Essential Physics 1 - F. Firk

E S S E N T I A L P H Y S I C S
P a r t 1
R E L A T I V I T Y , P A R T I C L E D Y N A M I C S , G R A V I T A T I O N ,
A N D W A V E M O T I O N
F R A N K W . K . F I R K
P r o f e s s o r E m e r i t u s o f P h y s i c s
Y a l e U n i v e r s i t y
2 0 0 0
PREFACE
Th r ough out t h e decade of t h e 1990 s, I t augh t a one-year cour se of a speci al i zed nat ur e t o
st udent s wh o ent er ed Yal e Col l ege wi t h excel l ent pr epar at i on i n Mat h emat i cs and t h e
Physi cal Sci ences, and who expr essed an i nt er est i n Physi cs or a cl osel y r el at ed fi el d. The
l evel of t h e cour se was t h at t ypi fi ed by t h e Feynman Lectu r es on Physi cs. My one-year
cour se was necessar i l y mor e r est r i ct ed i n cont ent t han t he t wo-year Feynman Lect ur es.
The dept h of t r eat ment of each t opi c was l i mi t ed by t he fact t hat t he cour se consi st ed of a
t ot al of fi ft y-t wo l ect ur es, each l ast i ng one-and-a-quar t er hour s. The k ey r ol e pl ayed by
i n va r i a n t s i n t h e Ph ysi cal Uni ver se was const ant l y emph asi zed . Th e mat er i al t h at I
cover ed each Fal l Semest er i s pr esent ed, al most ver bat i m, i n t hi s book .
The fi r st chapt er cont ai ns k ey mat hemat i cal i deas, i ncl udi ng some i nvar i ant s of
geomet r y and al gebr a, gener al i zed coor di nat es, and t h e al gebr a and geomet r y of vect or s.
The i mpor t ance of l i near oper at or s and t hei r mat r i x r epr esent at i ons i s st r essed i n t he ear l y
l ect ur es. These mat hemat i cal concept s ar e r equi r ed i n t he pr esent at i on of a uni fi ed
t r eat ment of bot h Cl assi cal and Speci al Rel at i vi t y. St udent s ar e encour aged t o devel op a
r el at i vi st i c out l ook at an ear l y st age . The fundament al Lor ent z t r ansfor mat i on i s
devel oped usi ng ar gument s based on symmet r i zi ng t he cl assi cal Gal i l ean t r ansfor mat i on.
Key 4-vect or s, such as t he 4-vel oci t y and 4-moment um, and t hei r i nvar i ant nor ms, ar e
shown t o evol ve i n a nat ur al way fr om t hei r cl assi cal for ms. A basi c change i n t he subj ect
mat t er occur s at t hi s poi nt i n t he book . I t i s necessar y t o i nt r oduce t he Newt oni an
concept s of mass, moment um, and ener gy, and t o di scuss t he conser vat i on l aws of l i near
and angul ar moment um, and mechani cal ener gy, and t hei r associ at ed i nvar i ant s. The
iv
di scover y of t hese l aws, and t hei r appl i cat i ons t o ever yday pr obl ems, r epr esent s t he hi gh
poi nt i n t he sci ent i fi c endeavor of t he 17t h and 18t h cent ur i es. An i nt r oduct i on t o t he
gener al dynami cal met hods of Lagr ange and Hami l t on i s del ayed unt i l Chapt er 9, wher e
t hey ar e i ncl uded i n a di scussi on of t he Cal cul us of Var i at i ons. The k ey subj ect of
Ei nst ei ni an dynami cs i s t r eat ed at a l evel not usual l y met i n at t h e i nt r oduct or y l evel . Th e
4-moment um i nvar i ant and i t s uses i n r el at i vi st i c col l i si ons, bot h el ast i c and i nel ast i c, i s
di scussed i n det ai l i n Chapt er 6. Fur t her devel opment s i n t he use of r el at i vi st i c i nvar i ant s
ar e gi ven i n t he di scussi on of t he Mandel st am var i abl es, and t hei r appl i cat i on t o t he st udy
of h i gh -ener gy col l i si ons. Fol l owi ng an over vi ew of Newt oni an Gr avi t at i on, t h e gener al
pr obl em of cent r al or bi t s i s di scussed usi ng t he power ful met hod of [ p, r ] coor di nat es.
