Abbasid Caliphate

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Abbasid Caliphate

al-Khil-fah al./Abb-s0yyah
1

1
23'4(&35 6
Abbasid Caliphate at its reatest e+tent, c. 53'.
Capital 7ufa
$23'48&*
Ar.9a""ah
$2:845':*
;amarra
$5)84:&*
<ahdad
$28&4:8*
$5':4)8*
$5:&4(&35*
=anuaes >?cial lanuae@
Arabic
9eional lanuaes@
Aramaic, Armenian, <erber, Coptic, Aeorian, Areek, 7urdish, Persian, >hu#
Turkic,[(][&]
9eliion ;unni Bslam
Aovernment Caliphate
Caliph
. 23'423C As.;aDah $Erst*
. (&C&4(&35 Al.Fusta!sim $last*
Gistory
. Hstablished 23'
. Iisestablished (&35
Currency Iinar $old coin*
Iirham $silver coin*
Fals $copper coin*
Preceded by ;ucceeded by
Jmayyad Caliphate
Iabuyid dynasty
Fonol Hmpire
Tahirid dynasty
Fatimid Caliphate
Ahlabids
Hmirate of CKrdoba
Today part of
Countries today[shoL]
Part of a series on the
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Ietail from the Bshtar Aate
Ancient Bra"
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Akkadian Hmpire
<abylonia
Assyria
Meo.Assyrian Hmpire
Meo.<abylonian Hmpire
Classical Bra"
Achaemenid Assyria
;eleucid <abylonia
Parthian <abylonia
;asanian Asorestan
Fedieval Bra"
Abbasid Caliphate
>ttoman Bra"
Famluk dynasty
Fodern Bra"
Fandatory Bra"
7indom of Bra"
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v t e
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Caliphate

Mohammad adil-Rashidun empire-slide.gif

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Rashidun Caliphate (632488(*
Jmayyad Caliphate $88(423'*
Abbasid Caliphate $23'4(&35*
>ttoman Caliphate $(3(24(:&C*
Contender Caliphates[hide]
Caliphate of CKrdoba $:&:4(')(*
Fatimid Caliphate $:':4((2(*
Almohad Caliphate $((C:4(&8:*
9elated topics[hide]
;ultanate
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v t e
The Abbasid Caliphate $Arabic@ N A=A.=C@ al.7hil-fah
al./Abb-s0yyah*, Las the third of the Bslamic caliphates to succeed the
Prophet Fuhammad. The Abbasid dynasty descended from the Prophet!s
younest uncle, Abbas ibn Abd al.Futtalib $388483) CH*. They ruled as
caliphs from their capital in <ahdad, in modern Bra", after takin over
authority of the Fuslim empire from the Jmayyads in 23' CH $()& AG*.
The Abbasid caliphate Erst centered their overnment in 7ufa, but in 28& the
caliph Al.Fansur founded the city of <ahdad, north of the Persian city of
Ctesiphon. The choice of a capital so close to Persia proper reOects a roLin
reliance on Persian bureaucrats, most notably of the <armakid family, to
overn the territories con"uered by Arab Fuslims, as Lell as an increasin
inclusion of non.Arab Fuslims in the ummah. Iespite this cooperation, the
Abbasids of the :th century Lere forced to cede authority over the Persian
provinces to local dynastic emirs Lho only nominally acknoLleded their
su#erainty. This marked the beinnin of a Lider breakdoLn of Abbasid
authority, Lith the loss of Al.Andalus and Fahreb to the Jmayyads, Bfri"iya
to the Ahlabids, and Hypt to the ;hi!ite Caliphate of the Fatimids. The
political poLer of the caliphs larely ended Lith the rise of the <uyids and the
;el,u" Turks.
Althouh Abbasid leadership over the vast Bslamic empire Las radually
reduced to a ceremonial reliious function, the dynasty retained control over
its Fesopotamian demesne. The capital city of <ahdad became a center of
science, culture, philosophy and invention durin the Aolden Ae of Bslam.
This period of cultural fruition ended in (&35 Lith the sack of <ahdad by the
Fonols under Gulau 7han. The Abbasid caliphate, and Fuslim culture in
eneral, recentered itself in the Famluk capital of Cairo in (&8(. The dynasty
continued to claim authority in reliious matters until after the >ttoman
con"uest of Hypt, Lhen the position of caliph Las formally surrendered to
the >ttoman ;ultan ;elim B.
Contents [hide]
( 9ise
& PoLer
) Bslamic Aolden Ae
).( ;cience
).& =iterature
).) Philosophy
).C Technoloy
C Hvolution of Bslamic identity
3 Iecline of the empire
3.( Causes
3.& Fracture to autonomous dynasties
3.&.( ;eparatist dynasties and their successors
3.) <uyid and ;el,u" military control $:254(((5*
3.C 9evival of military strenth $(((54(&'8*
3.3 Fonol invasion $(&'84(&35*
8 Abbasid Caliphate of Cairo $(&354(3(2*
2 Abbasid 7hanate of <astak
5 =ist of Abbasid caliphs
: ;ee also
(' Motes
(( 9eferences
(& <iblioraphy
() H+ternal links
9ise[edit]
The Abbasid caliphs Lere Arabs descended from Abbas ibn Abd al.Futtalib,
one of the younest uncles of Fuhammad and of the same <anu Gashim
clan. The Abbasids claimed to be the true successors of Fuhammad in
replacin the Jmayyad descendants of <anu Jmayya by virtue of their closer
relationship to the Prophet.
Coin of the Abbasids, <ahdad, Bra", 283.
The Abbasids also distinuished themselves from the Jmayyads by attackin
their moral character and administration in eneral. Accordin to Bra =apidus,
PThe Abbasid revolt Las supported larely by Arabs, mainly the arieved
settlers of FarL Lith the addition of the Qemeni faction and their FaLaliP.[)]
The Abbasids also appealed to non.Arab Fuslims, knoLn as maLali, Lho
remained outside the kinship.based society of the Arabs and Lere perceived
as a loLer class Lithin the Jmayyad empire. Fuhammad ibn !Ali, a reat.
randson of Abbas, bean to campain for the return of poLer to the family
of Fuhammad, the Gashimites, in Persia durin the rein of Jmar BB.
Iurin the rein of FarLan BB, this opposition culminated in the rebellion of
Bbrahim the Bmam, the fourth in descent from Abbas. ;upported by the
province of 7horasan, Bran and the ;hi!i Arabs,[C] he achieved considerable
success, but Las captured in the year 2C2 and died in prisonR some hold that
he Las assassinated.[citation needed] The "uarrel Las taken up by his
brother Abdallah, knoLn by the name of Abu al.!Abbas as.;aDah, Lho
defeated the Jmayyads in 23' in the <attle of the Sab near the Areat Sab
and Las subse"uently proclaimed caliph.
Bmmediately after their victory, Abu al.!Abbas as.;aDah sent his forces to
Central Asia, Lhere his forces fouht aainst Tan e+pansion durin the
<attle of Talas $the Abbasids Lere knoLn to their opponents as the P<lack
robed Ta#iP $@ hTiy0 IUshV*, PTa#iP bein a Tan dynasty borroLin from
Persian to denote !Arabs!.[3] <armakids, Lho Lere instrumental in buildin
<ahdadR introduced the Lorld!s Erst recorded paper mill in <ahdad, thus
beinnin a neL era of intellectual rebirth in the Abbasid domain. Within ('
years, the Abbasids built another renoLned paper mill in the Jmayyad capital
of CKrdoba in ;pain.
PoLer[edit]
The Erst chane the Abbasids made Las to move the empire!s capital from
Iamascus, in ;yria, to <ahdad in Bra". This Las to both appease as Lell to
be closer to the Persian maLali support base that e+isted in this reion more
inOuenced by Persian history and culture, and part of the Persian maLali
demand for less Arab dominance in the empire. <ahdad Las established on
the Tiris 9iver in 28&. A neL position, that of the vi#ier, Las also established
to deleate central authority, and even reater authority Las deleated to
local emirs. Hventually, this meant that many Abbasid caliphs Lere releated
to a more ceremonial role than under the Jmayyads, as the vi#iers bean to
e+ert reater inOuence, and the role of the old Arab aristocracy Las sloLly
replaced by a Persian bureaucracy.[8]
The Abbasids had depended heavily on the support of Persians[C] in their
overthroL of the Jmayyads. Abu al.!Abbas! successor, Al.Fansur Lelcomed
non.Arab Fuslims to his court. While this helped interate Arab and Persian
cultures, it alienated many of their Arab supporters, particularly the
7horasanian Arabs Lho had supported them in their battles aainst the
Jmayyads.
These Essures in their support led to immediate problems. The Jmayyads,
Lhile out of poLer, Lere not destroyed. The only survivin member of the
Jmayyad royal family, Lhich had been all but annihilated, ultimately made
his Lay to ;pain Lhere he established himself as an independent Hmir $Abd
ar.9ahman B, 238*. Bn :&:, Abd ar.9ahman BBB assumed the title of Caliph,
establishin Al Andalus from CKrdoba as a rival to <ahdad as the leitimate
capital of the Bslamic Hmpire.
