. t. !ritin0s o2 t. Old Tsta1nt.
Jsus !as 1o3d to 74rss .is idas by t. a44aranc o2
Jo.n t. Ba4tist. %rocdin0 st4 by st4)E Jsus 2inally
arri3d at t. 4oint o2 rlatin0 to .i1sl2 all t.
Scri4tural 4ro1iss( !.ic. .ad bco1 3ital a0ain t.rou0.
national 1is2ortun( and 2or !.os ulti1at 0lorious
2ul2ill1nt all .arts .o4d.
Jsus r0ardd .i1sl2 as a co14ltly su4rnatural
bin0. For only so and not ot.r!is can 1an undrstand
.is b.a3ior !.n . arro0atd to .i1sl2 di3in ri0.ts
li/ t. 2or0i3nss o2 sins.))
T.at . /4t t. 8ssianic di0nity !.ic. . clai1d as
1uc. as 4ossibl to .i1sl2( d Loostn 74lains
4syc.olo0ically)? by t. r2lction t.at Jsus did not
bli3 . .ad a lar0 nou0. 2ollo!in0 at t.at ti1 to
nabl .i1 to rali6 .is clai1s.
Fro1 .is !ords to t. youn0 1an !.o !is.d to attnd to
t. burial o2 .is 2at.r( <Follo! t.ou 1 and lt t.
dad bury t.ir dad< C 8att. ,J??D( as !ll as 2ro1
ot.r !ords( d Loostn in2rs( on t. on sid( t.at
Jsus ta/s it 2or 0rantd t.at t. b0innin0 o2 .is
di3in -to4ia !as i11diatly i11innt( and on t. ot.r
sid( t.at . !as no lon0r conscious o2 .is .u1an
natur. T. 9ourny to Jrsusal1 is dscribd as a
2ool.ardy ida); o2 ac.i3in0 by a crtain stro/ o2
3iolnc .is lon0 c.ris.d( and a t.ousand ti1s
74rssd( clai1s.
A2tr t. 1o1nt o2 d4rssion in 't.s1an( .is
4syc.osis ru4ts at t. ad3nt o2 t. 4olic in all its
old strn0t..)+ T.is 1ntal disordr 2inds 74rssion
durin0 t. 7a1ination b2or t. .i0. council in !.ic.
Jsus .olds out t. 4ros4ct to t. .i0. 4rist t.at .is
9ud0s !ill s .i1 sittin0 at t. ri0.t .and o2 'od as
t. Son o2 8an and co1in0 on t. clouds o2 .a3n.)A
Finally( 2ro1 Jo.n >J )=5?E still anot.r ida o2
4rscution is adducd.)=
Concrnin0 .is 1otional li2 d Loostn says t.at Jsus:
t14ra1nt !as not at all uni2or1ly srn on 3ry
occasion( and t.at so1ti1s . !as liabl to stran0 and
a44arntly 0roundlss 1oods o2 d4rssion.)> In
illustration t. Fourt. 'os4l is s4cially citd.),
B2or .is arrst Jsus 2ound .i1sl2 in a .i0.ly
nr3ous( 7citabl stat. H /n! !.at a ris/y 0a1 .
4layd and su22rd 0ratly undr t. !i0.t o2 2ars and
o1inous 1is0i3in0s. T. co14ltly snslss cursin0 o2
t. 2i0 tr( also bco1s intlli0ibl only as s4rin0in0
2ro1 t.is 1ood.)*
T. !ay in !.ic. Jsus .r ta/s out .is ill5.u1or on a
d2nslss tr is( as ! .a3 said( to b 74laind
only as t. boilin0 o3r o2 s3r s4iritual 7cit1nt.
T. dri3in0 o2 t. 1ony5c.an0rs out o2 t. t14l d
Loostn dscribs as a s.oc/in0 act o2 3iolnc.
A1on0 .allucinations . 1ntions t. occurrncs at t.
ba4tis1 by Jo.n(?E a 3ision !.ic. ob3iously 7rcisd a
dcisi3 in2lunc u4on Jsus: latr dcisions.
T.is is a 1attr o2 .allucinations in t. 3isual and
auditory ral1s( !.ic. .r crtainly( as is o2tn t.
cas( acco14any a 0ratly 7citd 1ind.
Wit. !.at 2rBuncy Jsus .ad t.s .allucinatory
3isitations( ! do not /no!( says d Loostn. H
considrs it 4robabl t.at Jsus d4nds u4on t.1 3n
2or .is dcisions and t.at si1ilar 3isions li/ t.os at
t. ba4tis1 occurrd latr.
Bsids t. 3isual .allucinations( d Loostn t.in/s t.at
it is .i0.ly 4robabl t.at Jsus su22rd 2ro1 3oics
!.ic. s1d to .i1 to co1 out o2 .is o!n body.?) Jsus
4lacd an 7altd 3alu u4on t. su4rnatural s4irit
CJKLMNOLPOD all0dly rsidin0 !it.in .i1. A dai1onion
dtr1ind !.at . s.ould do and la3 undon( and .
obyd.??
T. uttranc o2 Jsus( !.ic. . ta/s out o2 t.
traditional t7t( <So1on .as touc.d 1( 2or I 2l
t.at 4o!r .as 0on out 2ro1 1(<?;d Loostn 74lains in
t.is !ay( t.at Jsus .ad 2lt so1 /ind o2 abnor1al
4ri4.ral snsation( 4r.a4s o2 t. s/in( and t.at .
!as tryin0 to 2ind an 74lanation 2or it.
T. lac/ o2 s75consciousnss !.ic. is t.ou0.t to b
4ro3d in t. !ords about t. unuc. C 8att. )*J)?D( is
brou0.t 2ort. alon0 !it. t. alrady 1ntiond lac/ o2
2a1ily loyalty as a si0n o2 4syc.ic d0nration 4ar
7cllnc( !.ic. radily 2its into t. 4r3iously 2or1d
4ictur o2 .is 4rsonality.
Willia1 Hirsc. 1a/s a dia0nosis o2 Jsus( na1ly(
4aranoia. E3ryt.in0 t.at ! /no! about .i1 con2or1s so
4r2ctly to t. clinical 4ictur o2 4aranoia t.at it is
.ardly conci3abl t.at 4o4l can 3n Bustion t.
accuracy o2 t. dia0nosis.?+
Hirsc. tracs t. d3lo41nt o2 t. dlusion in t.is
!ay.?A W 2ind a boy !it. unusual 1ntal talnts !.o is(
n3rt.lss( 4rdis4osd to 4syc.ic disturbancs( and
!it.in !.o1 dlusions 0radually 2or1. H s4nds .is !.ol
lisur in t. study o2 t. Holy Scri4turs( t. radin0
o2 !.ic. crtainly contributd to .is 1ntal illnss.
W.n at t. a0 o2 t.irty . 2irst 1ad a 4ublic
a44aranc( .is 4aranoia !as co14ltly stablis.d. It
is a44arntly on o2 t.os cass( Hirsc. bli3s( !.r
suddn and 2or1lss 4syc.otic idas ar( indd( 4rsnt(
but !.r( nont.lss( t.y nd an 7trnal s.oc/ and a
stron0 1otion( in ordr to 2or1 a ty4ical syst1atic
structur o2 4aranoia.
T.is s.oc/ !as 4ro3idd 2or C.rist by anot.r 4aranoid(
no ot.r t.an Jo.n t. Ba4tist.?= 8anti1 Jsus:
dlusions attaind t.ir 1ost co14lt 1aturity( and !.n
. .ard o2 t. <2orrunnr o2 t. 8ssia.(< !.o !as
ba4ti6in0 sin2ul 4o4l in t. ri3r Jordan( . btoo/
.i1sl2 t.r in ordr to rci3 ba4tis1 .i1sl2. T.
.allucinations !.ic. a44ard on t.is occasion ar latr
discussd.
A2tr t. ba4tis1 Jsus !nt into t. !ildrnss 2or
2orty days. T.is so9ourn is 2or us o2 t. 0ratst
intrst 2or t.s 2orty days li bt!n t!o s.ar4ly
di22rntiatd sctions o2 .is li2. T. dlusions !.ic.
u4 to t.at ti1 !r isolatd and unrlatd to ac. ot.r
.nc2ort. 1r0d into a 0rat syst1atic structur o2
dlusionsF doubtlss Jsus .ad at t.at ti1 r4atd
con3rsations !it. 'od t. Fat.r !.o .ad co11issiond
.i1 and !.os doctrin . 4rac.d. Suc. a d3lo41nt o2
.is illnss( a transition 2ro1 t. latnt to t. acti3
sta0 o2 4aranoia( is Buit c.aractristic o2 t.is
4syc.osis.
In t. 0rat dra1a o2 t. 4ublic 1inistry o2 C.rist
strtc.in0 o3r t.r yars( t. 10alo1ania( !.ic.
1ountd caslssly and i11asurably( 2or1d t. cntr
around !.ic. 3ryt.in0 ls turnd.
All .is sayin0s( .is tac.in0s( .is sr1ons cul1inatd in
a sin0l !ordJ <I.< Hirsc. cits 2or t.is 3i! a sris
o2 r2rncs in t. 'os4l o2 Jo.n.?> At t. conclusion
o2 t.is 74osition . 0os so 2ar as to assrt t.at no
t7tboo/ on 1ntal disass could 4ro3id a 1or ty4ical
dscri4tion o2 a 0radually but caslssly 1ountin0
10alo1ania t.an t.at a22ordd by t. li2 o2 Jsus.
Idas o2 r2rnc ar also 2ound in Jsus by Hirsc.(?,
in so 2ar as . bli3d t.at all t. 4rdictions o2 t.
4ro4.ts a44lid to .i1 and t.at . !as t. /in0 !.o
s.ould rul o3r t. !orld. T.rin t. "a6arn
1ani2sts on o2 t. actual 4culiaritis o2 4aranoids(
!.o a44ly to t.1sl3s 3ryt.in0 4ossibl t.at t.y s
or rad.
Jsus: clai1 to b o2 t. 2a1ily o2 #a3id( Hirsc. rlats
to t. !ll5/no!n tndncy o2 yout.2ul 4aranoids to
substitut 2or t.ir ral dscnt a .i0.ly colord
2anci2ul on.
T. cursin0 o2 t. 2i0 tr is r4rsntd as t. action
o2 a 4aranoid !it.out( .o!3r( 7a1inin0 t.is ida 1or
closly.Concrnin0 t. ba4tis1al .allucination . r1ar/s
<T. abrration !.ic. .ad so lon0 2illd t. 1ind o2
Jsus( t.at . !as t. Son o2 'od and t.at 'od .ad
ordaind .i1 to b t. Sa3ior o2 1an/ind( !as 2ro1 no! on
con3rtd into 3isual and auditory .allucinations(< and
concrnin0 t. 2ollo!in0 2orty days o2 solitud .
r1ar/sJ <#urin0 t. 2orty days in t. !ildrnss Jsus
1ust CID .a3 bn in a stat o2 continual .allucination.
His so9ourn t.r 1ust .a3 in3ol3d .allucinations.<?*
All t. uttrancs o2 Jsus to t. 22ct t.at . .ad
rci3d 2ro1 'od 3ryt.in0 !.ic. . 4roclai1d55
4assa0s in Jo.n ar 4artly in 1ind55ar undrstood as
s4o/n !it. r2rnc to 4rcdin0 auditory
.allucinations.T. story o2 t. trans2i0uration o2 Jsus
on t. 1ount C 8ar/ *J?5,D Hirsc. also !ould undrstand
as a .allucinatory 74rinc. As a ty4ical 7a14l o2 an
illusion it is citd t.at( accordin0 to Jo.n )?J?, 2(
Jsus .ard a 3oic 2ro1 .a3n !.ic. 4roclai1d .is
co1in0 0lori2ication( !.il t. 4o4l .ard a bolt o2
t.undr.;E Bint5San0lG li/!is ad3ancs a dia0nosis(
na1ly <rli0ious 4aranoia.< Accordin0 to rul .
distin0uis.s t.r sta0sJ
). T. 4riod o2 conc4tion and o2 syst1ati6ation
?. T. .allucinatory 4riod
;. T. 4riod o2 4rsonality c.an0
H discusss s4aratly( so 2ar as 4ossibl( t.
dlusions and t. .allucinations.
Accordin0 to Bint5San0lG( t. 4ri1ary dlusion Ct.
4ri1ordial 2i7d idaD a44ars ex a(rupto( !it.out
4r3ious r2lction.;) T. 2urt.r d3lo41nt o2 t.
dlusion is a44arntly co.rnt( and t.ou0. 4rocdin0
2ro1 a 2als .y4ot.sis is t.orou0.ly lo0ical in its
consBuncs. It d3lo4s by t. 4ro0rssi3 7tnsion o2
t. 4ri1ary ida but !it.out undr0oin0 any
trans2or1ation and !it.out losin0 its ori0inal sta14.;?
T.rou0. t. su00sti3 4o!r o2 3arious incidnts(
t.rou0. Jo.n t. Ba4tist( t.rou0. .is o!n 1iraculous
curs( t.rou0. t. 1ar3lin0 o2 t.os !.o !r .ald o2
t.ir disass and t.rou0. t. nt.usias1 o2 t.
disci4ls( Jsus is brou0.t to t. 4oint o2 bli3in0
.i1sl2 to b t. 8ssia.( t. Hin0 o2 t. J!s( t. Son
o2 'od( 'od:s intr4rtr( 'od:s !itnss( and 2inally o2
idnti2yin0 .i1sl2 !it. 'od. T. t.rats o2 t.