Ei nst ei n s Gener al Theor y of Rel at i vi t y i s i nt r oduced usi ng t he Pr i nci pl e of Equi val ence and
t he not i on of ext ended i ner t i al fr ames t hat i ncl ude t hose fr ames i n fr ee fal l i n a
gr avi t at i onal fi el d of smal l si ze i n whi ch t her e i s no measur abl e fi el d gr adi ent . A heur i st i c
ar gument i s gi ven t o deduce t h e Sch war zsch i l d l i ne el ement i n t h e weak f i el d
appr oxi mat i on ; i t i s used as a basi s for a di scussi on of t he r efr act i ve i ndex of space-t i me i n
t he pr esence of mat t er . Ei nst ei n s famous pr edi ct ed val ue for t he bendi ng of a beam of
l i ght gr azi ng t he sur face of t he Sun i s cal cul at ed. The Cal cul us of Var i at i ons i s an
i mpor t ant t opi c i n Physi cs and Mat hemat i cs; i t i s i nt r oduced i n Chapt er 9, wh er e i t i s
shown t o l ead t o t he i deas of t he Lagr ange and Hami l t on funct i ons. These funct i ons ar e
used t o i l l ust r at e i n a gener al way t he conser vat i on l aws of moment um and angul ar
moment um, and t he r el at i on of t hese l aws t o t he homogenei t y and i sot r opy of space. The
subj ect of cha os i s i nt r oduced by consi der i ng t he mot i on of a damped, dr i ven pendul um.
v
A met hod for sol vi ng t he non-l i near equat i on of mot i on of t he pendul um i s out l i ned. Wave
mot i on i s t r eat ed fr om t he poi nt -of-vi ew of i nvar i ance pr i nci pl es. The for m of t he gener al
wave equat i on i s der i ved, and t he Lor ent z i nvar i ance of t he phase of a wave i s di scussed i n
Chapt er 12. The fi nal chapt er deal s wi t h t he pr obl em of or t hogonal funct i ons i n gener al ,
and Four i er ser i es, i n par t i cul ar . At t hi s st age i n t hei r t r ai ni ng, st udent s ar e oft en under -
pr epar ed i n t he subj ect of Di ffer ent i al Equat i ons. Some useful met hods of sol vi ng or di nar y
di ffer ent i al equat i ons ar e t her efor e gi ven i n an appendi x.
Th e st udent s t ak i ng my cour se wer e gener al l y r equi r ed t o t ak e a p ar al l el one-year
cour se i n t he Mat hemat i cs Depar t ment t hat cover ed Vect or and Mat r i x Al gebr a and
Anal ysi s at a l evel sui t abl e for pot ent i al maj or s i n Mat hemat i cs.
Her e, I have pr esent ed my ver si on of a fi r st -semest er cour se i n Physi cs a ver si on
t h at deal s wi t h t h e essent i al s i n a no-fr i l l s way. Over t h e year s, I demonst r at ed t h at t h e
cont ent s of t hi s compact book coul d be successful l y t aught i n one semest er . Text book s
ar e concer ned wi t h t ak i ng many k nown fact s and pr esent i ng t hem i n cl ear and conci se
ways; my under st andi ng of t he fact s i s l ar gel y based on t he wr i t i ngs of a r el at i vel y smal l
number of cel ebr at ed aut hor s whose wor k I am pl eased t o ack nowl edge i n t he
bi bl i ogr aphy.