Bn 238, The Abbasid Caliph Al.Fansur sent over C,''' Arab mercenaries to
assist the Chinese Tan dynasty in the An ;hi 9ebellion aainst An =ushan.
After the Lar, they remained in China.[2][5][:][('][((] Arab Caliph Garun al.
9ashid established an alliance Lith China.[(&] ;everal embassies from the
Abbaside Caliphs to the Chinese Court are recorded in the T!an Annals, the
most important of these bein those of $A.bo.lo.ba* Abul Abbas, the founder
of the neL dynasty, that of $A.p!u.ch!a.fo* Abu %afar, the builder of <adad, of
Lhom more must be said immediatelyR and that of $A.lun* Garun al.9ashid,
best knoLn, perhaps, in modern days throuh the popular Lork, Arabian
Mihts. The Abbasides or P<lack Flas,P as they Lere commonly called, are
knoLn in Tan dynasty chronicles as the hTiy0 IUshV, P The <lack.robed
Arabs.P[()][(C][(3][(8] Al.9ashid sent embassies to the Chinese Tan
dynasty and established ood relations Lith them.[(&][(2][(5][(:][&'][&(]
[&&][&)]
Bslamic Aolden Ae[edit]
Fain article@ Bslamic Aolden Ae
Further information@ Harly Bslamic philosophy and Bnventions in the Fuslim
Lorld
A manuscript Lritten durin the Abbasid Hra
Bn virtually every Eeld of endeavor Win astronomy, alchemy, mathematics,
medicine, optics and so forthW Arab scientists Lere in the forefront of
scientiEc advance.[&C]
The Abbasid historical period lastin to the Fonol con"uest of <ahdad in
(&35 CH is considered the Bslamic Aolden Ae.[&3] The Bslamic Aolden Ae
Las inauurated by the middle of the 5th century by the ascension of the
Abbasid Caliphate and the transfer of the capital from Iamascus to <ahdad.
[&8] The Abbassids Lere inOuenced by the Xur!anic in,unctions and hadith
such as Pthe ink of a scholar is more holy than the blood of a martyrP
stressin the value of knoLlede.[&8] Iurin this period the Fuslim Lorld
became an intellectual center for science, philosophy, medicine and
education as the Abbasids championed the cause of knoLlede and
established the Gouse of Wisdom in <ahdadR Lhere both Fuslim and non.
Fuslim scholars souht to translate and ather all the Lorld!s knoLlede into
Arabic.[&8] Fany classic Lorks of anti"uity that Lould otherLise have been
lost Lere translated into Arabic and Persian and later in turn translated into
Turkish, GebreL and =atin.[&8] Iurin this period the Fuslim Lorld Las a
cauldron of cultures Lhich collected, synthesi#ed and siniEcantly advanced
the knoLlede ained from the ancient 9oman, Chinese, Bndian, Persian,
Hyptian, Morth African, Areek and <y#antine civili#ations.[&8]
;cience[edit]
Fain article@ ;cience in the medieval Bslamic Lorld
Further information@ Alchemy $Bslam*, Bslamic astronomy, Bslamic
mathematics, Bslamic medicine, and Timeline of science and technoloy in
the Bslamic Lorld
Fustansiriya Jniversity in <ahdad.
%abir ibn Gayyan, Pthe father of ChemistryP.[&2][&5][&:][)']
Bbn al.Gaytham, Pthe father of >pticsP.[)(]
The reins of Garun al.9ashid $25845':* and his successors fostered an ae
of reat intellectual achievement. Bn lare part, this Las the result of the
schismatic forces that had undermined the Jmayyad reime, Lhich relied on
the assertion of the superiority of Arab culture as part of its claim to
leitimacy, and the Abbasids! Lelcomin of support from non.Arab Fuslims. Bt
is Lell established that the Abbasid caliphs modeled their administration on
that of the ;assanids.[)&] Garun al.9ashid!s son, Al.Fa!mun $Lhose mother
Las Persian*, is even "uoted as sayin@
The Persians ruled for a thousand years and did not need us Arabs even for a
day. We have been rulin them for one or tLo centuries and cannot do
Lithout them for an hour.
[))]
A number of medieval thinkers and scientists livin under Bslamic rule played
a role in transmittin Bslamic science to the Christian West. They contributed
to makin Aristotle knoLn in Christian Hurope[citation needed]. Bn addition,
the period saL the recovery of much of the Ale+andrian mathematical,
eometric and astronomical knoLlede, such as that of Huclid and Claudius
Ptolemy. These recovered mathematical methods Lere later enhanced and
developed by other Bslamic scholars, notably by Persian scientists Al.<iruni
and Abu Masr Fansur.
Alebra Las siniEcantly developed by Persian scientist Fuhammad ibn FYs-
al.7hL-ri#m0 durin this time in his landmark te+t, 7itab al.%abr La.l.
Fu"abala, from Lhich the term alebra is derived. Ge is thus considered to
be the father of alebra by some,[)C] althouh the Areek mathematician
Iiophantus has also been iven this title. The terms alorism and alorithm
are derived from the name of al.7hLari#mi, Lho Las also responsible for
introducin the Arabic numerals and Gindu.Arabic numeral system beyond
the Bndian subcontinent.
Bbn al.Gaytham $Alha#en* developed an early scientiEc method in his <ook of
>ptics $('&(*. The most important development of the scientiEc method Las
the use of e+periments to distinuish betLeen competin scientiEc theories
set Lithin a enerally empirical orientation, Lhich bean amon Fuslim
scientists. Bbn al.Gaytham!s empirical proof of the intromission theory of liht
$that is, that liht rays entered the eyes rather than bein emitted by them*
Las particularly important. <radley ;teDens described Bbn al.Gaytham as the
PErst scientistP[)3] for his development of scientiEc method.[)8][)2]
Fedicine in medieval Bslam Las an area of science that advanced particularly
durin the Abbasids! rein. Iurin the :th century, <ahdad contained over
5'' doctors, and reat discoveries in the understandin of anatomy and
diseases Lere made. The clinical distinction betLeen measles and smallpo+
Las described durin this time. Famous Persian scientist Bbn ;ina $knoLn to
the West as Avicenna* produced treatises and Lorks that summari#ed the
vast amount of knoLlede that scientists had accumulated, and Las very
inOuential throuh his encyclopedias, The Canon of Fedicine and The <ook of
Gealin. The Lork of him and many others directly inOuenced the research of
Huropean scientists durin the 9enaissance.
Astronomy in medieval Bslam Las advanced by Al.<attani, Lho improved the
precision of the measurement of the precession of the Harth!s a+is. The
corrections made to the eocentric model by al.<attani[citation needed],
Averroes[citation needed], Masir al.Iin al.Tusi, Fo!ayyeduddin Jrdi and Bbn al.
;hatir Lere later incorporated into the Copernican heliocentric model.[)5]
The astrolabe, thouh oriinally developed by the Areeks, Las developed
further by Bslamic astronomers and enineers, and subse"uently brouht to
medieval Hurope.
Fuslim alchemists inOuenced medieval Huropean alchemists, particularly the
Lritins attributed to %-bir ibn Gayy-n $Aeber*. A number of chemical
processes such as distillation techni"ues Lere developed in the Fuslim Lorld
and then spread to Hurope.
=iterature[edit]
Parrish, Fa+Eeld, Ali <aba.
Fain articles@ Bslamic literature, Arabic literature, Arabic epic literature, and
Persian literature
Further information@ Bslamic poetry, Arabic poetry, Turkish poetry, and Persian
poetry
The best knoLn Ection from the Bslamic Lorld Las The <ook of >ne Thousand
and >ne Mihts. The oriinal concept is derived from pre.Bslamic Branian
$Persian* prototype Lith reliance on Bndian elements. Bt also includes stories
from the rest of the Fiddle.Hastern and Morth African nations. The epic took
form in the ('th century and reached its Enal form by the (Cth centuryR the
number and type of tales have varied from one manuscript to another.[):] All
Arabian fantasy tales Lere often called PArabian MihtsP Lhen translated into
Hnlish, reardless of Lhether they appeared in The <ook of >ne Thousand
and >ne Mihts.[):] This epic has been inOuential in the West since it Las
translated in the (5th century, Erst by Antoine Aalland.[C'] Fany imitations
Lere Lritten, especially in France.[C(] Zarious characters from this epic have
themselves become cultural icons in Western culture, such as Aladdin, ;inbad
and Ali <aba.
A famous e+ample of Arabic poetry on romance Las =ayla and Fa,nun, Lhich
further developed mainly by Branian, A#erbai,ani and other poets in Persian,
A#erbai,ani, Turkish, and other Turk lanuaes[C&] datin back to the
Jmayyad era in the 2th century. Bt is a traic story of undyin love much like
the later 9omeo and %uliet.[C)][dead link]
Arabic poetry reached its reatest heihts in the Abbasid era, especially
before the loss of central authority and the rise of the Persianate dynasties.
Writers like Abu Tammam and Abu MuLas Lere closely connected to the
caliphal court in <ahdad durin the early :th century, Lhile others such as
al.Futanabbi received their patronae from reional courts.