2anatical %.ariss and Scribs also a!a/nd in .i1 t.
notion t.at . !as t. sacri2icial la1b !.ic. by its
dat. !as to ta/ a!ay t. sins o2 Isral( and t.at a2tr
.is rsurrction . !ould ascnd into t. .a3ns( t.r
to b r3ald in .is co14lt 0lory. T. .allucination
at t. Jordan ba4tis1 is dscribd by .i1 as .a3in0 t.
c.aractr o2 an initial .allucination co1in0 2ro1 abo3;;
and o2 an ncoura0in0 natur. A s4o/n co14onnt is
associatd !it. t. 3isual. T. 3oic said( <T.is is 1y
blo3d Son( in !.o1 I a1 !ll54lasd.< T.is !as a
3rbal and auditory .allucination.
Accordin0 to Bint5San0lG t. 2li0.t into t. !ildrnss
2ollo!d u4on t. ba4tis1. Hr( undr t. in2lunc o2
4rotractd abstinnc and lonlinss( o2 t. Buit and
t. 1onotony o2 t. !ildrnss !.ic. 4lacd .i1 at t.
1rcy o2 all .is obsssions( 4r.a4s also undr t. addd
in2lunc o2 !arinss and .at( 1ulti2arious 1ntal
disturbancs too/ 2or1. Bint5San0lG 2inds s3n
.allucinations in all in t. account( t!o 4urly 3isual
and 2i3 !.ic. ar dscribd as bot. 3isual and auditory5
3rbal.
;+
T. contnt o2 t. .allucinations al!ays r2rs to
rli0ious ob9cts( 4articularly to t. d3il. T.y 1ay b
s4aratd into t. 2arso1 and t. co12ortin0 !.ic.
a44ar in o44osition. T. co12ortin0 ons ar 3isualJ at
t. ba4tis1 t. do3 a44ars( in t. !ildrnss t. an0l
o2 'od a44ars( in 't.s1an Jsus is strn0t.nd by an
an0l accordin0 to t. t7t in Lu/.;A
As causs o2 t. .allucinations CID Bint5San0lG strsss
t. 7cit1nt( assistd by t. ni0.t( t. solitud and
abstinnc.;=
T. rcordd .allucinations o2 Jsus( accordin0 to Bint5
San0lG( cannot .a3 bn t. only ons( as insan 1ystics
al1ost al!ays su22r 2ro1 .allucinations o2 1uscl5sns.
<In latr 4riods(< . 0os on( <co1 t. scondary
4syc.o1otor sy14to1s( constitutin0 a /ind o2 t.o1anic
4ossssion.< H cits as 7a14ls o2 snsory
.allucinations t. 4lacs in t. 2our 'os4ls( in !.ic.
Jsus says t.at t. Fat.r s4a/s t.rou0. .i1( but
concds t.at t.y cannot b d2ind s4ci2ically.
Lt it b 2urt.r 1ntiond t.at Bint5San0lG !is.s to
stablis. t. scrti3nss o2 t. 4aranoid. H adducs
as 3idnc o2 t.is t. 2act t.at t. "a6arn r0ardd
.is 8ssia.s.i4 and crtain 4oints in .is tac.in0 as
scrts to b 3ild( 0a3 3asi3 ans!rs to Bustions
and !as brou0.t to ad1it .is syst1 o2 dlusions only
undr t. strss o2 1otion( as( 2or 7a14l( in t.
4rocdin0s at t. trial.;>
# Loostn( Hirsc. and Bint5San0lG busy t.1sl3s !it.
t. 4syc.o4at.olo0y o2 Jsus !it.out bco1in0 2a1iliar
!it. t. study o2 t. .istorical li2 o2 Jsus. T.y ar
co14ltly uncritical not only in t. c.oic but also in
t. us o2 sourcsF t.r2or( b2or ! can ntr into a
4syc.iatrical discussion o2 t.ir studis( ! 1ust rcall
!.at t.y n0lctd. Lt us( t.n( st 2ort. in bri2 t.
rsults ac.i3d by t. criticis1 o2 sourcs and by t.
scinti2ic study o2 t. li2 o2 Jsus.
Wit. r2rnc to t. sourcs it is 2irst o2 all to b
obsr3d t.at t. Tal1ud and t. 7tra5Biblical 0os4ls55
t. lattr ar c.i2ly intrstd in illu1inatin0 t.
in2ancy storis55s.ould not b considrd.;, W 1ust o1it
t. Fourt. 'os4l also( 2or t. Jsus 4aintd t.r( as
critical in3sti0ation sinc Strauss .as 1or and 1or
rco0ni6d( is in t. 1ain a 2rly i1a0ind 4rsonality
!.o is dsi0nd to i14ro3 and su44l1nt t. Jsus
a44arin0 in t. 2irst t.r 'os4lsF in contra5
distinction to t.is lattr 4rsonality( a 1od o2 t.ou0.t
and 4rac.in0 a44roac.in0 t. 2lin0 and undrstandin0
o2 t. 'r/ is attributd to t. 4rsonality o2 t.
Fourt. 'os4l.;* T. Jsus o2 t. Fourt. 'os4l( in
accordanc !it. 'r/ do01a( /no!s .i1sl2 to b t.
trnal s4irit o2 'od bco1 2ls. CLo0osD( and 74rsss
t.is in .ints and allusions !.ic. 1ust a44ar to .is
J!is. listnrs( in accordanc !it. t. dsi0n o2 t.
Fourt. E3an0list( as ni01as. 8oro3r( . r2rs in
lon0 discourss to t. sacra1nts o2 t. ba4tis1 and t.
last su44r( sacra1nts 4r2or1d by t. s4irit and
actual only a2tr .is dat.. In t. conduct and t.
4rc4ts o2 a litrary 4rsonality( cratd in accordanc
!it. suc. 4rinci4ls( 1uc. t.at is 4culiar( unnatural
and studid( co1s to li0.t( !.ic. t.
4syc.o4at.olo0ists( o2 cours( do not 2ail to obsr3(
and !.ic. in t.ir 9ud01nts( indicat illnss. T.r5
Buartrs o2 t. 1attr studid by d Loostn( Bint5
San0lG and Hirsc. co1 2ro1 t. Fourt. 'os4l.+E
T. 'os4l o2 Lu/ a0rs in t. 1ain !it. t. 'os4ls o2
8ar/ and 8att.!. W.r3r it 0os byond t.1 it 1a/s
us a doubt2ul contribution( !.ic. 1oro3r is !it.out any
0rat si0ni2icanc 2or t. criticis1 o2 Jsus and so can
b l2t out o2 considration. It s.ould b 4articularly
notd t.at t. story o2 t. t!l35yar5old Jsus in t.
t14l( !.ic. . alon 4rsnts to us C Lu/ ?J+)5A?D(
cannot b considrd .istorical 2or a 3arity o2 rasons.
T. storis o2 t. birt. and t. c.ild.ood in 8att.!
C 8att. ) and ?D also blon0 to l0nd( not to .istory.
T.r r1ain( t.n( as us2ul sourcs( t. 'os4l o2
8att.!( !it. t. 7c4tion o2 t. 2irst t!o c.a4trs(
and t.at o2 8ar/. T.y a0r !it. on anot.r in t.ir
construction. 8att.! 0os byond 8ar/ in a sris o2
3aluabl discourss !.ic. . alon .as .andd do!n to
4ostrity.+) Bot. 'os4ls dat 2ro1 bt!n >E and *E
yars a2tr C.rist. T.y 0o bac/( .o!3r( to still oldr
sourcs( a 2act !.ic. 1ay b acc4td as crtain. In
0nral t.ir r4orts ar trust!ort.y( and 3n t.ou0.
.r and t.r latr 1isundrstandin0s and cloudy
traditions ar to b obsr3d( t. 7act si1ilarity o2
crtain dtails is startlin0.
Concrnin0 t. arly li2 o2 Jsus ! /no! 3ry littl.
H ca1 2ro1 a car4ntr:s 2a1ily in "a6art. and .i1sl2
4lid t.at trad. H dos not s1 to .a3 ta/n any
studis ladin0 to an a44aranc as a tac.r. W.n latr
. a44ard in .is .o1 to!n as a 4ro4.t( t.
in.abitants !ondrd at t. !isdo1 o2 t. 1an !.o1 t.y
usd to /no! only as a car4ntr C 8ar/ =J)5AD. Ho!3r(
it is 4ossibl t.at b2or .is 4ublic a44aranc . .ad
alrady s4nt a lon0r ti1 ls!.r. His /no!ld0 o2
t. Scri4turs could .a3 bn 0aind 2ro1 t. Sabbat.
radin0s.
Four brot.rs and s3ral sistrs ar 1ntiond C 8ar/
=J;F ;J;)D. W do not larn !.r .is a0 4lacd .i1
a1on0 t. c.ildrn.
T.at t. 2a1ily o2 Jsus on .is 2at.r:s sid !as
dscndd 2ro1 #a3id 1ay b considrd assurd( and t.r
is not.in0 7traordinary about it. A1on0 t.os !.o
rturnd 2ro1 t. Babylonian ca4ti3ity undr Cyrus !r
11brs o2 t. royal 2a1ily. T. 2irst cara3an !as ld by
Zrubbabl o2 t. 2a1ily o2 #a3id( !.o also 4layd an
i14ortant 4olitical rol at t. b0innin0 C E6ra ;J,F
Zac.aria. +J= 2F Ha00ai )J)?5)AD. W.n t. blind 1an in
t. strts o2 Jric.o addrssd Jsus as t. <Son o2
#a3id< C 8ar/ )EJ+> 2.D( and t. 4o4l at t. ntranc
into Jrusal1 7ultd in t. co1in0 o2 t. <Son o2
#a3id< C 8att. ?)J*D( t.is accords !it. t. !itnss o2
%aul !.o in .is E4istl to t. Ro1ans C Ro1. )J;D about
t.r dcads a2tr t. dat. o2 Jsus assu1s as !ll5
/no!n Jsus: dscnt 2ro1 t. royal 2a1ily.
W /no! not.in0 about t. 4.ysical a44aranc o2 Jsus or
about t. stat o2 .is .alt..
T. 2irst t!o 'os4ls 4rsnt no 4ictur o2 t. li2 o2
Jsus but r4ort only .is 4ublic a44aranc. T.is at t.
1ost lastd 2or about a yar and it ndd !it. a 9ourny
to t. Fast o2 t. %asso3r. Had suc. a %asso3r 2alln
in t. 4riod o2 Jsus: 4ublic 1inistry( . !ould .a3
.ad to 1a/ a 4il0ri1a0 to t. ca4ital in ordr to
2ul2ill t. rli0ious obli0ations rBuird by la! C #ut.
)=J)=D. Had . not don so( .is o44onnts !ould .a3 bn
9usti2id in r4roac.in0 .i1 !it. la7ity in t.
obsr3anc o2 t. co11and1nts( an o44ortunity !.ic.
assurdly t.y !ould not .a3 1issd as it !as a 1attr
o2 concrn to t.1 to undr1in .is aut.ority by all
4ossibl 1ans. As t. t!o oldst 'os4ls say not.in0
it.r about a %asso3r 2allin0 !it.in t. 4ublic
1inistry o2 Jsus( or o2 74lanations o2 Jsus: n0lct
o2 on( it is to b acc4td as stablis.d t.at no
s4rin0 2sti3al too/ 4lac !it.in t.at 4riod.
W do not /no! .o! lon0 a ti1 Jsus s4nt a1on0 t.
2ollo!rs o2 Jo.n. W.n Jo.n !as ta/n 4risonr Jsus
ca1 into 'alil and 4rac.d t. sa1 tidin0s t.at t.
4ro4.t .ad 4roclai1d by t. JordanJ <T. Hin0do1 o2 'od
is at .and.< T. su11ons to r4ntanc !as addd to t.is
o3rtur C 8ar/ )J)+ 2D.
T.is 4rocla1ation r1aind t. sa1 2ro1 t. 2irst to t.
last day o2 .is 1inistry. T. Hin0do1 o2 'od( also calld
<t. Hin0do1 o2 Ha3n(< is synony1ous !it. t.
<8ssianic Hin0do1.< T. 4rocla1ation o2 its narnss
si0ni2is t.at t. nd o2 t. !orld is also nar. T.
Hin0do1 o2 'od is t.ou0.t o2 as a su4rnatural 4riod o2
ti1 !.ic. is to st in a2tr t. natural ordr .as
ndd. T. lattr is c.aractri6d by t. 2act t.at t.
3il an0ls .a3 si6d control o2 it( so t. 3il and
i14r2ction in t. 4rsnt stat o2 t.in0s ar
74laind. Sic/nss and dat. also rsult 2ro1 t.is 2act.
At t. 1o1nt !.n 'od 4uts an nd to t.is intri1
do1ination t. 4r2ct ta/s t. 4lac o2 t. i14r2ct
and t. 0ood ta/s t. 4lac o2 t. 3il. T. art. also
is t.n trans2or1d into a s4lndid stat and a n!
2rtility ta/s t. 4lac o2 t. old. At t. sa1 ti1
dat. loss its 4o!r. T. 0nrations t.at no! li in
t. 0ra3 ris and !it. t.os !.o sur3i3 ar ass1bld
b2or t. t.ron o2 'od( !.r t. 3il and t. r9ctd
2all into trnal tor1nt( !.il t. c.osn ntr into a
stat li/ t.at o2 t. an0ls( b0in a blssd ndlss
li2 and ar 0at.rd 2or t. 8ssianic 2ast. T.