Gui l for d, Connect i cut
Febr uar y, 2000
CONTENTS
1 MATHEMATI CAL PRELI MI NARI ES
1.1 I nvar i ant s 1
1.2 Some geomet r i cal i nvar i ant s 2
1.3 El ement s of di f f er ent i al geomet r y 5
1.4 Gaussi an coor di nat es and t he i nvar i ant l i ne el ement 7
1.5 Geomet r y and gr oups 10
1.6 Vect or s 13
1.7 Quat er ni ons 13
1.8 3-vect or anal ysi s 16
1.9 Li near al gebr a and n-vect or s 18
1.10 Th e geomet r y of vect or s 21
1.11 Li near oper at or s and mat r i ces 24
1.12 Rot at i on oper at or s 25
1.13 Component s of a vect or under coor di nat e r ot at i ons 27
2 KI NEMATI CS: THE GEOMETRY OF MOTI ON
2.1 Vel oci t y and accel er at i on 33
2.2 Di f f er ent i al equat i ons of k i nemat i cs 36
2.3 Vel oci t y i n Car t esi an and pol ar coor di nat es 39
2.4 Accel er at i on i n Car t esi an and pol ar coor di nat es 41
3 CLASSI CAL AND SPECI AL RELATI VI TY
3.1 Th e Gal i l ean t r ansfor mat i on 46
3.2 Ei nst ei n s space-t i me symmet r y: t he Lor ent z t r ansfor mat i on 48
3.3 Th e i nvar i ant i nt er val : cont r avar i ant and covar i ant vect or s 51
3.4 The gr oup st r uct ur e of Lor ent z t r ansfor mat i ons 53
3.5 Th e r ot at i on gr oup 56
3.6 Th e r el at i vi t y of si mul t anei t y: t i me di l at i on and l engt h cont r act i on 57
3.7 Th e 4-vel o ci t y 61
4 NEWTONI AN DYNAMI CS
4.1 Th e l aw of i ner t i a 65
4.2 Newt on s l aws of mot i on 67
4.3 Syst ems of many i nt er act i ng par t i cl es: conser vat i on of l i near and angul ar
vii
moment um 68
4.4 Wor k and ener gy i n Newt oni an dynami cs 74
4.5 Pot en t i al en er gy 76
4.6 Par t i cl e i nt er act i ons 79
4.7 Th e mot i on of r i gi d bodi es 84
4.8 Angul ar vel oci t y and t he i nst ant aneous cent er of r ot at i on 86
4.9 An appl i cat i on of t he Newt oni an met hod 88
5 I NVARI ANCE PRI NCI PLES AND CONSERVATI ON LAWS
5.1 I nvar i ance of t he pot ent i al under t r ansl at i ons and t he conser vat i on of l i near
moment um 94
5.2 I nvar i ance of t he pot ent i al under r ot at i ons and t he conser vat i on of angul ar
moment um 94
6 EI NSTEI NI AN DYNAMI CS
6.1 4-moment um and t he ener gy-moment um i nvar i ant 97
6.2 Th e r el at i vi st i c Dop p l er sh i f t 98
6.3 Rel at i vi st i c col l i si ons and t he conser vat i on of 4- moment um 99
6.4 Rel at i vi st i c i nel ast i c col l i si ons 102
6.5 Th e Mandel st am var i abl es 103
6.6 Posi t r on-el ect r on anni h i l at i on-i n-fl i gh t 106
7 NEWTONI AN GRAVI TATI ON
7.1 Pr oper t i es of mot i on al ong cur ved pat hs i n t he pl ane 111
7.2 An over vi ew of Newt oni an gr avi t at i on 113
7.3 Gr avi t at i on: an examp l e of a cent r al for ce 118
7.4 Mot i on under a cent r al for ce and t he conser vat i on of angul ar moment um 120
7.5 Kep l er s 2nd l aw exp l ai ned 120
7.6 Cent r al or bi t s 121
7.7 Bound and unbound or bi t s 126
7.8 Th e concep t of t h e gr avi t at i onal f i el d 128
7.9 Th e gr avi t at i onal p ot ent i al 131
8 EI NSTEI NI AN GRAVI TATI ON: AN I NTRODUCTI ON TO GENERAL RELATI VI TY
8.1 Th e p r i nci p l e of equi val ence 136
8.2 Ti me and l engt h ch anges i n a gr avi t at i onal f i el d 138
8.3 Th e Sch war zsch i l d l i ne el ement 138
8.4 Th e met r i c i n t h e p r esence of mat t er 141
8.5 Th e weak f i el d ap p r oxi mat i on 142
viii
8.6 Th e r efr act i ve i ndex of space-t i me i n t h e pr esence of mass 143
8.7 Th e def l ect i on of l i gh t gr azi ng t h e sun 144
9 AN I NTRODUCTI ON TO THE CALCULUS OF VARI ATI ONS
9.1 Th e Eul er equat i on 149