Philosophy[edit]
Fain articles@ Bslamic philosophy and Harly Bslamic philosophy
Further information@ =oic in Bslamic philosophy, 7alam, Avicennism,
Averroism, Blluminationist philosophy, and Transcendent Theosophy
>ne of the common deEnitions for PBslamic philosophyP is Pthe style of
philosophy produced Lithin the frameLork of Bslamic culture.P[CC] Bslamic
philosophy, in this deEnition is neither necessarily concerned Lith reliious
issues, nor is e+clusively produced by Fuslims.[CC] Their Lorks on Aristotle
Las a key step in the transmission of learnin from ancient Areeks to the
Bslamic Lorld and the West. They often corrected the philosopher,
encourain a lively debate in the spirit of i,tihad. They also Lrote inOuential
oriinal philosophical Lorks, and their thinkin Las incorporated into
Christian philosophy durin the Fiddle Aes, notably by Thomas A"uinas.
[citation needed]
Three speculative thinkers, al.7indi, al.Farabi, and Avicenna, combined
Aristotelianism and Meoplatonism Lith other ideas introduced throuh Bslam,
and Avicennism Las later established as a result. >ther inOuential Fuslim
philosophers in the Caliphates include al.%ahi#, and Bbn al.Gaytham $Alhacen*.
Technoloy[edit]
Fain articles@ Bnventions in medieval Bslam, Fuslim Aricultural 9evolution,
and Timeline of Bslamic science and technoloy
Coin of the Abbasids, <ahdad, Bra", (&CC
Abbasid coins durin Al.Fu!tamid!s rein
This article needs attention from an e+pert on the sub,ect. Please add a
reason or a talk parameter to this template to e+plain the issue Lith the
article. Consider associatin this re"uest Lith a WikiPro,ect. $April &'((*
Bn technoloy, the Fuslim Lorld adopted papermakin from China.[C3] The
use of paper spread from China into the Fuslim Lorld in the 5th century CH,
arrivin in ;pain $and then the rest of Hurope* in the ('th century. Bt Las
easier to manufacture than parchment, less likely to crack than papyrus, and
could absorb ink, makin it ideal for makin records and makin copies of the
7oran. PBslamic paper makers devised assembly.line methods of hand.copyin
manuscripts to turn out editions far larer than any available in Hurope for
centuries.P[C8] Bt Las from Bslam that the rest of the Lorld learned to make
paper from linen.[C2] The knoLlede of unpoLder Las also transmitted from
China via Bslamic countries, Lhere the formulas for pure potassium nitrate
and an e+plosive unpoLder eDect Lere Erst developed.[C5][C:]
Advances Lere made in irriation and farmin, usin neL technoloy such as
the Lindmill. Crops such as almonds and citrus fruit Lere brouht to Hurope
throuh al.Andalus, and suar cultivation Las radually adopted by the
Huropeans. Apart from the Mile, Tiris and Huphrates, naviable rivers Lere
uncommon, so transport by sea Las very important. Maviational sciences
Lere hihly developed, makin use of a rudimentary se+tant $knoLn as a
kamal*. When combined Lith detailed maps of the period, sailors Lere able to
sail across oceans rather than skirt alon the coast. Fuslim sailors Lere also
responsible for reintroducin lare three masted merchant vessels to the
Fediterranean. The name caravel may derive from an earlier Arab boat
knoLn as the "-rib.[3'] Arab merchants dominated trade in the Bndian >cean
until the arrival of the Portuuese in the (8th century. Gormu# Las an
important center for this trade. There Las also a dense netLork of trade
routes in the Fediterranean, alon Lhich Fuslim countries traded Lith each
other and Lith Huropean poLers such as Zenice, Aenoa and Catalonia. The
;ilk 9oad crossin Central Asia passed throuh Fuslim states betLeen China
and Hurope.
Fuslim enineers in the Bslamic Lorld made a number of innovative industrial
uses of hydropoLer, and early industrial uses of tidal poLer, Lind poLer, and
petroleum $notably by distillation into kerosene*. The industrial uses of
Latermills in the Bslamic Lorld date back to the 2th century, Lhile hori#ontal.
Lheeled and vertical.Lheeled Later mills Lere both in Lidespread use since
at least the :th century. <y the time of the Crusades, every province
throuhout the Bslamic Lorld had mills in operation, from al.Andalus and
Morth Africa to the Fiddle Hast and Central Asia. These mills performed a
variety of aricultural and industrial tasks.[C3] Fuslim enineers also
developed machines $such as pumps* incorporatin crankshafts, employed
ears in mills and Later.raisin machines, and used dams to provide
additional poLer to Latermills and Later.raisin machines.[3(] ;uch
advances made it possible for many industrial tasks that Lere previously
driven by manual labour in ancient times to be mechani#ed and driven by
machinery instead in the medieval Bslamic Lorld. Bt has been arued that the
industrial use of LaterpoLer had spread from Bslamic to Christian ;pain,
Lhere fullin mills, paper mills, and fore mills Lere recorded for the Erst
time in Catalonia.[3&]
A number of industries Lere enerated durin the Arab Aricultural
9evolution, includin early industries for te+tiles, suar, rope.makin,
mattin, silk, and paper. =atin translations of the (&th century passed on
knoLlede of chemistry and instrument makin in particular.[3)] The
aricultural and handicraft industries also e+perienced hih levels of roLth
durin this period.[3C]
Hvolution of Bslamic identity[edit]
While the Abbasids oriinally ained poLer by e+ploitin the social
ine"ualities aainst non.Arabs in the Jmayyad Hmpire, ironically durin
Abbasid rule the empire rapidly Arabi#ed. As knoLlede Las shared in the
Arabic lanuae throuhout the empire, people of diDerent nationalities and
reliions bean to speak Arabic in their everyday lives. 9esources from other
lanuaes bean to be translated into Arabic, and a uni"ue Bslamic identity
bean to form that fused previous cultures Lith Arab culture, creatin a level
of civili#ation and knoLlede that Las considered a marvel in Hurope.[33]
Iecline of the empire[edit]
This section needs additional citations for veriEcation. Please help improve
this article by addin citations to reliable sources. Jnsourced material may be
challened and removed. $February &'((*
Causes[edit]
9ift Lith the ;hia
Abbasids found themselves at odds Lith the ;hia Fuslims, most of Lhom had
supported their Lar aainst the Jmayyads, since the Abbasids and the ;hias
claimed leitimacy by their familial connection to Fuhammad. >nce in poLer,
the Abbasids embraced ;unni Bslam and disavoLed any support for ;hi!a
beliefs. ;hortly thereafter, <erber 7hari,ites set up an independent state in
Morth Africa in 5'(. Within 3' years the Bdrisids in the Fahreb and Ahlabids
of Bfri"iya and a little later the Tulunids and Bkshidids of Fisr Lere eDectively
independent in Africa.
ConOict of Army Aenerals
The Abbasid authority bean to deteriorate durin the rein of al.9adi Lhen
their Turkic Army enerals, Lho already had de facto independence, stopped
payin the Caliphate. Hven provinces close to <ahdad bean to seek local
dynastic rule.
Also, the Abbasids found themselves to often be at conOict Lith the
Jmayyads in ;pain.
Fracture to autonomous dynasties[edit]
The Abbasid leadership had to Lork hard in the last half of the 5th century
$23'45''*, under several competent caliphs and their vi#iers to overcome the
political challenes created by the far Oun nature of the empire, and the
limited communication across it and usher in the administrative chanes to
keep order.[38] While the <y#antine Hmpire Las Ehtin Abbasid rule in ;yria
and Anatolia, military operations durin this period Lere minimal, as the
caliphate focused on internal matters as local overnors, Lho, as a matter of
procedure, operated mostly independently of central authority. The problem
that the caliphs faced Las that these overnors had beun to e+ert reater
autonomy, usin their increasin poLer to make their positions hereditary.[8]
At the same time, the Abbasids faced challenes closer to home. Former
supporters of the Abbasids had broken aLay to create a separate kindom
around 7horosan in northern Persia. Garun al.9ashid $25845':* turned on the
<armakids, a Persian family that had roLn siniEcantly in poLer Lithin the
administration of the state and killed most of the family.[32] Iurin the same
period, several factions bean either to leave the empire for other lands or to
take control of distant parts of the empire aLay from the Abbasids.
Bmae of the Amir of 7horasan Bsma!il ibn Ahmad on the Ta,ikistani somoni
Lho e+ercised independent authority from the Abassids
Hven by 5&', the ;amanids had beun the process of e+ercisin independent
authority in Transo+iana and Areater 7horasan, as had the ;hia Gamdanids in
Morthern ;yria, and the succeedin Tahirid and ;aDarid dynasties of Bran.
Hspecially after the PAnarchy at ;amarraP, the Abbasid central overnment
Las Leakened and centrifual tendencies became more prominent in the
Caliphate!s provinces. <y the early ('th century, the Abbasids almost lost
control of Bra" to various amirs, and the caliph al.9adi Las forced to
acknoLlede their poLer by creatin the position of PPrince of PrincesP $amir
al.umara*. ;hortly thereafter, the Persian faction knoLn as the <uyids from
Iaylam sLept into poLer and assumed control over the bureaucracy in
<ahdad. Accordin to the history of FiskaLayh, they bean distributin
i"tas $Eefs in the form of ta+ farms* to their supporters.