9ud01nt accordin0 to 1ost stat1nts is dli3rd by t.
8ssia..
Jsus did not nd to dscrib t.is 2utur in closr
dtail. His .arrs /n! !.at it !as all about( as soon
as t. sntnc !as s4o/n( <T. Hin0do1 o2 'od is at
.and.< T. dtails ar !ll stablis.d 2ro1 t. boo/s o2
t. 4ro4.ts and t. a4ocaly4ss Cr3lationsD. As t.
1ost si0ni2icant o2 t. lattr is to b notd t. boo/
!.ic.( by a litrary 2iction( .as bn ascribd to Enoc.
and !.ic. in its 1a9or 4ortion co1s 2ro1 t. b0innin0
o2 t. last cntury b2or C.rist. T.is boo/ .ad a 3ry
stron0 in2lunc u4on t. ida !orld in !.ic. Jsus
li3d. Bsid it ! 1ust also considr t. boo/ o2 #anil
!.ic. a44ard in t. yar )=A B.C. and .as alrady a
co14ltly a4ocaly4tical c.aractr.
Fro1 t. litratur !.ic. !as t.n at .and it !as clar
to Jsus: listnrs t.at t. last days in t. cours o2
t. natural !orld !ould b 2illd !it. trribl !ars and
un4rcdntd 1isris 2or 1an/ind. T. rabbis calld
t.is ti1 <T. Wos o2 t. 8ssia..<
T.is is t. contnt o2 t. 0os4l !.ic. Jsus 4rac.d.
H 4roclai1s t. narnss o2 t. Hin0do1 and o2 t.
9ud01nt. At t. sa1 ti1 . a14li2is .is 1ssa0 by
74lainin0 in !.at t. r4ntanc and 1orality !.ic. ar
ncssary 2or 9usti2ication at t. 9ud01nt consist( and
r1inds t.1 o2 t. 0rat 1isry !.ic. still stands
b2or t.1. H !.o is 2ait.lss in t. ti1 o2
4rscution is lostF . !.o !is.s to sa3 .is art.ly
li2 !ill los .is trnal li2. Concrnin0 .i1sl2 Jsus
74cts t.at . 1ust at t.at ti1 ndur 0rat dis0rac
and 4rscution and i14lors .is 2ollo!rs not to b ld
astray t.n( and in s4it o2 all( to r1ain loyal to .i1
C 8ar/ ,J;+5*J)D.
In t.is connction( it s.ould b noticd t.at in t.
74ctations o2 t. lat J!is. !orld an oldr 4ro4.tic
!ay o2 loo/in0 at t.in0s and a youn0r a4ocaly4tic !ay o2
loo/in0 at t.in0s 7ist sid by sid. In accordanc !it.
t. arlir 3i! a distinction is dra!n bt!n t.
8ssianic
Hin0do1 and t. s4lndid( d2initi3 nd5stat o2 t.
!orld !.ic. dos not co1 until a2tr t. 2or1rF
accordin0 to t. latr ida( !.ic. !as s.ard by Jsus(
bot. occur to0t.r.
T. di22rncs bt!n t.s t!o 4oints o2 3i! in
connction !it. t.ir idas o2 t. 2utur rulr( .a3 a
crtain si0ni2icanc. T. 4ro4.tic notion is t.at . is
a s.oot 2ro1 t. st1 o2 #a3id( !.o at t. 4ro4r ti1
!ill b ndo!d by 'od !it. su4rnatural 4o!r and !isdo1
and anointd t. Hin0 o2 'lory. It is 2or t.is rason
t.at . is calld t. 8ssia. Ct. anointd onD. In t.
boo/ o2 #anil t. consBunc is sn t.at t.r is no
lon0r any ri0nin0 2a1ily o2 #a3id out o2 !.ic. a rulr
could b raisd to t. 4osition o2 8ssia.. T.r2or t.
aut.or 74cts t.at 'od !ill con2r t.is .i0.st 4o!r in
t. co1in0 !orld stat to an an0lic bin0 !.o .as a
.u1an 2or1 and loo/s li/ <t. son o2 a 1an< C #an. >J);
2D.
In t. latr a4ocaly4tic litratur( and alrady in t.
A4ocaly4s o2 Enoc.( t. <Son o2 8an< is 1r0d !it. t.
8ssia.( alt.ou0. ori0inally t.y .ad not.in0 to do !it.
ac. ot.r. Fro1 t.is idnti2ication ariss a curious
4robl1. T. Son o2 8an is an an0lic bin0 !.o .as no
.u1an lin o2 dscnt. Ho! can . t.n b at t. sa1
ti1 t. <8ssia.(< !.o 1ust b born naturally 2ro1
#a3id:s 2a1ilyM Cont14orary Scri4tural /no!ld0( so 2ar
as ! /no!( did not 74rss itsl2 on t.is Bustion
4rcisly bcaus it .ad disco3rd t. innr cla3a0 in
t.s 74ctations o2 t. 2utur. Jsus( on t. contrary(
did concrn .i1sl2 !it. t. Bustion. His solution o2
t. 4robl1 is o2 1anin0 to us in so 2ar as it
3ouc.sa2s us a 0li14s into t. considrations 2ro1
!.ic. 0r! t. 2ait. t.at . !as to a44ar as t.
8ssia..
It s.ould b said( to corrct ob3ious 1isundrstandin0s(
t.at Jsus dos not 1an t.at . as a nor1al 1an is
alrady in .is li2ti1 t. 8ssia.( or t. Son o2 8an.
His con3iction is t.at . is ordaind to t.is di0nity and
!ill b r3ald in it at t. nd o2 t. !orld. T.is is
t. 1anin0 o2 .is !ords to .is 9ud0s. A2tr . .as
ans!rd in t. a22ir1ati3 t. Bustion o2 t. Hi0.
%rist( i2 . .olds .i1sl2 to b t. 8ssia.( . addsJ
<You !ill s t. Son o2 8an sittin0 on t. ri0.t .and o2
4o!r Ct.at is( 'odD and co1in0 u4on t. clouds o2
.a3n< C 8ar/ )+J=?D. In t. natural ra o2 t. !orld
t. 8ssia. can b no 1or 4rsnt t.an t. Hin0do1 o2
'od itsl2.
Jsus did not 4r1it t. con3iction t.at . !as dstind
to b t. co1in0 8ssia. to 4lay a 4art in .is 1ssa0.
T.is is on o2 t. 1ost crtain rsults o2 1odrn
critical rsarc.. H .olds out t. 4ros4ct o2 t.
i11diat co1in0 o2 t. Son o2 8an but al!ays s4a/s o2
.i1 in t. t.ird 4rson so t.at non o2 .is listnrs
could 0t t. t.ou0.t t.at . .i1sl2 74ctd to b clad
!it. t.is .onor. -ntil t. last day . r1aind 2or t.
4o4l t. 4ro4.t 2ro1 "a6art.. It is t. lattr( not
t. 8ssia.( !.o rci3s t. o3ation at t. ntry into
Jrusal1. E3n t. %.ariss and t. Scribs( !.o co1
to tr1s !it. .i1 durin0 t. last days( .a3 no sus4icion
o2 .is clai1sF ot.r!is t.y !ould .a3 brou0.t it u4
2or discussion. On is a!ar t.at t. Hi0. %rist is not
abl to su11on a sin0l !itnss at t. trial to tsti2y
to t. 8ssianic clai1s o2 Jsus.
Only t. disci4ls /no! so1t.in0 o2 .is scrt. T.y
larn it 2or t. 2irst ti1( .o!3r( a 2! !/s b2or
.is dat.. H r3als it to t.1 in t. 1o1nt !.n .
sts about 0oin0 to Jrusal1 C 8ar/ ,J ?>5;ED( and on
o2 t.1( Judas( btrayd it to t. Hi0. Council. On t.
basis o2 t.is disclosur Jsus !as arrstd t. 3 o2
t. day !.n t. %asso3r la1b !as atn( or 4r.a4s on
t. 3ry 3nin0 o2 t.is last day( !as cond1nd on t.
sa1 ni0.t in disr0ard o2 t. la!s 0o3rnin0 ca4ital
trials( and i11diatly cruci2id. As t. Hi0. %rist .ad
only on !itnss 2or .is accusation( and as( accordin0 to
J!is. la!( at last t!o !r ncssary b2or sntnc
could b 4ronouncd( 3ryt.in0 d4ndd on !.t.r Jsus
ad1ittd .is 0uilt or not. H could .a3 sa3d .i1sl2 by
silnc. But . did not !is. to do so as . .ad co1 to
Jrusal1 !it. t. sttld 4ur4os o2 dyin0 and .ad 3n
disclosd t.is to .is disci4ls C 8ar/ ,J;)F *J;)D.
H is con3incd t.at .is dat. is an aton1nt C 8ar/
)EJ+AD( bcaus o2 !.ic. 1an/ind !ill b 714td by 'od
2ro1 t. 0nral 1isry !.ic. is to 4rcd t. 8ssianic
Hin0do1( and 74cts t.at .( at t. 1o1nt o2 .is dat.
or on t. t.ird day a2tr .is dat.( !ill ntr into t.
su4rnatural li2( ac.i3 t. 8ssianic .onor( and us.r
in t. nd o2 t. !orld( t. 9ud01nt and t. 8ssianic
Hin0do1. T. disci4ls undrstand .is allusions in t.is
sns and on t. !ay to Jrusal1 Buarrl o3r !.ic. o2
t.1 !ill b calld u4on to occu4y t. 4lac o2 .i0.st
.onor bsid .i1 C 8ar/ *J;; 2F )EJ;A5+AD.
It s.ould b noticd also t.at Jsus did not !or/
4ublicly durin0 t. !.ol 4riod bt!n .is 2irst
a44aranc and .is dat.. A2tr . .ad 4rac.d 2or a
ti1 t. narnss o2 t. Hin0do1 o2 'od . ca1 to
bli3( 4robably at t. ti1 o2 t. .ar3st( t.at t.
74ctd 1o1nt .ad co1 and snt .is disci4ls out t!o
by t!o to carry t. tidin0s into t. districts o2 Isral.
As . snds t.1 out . announcs to t.1 in a
si0ni2icant s4c. C 8att. )ED t.at t. ti1 o2 0rat
distrss !ill 2ort.!it. b0in. Si1ultanously . .olds
out b2or t.1 t. 4ros4ct t.at t. co1in0 o2 t. Son
o2 8an !ill ta/ 4lac b2or t.y .a3 .ad ti1 to carry
out .is co11ission C 8att. )EJ?;D. H 74cts also in
t.is ti1 o2 strss !.il t.y ar a!ay 2ro1 .i1 to b
trans2or1d into t. 8ssia..
W.n t.y rturnd to .i1 !it.out .is 4rdictions .a3in0
bn 2ul2illd . !it.dr! !it. t.1 into t. .at.n
country. In t. 1idst o2 .is succss . abandond t.
1ultituds !.o .ad 0at.rd around .i1 to a!ait t.
co1in0 o2 t. Hin0do1 o2 'od( and s4nt t. ti1 till .is
d4artur 2or Jrusal1 Ct.at is( t. autu1n and !intrD
in .at.n trritory( in t. ni0.bor.ood o2 Tyr and
Sidon and Casara %.ili44i( !it.out 4rac.in0 and intnt
only on r1ainin0 un/no!n. In t.is 4riod . accountd
2or t. non5arri3al o2 t. 4riod o2 troubl and o2 t.
Hin0do1 o2 'od in t.is !ayJ t.at . as t. co1in0 8ssia.
!as calld u4on to su22r and di 2or ot.rs. In t.
2or1ulation o2 t.is t.ou0.t( t. dat. o2 Jo.n t.
Ba4tist C!.ic. occurrd a2tr t. sndin0 out o2 t.
disci4lsD( in !.o1 Jsus .ad rco0ni6d t. Eli9a. !.o
.ad bn 4ro1isd 2or t. last days C 8al. +JA 2F 8att.
))J );5)AF 8ar/ *J))5);D( and t. A;d c.a4tr o2 t. boo/
o2 Isaia.( !.ic. s4a/s o2 t. Sr3ant o2 'od !.o su22rs
2or t. 0uilt o2 t. 4o4l( !r 4robably dcisi3.
Is it 4ossibl 2ro1 t. s/tc. .r 0i3n( and 2ro1 t.
1any dtails !.ic. could not b ta/n into considration
to dra! conclusions li/ t.os !.ic. d Loostn( Hirsc.
and Bint5San0lG .a3 rac.dM Alrady in our
introduction t. rasons ar 0i3n !.ic. 1ust 1a/ us
.i0.ly s/4tical .r. "3rt.lss( lt us 0o into t.
substanc o2 t.s !ritin0s in ordr to 2or1 a clar
o4inion.
Fro1 t.is .urrid 0lanc at t. sourcs( t. contnts o2
t. 4rac.in0 o2 Jsus( and t. cours o2 .is 4ublic
a44aranc( ! 1ay 0at.r .o! 1uc. o2 t. 1atrial usd
by d Loostn( Hirsc. and Bint5San0lG is untnabl i2
on dducts 2ro1 it t.at !.ic. is not trust!ort.y 2ro1
t. 4oint o2 3i! o2 .istorical criticis1.