9.2 Th e Lagr ange equat i ons 151
9.3 Th e H ami l t on equat i ons 153
10 CONSERVATI ON LAWS, AGAI N
10.1 Th e conser vat i on of mech ani cal ener gy 158
10.2 The conser vat i on of l i near and angul ar moment um 158
11 CHAOS
11.1 The gener al mot i on of a damped, dr i ven pendul um 161
11.2 Th e numer i cal sol ut i on of di ffer ent i al equat i ons 163
12 WAVE MOTI ON
12.1 Th e basi c f or m of a wave 167
12.2 Th e gener al wave equat i on 170
12.3 Th e Lor ent z i nvar i ant ph ase of a wave and t h e r el at i vi st i c Doppl er sh i ft 171
12.4 Pl ane h ar moni c waves 173
12.5 Sp h er i cal waves 174
12.6 The super posi t i on of har moni c waves 176
12.7 St andi ng waves 177
13 ORTHOGONAL FUNCTI ONS AND FOURI ER SERI ES
13.1 Def i ni t i ons 179
13.2 Some t r i gonomet r i c i dent i t i es and t h ei r Four i er ser i es 180
13.3 Det er mi nat i on of t h e Four i er coeffi ci ent s of a funct i on 182
13.4 The Four i er ser i es of a per i odi c saw-t oot h wavefor m 183
APPENDI X A SOLVI NG ORDI NARY DI FFERENTI AL EQUATI ONS 187
BI BLI OGRAPHY 198
1
MATHEMATI CAL PRELI MI NARI ES
1.1 I nvar i ant s
I t i s a r emar k abl e f act t h at ver y f ew f undament al l aws ar e r equi r ed t o descr i be t h e
en o r m o u s r an ge o f p h ysi cal p h en o m en a t h at t ak e p l ace t h r o u gh o u t t h e u n i ver se. Th e
st u d y o f t h ese f u n d amen t al l aws i s at t h e h ear t o f Ph ysi cs. Th e l aws ar e f o u n d t o h ave a
mat hemat i cal st r uct ur e; t he i nt er pl ay bet ween Physi cs and Mat hemat i cs i s t her efor e
emphasi zed t hr oughout t hi s book . For exampl e, Gal i l eo found by obser vat i on, and
Newt on devel oped wi t h i n a mat h emat i cal fr amewor k , t h e Pr i nci pl e of Rel at i vi t y:
t he l a ws gover n i n g t he m ot i on s of obj ect s ha ve t he sa m e m a t hem a t i ca l
for m i n a l l i n er t i a l fr a m es of r efer en ce.
I n er t i al f r ames move at con st an t sp eed i n st r ai gh t l i n es wi t h r esp ect t o each ot h er t h ey
ar e n o n -accel er at i n g. We say t h at Newt on s l aws of mot i on ar e i n va r i a n t under t he
Gal i l ean t r ansf or mat i on ( see l at er di scussi on) . Th e di scover y of k ey i n va r i a n t s o f Nat u r e
has been essent i al for t he devel opment of t he subj ect .
Ei n st ei n ext en d ed t h e Newt on i an Pr i n ci p l e of Rel at i vi t y t o i n cl u d e t h e mot i on s of
beam s o f l i gh t an d o f o bj ect s t h at m o ve at sp eed s cl ose t o t he speed of l i gh t . Thi s
ext en d ed p r i n ci p l e f o r ms t h e basi s o f Sp eci al Rel at i vi t y. Lat er , Ei n st ei n gen er al i zed t h e
p r i n ci p l e t o i n cl u d e accel er at i n g f r ames o f r ef er en ce. Th e gen er al p r i n ci p l e i s k n o wn as
t he Pr i nci pl e of Covar i ance; i t for ms t he basi s of t he Gener al Theor y of Rel at i vi t y ( a t heor y
of Gr avi t at i on) .
2 M A T H E M A T I C A L P R E L I M I N A R I E S
A r evi ew of t he el ement ar y pr oper t i es of geomet r i cal i nvar i ant s, gener al i zed
co o r d i n at es, l i n ear vect o r sp aces, an d m at r i x o p er at o r s, i s gi ven at a l evel su i t abl e f o r a
sound t r eat men t of Cl assi cal and Speci al Rel at i vi t y. Ot her mat hemat i cal met hods,
i ncl udi ng cont r a- and covar i ant 4-vect or s, var i at i onal p r i nci p l es, or t h ogonal f unct i ons, and
or di nar y di ffer ent i al equat i ons ar e i nt r oduced, as r equi r ed.