At the end of the eihth century the Abbasids found they could no loner
keep a hue polity larer than that of 9ome toether from <ahdad. Bn 2:)
the ;hi!ite dynasty of Bdrisids set up a state from Fe# in Forocco, Lhile a
family of overnors under the Abbasids became increasinly independent
until they founded the Ahlabid Hmirate from the 5)'s. <y the 58's
overnors in Hypt set up their oLn Tulunid Hmirate, so named for its founder
Ahmad ibn Tulun. From this time Hypt Lould be ruled by dynasties separate
from the Caliph. Bn the Hast as Lell, overnors decreased their ties to the
center. The ;aDarids of Gerat and the ;amanids of <ukhara had broken aLay
from the 52's, cultivatin a much more Persianate culture and statecraft. <y
this time only the central lands of Fesopotamia Lere under direct Abbasid
control, Lith Palestine and the Gi,a# often manaed by the Tulunids.
<y#antium, for its part, had beun to push Arab Fuslims farther east in
Anatolia.
<y the :&'s, the situation had chaned further. A ;hi!ite sect only reconi#in
the Erst Eve Bmams and tracin its roots to the Prophet!s dauhter Fatima
took control of Bdrisi and then Ahlabid domains. Called the Fatimid dynasty,
they had advanced to Hypt in :8:, establishin their capital near Fustat in
Cairo, Lhich they built as a bastion of ;hi!ite learnin and politics. <y ('''
they had become the chief political and ideoloical challene to ;unni Bslam
in the form of the Abbasids. <y this time the latter state had framented into
several overnorships that, Lhile reconi#in caliphal authority from
<ahdad, did mostly as they Lanted, Ehtin Lith each other. The Caliph
himself Las under !protection! of the <uyid Hmirs Lho possessed all of Bra"
and Lestern Bran, and Lere "uietly ;hi!ite in their sympathies.
>utside Bra", all the autonomous provinces sloLly took on the characteristic
of de facto states Lith hereditary rulers, armies, and revenues and operated
under only nominal caliph su#erainty, Lhich may not necessarily be reOected
by any contribution to the treasury, such as the ;oomro Hmirs that had
ained control of ;indh and ruled the entire province from their capital of
Fansura.[38] Fahmud of Aha#ni took the title of sultan, as opposed to the
PamirP that had been in more common usae, sinifyin the Aha#navid
Hmpire!s independence from caliphal authority, despite Fahmud!s
ostentatious displays of ;unni orthodo+y and ritual submission to the caliph.
Bn the ((th century, the loss of respect for the caliphs continued, as some
Bslamic rulers no loner mentioned the caliph!s name in the Friday khutba, or
struck it oD their coinae.[38]
<ismillahir 9ahmanir 9ahim
Part of a series on
;unni Bslam
<eliefs
Fonotheism
Prophethood N Fessenership
Goly <ooks [ Anels
%udement Iay [ Predestination
Five Pillars
Ieclaration of Faith [ Prayer
Charity [ Fastin [ Pilrimae
9ihtly Auided Caliphs
Abu <akr [ Jmar ibn al.7hattab
Jthman ibn ADan [ Ali ibn Abi Talib
;chools of =aL
GanaE [ Faliki [ ;haE!i [ Ganbali [ \-hir0
H+tinct ;chools of =aL
AL#a!i [ =aythi [ ThaLri [ %ariri
;chools of Theoloy
Faturidi [ Ash!ari [ Athari
Fovements
Ahl al.Gadith [ <arelvi [ Ieobandi [ ;alaEsm
Gadith Collections
7utub al.;ittah
;ahih al.<ukhari [ ;ahih Fuslim
Al.;unan al.;uhra [ ;unan Abu IaLood
;unan al.Tirmidhi [ ;unan ibn Fa,ah
v t e
The Bsmaili Fatimid dynasty of Cairo contested the Abbasids for even the
titular authority of the Bslamic ummah. They commanded some support in the
;hia sections of <ahdad $such as 7arkh*, althouh <ahdad Las the city
most closely connected to the caliphate, even in the <uyid and ;el,u" eras.
The Fatimids! reen banners contrasted Lith Abbasids! black, and the
challene of the Fatimids only ended Lith their doLnfall in the (&th century.
;eparatist dynasties and their successors[edit]
This list represents the succession of Bslamic dynasties that emered from the
fractured Abbasid empire by their eneral eoraphic location. Iynasties
often overlap, Lhere a vassal emir revolted from and later con"uered his lord.
Aaps appear durin periods of contest Lhere the dominatin poLer Las
unclear. H+cept for the Fatimid Caliphate in Hypt, reconi#in a ;hi!ite
succession throuh Ali, and the Andalusian Caliphates of the Jmayyads and
Almohads, every Fuslim dynasty at least acknoLleded the nominal
su#erainty of the Abbasids as Caliph and Commander of the Faithful.
MorthLest Africa@ Bdrisids $2554:2C* ]^ Almoravids $('C'4((C2* ]^
Almohads $((&'4(&8:*
Bfri"iya $modern Tunisia _ Western =ibya*@ Ahlabids $5''4:': CH* ]^
Fatimids of Hypt $:':42) CH* ]^ Sirids $:2)4((C5* ]^ Gafsids $(&&:4(32C*
Hypt _ Palestine@ Tulunids $5854:'3 CH* ]^ Fatimid Caliphate $:':4((2(*
]^ Ayyubid dynasty $((2(4()C(* ]^ Famluks $(&3'4(3(2*
Al.%a#ira $modern ;yria _ Morthern Bra"*@ Gamdanids $5:'4(''C CH* ]^
FarLanids $::'4('53* _ J"aylids $::'4(':8* ]^ ;el,uks $(')C.((:C* ]
Fonol Hmpire and the Blkhanate $(&)(4())3*
;outhLest Bran@ <uyids $:)C.('33* ]^ ;el,uks $(')C4((:C* ]^ Fonol
Hmpire
7horasan $modern Bran _ Turkestan*@ ;amanids $5(:4::: CH* ]^ Aha#navids
$:8&4((85* ]^ ;el,uks $(')C4((:C* ]^ 7hLara#mians $('224(&)(* ]^
Fonol Hmpire _ the Blkhanate $(&)(4())3*
<uyid and ;el,u" military control $:254(((5*[edit]
Iespite the poLer of the <uyid amirs, the Abbasids retained a hihly
rituali#ed court in <ahdad, as described by the <uyid bureaucrat Gilal al.
;abi!, and they retained a certain inOuence over <ahdad as Lell as reliious
life. As <uyid poLer Laned after the death of <aha! al.Iaula, the caliphate
Las able to reain some measure of strenth. The caliph al.Xadir, for
e+ample, led the ideoloical strule aainst the ;hia Lith Lritins such as
the <ahdad Fanifesto. The caliphs kept order in <ahdad itself, attemptin
to prevent the outbreak of Etnas in the capital, often contendin Lith the
ayyarun.
With the <uyid dynasty on the Lane, a vacuum Las created that Las
eventually Elled by the dynasty of >hu# Turks knoLn as the ;el,u"s. When
the amir and former slave <asasiri took up the ;hia Fatimid banner in
<ahdad in ('35, the caliph al.Xa!im Las unable to defeat him Lithout
outside help. Tohril <e, the ;el,u" sultan, restored <ahdad to ;unni rule
and took Bra" for his dynasty. >nce aain, the Abbasids Lere forced to deal
Lith a military poLer that they could not match, thouh the Abbasid caliph
remained the titular head of the Bslamic community. The succeedin sultans
Alp Arslan and Falikshah, as Lell as their vi#ier Mi#am al.Fulk, took up
residence in Persia, but held poLer over the Abbasids in <ahdad. When the
dynasty bean to Leaken in the (&th century, the Abbasids ained reater
independence once aain.
9evival of military strenth $(((54(&'8*[edit]
While the Caliph al.Fustarshid Las the Erst caliph to build an army capable of
meetin a ;el,u" army in battle, he Las nonetheless defeated in (()3 and
assassinated. The Caliph al.Fu"taE Las the Erst Abbasid Caliph to reain the
full military independence of the Caliphate, Lith the help of his vi#ier Bbn
Gubayra. After nearly &3' years of sub,ection to forein dynasties, he
successfully defended <ahdad aainst the ;el,u"s in the siee of <ahdad
$((32*, thus securin Bra" for the Abbasids. The rein of al.Masir $d. (&&3*
brouht the caliphate to poLer throuhout Bra", based in lare part on the
;uE futuLLa orani#ations that the caliph headed. Al.Fustansir built the
Fustansiriya ;chool, in an attempt to eclipse the ;el,u".era Mi#amiyya built
by Mi#am al.Fulk.
Fonol invasion $(&'84(&35*[edit]
;iee of <ahdad by the Fonols led by Gulau 7han in (&35.