"ot.in0 t.at is adducd 2ro1 t.1 concrnin0 Jsus:
c.ild.ood and yout.( concrnin0 .is 4rdis4ositions and
.is d3lo41nt can clai1 any 3alidity. T. story in Lu/
o2 t. b.a3ior o2 t. t!l35yar old Jsus in t.
t14l( !.ic. so 0ratly intrstd t.
4syc.o4at.olo0ists( and in !.ic. Bint5San0lG !as
inclind to 2ind t. account o2 a .b4.rnic crisis
itsl2( 1ust b dis1issd 2ro1 considration. #iscardin0
t. Fourt. 'os4l is o2 t. 0ratst i14ortanc. T.is
sourc lon0 4r1ittd t. 4syc.o4at.olo0ists t.
assu14tion t.at ! can 2ollo! Jsus: 1ntal d3lo41nt
t.rou0. t. cours o2 t.r yarsF only t.is allo!d t.1
to dra! a 4rsonality continually occu4id !it. .is 0o(
4lacin0 it in t. 2or0round o2 .is discourss( assrtin0
.is di3in ori0in and d1andin0 o2 .is .arrs a
corrs4ondin0 2ait..+?
Bcaus o2 t. 2act t.at t. t.r 4syc.o4at.olo0ists
con2us t. 4ortrait in Jo.n !it. t.at in t. oldr
'os4ls55 in !.ic. Jsus dos not s4a/ o2 .i1sl2 or o2
.is di0nity 55t.y co1 to t. conclusion t.at so1ti1s
. 4roclai1d .i1sl2 as t. 8ssia.( and so1ti1s
r2raind 2ro1 doin0 so( intr4rtin0 t.is conduct in
tr1s analo0ous to t.os !.ic. ar 4ro4rly a44lid to
4aranoids.
W cannot ntr on by on into a considration o2 t.
nu1rous and( in 4art( 3ry 0ri3ous 1isundrstandin0s
!.ic. cro4 u4 2ro1 d Loostn:s( Hirsc.:s and Bint5
San0lG:s un2a1iliarity !it. t. a4ocaly4tic !orld53i! o2
lat Judais1( and !it. critical in3sti0ation.
In connction !it. t. 4syc.iatric 3aluation o2 t.
1atrial at .and ! 1ust onc a0ain 4oint to t. 3ry
7traordinary natur o2 t. di22icultis !.ic. con2ront
3ry 22ort at a dia0nosis.+;
Sinc t. 1annr and t. 1t.od by !.ic. a 1ntal
abrration is 74rssd ar 1uc. 4lainr dia0nostically
t.an its contnt( it is i11diatly 3idnt t.at
bio0ra4.ical 1atrial is to b utili6d !it. 7tr1
caution. T. 1a9ority o2 t. <sy14to1s< !.ic. ar
cont14oranously 3idnt ar not st do!n in !ritin0(
but rat.r t.ir 3rbal 1ani2stations only. I2( t.n(
dia0nostic conclusions ar dducd 2ro1 t.is /ind o2
1atrial( t.y 1ust ncssarily b 2or t. 1ost 4art o2 a
3ry .y4ot.tical /ind.
W.n( 2or instanc( Bint5San0lG( Hirsc. and d Loostn
1aintain t.at Jsus .ad nu1rous .allucinations durin0
t. 2orty days in t. !ildrnss( 3n i2 ! assu1 t.
.istoricity o2 t. so9ourn in t. !ildrnss( t.is 1ust
b a !.olly 3a0u .y4ot.sis alt.ou0. it allo!s t.1 to
a22ir1 a .allucinatory 4.as in t. d3lo41nt o2 .is
4syc.osis.
And 3n in t. cas o2 actual .istorical uttrancs t.
intr4rtation can 3ry asily b an arbitrary on. So(
2or 7a14l( t. 4syc.olo0ical 74lanation !.ic. Bint5
San0lG ad3ancs to 74lain t. ori0in o2 t.
.allucinations !.ic. . attributs to Jsus s1s !.olly
arti2icial. To o22r !it. assuranc suc. a 1c.anical
74lanation o2 t. a44aranc o2 .allucinations 3n in a
li3in0 4atint !it. 1ntal disas( a 1any5sidd and
co14r.nsi3 analysis o2 t. indi3idual !ould b
ncssary.
T. circu1stancs in t. 4rsnt cas ar still 1or
stran0ly co14licatd by t. 2act t.at t. t.r aut.ors
in Bustion bli3 t.at ! .a3 to do !it. t. disas
o2 4aranoia.
It is !ll /no!n t.at t. Bustion o2 4aranoia blon0s
a1on0 t. 1ost di22icult 4robl1s o2 1odrn 4syc.iatry.
It is still 3ry 2ar 2ro1 solution. It 1ay( .o!3r( b
14.asi6d .r t.at t. contro3rsy no! 0oin0 on about
t. natur o2 4aranoia is in no s1all d0r also a
contro3rsy o3r !ords. A considrabl nu1br o2 t.
/inds o2 4aranoia ar su22icintly !ll /no!n in t. !ay
t.y 4ro0rss to 4r1it a 4ro2itabl discussion o2
di22rntial dia0nosis a1on0 t.os !.o ar concrnd not
!it. t. !ords but !it. t. 2acts.
Bint5San0lG 4ro4oss t. dia0nosis o2 rli0ious
4aranoia. Fro1 t. 0nral discussions includd as a /ind
o2 2ra01nt 2or a 4syc.iatric t7tboo/ in .is
4syc.o4at.olo0ical !or/ ! 1ay conclud t.at .
distin0uis.s t.r 4.ass( as 8a0nan dos in .is
<c.ronic dliriu1 in its syst1atic d3lo41nt< Cd*lire
chroni1ue , *volution syst*mati1ueD.
Hirsc. s1s to .a3 a si1ilar 2or1 in 1ind. H 2ails(
.o!3r( to c.aractri6 it su22icintly( and !it.out
2urt.r ado 4rsu1s </no!n 4aranoia.<
# Loostn lays lss strss on t. .allucinations and
concds t.at t. 2actors o2 4.ysiolo0y and 0nius 4lay a
1or si0ni2icant 4art in t. natur o2 Jsus t.an t.
ot.r aut.ors ad1it.
It cannot b t. 4ur4os o2 t.is study to 74rss an
o4inion 2or or a0ainst t. 7istnc o2 any 4articular
2or1 o2 1ntal disas in Jsus( or to discuss a clinical
dia0nosis. Its 4ur4os is 1rly to tst t. l1ntary
sy14to1s !.ic. t. t.r aut.ors .a3 usd to su44ort
t.ir dia0nosis 2or t.ir .istoric aut.nticity( and in
cas t.is is stablis.d( 2or t.ir clinical 3alu.++ T.
sin0l all0d sy14to1s55). #lusions( ?. Hallucinations(
;. E1otional attitud( +. Ot.r c.aractristics55!ill b
s4aratly tratd.
B2or ! b0in t. discussion o2 t. 4ictur o2
4syc.osis dra!n by t. t.r aut.ors( attntion s.ould b
calld to t. 2act t.at t. assrtion t.at t.is is a
Bustion o2 acBuird 1ntal disas .as alrady a priori
3ry littl 4robability about it. Bint5San0lG cits a
lar0 nu1br o2 clinical obsr3ations o2 sic/ 4o4l !.o
.a3 su22rd 2ro1 rli0ious 4aranoia acco14anid by all
/inds o2 .allucinations and also 4oints out t. 2rBuncy
!it. !.ic. t.s cass( so 2a1iliar to 3ry
4syc.iatrist( occur. H 2or0ts( .o!3r( t.at cass o2
<c.ronic dliriu1 in its syst1atic d3lo41nt(< !.ic.
rs1bl t. 4aranoiac 2or1 o2 Hra4lin %ementia
praecox( ar 2or t. 1ost 4art .os4itali6d soon a2tr
t. onst o2 t.ir illnss( and t.at t.s 2or1s o2
1ntal disas ar 7actly t. ty4 !.ic. do not !in
su44ortrs and disci4ls and 2ound scts. T. nu1rous
.allucinations( t. catatonic sy14to1s in t. broadst
sns o2 t. !ord Cautis1D( and t. 22cts o2
dissociation 1a/ t.s sic/ 4o4l inca4abl o2
conscuti3 acti3ityF i2 so1 rnunciation o2 acti3ity
ta/s 4lac it sldo1 corrs4onds to t. dlusional
contnts o2 a consciousnss !.ic. .as bn i14aird by
4syc.osis. T. 2act is !ll /no!n t.at sic/ 4o4l
su22rin0 2ro1 dlusions o2 4rscution( 4articularly
2ro1 a 1orbid 2ar o2 4.ysical 4rscution( continu to
carry on t.ir !or/ yars on nd and 7tr1ly sldo1
dra! t. 4ractical conclusion 2ro1 t.ir .allucinations
and dlusions( na1ly t.at t.y s.ould d2nd t.1sl3s
a0ainst t.ir 4rscutors55it.r l0ally or ill0allyF
i2 in so1 2ltin0 1ood t.y do t.is( it .a44ns bcaus
o2 so1 stat o2 7cit1nt( and not( t.r2or( bcaus
o2 conscious and lo0ical in2rncs. T. 4rscutd
4syc.otics( !.o ar actually and continually on t.
d2nsi3( t. <4rscutd 4rscutors< o2 t. Frnc.(
blon0 to t. 0rou4 o2 con0nital 4syc.o4at.s and do not
su22r 2ro1 an acBuird 1ntal disas.
In t. 7a1ination o2 t.at !.ic. is all0d to b
dlusion in Jsus( t. ori0in o2 t. dlusion is to b
distin0uis.d 2ro1 its latr d3lo41nt.
# Loostn assu1s a slo! d3lo41nt. < Jsus C.rist(<
. !rits( <!or/d u4 to a 2i7d syst1 o2 insanity by
slo! d3lo41nt.< T. a44aranc o2 Jo.n t. Ba4tist
4ro3idd t. 2irst i14uls to!ards t. 7trnali6ation o2
.is idas.
Hirsc. is o2 t. o4inion t.at ! .a3 to do !it. a cas
in !.ic. unsyst1ati6d and und2ind dlusions !r
4rsnt( in !.ic.( .o!3r( t.s idas ndd an
7trnal s.oc/ and a stron0 1otion in ordr to ta/
s.a4 in a ty4ical 4syc.otic syst1.
Bint5San0lG 1aintains t.at t. 4ri1ary dlusion Ct.
4ri1ordial 2i7d idaD a44ard ex a(rupto( !it.out any
4r3ious considration.
"o on o2 t. t.r aut.ors stats clarly !.at t.
contnt o2 t.is 4ri1ary dlusion !as. Fro1 t.ir ot.r
stat1nts ! 1ay conclud t.at Jsus: bli2 in .is o!n
8ssia.s.i4 s.ould b considrd as t. 4ri1ary dlusion.
As 2or t. ori0ins alludd to( t.y ar crtainly not to
b t.ou0.t o2 as 4ro3d sinc ! ar not at all
acBuaintd !it. t. 4riod o2 Jsus: li2 t.at 4rcds
.is 4ublic a44aranc. As d Loostn and Hirsc. do not
2urt.r s4ci2y t. c.aractr o2 t. 4aranoia( ! cannot
discuss at all t. 4robability o2 t. ori0in acc4td by
t.1.
Bint5San0lG in .is assu14tion o2 t. a44aranc 7
a(rupto o2 t. 4ri1ary dlusion a22ir1s an ori0in !.ic.
is not usually 2ound in t. 2or1 o2 t. disas dia0nosd
by .i1. In t. 2irst 4riod( !.ic. Bint5San0lG o2tn
con2uss !it. t. scond .allucinatory 4riod( a stron0
ida o2 r2rnc Ct. insanity o2 intr4rtationD
usually a44arsF at 2irst t. dlusion d3lo4s
0radually( s.o!in0 constantly a 4rscutory c.aractr
!.ic. absolutly cannot b brou0.t into .ar1ony !it. any
ida o2 t. 8ssia.s.i4.
In anot.r 4lac Bint5San0lG on t. contrary 14.asi6s
t.at Jsus !as brou0.t to t.in/ o2 .i1sl2 as t. 8ssia.
by t. su00sti3 in2lunc o2 s3ral 3ntsJ by Jo.n
t. Ba4tist( by .is o!n !ondr curs( by t. astonis.1nt
o2 t.os !.o !r .ald and by t. nt.usias1 o2 t.
disci4ls. H att14ts in t.is 4lac( t.n( a
4syc.olo0ical 74lanation.+A
So 2ar as t. 2urt.r d3lo41nt o2 t. dlusion( t.
so5calld <syst1ati6ation(< is concrnd( all t.
aut.ors account 2or it in t. sns o2 an 74ansi3
tndncy.+= Bint5 San0lG ntitls t. c.a4trs dalin0
!it. t.is 1attr 4ro0rssi3lyJ t. 8ssia.5/in0F t. Son
o2 'odF t. Con2idant( Intr4rtr( A0nt o2 'odF Jsus5
'od.
# Loostn 14.asi6s t. 2act t.at Jsus( 4rocdin0
st4 by st4( arri3s in t. nd at t. 4oint o2
r2rrin0 to .is o!n 4rson all t. 4ro1iss o2 t.
Scri4turs and t.ir 2inal 0lorious 2ul2ill1nt.
Hirsc. !rits t.at a2tr t. 2orty days in t. !ildrnss
t. t.rto2or isolatd and disconnctd dlusions unit
in a 0rat and syst1atic structur( and assrts t.at
t.n( in nu1rous .allucinations !.ic. aros at t. sa1
ti1( Jsus 1r0s 2ro1 t. latnt to t. acti3 sta0
o2 4aranoia. In anot.r 4lac . s4a/s o2 a 0radually
3ol3in0 and caslssly 1ountin0 10alo1ania.