1.2 Some geomet r i cal i nvar i ant s
I n hi s book The Ascen t of Ma n , Br onowsk i di scusses t h e l ast i ng i mp or t ance of t h e
d i sco ver i es o f t h e Gr eek geo m et er s. H e gi ves a p r o o f o f t h e m o st f am o u s t h eo r em o f
Eu cl i d ean Geo met r y, n amel y Pyt h ago r as t h eo r em, t h at i s based on t he i n va r i a n ce of
l en gt h an d an gl e ( an d t h er ef or e of ar ea) u n d er t r an sl at i on s an d r ot at i on s i n sp ace. Let a
r i gh t -an gl ed t r i an gl e wi t h si d es a, b, an d c, be t r an sl at ed an d r o t at ed i n t o t h e f o l l o wi n g
four posi t i ons t o for m a squar e of si de c:
c
1
c
2 4
c
b
a 3
c
| ( b a) |
Th e t ot al ar ea of t h e squar e = c
2
= ar ea of four t r i angl es + ar ea of shaded squar e.
I f t h e r i gh t -angl ed t r i angl e i s t r ansl at ed and r ot at ed t o f or m t h e r ect angl e:
M A T H E M A T I C A L P R E L I M I N A R I E S 3
a a
1 4
b b
2 3
t h en t h e ar ea of four t r i angl es = 2ab.
The ar ea of t he shaded squar e ar ea i s ( b a)
2
= b
2
2ab + a
2
We have post ul at ed t he i nvar i ance of l engt h and angl e under t r ansl at i ons and r ot at i ons and
t her efor e
c
2
= 2ab + ( b a)
2
= a
2
+ b
2
. ( 1.1)
We sh al l see t h at t h i s k ey r esu l t ch ar act er i zes t h e l o cal l y f l at sp ace i n wh i ch we l i ve. I t i s
t he on l y for m t ha t i s con si st en t wi t h t he i n va r i a n ce of l en gt hs a n d a n gl es u n der
t r a n sl a t i on s a n d r ot a t i on s .
The sca l a r pr od u ct i s an i mp o r t an t i n var i an t i n Mat h emat i cs an d Ph ysi cs. I t s i n var i an ce
p r o p er t i es can best be seen by d evel o p i n g Pyt h ago r as t h eo r em i n a t h r ee-d i m en si o n al
coor di nat e for m. Consi der t he squar e of t he di st ance bet ween t he poi nt s P[ x
1
, y
1
, z
1
] and
Q[ x
2
, y
2
, z
2
] i n Car t esi an coor di nat es:
z
y
Q[ x
2
,y
2
,z
2
]
P[ x
1
,y
1
,z
1
]

O
x
1
x
2
x
We have
( PQ)
2
= ( x
2
x
1
)
2
+ ( y
2
y
1
)
2
+ ( z
2
z
1
)
2
= x
2
2
2x
1
x
2
+ x
1
2
+ y
2
2
2y
1
y
2
+ y
1
2
+ z
2
2
2z
1
z
2
+ z
1
2

= ( x
1
2
+ y
1
2
+ z
1
2
) + ( x
2
2
+ y
2
2
+ z
2
2
) 2( x
1
x
2
+ y
1
y
2
+ z
1
z
2
)
= ( OP)
2
+ ( OQ)
2
2( x
1
x
2
+ y
1
y
2
+ z
1
z
2
) ( 1.2)
Th e l en gt h s PQ, OP, OQ, an d t h ei r squ ar es, ar e i n var i an t s u n d er r o t at i o n s an d t h er ef o r e
t he en t i r e r i ght -hand si de of t hi s equat i on i s an i nvar i ant . The admi xt ur e of t he
coor di nat es ( x
1
x
2
+ y
1
y
2
+ z
1
z
2
) i s t h er ef o r e an i n var i an t u n d er r o t at i o n s. Th i s t er m h as a
geomet r i c i n t er p r et at i on : i n t he t r i an gl e OPQ, we have t he gener al i zed Pyt hagor ean
t heor em
( PQ)
2
= ( OP)
2
+ ( OQ)
2
2OP.OQ cos,
t her efor e
OP.OQ cos = x
1
x
2
+ y
1
y
2
+ z
1
z
2
t he sca l a r pr odu ct . ( 1.3)
I nvar i ant s i n space-t i me wi t h scal ar -pr oduct -l i k e for ms, such as t he i nt er val
bet ween even t s ( see 3.3) , ar e o f f u n d am en t al i m p o r t an ce i n t h e Theor y of Rel at i vi t y.