Bn (&'8, Aenhis 7han established a poLerful dynasty amon the Fonols of
central Asia. Iurin the ()th century, this Fonol Hmpire con"uered most of
the Hurasian land mass, includin both China in the east and much of the old
Bslamic caliphate $as Lell as 7ievan 9us* in the Lest. Gulau 7han!s
destruction of <ahdad in (&35 is traditionally seen as the appro+imate end
of the Aolden Ae.[35] Fuslims feared that a supernatural disaster Lould
strike if the blood of Al.Fusta!sim, a direct descendant of Fuhammad!s
uncle[3:] and the last reinin Abbasid caliph in <ahdad, Las spilled. The
;hiites of Persia stated that no such calamity had happened after the deaths
of the ;hiite Bmam $leader* GusseinR nevertheless, as a precaution and in
accordance Lith a Fonol taboo Lhich forbade spillin royal blood, Gulau
had Al.Fusta!sim Lrapped in a carpet and trampled to death by horses on &'
February (&35. The Caliph!s immediate family Las also e+ecuted, Lith the
lone e+ceptions of his younest son Lho Las sent to Fonolia, and a
dauhter Lho became a slave in the harem of Gulau.[8'] Accordin to
Fonolian historians, the survivin son married and fathered children.
[clariEcation needed]
Abbasid Caliphate of Cairo $(&354(3(2*[edit]
Bn the :th century, the Abbasids created an army loyal only to their caliphate,
composed of non.Arab oriin people,[8(][8&][8)][8C][83] knoLn as Famluks.
This force, created in the rein of al.Fa!mun $5()4C&*, and his brother and
successor al.Fu!tasim $5))4C&*, prevented the further disinteration of the
empire.
The Famluk army, thouh often vieLed neatively, both helped and hurt the
caliphate. Harly on, it provided the overnment Lith a stable force to address
domestic and forein problems. GoLever, creation of this forein army and
al.Fu!tasim!s transfer of the capital from <ahdad to ;amarra created a
division betLeen the caliphate and the peoples they claimed to rule. Bn
addition, the poLer of the Famluks steadily reL until al.9adi $:)C4C(* Las
constrained to hand over most of the royal functions to Fahommed bin 9aik.
The Famluks eventually came to poLer in Hypt. Bn (&8(, folloLin the
devastation of <ahdad at the hands of the Fonols, the Famluk rulers of
Hypt re.established the Abbasid caliphate in Cairo. The Erst Abbasid caliph
of Cairo Las Al.Fustansir. The Abbasid caliphs in Hypt continued to maintain
the presence of authority, but it Las conEned to reliious matters. The
Abbasid caliphate of Cairo lasted until the time of Al.FutaLakkil BBB, Lho Las
taken aLay as a prisoner by ;elim B to Constantinople Lhere he had a
ceremonial role. Ge died in (3C), folloLin his return to Cairo.
Abbasid 7hanate of <astak[edit]
Bn 838 AGN(&35 CH, the year of the fall of <ahdad, and folloLin the sack of
the city, a feL survivin members of the Abbasid dynastic family led by the
eldest amonst them, Bsmail BB son of Gam#a son of Ahmed son of Fohamed,
[a] made their Lay into the reion of Fars in ;outhern Persia.[88] They settled
in the city of 7hon,, then a reat centre for learnin and scholarship. ;haikh
Abdulsalam 7hon,i $b. 88( AG 4 d. 2C8 AG* son of Abbas son of Bsmail BB Las
born in 7hon, only Eve years after the fall of <ahdad and the arrival of his
randfather in the city.[82] Ge became a reat reliious scholar and ;uE
saint, held in hih esteem by the local populace. Gis tomb still stands in 7hon,
and is a site visited by people from near and far.
The descendants of ;haikh Abdulsalam 7hon,i Lere reliious scholars and
Eures of reat respect and repute for eneration after eneration. >ne such
scholar and direct descendant of ;haikh Abdulsalam 7hon,i in the male line,
;haikh Fohamed $d. around :'3 AG* son of ;haikh %aber son of ;haikh Bsmail
BZ, moved to <astak.[85][pae needed] Gis randson, ;haikh Fohamed the
Hlder $d. :3' or :23 AG* son of ;haikh Masser al.Iin Ahmed son of ;haikh
Fohamed, settled in 7hon, for a time. <ut in :)5 AG, in response to roLin
;afavid poLer, ;haikh Fohamed the Hlder moved permanently to <astak as
his randfather had done.[8:] Gis oLn randson, ;haikh Gassan $d. ('5C AG*
$also called Fulla Gassan* son of ;haikh Fohamed the Qouner son of ;haikh
Fohamed the Hlder, is the common ancestor of all the Abbasids of <astak
and its neihbourin areas.[2']
;haikh Gassan`s randsons, ;haikh Fohamed ;aeed $b. (':8 AG 4 d. ((3&
AG* and ;haikh Fohamed 7han $b. ((() AG 4 d. ((:2 AG* son of ;haikh
Abdul"ader son of ;haikh Gassan, became the Erst tLo Abbasid rulers of the
reion. Bn (()2 AG, ;haikh Fohamed ;aeed bean atherin support for an
armed force. FolloLin the capture of =ar, he ruled the city and its
dependencies for (& or (C years before his death in ((3& AG.[2(]
;haikh Fohamed 7han <astaki, his brother, Las meanLhile the ruler of
<astak and the reion of %ahaniriyeh. Bn ((8( AG, ;haikh Fohamed 7han
<astaki departed for Iidehban Fortress, leavin <astak and its dependencies
in the hands of his eldest son ;haikh Fohamed ;ade" and his cousin Aha
Gassan 7han son of Fulla Bsmail.[2&] ;haikh Fohamed 7han ruled
%ahaniriyeh from Iidehban Fortress for a period of rouhly &' to &C years,
for Lhich reason he has been referred to as ;haikh Fohamed aIidehbanb.
[2)] Ge eventually returned to <astak and continued to rein from there up to
the time of his death. At the heiht of his rule, the 7hanate of <astak included
not only the reion of %ahaniriyeh, but its poLer also e+tended to =ar and
<andar Abbas as Lell as their dependencies, not to mention several islands in
the Persian Aulf.[2C]
;haikh Fohamed 7han <astaki Las the Erst Abbasid ruler of <astak to hold
the title of a7hanb $Persian@ ! Arabic@ "#$%&'! meanin PrulerP or PkinP, Lhich
Las bestoLed upon him by 7arim 7han Sand. The title then became that of
all the subse"uent Abbasid rulers of <astak and %ahaniriyeh, and also
collectively refers in plural form 4 i.e., a7hansb $Persian@ ()*&+' - to the
descendants of ;haikh Fohamed 7han <astaki.
The last Abbasid ruler of <astak and %ahaniriyeh Las Fohamed A`#am 7han
<aniabbassian son of Fohamed 9e#a 7han a;atvat al.Famalekb <aniabbasi.
Ge authored the book Tarikh.e %ahaniriyeh va <aniabbassian.e <astak
$(:8&*,[23][pae needed] in Lhich is recounted the history of the reion and
the Abbasid family that ruled it. Fohamed A`#am 7han <aniabbassian died in
(:82 CH, a year rearded as markin the end of the Abbasid rein in <astak.
=ist of Abbasid caliphs[edit]
Aenealoic tree of the Abbasid family. Bn reen, the Abbasid caliphs of
<ahdad. Bn yelloL, the Abbasid caliphs of Cairo. Fuhammad the Prophet is
included $in caps* to shoL the kinship of the Abbasids Lith him.
Caliph9ein
Caliphs of the Abbasid Caliphate
Abu!l Abbas As.;aDah 23'423C
Al.Fansur 23C4223
Al.Fahdi 2234253
Al.Gadi 2534258
Garun al.9ashid 25845':
Al.Amin 5':45()
Al.Fa!mun 5()45))
Al.Fu!tasim 5))45C&
Al.Wathi" 5C&45C2
Al.FutaLakkil 5C2458(
Al.Funtasir 58(458&
Al.Fusta!in 58&4588
Al.Fu!ta## 588458:
Al.Fuhtadi 58:452'
Al.Fu!tamid 52'45:&
Al.Fu!tadid 5:&4:'&
Al.FuktaE :'&4:'5
Al.Fu"tadir :'54:)&
Al.Xahir :)&4:)C
Ar.9adi :)C4:C'
Al.Futta"i :C'4:CC
Al.FustakE :CC4:C8
Al.Futi :C84:2C
At.Ta!i :2C4::(
Al.Xadir ::(4(')(
Al.Xa!im (')(4('23
Al.Fu"tadi ('234(':C
Al.Fusta#hir (':C4(((5
Al.Fustarshid (((54(()3
Ar.9ashid (()34(()8
Al.Fu"taE (()84((8'
Al.Fustan,id ((8'4((2'
Al.Fustadi ((2'4((5'
An.Masir ((5'4(&&3
A#.Sahir (&&34(&&8
Al.Fustansir (&&84(&C&
Al.Fusta!sim(&C&4(&35
Caliphs of Cairo
Al.Fustansir (&8(4(&8&
Al.Gakim B $Cairo* (&8&4()'&
Al.FustakE B of Cairo ()')4()C'
Al.Wathi" B ()C'4()C(
Al.Gakim BB ()C(4()3&
Al.Fu!tadid B ()3&4()8&
Al.FutaLakkil B ()8&4()5)
Al.Wathi" BB ()5)4()58
Al.Fu!tasim ()584()5:
Al.FutaLakkil B $restored* ()5:4(C'8
Al.Fusta!in (C'84(C(C
Al.Fu!tadid BB (C(C4(CC(
Al.FustakE BB(CC(4(C3(
Al.Xa!im (C3(4(C33
Al.Fustan,id (C334(C2:
Al.FutaLakkil BB (C2:4(C:2
Al.Fustamsik (C:24(3'5
Al.FutaLakkil BBB (3'54(3(2
;ee also[edit]
Abbasid overnors
=ist of ;unni Fuslim dynasties
Branian Bnterme##o
Motes[edit]
%ump up c For his full enealoy all the Lay back to Al.Abbas bin
Abdulmuttalib, the paternal uncle of the Prophet Fohamed, please see Al.