So 2ar as t. d3lo41nt o2 t. 4syc.osis !.ic. is
acc4td by t. t.r aut.ors is concrnd( ! s.ould
14.asi6 t.at d Loostn s4a/s o2 a continually
1ountin0 cur3( !.il Bint5San0lG and Hirsc. r0ard t.
2orty days
in t. !ildrnss as a dor1ant 4riod and 4ro4os a latr
d3lo41nt as connctd !it. it. "o on o2 t. aut.ors
s4a/s o2 a 4riod 2illd !it. idas o2 in9ury and
4rscution( !.ic. 74rinc s.o!s is c.aractristic o2
t. 2irst 4.as. Only Bint5San0lG 1ntions t.
.allucinations about t. d3il in t. !ildrnss( !.ic.
ar not 4icturd as ntirly 74ansi3.
It !ould b ncssary( 4ro3idd t. assrtions o2 t.
t.r aut.ors !r to t. 4oint( to considr t.
in2rBunt a44aranc o2 suc. a on5sidd d3lo41nt o2
10alo1ania. It is !ll /no!n t.at t. 1ntally sic/ can
3inc dlusions o2 0randur t.rou0. a lon0 4riod o2
ti1(+> but in t.is cas no 4ro0rssion is 4rsnt and so
t.r is no Bustion at all o2 t.at <syst1atic
3olution< !.ic. t. t.r aut.ors s1 to .a3 in 1ind.
"o! t.at it .as bn s.o!n t.at t. 3olution o2 1ntal
disas assu1d by t. t.r aut.ors is Buit i14robabl
2ro1 t. 0nral clinical stand4oint( it r1ains to
discuss t. Bustion o2 !.t.r t. !ords and actions o2
Jsus( !.ic. 3n .istorical criticis1 acc4ts as
aut.nticatd( can 4ro3id a basis 2or t.in/in0 o2 any
4at.olo0ical distortion o2 t. contnt o2 consciousnss.
W 1ust considr .r( 2irst o2 all( t.at t. idas o2
rli0ion !.ic. Jsus s.ars !it. .is cont14oraris and
!.ic. . .as acc4td 2ro1 tradition 1ay not b
considrd as disasd( 3n !.n t.y a44ar to our
1odrn 3i! ntirly stran0 and inco14r.nsibl. #
Loostn( Hirsc. and Bint5San0lG r4atdly trans0rss
t.is 2unda1ntal rul.
To t.s acc4td idas blon0J t. 3i! t.at t. 4rsnt
!orld .as bn 0i3n o3r to t. 3il s4irits( !.o can
3n ta/ 4ossssion o2 1n and s4a/ t.rou0. t.1F t.
74ctation t.at t. 0ood an0ls ld by t. 8ssia. !ill
ta/ o3r t. rul o2 t. !orldF t. bli2 in t. co1in0
o2 t. 8ssianic Hin0do1 !it. all t. subsidiary idas55
t. 1isry t.at is to 4rcd t. 8ssia.( t. 9ud01nt(
t. anni.ilation o2 t. !ic/d( t. rsurrction and
<trans2or1ation< o2 t. 9ust and t. lct( t.
trans2i0uration o2 art.ly natur into a stat o2
su4rnatural 2rtility55!.ic. a44ar in t. 4ro4.tic
boo/s and in t. a4ocaly4ss.
T. 8ssianic 74ctations blon0 to t. stoc/ o2 lat
J!is. do01as. But not all t. J!s bli3d t.at t.s
3nts !r i11diat. T.is con3iction !as !ids4rad
!it.in a 1o31nt s4ci2ically J!is. !.ic. .ad its
ori0in in Jo.n t. Ba4tist.
Concrnin0 t. dtails o2 t. 8ssianic idas( a crtain
3arity o2 3i!s closly a44roac.in0 ac. ot.r !as still
4r3alnt at t.at ti1.+, It is not surly attstd in
t. a4ocaly4tical and rabbinical sourcs 2or t. ti1 o2
Jsus t.at t. 8ssia. 1ust su22r. On t. ot.r .and(
t.is ida bca1 1or 4ossibl as soon as 1n lt t.
8ssia. 74rinc an anony1ous art.ly 7istnc b2or
.is a44aranc in 0lory( sinc . t.n .ad to su22r !it.
t. c.osn t. 1isry t.at 4rcdd t. 8ssia.. T.
8ssianic 1anin0 o2 Isaia. A;( !.ic. s4a/s o2 t.
su22rin0 sr3ant o2 'od( could also i14l1nt t.
conc4tion o2 t. su22rin0 8ssia..
So 2ar as t. 1atrial ! .a3 rci3d 4r1its us to
dra! a conclusion( ! 1ay say t.at it !as not 2orsn in
t. !orld o2 idas !.ic. 1ad u4 t. lat J!is.
rli0ion( t.at t. 3ry 1an !.o s.ould a44ar as t.
8ssia. in 0lory !ould 2irst li3 an anony1ous art.ly
li2 in t. art.ly !orld( sinc 2ar5rac.in0
uncrtaintis and unsol3d contradictions do1inatd t.
basic Bustions about t. 4rsonality and t. a44aranc
o2 t. 8ssia..+*
At t. 1o1nt( .o!3r55t.is conclusion is o2 t.
0ratst i14ortanc 2or an insi0.t into t. t.ou0.t !orld
o2 Jsus55!.n a lat J!is. t.in/r undrtoo/ to
co14r.nd and to clari2y t. 4robl1s o2 t. 8ssianic
tac.in0s( and i11diatly rsol3d to .old 2ast to t.
8ssia.:s dscnt 2ro1 #a3id !.ic. t. 4ro4.ts .ad
insistd on( no ot.r solution !as 4ossibl t.an t.at .
s.ould b born in t. art.ly ra o2 t. !orld 2ro1 a1on0
t. dscndants o2 #a3id and t.n s.ould b raisd to t.
su4rnatural s4lndor o2 t. 8ssia. and Son o2 8an(
t.rou0. t. trans2or1ation !.ic. !as ordaind 2or all o2
t. lct at t. nd o2 t. !orld. I2 t. 1an in Bustion
!as o2 t. o4inion t.at t. 74ctd 3nts !r nar at
.and( . !ould .a3 to loo/ 2or t. 2utur 8ssia. as
alrady a1on0 t. t.n li3in0 dscndants o2 #a3id.
It s.ould b addd t.at !.n t. J!is. 8ssia. is calld
at t. sa1 ti1 t. Son o2 'od( t.is .as not.in0
!.at3r to do !it. dscnt 2ro1 'od in any 1ta4.ysical
sns. T. Son o2 'od is only a titl t.at indicats t.at
.is 4lac o2 .onor ori0inats in 'od. In t.is sns t.
J!is. /in0s !r alrady t. Sons o2 'od.
I2 a2tr t.is .urrid sur3y o2 t. lat J!is.
!orld3i!s( an analysis s.ould b att14td o2 t.
attitud !.ic. Jsus .i1sl2 assu1d in rlation to t.is
circl o2 idas( on !ould .a3 to discuss 2ro1 t.
4syc.iatric stand4oint( 2irst( .is initial attitud to
t. 8ssianic ida s4cially( and t.n t. 2urt.r
d3lo41nt o2 .is 4rsonal co14r.nsion o2 it.
T. 2act t.at Jsus r0ardd .i1sl2 as t. co1in0
8ssia. 1ust stri/ on( but 1ost o2 all .as arousd t.
sus4icion o2 so1 7istin0 1ntal disturbanc. #
Loostn( Hirsc. and Bint5San0lG .a3 not 2aild to brin0
2ort. t. 0larin0 antit.sis bt!n t. attitud o2 t.
car4ntr:s son and t.at o2 t. 8ssia. and Son o2 8an.
T.is contrast( .o!3r( is not so lac/in0 in sns as at
2irst si0.t it a44ars to b i2 on la3s out o2
considration t. idas i14lantd by .istory and by t.
lat J!is. bli2s. In t. 2irst 4lac( accordin0 to t.
oldst tradition Jsus is rally 2ro1 t. 2a1ily o2
#a3idF t.r2or it is not 4ossibl to 74lain t.
4rtinnt accounts( as( 2or instanc( Hirsc. 74lains
t.1( by assu1in0 t.at Jsus( in co11on !it. yout.2ul
4aranoiacs( .as altrd .is ancstry in a 0randios !ay
as a rsult o2 dlusion.
In t. scond 4lac( it !as 2orsn in t. a4ocaly4tical
74ctation as it .as bn brou0.t out( t.at all t.
c.osn !ould b c.an0d at t. co1in0 nd o2 t. !orld
into su4rnatural bin0s and in suc. a !ay( indd( as to
constitut a r3rsal o2 3alus. T.os !.o in t.is !orld
!r lo!ly and ds4isd( !.o .ad to sr3 and !.o !r
4rscutd( !ould t.r b .onord( !.il t.os !.o !r
.onord .r( !.o stood .i0.( !.o ruld and n9oyd
4o!r( !ould co1 b2or t. 9ud01nt. Jsus s.ard t.is
a4ocaly4tic 3i! o2 lat Judais1 at all 4oints as is
3idnt in a succssion o2 sayin0s. T.is 3i! d1andd
7actly t.is( t.n( t.at . !.o !as to occu4y t. .i0.st
4lac in t. 2utur !orld s.ould .r in t. natural
cours o2 t. !orld blon0 to t. ds4isd and co11on
4o4l. T.r2or( only a dscndant o2 #a3id li3in0 in
lo!ly 4o3rty could b considrd as t. 4ossibl 2utur
8ssia.. I2 t. nd o2 t. !orld !r t.ou0.t o2 as bin0
3ry nar( t.n it 1ust b t.at t.is 1an .ad alrady bn
born and .ad to b sou0.t !it.in t. 0nration !.ic. !as
to 74rinc t. nd o2 t. ra.
T. attitud o2 Jsus is u4 to a crtain d0r 1oti3atd
by t. considrations 9ust brou0.t 2or!ard( !.ic. 2ro1
t. 4oint o2 3i! o2 lat Judais1 ar t.orou0.ly ob3ious.
"on t. lss t. 3ry 2act t.at . r0ardd .i1sl2 as
t. 1an !.o !ould ntr u4on t. su4rnatural in.ritanc
o2 t. 2a1ily o2 #a3id( r1ains still a stri/in0 t.in0.
A 4syc.olo0ical analysis o2 t.is attitud is not 4ossibl
2or rasons alrady discussd. W can only say so 1uc.
t.at t. 7a00ration o2 an ida dos not in itsl2
9usti2y our considrin0 it t. 1ani2station o2 a
4syc.osis.
T. only 4ossibl 4roo2 in t. 4rsnt cas( t.at ! .a3
.r in t. 8ssianic clai1s o2 Jsus a 1orbid bli2(
!ould b t. 2urt.r 2at o2 t.is ida( in ot.r !ords
t. 3idnc o2 a 1ntal disas !it. !.ic. it !as
associatd.
T. Bustion ariss .r !.t.r t. c.an0 in t. 3i!s
o2 Jsus !.ic. can b 4ro3d to .a3 occurrd durin0 t.
yar !.ic. is 4rtinnt in t.is connction s.o!s sy14to1s
!.ic. r1ind us o2 t. 3olution o2 1ntal disas. T.
2acts !.ic. !r brou0.t 2ort. in our sur3y o2 t.
4ublic 1inistry o2 Jsus and .is !orld o2 idas nd not
b r4atd .r. Only t.is 1uc. nds to b 14.asi6d(
t.at idas o2 in9ury and 4rscution n3r aros( and
4articularly did not occur in t. arlist 4riod o2
!.ic. ! /no! anyt.in0 about Jsus( alt.ou0. our 4rsnt
3i! o2 a <syst1atic 3olution< !ould d1and t.is.
Li/!is not.in0 can b 2ir1ly stablis.d about any
trans2or1ation o2 t. 1ntal disas arisin0 2ro1 innr
causs. T. c.an0s in Jsus: idas ar al!ays
conditiond by out!ard circu1stancs and r4rsnt
co14ltly lo0ical consBuncs in .ar1ony !it. t. total
4ictur. T. dlay in t. arri3al o2 t. 74ctd
8ssianic 1isry and o2 t. 8ssianic Hin0do1 a2tr t.
disci4ls !r snt out( as !ll as t. dat. o2 Jo.n t.
Ba4tist !.ic. occurrd at t.at ti1( 4roduc a c.an0 in
t. notion o2 su22rin0( bcaus o2 !.ic. Jsus no lon0r
assu1s as t.rto2or t.at . is to su22r to0t.r !it.
t. c.osn ons C.is su4rnatural c.aractr alrady
3idntD t. <!os o2 t. 8ssia.(< but rat.r assu1s
t.at by 3irtu o2 .is su22rin0 t. ot.rs !ill b s4ard
t. su22rin0 t.y !r to .a3 0on t.rou0..
T.is 1odi2ication o2 .is 3i!s 4rsu44oss a
susc4tibility to in2lunc !.ic. dos not accord !it.
t. 2or1s o2 4aranoia !.ic. d3lo4 in accordanc !it. a
2ir1ly stablis.d ty4.