Abbasi (:58[pae needed].
9eferences[edit]
%ump up c Abbasiler devrinde tdrklerin etkinliei ve hi#metleri $in Turkish*,
Tarihimi#.
%ump up c Abbasiler $in Turkish*, Aenbilim.
%ump up c =apidus, Bra $&''&*, A Gistory of Bslamic ;ocieties, Cambride
Jniversity Press, p. 3C, B;<M '.3&(.22'38.C.
c %ump up to@ a b PAbbasidP. Hncyclopedia <ritannica. B@ A.Ak 4 <ayes $(3th
ed.*. Chicao, B=. &'('. p. ('. B;<M :25.(.3:)):.5)2.5.
%ump up c Wade, AeoDrey $&'(&*, Wade, AeoDR Tana, =i, eds., Anthony 9eid
and the ;tudy of the ;outheast Asian Past, ;inapore@ Bnstitute of ;outheast
Asian ;tudies, p. ()5 n.C, PTa#i in Persian sources referred to a people in that
land, but Las later e+tended to cover Arab lands. The Persian term Las
adopted by Tan China $IUshV @* to refer to the Arabs until the (&th
centuryP.
c %ump up to@ a b The Bslamic World to (8'', Applied Gistory 9esearch Aroup,
Jniversity of Calary, retrieved )' >ctober &''5.
%ump up c Chapuis, >scar $(::3*. A Gistory of Zietnam@ From Gon <an to
Tu Iuc. AreenLood. p. :&. B;<M '.)().&:8&&.2. 9etrieved &5 %une &'('.
%ump up c 7itaaLa, %oseph Fitsuo $&''&*. The 9eliious Traditions of Asia@
9eliion, Gistory, and Culture. 9outlede. p. &5). B;<M '.2''2.(28&.3.
9etrieved &5 %une &'('.
%ump up c ;mith, <radleyR Wen, Wano GC $(:2&*. China@ a history in art.
Garper _ 9oL. p. (&:. 9etrieved &5 %une &'('.
%ump up c Gon 7on Bmaes@ People and Animals. Gon 7on Jniversity
Press. (::'. p. 3). B;<M :8&.&':.&33.(. 9etrieved &5 %une &'('.
%ump up c Fit#erald, Charles Patrick $(:8(*. China@ A ;hort Cultural Gistory.
Praeer. p. ))&. 9etrieved &5 %une &'('.
c %ump up to@ a b <loodLorth, IennisR <loodLorth, Chin Pin $&''C*. The
Chinese Fachiavelli@ )''' Qears of Chinese ;tatecraft. Transaction. p. &(C.
B;<M '.2835.'385.3. 9etrieved &5 %une &'('.
%ump up c <roomhall, Farshall $(:('*. PBB. China _ the Arabs From the 9ise of
the Abbaside CaliphateP. Bslam in China@ a nelected problem. =ondon (&
Paternoster <uildins, HC@ Foran _ ;cott. pp. &3, &8. 9etrieved (C
Iecember &'((. PWith the rise of the Abbasides Le enter upon a someLhat
diDerent phase of Fuslim history, and approach the period Lhen an
important body of Fuslim troops entered and settled Lithin the Chinese
Hmpire. While the Abbasids inauurated that era of literature and science
associated Lith the Court at <adad, the hitherto predominant Arab element
bean to ive Lay to the Turks, Lho soon became the bodyuard of the
Caliphs, /until in the end the Caliphs became the helpless tools of their rude
protectors.`
;everal embassies from the Abbaside Caliphs to the Chinese Court are
recorded in the T!an Annals, the most important of these bein those of $A.
bo.lo.ba* Abul Abbas, the founder of the neL dynasty, that of $A.p!u.c7a.fo*
Abu Aiafar, the builder of <adad, of Lhom more must be said immediatelyR
and that of $A.lun* Garun al 9aschid, best knoLn, perhaps, in modern days
throuh the popular Lork, Arabian Mihts. The Abbasides or /<lack Flas,` as
they Lere commonly called, are knoLn in Chinese history as the Geh.i Ta.
shih, /The <lack.robed Arabs.`
Five years after the rise of the Abbasides, at a time Lhen Abu Aiafar, the
second Caliph, Las busy plottin the assassination of his reat and able rival
Abu Fuslim, Lho is rearded as Pthe leadin Eure of the aeP and the de
facto founder of the house of Abbas so far as military proLess is concerned, a
terrible rebellion broke out in China. This Las in 233, and the leader Las a
Turk or Tartar named An =u.shan. This man, Lho had ained reat favour Lith
the Hmperor Gsuan Tsun, and had been placed at the head of a vast army
operatin aainst the Turks and Tartars on the north.Lest frontier, ended in
proclaimin his independence and declarin Lar upon his noL aed Bmperial
patron. The Hmperor, driven from his capital, abdicated in favour of his son,
;u Tsun $238428)*, Lho at once appealed to the Arabs for help.
The Caliph Abu Aiafar, Lhose army, Le are told by ;ir William Fuir, /Las
Etted throuhout Lith improved Leapons and armour,` responded to this
re"uest, and sent a continent of some C''' men, Lho enabled the Hmperor,
in 232, to recover his tLo capitals, ;ianfu and Gonanfu. These Arab troops,
Lho probably came from some arrison on the frontiers of Turkestan, never
returned to their former camp, but remained in China, Lhere they married
Chinese Lives, and thus became, accordin to common report, the real
nucleus of the naturalised Chinese Fohammedans of to.day.
While this story has the support of the o?cial history of the T!an dynasty,
there is, unfortunately, no authorised statement as to hoL many troops the
Caliph really sent. The statement, hoLever, is also supported by the Chinese
Fohammedan inscriptions and literature. Thouh the settlement of this lare
body of Arabs in China may be accepted as probably the larest and most
deEnite event recorded concernin the advent of Bslam, it is necessary at the
same time not to overlook the facts already stated in the previous chapter,
Lhich prove that lare numbers of foreiners had entered China prior to this
date.P
%ump up c <rinkley, Frank $(:'&*. Trdbner, ed. China@ Bts Gistory, Arts and
=iterature. >riental & $volumes :4(&*. <oston _ Tokyo@ %< Fillet. pp. (C:, (3',
(3(, (3&. 9etrieved (C Iecember &'((. PBt Lould seem, hoLever, that trade
occupied the attention of the early Fohammedan settlers rather than
reliious propaandismR that Lhile they observed the tenets and practised
the rites of their faith in China, they did not undertake any strenuous
campain aainst either <uddhism, Confucianism, Taoism, or the ;tate creed,
and that they constituted a Ooatin rather than a E+ed element of the
population, comin and oin betLeen China and the West by the oversea or
the overland routes. Accordin to Ailes, the true stock of the present Chinese
Fohammedans Las a small army of four thousand Arabian soldiers, Lho,
bein sent by the 7haleef Abu Aiafar in 233 to aid in puttin doLn a rebellion,
Lere subse"uently permitted to settle in China, Lhere they married native
Lives.
The numbers of this colony received lare accessions in the (&th and ()th
centuries durin the con"uests of Aenhis, and ultimately the Fohammedans
formed an appreciable element of the population, havin their oLn mos"ues
and schools, and observin the rites of their reliion, but Linnin feL
converts e+cept amon the aboriinal tribes, as the =olos and the Fantsu.
Their failure as propaandists is doubtless due to tLo causes, Erst, that,
accordin to the inOe+ible rule of their creed, the 7oran miht not be
translated into Chinese or any other forein lanuaeR secondly and chieOy,
that their denunciations of idolatry Lere as unpalatable to ancestor.
Lorshippin Chinese as Lere their interdicts aainst pork and Line. They
Lere never prevented, hoLever, from practisin their faith so lon as they
obeyed the laLs of the land, and the numerous mos"ues that e+ist
throuhout China prove Lhat a lare measure of liberty these professors of a
strane creed en,oyed. >ne feature of the mos"ues is noticeable, hoLever@
thouh distinuished by lare arches and by Arabic inscriptions, they are
enerally constructed and arraned so as to bear some resemblance to
<uddhist temples, and they have tablets carryin the customary ascription of
reverence to the Hmperor of China 4 facts suestin that their builders Lere
not entirely free from a sense of the ine+pediency of diDerentiatin the
evidences of their reliion too conspicuously from those of the popular creed.
Bt has been calculated that in the reions north of the Qantse the folloLers of
Bslam areate as many as ten millions, and that eihty thousand are to be
found in one of the toLns of ;#chuan. >n the other hand, ,ust as it has been
shoLn above that althouh the Central Aovernment did not in any Lay
interdict or obstruct the tradal operations of foreiners in early times, the
local o?cials sometimes sub,ected them to e+tortion and maltreatment of a
rievous and even unendurable nature, so it appears that Lhile as a matter
of ;tate policy, full tolerance Las e+tended to the Fohammedan creed, its
disciples fre"uently found themselves the victims of such un,ust
discrimination at the hand of local o?cialdom that they Lere driven to seek
redress in rebellion. That, hoLever, did not occur until the (:th century. There
is no evidence that, prior to the time of the Areat Fanchu Hmperor Chienlun
$(2)84(2:8*, Fohammedanism presented any deterrent aspect to the
Chinese. That renoLned ruler, Lhose con"uests carried his banners to the
Pamirs and the Gimalayas, did indeed conceive a stron dread of the
potentialities of Bslamic fanaticism reinforced by disaDection on the part of
the aboriinal tribes amon Lhom the faith had many adherents. Ge is said
to have entertained at one time the terrible pro,ect of eliminatin this source
of daner in ;hensi and 7ansuh by killin every Fussulman found there, but
Lhether he really contemplated an act so forein to the eneral character of
his procedure is doubtful. The broad fact is that the Central Aovernment of
China has never persecuted Fohammedans or discriminated aainst them.
They are alloLed to present themselves at the e+aminations for civil or
military appointments, and the successful candidates obtain o?ce as readily
as their Chinese competitors.P
%ump up c Foule, Arthur Hvans $(:(C*. The Chinese people@ a handbook on
China.... =ondon Morthumberland Av, WC@ ;ociety for promotin Christian
knoLlede. p. )(2. 9etrieved (C Iecember &'((. Pthouh the actual date
and circumstances of the introduction of Bslam into China cannot be traced
Lith certainty further back than the ()th century, yet the e+istence of
settlements of forein Foslems Lith their Fos"ues at Aanfu $Canton* durin
the T!an dynasty $8(5W:'2* is certain, and later they spread to Ch!uan.chou
and to 7an.p!u, GanchoL, and perhaps to Minpo and ;hanhai. These Lere
not preachin or proselytisin inroads, but commercial enterprises, and in the
latter half of the 5th century there Lere Foslem troops in ;hensi, ),''' men,
under Abu Aiafar, comin to support the dethroned Hmperor in 238. Bn the
()th century the inOuence of individual Fuslims Las immense, especially
that of the ;eyyid Hd,ell ;hams ed.Iin >mar, Lho served the Fonol 7hans
till his death in Qunnan in (&2:. Gis family still e+ists in Qunnan, and has taken
a prominent part in Foslem aDairs in China.
The present Fuslim element in China is most numerous in Qunnan and 7ansuR
and the most learned Fuslims reside chieOy in ;such!uan, the ma,ority of
their books bein printed in the capital city, Ch!en.tu. 7ansu is perhaps the
most dominantly Fohammedan province in China, and here many diDerent
sects are found, and mos"ues Lith minarets used by the orthodo+ mue##in
callin to prayer, and in one place veiled Lomen are met Lith. These,
hoLever, are not Turks or ;aracens, but for the most part pure Chinese. The
total Foslem population is probably under C,''',''', thouh other statistical
estimates, alLays uncertain in China, vary from thirty to ten millionsR but the
Eures iven here are the most reliable at present obtainable, and Lhen it is
remembered that Bslam in China has not been to any reat e+tent a
preachin or propaandist poLer by force or the sLord, it is di?cult to
understand the survival and e+istence of such a lare number as that, small,
indeed, compared Lith former estimates, but surely a very lare and viorous
element.P
%ump up c Ailes, Gerbert Allen $(558*. A lossary of reference on sub,ects
connected Lith the Far Hast $& ed.*. Gon 7on@ Fessrs. =ane. p. (C(.
9etrieved (C Iecember &'((. PFahomedans@ BH% Be,. First settled in China in
the Qear of the Fission, A.I. 8&5, under Wahb.Abi.7abcha a maternal uncle of
Fahomet, Lho Las sent Lith presents to the Hmperor. Wahb.Abi.7abcha
travelled by sea to Cantoa, and thence overland to ;i.nan Fu, the capital,
Lhere he Las Lell received. The Erst mos"ue Las built at Canton, Lhere,
after several restorations, it still e+ists. Another mos"ue Las erected in 2C&,
but many of these F. came to China simply as traders, and by and by Lent
back to their oLn country. The true stock of the present Chinese
Fahomedans Las a small army of C,''' Arabian soldiers sent by the 7haleef
Abu Aiafar in 233 to aid in puttin doLn a rebellion. These soldiers had
permission to settle in China, Lhere they married native LivesR and three
centuries later, Lith the con"uests of Aenhis 7han, laro numbers of Arabs
penetrated into the Hmpire and sLelled the Fahomedan community.P
%ump up c Ailes, Gerbert Allen $(:&8*. Confucianism and its rivals. Forotten
<ooks. p. ():. B;<M (.8'85'.&C5.5. 9etrieved (C Iecember &'((. PBn 25: the
7halifa Garun al 9aschid dispatched a mission to China, and there had been
one or tLo less important missions in the seventh and eihth centuriesR but
from 52:, the date of the Canton massacre, for more than three centuries to
folloL, Le hear nothin of the Fahometans and their reliion. They Lere not
mentioned in the edict of 5C3, Lhich proved such a bloL to <uddhism and
Mestorian Christianity perhaps because they Lere less obtrusive in ithe
propaation of their reliion, a policy aided by the absence of anythin like a
commercial spirit in reliious matters.P
%ump up c Confucianism and its 9ivals. Forotten <ooks. p. &&). B;<M (.C3('.
'5C:.g. 9etrieved (C Iecember &'((. PThe Erst mos"ue Las built at Canton,
Lhere, after several restorations, it may still be seen. The minaret, knoLn as
the <are Paoda, to distinuish it from a much more ornamental <uddhist
paoda near by, dates back to 53'. There must at that time have been a
considerable number of Fahometans in Canton, thouht not so many as
miht be supposed if reliance could be placed on the Eures iven in
reference to a massacre Lhich took place in 52:. The fact is that most of
these Fahometans Lent to China simply as tradersR they did not intend to
settle permanently in the country, and Lhen business permitted, they
returned to their old haunts. About tLo thousand Fussulman families are still
to be found at Canton, and a similar number at FoochoLR descendants,
perhaps, of the old sea.borne continents Lhich bean to arrive in the
seventh and eihth centuries. These remnants have nothin to do Lith the
stock from Lhich came the comparatively lare Fussulman communities noL
livin and practisin their reliion in sthe provinces of ;shch!uan, Qdnnan, and
7ansuh. The oriin of the latter Las as folloLs. Bn A.I. 238 the 7halifa Abu
Aiafar sent a small army of three thousand Arab soldiers to aid in puttin
doLn a rebellion.P
%ump up c %enkins, Hverett $(:::*. The Fuslim Iiaspora@ A Comprehensive
9eference to the ;pread of Bslam in Asia, Africa, Hurope, and the Americas (
$illustrated ed.*. FcFarland. p. 8(. B;<M '.258C.'C)(.'. 9etrieved (C
Iecember &'((. PArab troops Lere dispatched by Abu Aiafar to China.P
%ump up c Travels in Bndo.China. p. &:3. 9etrieved (C Iecember &'((.
%ump up c Ahosh, ;tanley $(:8(*. Hmbers in Cathay. Ioubleday. p. 8'.
9etrieved (C Iecember &'((. PIurin the rein of Abbassid Caliph Abu Aiafar
in the middle of the eihth century, many Arab soldiers evidently settled near
the arrisons on the Chinese frontier.P
%ump up c Germann, Geinrich $(:(&*. Chinesische Aeschichte $in Aerman*. I
Aundert. p. 22. 9etrieved (C Iecember &'((. P253, als die Tibeter in China
einEelen, sandte Abu Aiafar eine #Leite Truppe, #u deren Jnterhalt die
9eierun die Teesteuer verdoppelte. ;ie Lurde ebenso anesiedelt. 252 ist
von C''' fremden Familien aus Jrumtsi und 7aschar in ;i.Man die 9ede@
fdr ihren Jnterhalt Lurden 3''''' TailP
%ump up c Ieutsche =iteratur#eitun fdr 7ritik der Bnternationalen
Wissenschaft C: $&243&*, Weidmannsche <uchhandlun, (:&5, p. (8(2,
retrieved (C Iecember &'((, PIie Fassun, daj mohammedanische ;oldaten
von Turkestan ihre 9eliion nach China ebracht hktten, ist irrefdhrend. Ias
Laren vielmehr die C''' Fann, die der #Leite 7alif Abu Aiafar 232 schickte,
ebenso Lie die Gilfstruppen 253 bei dem berdhmten Hinfali der Tibeter. Iie
Jiuren Laren damals nochP.