8oro3r( t. 2actor o2 anta0onis1 is lac/in0( as ! .a3
alrady 14.asi6d in t. discussion o2 t. on5sidd(
74ansi3 3olution o2 t. 1ntal disas assu1d by t.
t.r aut.ors. Jsus .ad( indd( n1is and o44onnts
bcaus . s4o/ out a0ainst t. narro!51indd and
7trnal 4ity o2 t. %.ariss. In rlation to t.s
o44onnts( not i1a0inary but 0nuin( Jsus conducts
.i1sl2 in a 2as.ion dia1trically o44osit to t.
conduct o2 a sic/ 1an !it. a 4rscutory trnd. H dos
not r1ain inacti3 and dos not li1it .i1sl2 to a
d2nsi3 attitud li/ so 1any o2 t. sic/ !.o bli3
t.1sl3s 4rscutd( but rat.r s/s by actions !.ic.
.a3 a 4ro3ocati3 c.aractr55t. dri3in0 2ro1 t.
2orcourt o2 t. t14l o2 t. tradrs and 1ony5
c.an0rs( t. discourss a0ainst t. %.ariss C 8att.
?;D55to brin0 on a con2lict !it. t. aut.oritis and to
2orc t.1 to ta/ st4s a0ainst .i1( until in t. nd .
brin0s t. .i0. council to t. dcision to 0t rid o2 .i1
3n b2or t. 2sti3al.
T.is conscious 22ort to ac.i3 .is dat. can in no !ay
b dscribd( as Bint5San0lG s1s inclind to dscrib
it( as 1orbid sl25sacri2ic( and cannot b brou0.t into
.ar1ony !it. t. corrs4ondin0 actions o2 t. 1ntally
disasd55o2 !.ic. t. Frnc. !ritr 4roducs a
considrabl nu1br o2 instancs. As alrady 1ntiond(
t.is sacri2icial dat. r4rsnts a ncssary constitunt
4art in t. 8ssianic t.ou0.t and action o2 Jsus.
Concrnin0 t. Bustion o2 .allucinations it s.ould b
r1ar/d at t. outst t.at d Loostn( Hirsc. and Bint5
San0lG 0o 2ar byond t. rcordd 2acts .r. T.y assu1
t.at Jsus .ad 2rBunt and 3ry 7tnsi3 .allucinations
and 2ind s4cial su44ort 2or t.is in t. uttrancs o2
Jsus r4ortd in t. Fourt. 'os4l( !.ic. t.y intr4rt
to t.is nd by doin0 0rat 3iolnc to t. 1atrial.
Bcaus o2 t. un.istoric natur o2 t.is sourc
3ryt.in0 t.at !as t.ou0.t to b 4rsnt t.r in t.
!ay o2 Jsus: .allucinations is untnabl. E3n t.
.allucination in 't.s1an( into t. dtails o2 !.ic.
Bint5San0lG ntrs55an an0l 2ro1 .a3n is said to .a3
a44ard to Jsus C Lu/ ??J+;D55cannot b considrd. As
a co14arison o2 t. 'os4l o2 Lu/ !it. bot. t. oldr
'os4ls s.o!s( ! ar dalin0 .r !it. a l0ndary
laboration o2 t. scn !.ic. 4rcds t. arrst.
T. assu14tion o2 t. t.r aut.ors t.at t. 2orty5day
so9ourn in t. !ildrnss !as 2illd !it. nu1rous
.allucinations rsts u4on no t7tual 2oundation( as .as
alrady bn 1ntiond. But t. t.r t14tations o2
!.ic. 8att.! C+J)5))D in2or1s us ar also un.istoricalF
t.y blon0 to t. 4r.istoric l0nd as #a3id Fridric.
Strauss .as alrady ri0.tly r1ar/d. T. !.ol
!ildrnss 4isod is to b 3aluatd on t. !.ol as a
litrary 4roduct t.at 0r! out o2 rasonin0 basd on t.
Old Tsta1nt. As 8oss .ad s4nt 2orty days in solitud
b2or t. 0i3in0 o2 t. la! C E7. ?+J),D( so Jsus also
1ust .a3 don t.is b2or . too/ u4 .is o22ic. And as
t. !ildrnss is t.ou0.t to b t. rsidnc o2 t. 3il
s4irits( . 1ust .a3 bn t14td by t.1.AE
In t. story o2 t. trans2i0uration on t. 1ount ! .a3
to do not at all !it. Jsus: .allucinations but !it. t.
.allucinations o2 t. t.r clos disci4ls !.o ar !it.
.i1( as is clarly s.o!n in t. account C 8ar/ *J?5,D.
W.il t.y tarrid !it. .i1( . !as( ! ar told(
trans2i0urd b2or t.1. His 0ar1nts a44ard to t.1
to b 0la1in0 !.it and t.y sa! Eli9a. and 8oss co1in0
to .i1 and tal/in0 !it. .i1. A2tr!ards t.y .ard a
3oic out o2 t. clouds( <T.is is 1y blo3d son( .ar y
.i1(< and suddnly( loo/ in0 around( t.y sa! no on !it.
t.1 but Jsus alon.A)
It is also doubt2ul i2 t. .allucinations at t. ba4tis1
ar .istorical. W 1ust a0ain and a0ain 1a/ it clar to
oursl3s t.at t. "a6arn co1s into t. li0.t o2
.istory 2or t. 2irst ti1 on t.at day !.n . a44ars as
a 4rac.r in 'alil and t.at 3ryt.in0 t.at co1s
b2or t.at blon0s to dar/ and uncrtain tradition. It
is 4ossibl t.at Old Tsta1nt rasons account 2or t.
ori0in o2 t. story o2 t. ba4tis1. T. 3oic 2ro1 .a3n
sounds r1ar/ably li/ t. s3nt. 3rs o2 t. scond
%sal1 !.ic. is usually intr4rtd in a 8ssianic sns.
It is 7traordinary also t.at Jsus !.n . 1a/s /no!n
to .is disci4ls .is 8ssia.s.i4 C 8ar/ ,J?>5;ED dos not
1ntion t.at . !as calld to t.is 4lac o2 .onor at t.
ti1 o2 .is ba4tis1( and t.at %aul also dos not r2r to
t. ba4tis1 o2 Jsus at all.
Assu1in0 t.at t. .allucination at t. Jordan is
aut.ntic( on 1ay say 2ro1 t. stand4oint o2 4syc.iatry
so 1uc.( t.at it .as to do !it. co.rnt .allucinations
in bot. t. 3isual and t. auditory s4.r( t.at t.
contnt o2 t. .allucinatory lan0ua0 is .i0.ly colord
and t.at it r1inds us in its styl o2 !ords 2ro1 a %sal1
!.ic. is usually 74laind as 8ssianic.
E1otionally colord .allucinations553n Bint5San0lG
rco0ni6s t.is55ar not to b 2ound only in t. 1ntally
disasd. T.y a44ar also in indi3iduals !.o ar 3ry
7citabl 1otionally( but !.o n3rt.lss can still b
considrd as 2allin0 ntirly !it.in t. cat0ory o2
.alt.y 4o4l. 8oro3r( ! s.ould r2lct to !.at a
0rat 7tnt t. radin0 o2 t. 4ro4.tic 3isions
dscribd in t. Old Tsta1nt( t. idas o2 lat Judais1
in 4articular( and t. 0rat 7cit1nt !.ic. ros !it.
t. 74ctation o2 t. i11diat co1in0 o2 t. nd o2 t.
!orld( 2acilitatd t. ris o2 .allucinations in
indi3iduals 4rdis4osd to t.1. In any cas t.
a44aranc o2 t.is on .allucinatory 3nt( 3n i2 !
!is. to r0ard it as .istorical( dos not 4r1it us to
conclud t.at a 1ntal disas 7ists.
In r0ard to .is 1otional attitud d Loostn and Bint5
San0lG 1aintain t.at t.r is instability o2 a 1orbid
/ind in t. 2lin0 o2 Jsus. First o2 all( it is
ncssary .r to inBuir i2 1otional instability can b
substantiatd in .i1 at all. It 1ay( o2 cours( b
a22ir1d t.at 4riods o2 accntuatd acti3ity altrnat
in Jsus !it. ot.r 4riods !.n . a3oids t. 4o4l and
tris to !it.dra! into t. solituds. H dis4lays no
consistntly ordrd acti3ity. His 4ublic 1inistry
dissol3s into a rat.r disordrd runnin0 to and 2ro( in
!.ic. . no! a44ars on t. ast ban/ and no! rturns to
t. !st ban/( until in t. nd . ta/s .i1sl2 o22 to
t. solitud o2 t. nort..
T.is altrnation bt!n t. 4ublic acti3ity and t.
Bust 2or solitud is at 2irst so 4u66lin0 t.at on 1i0.t
b t14td to con2us it !it. 1otional instability. T.
account o2 t. 2irst ntry into Ca4rnau1 is 3ry
nticin0 2or t. 4syc.o4at.olo0ists in t.is connction
C 8ar/ )J?)5;*D. It is rlatd t.at a2tr . .as s4o/n
in t. syna0o0u in t. dayti1( and .as .ald 1any
4o4l in t. 3nin0( and .as disa44ard in t. ni0.t
and .as bn 2ound in t. 1ornin0 by %tr and .is
co1rads in a lonly ni0.bor.ood( . !ould not lt
.i1sl2 b 4rsuadd to rturn 2or a ti1 to t. city
!.r 3ryon !as !aitin0 2or .i1.
But t.is 3asion and si1ilar latr 22orts .a3 not.in0
to do !it. 1otional instability. T. 74lanation is
si14ly t.is( t.at Jsus 2or crtain rasons !.ic. ar
still in 4art 4rc4tibl to us sou0.t to a3oid
0at.rin0s o2 4o4l. On o2 t. 4rinci4al rasons is
t.at . !is.d to s.un t. 4o4l bcaus t.y brou0.t
t. 4ossssd and t. sic/ 2ro1 all sids in ordr t.at
. 1i0.t .al t.1. T. ncountr !it. t. 2or1r
s4cially !as 7tr1ly distast2ul to .i1 as a44ars
2ro1 si0ni2icant dtails in 8ar/:s account C 8ar/ )J;+F
;J)?D.
Bint5San0lG and d Loostn ar not abl to brin0 2or!ard
1any ot.r 1orbid sy14to1s. In t. 1ain t.y d4nd u4on
t. lac/ o2 any 2a1ily loyalty !.ic. t.y bli3 t.y
.a3 disco3rd in t. b.a3ior o2 Jsus to .is
rlati3s( in a succssion o2 uttrancs( and in t. lac/
o2 s7ual 2lin0 2or !.ic. t.y brin0 2or!ard t. !ords
about t. unuc. C 8att. )*J)E5)?D.
Jsus ta/s a .ostil attitud to!ards .is 2a1ily bcaus
.is rlati3s !is. to ta/ .i1 .o1 and to obstruct .is
4ublic 1inistry C 8ar/ ;J?)D. W.n( 1oro3r( . dclars
t.at t. bonds /nit bt!n 1n by t. co11on 2ait. in
t. narnss o2 t. Hin0do1 o2 'od ar .olir t.an t.
tis o2 blood C 8ar/ ;J;)5;AD and dsirs t.at 1n in t.
days o2 t. co1in0 4rscution s.ould not b ld astray
by loo/in0 bac/ to!ard t.ir rlations( t.is is not a
lac/ o2 2a1ily loyalty to b accountd 2or
4syc.o4at.olo0ically( but a s4cial 4oint o2 3i! to b
74laind by 4culiar 4rconc4tions cont14orarily
conditiond( as indd 3ryt.in0 is to b 74laind by
t.os 4r1iss !.ic. t. 4syc.o4at.olo0ists considr
1oral d2cts in t. t.ical conduct and rac.in0 o2
Jsus.
T. !ord about t. unuc.s and t.os !.o .a3 1ad
t.1sl3s suc. 2or t. sa/ o2 t. Hin0do1 o2 'od is
stri/in0. T. 4syc.o4at.olo0ists ar( .o!3r( in rror(
i2 t.y !ant to 0t 2ro1 t.is t. ida o2 1orbid s7ual
2lin0. T.y do not notic t.at s.ortly b2or C 8att.
)*J;5*D( Jsus .as s4o/n about 1arria0 in a 3ry
natural and a22ir1ati3 !ay.
T. /y to t. 1uc. discussd and 1uc. 1isundrstood
sayin0 is o22rd by 4assa0s in t. Old Tsta1nt and
lat J!is. !ritin0s. In #utrono1y ?;J) it is ruld
t.at t. unuc.s 1ust b 7cludd 2ro1 t. rli0ious
co11unity. In a latr 4ost57ilic 4ro4.tic boo/ t.at !as
a44ndd to t. boo/ o2 Isaia. and is c.aractristic o2
t. 0nrous attitud o2 t.at 4riod( it is 4ro1isd to
t.1 t.at t.y !ill rci3 a s4lndid r!ard 2ro1 t.
Lord 2or t.ir /4in0 o2 t. la! and t. Sabbat.( and in
co14nsation 2or t.ir lac/ o2 4ostrity !ill not only b
1ad Bual to t. ot.rs in t. 74ctd 2utur but !ill
3n b st abo3 t.1 C Is. A=J;5AD. T. Wisdo1 o2
Solo1on( a boo/ !.ic. a44ard in t. 2irst cntury
b2or C.rist( s4a/s in a si1ilar !ay C;J);2D.