%ump up c GuD, Toby H $&'')*, The 9ise of Harly Fodern ;cience@ Bslam,
China, and the West, Cambride Jniversity Press, p. C5.
%ump up c Bslamic 9adicalism and Fulticultural Politics. Taylor _ Francis. p. :.
B;<M :25.(.()8.:3:8'.5. 9etrieved &8 Auust &'(&.
c %ump up to@ a b c d e Areorian, Zartan $&'')*, Bslam@ A Fosaic, Mot a
Fonolith, <rookins Bnstitution Press, p. &84)5, B;<M '.5(32.)&5).g.
%ump up c IereLenda, Symunt ;. $&''2*, P>n Line, chirality and
crystalloraphyP, Acta Crystalloraphica A 8C@ &C2
%ump up c Warren, %ohn $&''3*, PWar and the Cultural Geritae of Bra"@ a
sadly mismanaed aDairP, Third World Xuarterly &8 $C, 3*@ 5(34)'.
%ump up c Sahoor, A $(::2*, %abir ibn Gaiyan $Aeber*, Jniversity of Bndonesia.
%ump up c Zallely, Paul, PGoL Bslamic inventors chaned the LorldP, The
Bndependent $J7*.
%ump up c Zerma, 9= $(:8:*, Al.Ga#en@ father of modern optics.
%ump up c Aibb, Gamilton $(:5&*, ;tudies on the civili#ation of Bslam,
Princeton Jniversity Press, p. 88, B;<M '.8:(.'3)3C.3.
%ump up c ;puler, <ertold $(:8'*, The Fuslim World, B. The Ae of the
Caliphs, =eiden@ H% <rill, p. &:, B;<M '.853.&))&5.8.
%ump up c Hlash, 9on $(:::*, p. 8( Fissin or empty ltitle] $help*.
%ump up c ;teDens, <radley $&''8*, Bbn al.Gaytham@ First ;cientist, Foran
9eynolds, B;<M (.3::)3.'&C.8.
%ump up c Aorini, 9osanna $>ctober &'')*. PAl.Gaytham, the man of
e+perience. First steps in the science of visionP $PIF*. %ournal of the
Bnternational ;ociety for the Gistory of Bslamic Fedicine & $C*@ 3)433.
9etrieved &3 ;eptember &''5. PAccordin to the ma,ority of the historians al.
Gaytham Las the pioneer of the modern scientiEc method. With his book he
chaned the meanin of the term optics and established e+periments as the
norm of proof in the Eeld. Gis investiations are based not on abstract
theories, but on e+perimental evidences and his e+periments Lere
systematic and repeatable.P
%ump up c <riDault, 9obert $(:&5*, The Fakin of Gumanity, A Allen _ JnLin,
pp. (:'4&'&, PWhat Le call science arose as a result of neL methods of
e+periment, observation, and measurement, Lhich Lere introduced into
Hurope by the Arabs. [...] ;cience is the most momentous contribution of
Arab civili#ation to the modern Lorld, but its fruits Lere sloL in ripenin. [...]
The debt of our science to that of the Arabs does not consist in startlin
discoveries or revolutionary theoriesR science oLes a reat deal more to Arab
culture, it oLes its e+istence...The ancient Lorld Las, as Le saL, pre.
scientiEc. [...] The Areeks systemati#ed, enerali#ed and theori#ed, but the
patient Lays of investiations, the accumulation of positive knoLlede, the
minute methods of science, detailed and proloned observation and
e+perimental in"uiry Lere altoether alien to the Areek temperament.P
%ump up c 9abin, ;heila, PCopernicusP, Hncyclopedia of ;cience, ;tanford.
c %ump up to@ a b Arant _ Clute (:::, p. 3(.
%ump up c de Camp, = ;praue, =iterary ;Lordsmen and ;orcerers@ The
Fakers of Geroic Fantasy, p. (', B;<M '.52'3C.'28.:.
%ump up c Arant _ Clute (:::, p. 3&.
%ump up c Talattof, 7amranR Clinton, %erome WR =uther, 7 Allin $&'''*, The
poetry of Mi#ami Aan,avi@ knoLlede, love, and rhetoric, Palrave Facmillan,
pp. (34(8.
%ump up c ;mith, Paul, trans, Mi#ami@ =ayla _ Fa,nun, ;hira#.
c %ump up to@ a b PBslamic PhilosophyP, Hncyclopedia of Philosophy,
9outlede, (::5.
c %ump up to@ a b =ucas, Adam 9obert $&''3*, PBndustrial Fillin in the
Ancient and Fedieval Worlds@ A ;urvey of the Hvidence for an Bndustrial
9evolution in Fedieval HuropeP, Technoloy and Culture C8 $(*@ ('.
%ump up c Bslam!s Aift of Paper to the West, JT7.
%ump up c Iunn, 7evin F $&'')*, Caveman chemistry@ &5 pro,ects, from the
creation of Ere to the production of plastics, Jniversal, p. (88.
%ump up c Gassan, Ahmad Q, PPotassium Mitrate in Arabic and =atin ;ourcesP,
Gistory of ;cience and Technoloy in Bslam.
%ump up c Gassan, Ahmad Q, PAunpoLder Composition for 9ockets and
Cannon in Arabic Filitary Treatises Bn Thirteenth and Fourteenth CenturiesP,
Gistory of ;cience and Technoloy in Bslam.
%ump up c PGistory of the caravelP. Tamu. 9etrieved &'((.'C.().
%ump up c Gassan, Ahmad Q, PPart BB@ Transmission of Bslamic HnineerinP,
Transfer of Bslamic Technoloy To The West, Gistory of ;cience and Technoloy
in Bslam.
%ump up c =ucas, Adam 9obert $&''3*, PBndustrial Fillin in the Ancient and
Fedieval Worlds@ A ;urvey of the Hvidence for an Bndustrial 9evolution in
Fedieval HuropeP, Technoloy and Culture C8 $(*@ (4)'.
%ump up c Gassan, Ahmad Q, PPart (@ Avenues of Technoloy TransferP,
Transfer of Bslamic Technoloy to The West, Gistory of ;cience and Technoloy
in Bslam.
%ump up c =abib, ;ubhi Q $(:8:*, PCapitalism in Fedieval BslamP, The %ournal
of Hconomic Gistory &: $(*@ 2:4:8.
%ump up c >chsenLald, William $&''C*. The Fiddle Hast, a Gistory. <oston@
FcAraL Gill. p. 8:. B;<M '.'2.&CC&)).8.
c %ump up to@ a b c <rauer, 9alph W $(::3.(&.(*, <oundaries and Frontiers in
Fedieval Fuslim Aeoraphy, Iiane, pp. 24(', B;<M '.52(8:.538.' .
%ump up c Persian Gistorioraphy to the Hnd of the TLelfth Century.
%ump up c Cooper, William WaerR Que, Piyu $&''5*, Challenes of the muslim
Lorld@ present, future and past, Hmerald, p. &(3
%ump up c Alasse, CyrilR ;mith, Guston $&''&*. The neL encyclopedia of
Bslam. Walnut Creek, CA@ AltaFira Press. B;<M '.23:(.'(:'.8.
%ump up c Fra#ier, Ban $&3 April &''3*, PBnvaders@ Iestroyin <ahdadP, The
MeL Qorker.
%ump up c Zmsmry, Bstvmn $&''3*, Cuman and Tatars, Cambride Jniversity
Press.
%ump up c Bsichei, Hli#abeth $(::2*. A Gistory of African ;ocieties to (52'.
Cambride Jniversity Press. p. (:&. 9etrieved 5 Movember &''5.
%ump up c Pavlidis, T $&'((*, P((@ Turks and <y#antine IeclineP, A Concise
Gistory of the Fiddle Hast.
%ump up c Fikaberid#e, Ale+ander. PThe Aeorian Fameluks in HyptP.
%ump up c Zisser, 9eidar, <asra, the Failed Aulf ;tate@ ;eparatism and
Mationalism in ;outhern Bra", p. (:.
%ump up c <aniabbassian (:8&, pp. 54:.
%ump up c <aniabbassian (:8&, p. (C.
%ump up c Al.Abbasi.
%ump up c <aniabbassian (:8&, pp. &34&8.
%ump up c <aniabbassian (:8&, p. &2.
%ump up c <aniabbassian, pp. ((&4(3.
%ump up c <aniabbassian, p. ((5.
%ump up c <aniabbassian (:8&, pp. (C&, (C:.
%ump up c <aniabbassian (:8&, pp. (3&43).
%ump up c <aniabbassian (:8&.
<iblioraphy[edit]
This article incorporates te+t from a publication noL in the public domain@
Chisholm, Guh, ed. $(:((*. PAbbasidsP. Hncyclopndia <ritannica $((th ed.*.
Cambride Jniversity Press
Al.Abbasi, AFF $(:58*, Mader al.<ayan E Ihikr Ansab <aniabbassian $in
Arabic*, Ioha.
<aniabbassian, F $(:8&*, Tarikh.e %ahaniriyeh va <aniabbassian.e <astak $in
Persian*, Tehran.
Arant, %ohnR Clute, %ohn $(:::*, PThe Hncyclopedia of FantasyP, Arabian
fantasy, B;<M '.)(&.(:58:.5.
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