T. o4inion o2 Jsus 1o3s in t. sa1 dirction. H ss
in t. unuc.s t. ds4isd ons !.o li/ t. c.ildrn
ar dstind to .onor in t. Hin0do1 o2 'od bcaus
2or1rly t.y .ad bn a1on0 t. r9ctd ons. In
connction !it. t.is . 1a/s t. 1ystrious sur1is t.at
1n .a3 4lacd t.1sl3s in t. class o2 t.s ds4isd
ons in ordr to 4artici4at in t.at s4cial 2utur
.onor. T.is cas .as not.in0 !.at3r to do !it. .i1 as
. c.ris.s a 3ry s4cial 74ctation o2 a .i0.
4osition in t. Hin0do1 o2 'od t.rou0. .is dscnt 2ro1
#a3id. T. !ords( t.n( .a3 not.in0 to do !it. s7
2lin0 but ar to b 74laind by t. idas 2ound to b
4rsnt in lat Judais1.
T.r still r1ains to b discussd t. a44arntly
snslss act o2 cursin0 t. 2i0 tr C 8ar/ ))J)?5)+D.
T. story .as co1 do!n to us in a latr sttin0 as is
3idnt 2ro1 t. obsr3ation t.at on t. 2ollo!in0 day
t. tr .as alrady !it.rd C 8ar/ ))J?ED.A? W 1ust(
.o!3r( rtain !it.out Bustion t. .istorical /rnl
t.at Jsus 4ronouncd t. curs o3r a 2i0 tr on !.ic.
. .ad 3ainly sou0.t to 2ind nouris.1nt t.at no on
t.ra2tr 2or all trnity s.ould 2ind 2ruit on it. H
cond1ns it( t.r2or( not to !it.rin0 but to
un2ruit2ulnss 2or all trnity.
T. dd( .o!3r stran0 it 1ay s1 to us( is not at
all snslss in t. li0.t o2 .is 4rconc4tions. T.
lat J!is. a4ocaly4tic litratur 74ctd t.at 3n
natur !ould 4artici4at in t. trans2or1ation and !ould
bco1 ca4abl o2 a !ondr2ul 2rtility. So t.
A4ocaly4s o2 Baruc. tris to i1a0in t. 2utur yild o2
a sin0l 0ra43in C A4oc. Bar. ?*D. As Jsus 74ctd
t. 8ssianic /in0do1 as so1t.in0 3ry nar( .is !ords
about t. tr r2r to its 2at in t. n! ra o2 t.
!orld. W.il all ot.r 30tation !ill ac.i3 a !ondrous
2rtility t.is tr is to r1ain barrn bcaus it
dci3d by t. ric.nss o2 its 2olia0 t. unrco0ni6d
2utur 8ssia. in .is art.ly .u1ility and .un0r. Sinc
a2tr t. nd o2 t. !orld t. 8ssia. is t. rulr o2
all t. cration( Jsus si14ly 4ronouncs a 9ud01nt .r
!.os 7cution( . bli3s( lis !it.in t. sco4 o2
.is 2utur 4o!r. T.is is not( t.r2or( a Bustion o2
snslss ra0 a0ainst t. natural ordr but a /ind o2
ad3anc !ildin0 o2 4o!rs !.ic. . 7rciss in ot.r
rs4cts. So . dcids in ad3anc t.at t. t!l3
disci4ls at t. last 9ud01nt !ill .a3 9urisdiction
o3r t. t!l3 tribs o2 Isral C 8att. )*J?,DF so .
4ronouncs a curs o3r t. 'alilan citis !.ic. r1ain
unr4ntant C 8att. ))J?E5 ?+DF so . cond1ns Jrusal1
to bco1 a !ast C 8att. ?;J;>5;,D.
In t.s and si1ilar !ords ! .a3 to do !it. 4ro1iss
and 9ud01nts !.ic. . t.in/s to carry out as soon as .
is stablis.d in .is 8ssianic 4o!r. T. sayin0 about
t. 2i0 tr is on o2 a !.ol sris o2 suc. uttrancs.
T. 1or t.y stri/ us as r1ar/abl( t. 1or
undrstandabl t.y ar 2ro1 t. 4oint o2 3i! o2 Jsus:
lat J!is. idas. Bint5San0lG and d Loostn disco3r
t. 1orbid .r and 3ry!.r !.r it is not 4rsnt
si14ly bcaus t.y do not rali6 t.is.
T. criticis1 o2 t. 4syc.o4at.olo0ical !ritin0s !.ic. !
ar considrin0 yilds( t.n( t. 2ollo!in0 rsultsJ
)
.
T. 1atrial !.ic. is in a0r1nt !it. t.s boo/s is
2or t. 1ost 4art un.istorical.
?
.
Out o2 t. 1atrial !.ic. is crtainly .istorical( a
nu1br o2 acts and uttrancs o2 Jsus i14rss t.
aut.ors as 4at.olo0ical bcaus t. lattr ar too
littl acBuaintd !it. t. cont14orary t.ou0.t o2 t.
ti1 to b abl to do 9ustic to it. A sris o2 !ron0
dductions s4rin0s also 2ro1 t. 2act t.at t.y .a3 not
t. last undrstandin0 o2 t. 4culiar 4robl1s
in.rnt in t. cours o2 t. 4ublic 1inistry.
;
.
Fro1 t.s 2als 4rconc4tions and !it. t. .l4 o2
ntirly .y4ot.tical sy14to1s( t.y construct 4icturs
o2 sic/nss !.ic. ar t.1sl3s arti2acts and !.ic.(
1oro3r( cannot b 1ad to con2or1 7actly !it. t.
clinical 2or1s o2 sic/nss dia0nosd by t. aut.ors.
+
.
T. only sy14to1s to b acc4td as .istorical and
4ossibly to b discussd 2ro1 t. 4syc.iatric 4oint o2
3i! 55t. .i0. sti1at !.ic. Jsus .as o2 .i1sl2 and
4r.a4s also t. .allucination at t. ba4tis1552all 2ar
s.ort o2 4ro3in0 t. 7istnc o2 1ntal illnss.
RE#ITOR:S "OTEJ T. 2ollo!in0 4ara0ra4.s !r not
includd in Sc.!it6r:s doctoral dissrtation( but !r
addd !.n t. t.sis !as 4rintd.S
E1il Ras1ussnA; is 1uc. bttr acBuaintd !it. t.
.istorical 1atrial t.an t. aut.ors 4r3iously 1ntiond
and so /4s a!ay 2ro1 t. Fourt. 'os4l. His dsir is
to o22r a study in co14arati3 4syc.o4at.olo0y and to
0t a 0li14s o2 t. 1ind o2 Jsus by co14arin0 .i1 !it.
ot.r 4ro4.ts and 1n o2 'od. T. 2ollo!in0 ar
1ntiondJ t. J!is. 4ro4.ts( Budd.a C AAEM5+,E B.C.D(
%aul CT =+MD( 8o.a11d C A>EM5=;?D( Lut.r C )+,;5)A+=D(
Sabbatai Z!i o2 Asia 8inor C )=?=5)=>=D( S!dnbor0
C )=,,5)>>?D( t. 8a.di CT ),,AD( t. saints 2ro1 t.
Abru66i 8ountains( Orst d A1icio C ),?+5),,*D( #a3id
La66artti( to !.o1 a s4cial study is ddicatd(A+ t.
2oundrs o2 Ba.ais1( 8ir6a Ali 8o.a11d CT ),A?D and
8ir6a Hussin Ali C ),)>5),*?D( and t. #an( SQrn
Hir/0aard C ),);5),AAD.
Ras1ussn is o2 t. o4inion t.at t.s 4ro4.ts and 1n
o2 'od 4rsnt a 4ictur o2 sic/nss !.ic. 1ay b
dia0nosd by t. 4syc.iatrist as 4rcisly t. disas o2
4il4tic 4syc.osis.
T. #anis. aut.or t.in/s to 2ind in Jsus all t.
sy14to1s obsr3d in t. old and 1odrn 4ro4.ts. Jsus
is said to s.o! an un4arallld 2lin0 o2 an7ity( to
.a3 0on into a 2rn6y in t. clansin0 o2 t. t14l(
to su22r 2ro1 .allucinations( to r3al in .is
contradictory c.aractr an unboundd sl25consciousnss
and an abnor1al snsual li2( to c.ris. t. dludd
4ur4os o2 su22rin0 2or .u1anity and o2 bin0 abl to
aton 2or it.
Sinc Ras1ussn dos not discuss t. 4culiar sy14to1s o2
Jsus( but si14ly subsu1s t. "a6arn undr t.
4ro4.t5ty4 !.ic. . sts u4( ! can only discuss .is
dia0nosis in 0nral tr1s. W.y . dia0noss it as
4il4sy is not Buit clar. T. aut.or( !.o is ill5
ad3isd 2ro1 t. 4syc.iatric stand4oint( idnti2is t.
4il4tic c.aractr55 . introducs as 4aradi01s a 2!
0rat .istorical 2i0urs !.os 4il4sy .as not yt bn
4ro3d55!it. isolatd 4syc.o4at.ic traits !.ic. . t.in/s
. is abl to idnti2y in Jsus. Suc. traits( .o!3r(
ar to b 2ound in all talntd 4o4l !.o di3r0 2ro1
t. a3ra0. E3n 4il4ti2or1 conditions ar 2ound in
t.1. T. 4rsnc o2 suc. traits55 3n assu1in0 t.at
t.y can b obsr3d in Jsus55ar 2ar 2ro1 9usti2yin0 a
dia0nosis o2 4il4sy.
T.at Ras1ussn .i1sl2 dos not considr .is dia0nosis to
b !.olly 2r 2ro1 doubt is s.o!n by t. r1ar/ t.at .
!is.s to la3 o4n t. 4ossibility t.at ! .a3 to do
in Jsus !it. 4aranoia.AA T. 0nral 4syc.iatric
obsr3ations in !.ic. . indul0s in t.is connction
4ro3 t. c.aotic condition o2 t. conc4t o2 4syc.iatry
in .is o!n 1ind. T. sntnc( <T. 4ossibility ou0.t not
t.n to b 7cludd 2ro1 t. outst( t.at t. 2i0urs o2
t. 4ro4.ts and o2 t. C.rist 1i0.t 3inc( not 1rly
4il4sy( but also 4aranoia( dementia paralytica( and
4ossibly .ystria(< s1s to 1a/ i14ossibl an
7.austi3 discussion o2 Ras1ussn:s 4syc.iatric
conc4tion. T. 1dical 3alu o2 a co14arati3 study o2
t. /ind . undrta/s is to b ratd as 7actly 6ro.
I"DE)
Abstinnc( +;+. Account o+ a -ase o+ $aranoia C FrudD(
)=
Alsac( Lo!r( ?E
Alsac( -44r( )*
A1icio( Orst d( >;
An0ls( 3il( +,( ==
An0ls( 0ood( +,( ==
An7ity( >;
A4ocaly4ss( ?>+7( +*+7( A+( =)( =;( >)
A44aranc( 4ublic( +>
Aton1nt( A?
Atro4in( )+
Attitud( 1otional( A=
Aut.ority( cclsiastical( ))
Autis1( A>
Ba.ais1( >;
Ba4tis1( ;*+7( +;++.( =>
Baruc.( >)
Bau1ann( Julius( ;=n7 Bibl( ))( +E
Bint5San0lG( C.arls( )?( )+( ;=( +?( +;( ++( +An7( +=(
A;+7( A+n7( AA5=E( =A( =>++.( >)
Blulr( );
Budd.a( >;
Casara %.ili44i( ??( A;
Casar( Julius( ;;
Ca4rnau1( A+n7( =,
Ca4ti3ity( Babylonian( +>
Car4ntr( +>( =?
Clsus( +An7 -ertain Neurotic "echanism in Jealousy
C FrudD( )=
-haracter o+ Jesus, The C Julius Bau1annD( ;=n7
C.osn( =;
C.ristianity( )*( ++n7 C.ristianity( cclsiastical( ?=
C.ristianity( libral( ?A+7 -hristus aus unsern Tagen,
Ein C E1il Ras1ussnD( >;n7
-oncerning the 9uestion o+ $aranoia C E. Hra4linD(
=En7
-onclusions o+ a $sychiatrist C Willia1 Hirsc.D( ;=n7
Constitution( )+
Con3ictions( 8ssianic( )*
Co4rnicus( ))
Council( Hi0.( A)
Cration( ori0inal( ))
Criticis1( .i0.r( ))
Curs( A*( =,
#ai1onion( ;*
#anil( Boo/ o2( ?>( +*+7 #ar!in( ))
#a3id( ?A( +)( +>( AE( =)n7( =?+7( >E
%avid )riedrich Strauss CZi0lrD( ;An7( ;=
#at.( +,
#0nrat( ;>( +An7 %e la $sychose $aranoia1ue C J.
LacanD( )=
#liriu1( c.ronic( A=+7( A*n7 #lusions( )?( )++7( ;>(
+E5++( A=5 A*( =;
#1ntia( );
#1ntia 4aralytica( >+
#1ntia 4raco7 CHra4lin:sD( A>
#1ocracy( )+
#4rssion( ;,
#ran01nt( 1ntal( ?+
#utrono1y( +>( >E
#3il( ==n7 #ia0nosis( , distance( )+
#isci4ls( ?E++.( A?+7( =+( ==+7( >)
#issociation( A>
#o01as( 'r/( ?=( +A
#o01atis1( ?A+7 #o3( ++
Ecstatic( ))( ?+( +;n7 Elct( ??( =)+7 Eli9a.( ?)( A;( ==
E1otions( );( ;,
Enoc.( +*+7 E4il4sy( >+
Esc.atolo0y( ),( ?;+7( ?=
Et.ics( ?=
0tude -riti1ue des 0tats $aranoides CS. JouannaisD( )=
Eunuc.( ;*( =*+7 E3olution( syst1atic( =E( =+
E7odus( ==
E7tra5Biblical 0os4ls( +A
E6ra( +>
Factors( n3iron1ntal( )A
Fa1ily( ;>( +=( =*
Fantasis( ?>
Fast( 8ssianic( +,
Frtility( su4rnatural( =)( >)
Fi0 Tr( ;,( +)( >E
)olie de J*sus, 'a C C.arls Bint5 San0lGD( ;=n7
Frud( );( )=
'alil( ??( +,( =>( >)
&emEtsart Jesu, %ie C Julius Bau1annD( ;=n7
'ocntricity( ))
&eschichte der 'e(en#Jesu#)orschung C Sc.!it6rD( )?( ?>
&eschichte Jesus, %ie C"oac/D( ))
't.s1an( ;,( ++( ==
'lory( Hin0 o2( AE
'od( a0nt o2( A*
'od( an0l o2( ++
'od( Hin0do1 o2( +,+7( A)++.( =*+7 'od( sr3ant o2( A;
'od( Son o2( +?+7( A*( =?
'od( S4irit o2( +A
'od( t.ron o2( +,
'os4ls( +++7( +,( A+
'os4ls( syno4tic( ?E
'randur( dlusions o2( =E
'randur( idas o2( )A( ?+
'ra3( +,
'r/ Tsta1nt( ?E
'u00n.i1( ?E( ??
Ha00ai( +>
Haiti( )+
Hallucinations( ?+( ;=n7( ;*( +?++.( AA5=E( =A5=,( >;
Hallucinations( .y4na0o0ic( )+
Hallucinations( snsory( )?( )+( ;*( +?+7( +;n7( ++( =>
Har3ard -ni3rsity( )>
Ha3n( clouds o2( A)
Hb4.rnia( A;
Hinrot.( )?
Hrsy( Sc.!it6rian( )>
Hi44ocratic !ritin0s( )?
Hiros.i1a( ),
Hirsc.( Willia1( )?( )+( ;=( +E5+?( ++( +=( A;5A=( A,++.(
=?+7( =A
!istorical Jesus o+ 'i(eral Theology, a $sychotic, The
C Hr1ann WrnrD( ;=n7
!istorische Jesu der li(eralen Theologie, ein
&eistes5ran5er, %er C Hr1ann WrnrD( ;= n
Hoc.2ldn( ?E
Holt61ann( H. J.( ?>( ;An7( ;=
Holt61ann( Os/ar( ;=n7 Ho1os7uality( );
Ho4s( 8ssianic( ?=
Hussin( 8ir6a( >;
Hybrid( ;>( +An7 Hystria( ?+( >+
Illusion( +?
I14artiality( ?,
In2ancy( +A
In9ury( idas o2( )A( =+
6nsanity o+ Jesus, The C C.arls Bint5San0lGD( ;= n
Instability( 1otional( =,
Intr4rtr( 'od:s( +;
Isaia.( ??( A;( >E
Isral( sins o2( +;
Isral( tribs o2( >)
Ja1s( Willia1( )+( )=
Jr1ia.( )>
Jric.o( +>
Jrusal1( ??( ;,( +>( A)++.( >)
Jesus8 A -omparative Study in $sychopathology C E1il
Ras1ussnD( ;>n7( >;n7
Jsus as 4ro4.t( AAn7 Jsus as tac.r( AAn7 Jsus(
birt. o2( +=
Jsus( brot.rs o2( +>
Jsus( c.ild.ood o2( +=( A;
Jesus -hrist +rom the Standpoint o+ $sychiatry C 'or0
d LoostnD( ;= n
Jesus -hristus vom Standpun5te des $sychiaters C 'or0
d LoostnD( ;=n7
Jsus( dat. o2( A)++.( =A
Jsus( 0uilt o2( A?
Jsus in t. Li0.t o2 %syc.iatry C H. Sc.a2rD( A=n7
Jsus in 4syc.iatrisc.r Bluc.tun0 C H. Sc.a2rD( A=n7
Jsus( 4.ysical a44aranc o2( +>
Jsus( sistr o2( +>
Jsus( yout. o2( A;
J!s( +A
J!s( Hin0 o2 t.( +;
Jo.n( 'os4l o2( ;,+7( +)+7( +A+7( +,( A+( =A( >;
Jo.n t. Ba4tist( ?)( ;>( +E( +;( A;( A,+7( =)( =+
Jordan( +E( +;( +,( =>
Jouannais( S.( )=
Judais1( lat( ?+( +*( A+( =)++.( =>( >E+7
Judas( A)
Jud01nt( )+( +*( =)( =;
JOlic.r( Adol2( ;An7 Justi2ication( +*
Haysrsbr0( )*
Hir/0aard( SQrn( >;
Hin0do1( 8ssianic( ),( ?E5?;( ?A( ;+( ;=+7( +,+7( A?(
=)5=A( >)
Hin0do1 o2 Ha3n( ?;( +,
Hin0do1( su4rnatural( ?;
Hirc..o2( H.( )=
2linischer 3eitrag 4ur %i++erential# diagnose paranoider
Er5ran5ungen C H. Hirc..o2D( )=
Hnib( %.ili44( A=n7 Hra4lin( E.( );( )=( =En7
Lacan( J.( )=
Lan0( Wil.l1( ;A
La!( ==( >E
La66artti( #a3id( >;
'e(en Jesu, %as C #a3id Fridric. StraussD( ;An7
'e(en Jesu +Ers deutsche .ol5 (ear(eitet, %as C #a3id
Fridric. StraussD( ;An7
L0nd( ==
Lyrr( %astor( ?*
Librty( ?=
'i+e o+ Jesus, The C #a3id Fridric. StraussD( ;A
'i+e o+ Jesus /evised +or the &erman $eople, The C #a3id
Fridric. StraussD( ;An7
Lo0os( +A
Lo1r( #r. 'or0( )?( ;=
Loostn( 'or0 d( )?( )+( ;=5;*( ++( +An7( +=( A;5A=(
A,++.( =?( =A( =,( >)
Lo3( ?A( ?=
Lu/( 'os4l o2( ?E( ++( +=( A;( ==
Lut.r( ))( >;
8adlun0( )E
8a0nan( A=
8a.di( >;
8alac.i( A;
"anic %epressive 6nsanity and $aranoia C E. Hra4linD(
)=
8an( Son o2( ?>( ;,( +)n7( AE5A?( =?
8ar/( 'os4l o2( ?;( +?( +=5+*( A)++.( A+n7( ==5>E
8arria0( =*
8ary( +An7 8att.!( 'os4l o2( ?E+7( ?;( ;,+7( +)n7( +=(
A?+7( ==( >)
8dicin( ?,
8dicin( #octor o2( )?
80alo1ania( +)( A*+7 "ental !ealth o+ Jesus, The
CHr1ann WrnrD( A=n7
8ssia.( )+( ?)+7( ?A( ?>( ;+++.( +;+7( +,( AE5A+( AAn7(
A,+7( =)( =;( =>( >)
"essianic -onsciousness o+ Jesus, The C H. J. Holt61annD(
;An7( ;=n7
"essianic Secret in the &ospels, The C Willia1 WrdD(
;=n7(
"essianische 3eusstsein Jesu, %as C H. J. Holt61annD(
;An+7
"essiasgeheimnis in den Evangelien, %as C Willia1 WrdD(
;=n7
8inistry( 4ublic( +)( +>+7( =+( =,+7 8iracls( )A
8odrn Clinical %syc.iatry C A. %. "oysD( )=
"odern /esearch into the 'i+e o+ Jesus under the
6n+luence o+ $sychiatry C %.ili44 HnibD( A=n7
"oderne 'e(en#Jesu#)orschung unter dem Ein+lusse der
$sychiatrie C %.ili44 HnibD( A=n7
8o.a11d( ;;( >;
8ony5c.an0rs( ;*( =A
8orality( +*
8orira( J.( )=
8oss( ==
"a4olon( ;;
"atur( trans2i0uration o2( )+
"a6arn( ?>( ;+++.( +)( ++( =>( >+
"a6art.( ?+( +=( A+n7 "cro1ancy( )+
"oac/( ))
"oys( A. %.( )=
%a0anis1( +An7 %ant.r( +An7 %aranoia( )E( )?+7( )A( ?+(
?>( +E+7( ++( A+++.( A,+7( =;+7( >+
$aranoia and !omosexuality C FrudD( )=
$aranoia+rage, Fur C E. Hra4linD( =En7
$aranoia l*gitime8 son origine et nature, 'a C A. %i7oto
and J. 8oriraD( )=
%aranoia( rli0ious( +?( +;n7( ++n7( A=( A>
%ara4.rnia( );( =En7 %ar/ A3nu( )+
%asso3r( +>+7( A)
%aul( Saint( ?+( ?=( +>( =>( >;
%i7oto( A.( )=
%rscution( +*
%rscution( idas o2( )A( ;*( A+n7( A>+7( =E( =++7( =*
%tr( =>n7( =,
%2rsdor22( #r.( ?*
%.ariss( +;( A)( A+n7( AAn7( =A
%ilat( Jud01nt o2( +An7 %ossssion( =*
%ostrity( >E
%o!r( su4rnatural( AE
%rist( Hi0.( A)
$ro(lem o+ the 'ast Supper 3ased upon the Scienti+ic
/esearch o+ the 19th -entury and the !istorical
Accounts, The C Sc.!it6rD( ??+7
%ro4.ts( +)( +*+7( =)+7( >;
%ro4.ts( %ost5E7ilic( >E
%rotstant( libral( ?;
%sal1s( =>
$sychische &esundheit Jesu C Hr1ann WrnrD( A=n7
$sychoanalytic Notes upon an Auto(iography C FrudD( )=
%syc.olo0y( ?+
9uest o+ the !istorical Jesus, The C Sc.!it6rD( ),( ?;
Rabbis( +*
Ras1ussn( E1il( )?( ?,( ;>( >;5>+
R2rnc( idas o2( ?+( +)( A,( A*n7 /eligion und
Fivilisation vom Standpun5te des $sychiaters C Willia1
Hirsc.D( ;=n7
R4ntanc( +,( +*
Rsurrction( )+( +;( =)
R3lations( +*
Robac/( #r. A. A.( )>
Ro1ans( +>
Sabbat.( +>( >E
Sacra1nts( +A
Sacri2icial la1b( +;
Saint 2ro1 t. Abru66i 8ountains( >;
San.drin( ??
Sa3ior( +?
Sc.a2r( #r. H.( A=n7 Sc.rbr( );
Scribs( +;( A)
Scri4turs( ;>( +>( A*
Secret o+ the "essiahship and the $assion7 A S5etch o+
the 'i+e o+ Jesus, The C Sc.!it6rD( ?;
Scrti3nss( ++
SG0las( )?
Sl25sacri2ic( =A
Sr1on on t. 8ount( ?=
Sr3ant( su22rin0( ??
S7( ;>( ;*( =*+7 Siblin0s( );
Sidon( A;
Solitud( 2orty days o2( +?
Sourcs( rabbinical( =)
S4ino6a( ))
S4irit( ?=
Stor1( >En7 Strassbur0( -ni3rsity o2( ?E
Strauss( #a3id Fridric.( ?>( ;++7( ;=n7( +A( ==
Su22rin0( A;
Su44r( Last( +A
S!dnbor0( >;
Sy14.onia Sacra CWidorD( )E
Sy14to1s( catatonic( A>
Sy14to1s( 1orbid( =*( >;
Sy14to1s( 4syc.o1otor( ++
Syna0o0u( =,
Syno4tic 4robl1( ?E
Syst1ati6ation( A*
Tal1ud( +A
T14l( +=( A;( =A( >;
T14tations( ==
Tsta1nt( "!( ),( ?;
Tsta1nt( Old( ;>( A*n7( ==+7( =*
T.olo0y( ),( ?)
T.olo0y( .istorical( ?,
T.o1anic 4ossssion( ++
T.o1as( Saint( )>
Tor1nt( trnal( +,
Tractatus T.olo0ico5%oliticus CS4ino6aD( ))
Tradition( =>
Trans2i0uration( +?( =)( ==
Tribulation( days o2( ??
Trut.( ?+( ?A
Tyr( A;
-ndrstandin0 'r/( +A
-to4ia( ;,
.arieties o+ /eligious Experience( C Willia1 Ja1sD( )=
.ergleichende psychopathologische Studie, Eine C Art.ur
Rot.nbur0D( ;>n7( >;n7( >+. n7
<ar Jesu E5stati5erI C Os/ar Holt61annD( ;=n7
<as Jesus an EcstaticI C Os/ar Holt61annD( ;=n7
Way( 4ro4.tic( +*
Wltansc.auun0( )*
Wrnr( Hr1ann( ;=n7( A=n7 Widnr Library( )>
Widor( C.arls 8ari( )E
Wildrnss( +E( +?( ++( A*+7( ==( =,
Wisdo1 o2 Solo1on( >E
Witnss( 'od:s( +;
Wos o2 t. 8ssia.( +*( =+
Wollnbr0( #r.( ?*
Wrd( Willia1( ;=n7
Zac.aria.( +>
Zrubbabl( +>
Z!i( Sabbatai( >;
Zi0lr( T.obald( ;An7( ;=n7