Al t h o u gh r o t at i o n s i n sp ace ar e p ar t o f o u r ever yd ay exp er i en ce, t h e i d ea o f r o t at i o n s i n
space-t i me i s count er -i nt ui t i ve. I n Chapt er 3, t hi s i dea i s di scussed i n t er ms of t he r el a t i ve
m ot i on of i ner t i al obser ver s.
1.3 El ement s of di f f er ent i al geomet r y
Nat ur e d o es n o t p r esci be a p ar t i cu l ar co o r d i n at e syst em o r mesh . We ar e f r ee t o
sel ect t h e syst em t h at i s most appr opr i at e for t he pr obl em at hand. I n t he fami l i ar
Car t esi an syst em i n wh i ch t h e mesh l i nes ar e or t h ogonal , equi di st ant , st r ai gh t l i nes i n t h e
pl ane, t he k ey advant age st ems fr om our abi l i t y t o cal cul at e di st ances gi ven t he
coor di nat es we can appl y Pyt hagor as t heor em, di r ect l y. Consi der an ar bi t r ar y mesh:
v d i r ect i o n P[ 3
u
, 4
v
]
4
v
d s, a l en gt h
3
v
d v

d u

2
v
1
v

Or i gi n O 1
u
2
u
3
u
u di r ect i on
Gi ven t h e p o i n t P[ 3
u
, 4
v
] , we can n o t u se Pyt h ago r as t h eo r em t o cal cu l at e t h e d i st an ce
OP.
I n t h e i nfi ni t esi mal par al l el ogr am sh own, we mi gh t t h i nk i t appr opr i at e t o wr i t e
ds
2
= du
2
+ dv
2
+ 2dudvcos . ( ds
2
= ( ds)
2
, a squar ed l engt h )
Thi s we cannot do! The di ffer ent i al s du and dv ar e not l engt hs t hey ar e si mpl y
d i f f er en ces bet ween t wo n u mber s t h at l abel t h e mesh . We mu st t h er ef or e mu l t i p l y each
d i f f er en t i al by a qu an t i t y t h at con ver t s each on e i n t o a l en gt h . I n t r od u ci n g d i men si on ed
coeffi ci ent s, we have
ds
2
= g
11
du
2
+ 2g
12
dudv + g
22
dv
2
( 1.4)
wher e g
11
du and g
22
dv ar e now l en gt hs.
The pr obl em i s t her efor e one of fi ndi ng gener al expr essi ons for t he coeffi ci ent s;
i t was so l ved by Gau ss, t h e p r e-emi n en t mat h emat i ci an o f h i s age. We sh al l r est r i ct o u r
d i scu ssi o n t o t h e case o f t wo var i abl es. Bef o r e t r eat i n g t h i s p r o bl em, i t wi l l be u sef u l t o
r ecal l t h e i dea of a tota l di ffer en ti a l associ at ed wi t h a funct i on of mor e t han one var i abl e.
Let u = f ( x, y) be a f u n ct i o n o f t wo var i abl es, x an d y. As x an d y var y, t h e co r r esp o n d i n g
val u es o f u d escr i be a su r f ace. Fo r examp l e, i f u = x
2
+ y
2
, t h e su r f ace i s a p ar abol oi d of
r evol ut i on. Th e par t i al der i vat i ves of u ar e defi ned by
f( x, y) / x = l i mi t as h 0 { ( f( x + h, y) f( x, y) ) / h} ( t r eat y as a const ant ) , ( 1.5)
and
f( x, y) / y = l i mi t as k 0 { ( f( x, y + k ) f( x, y) ) / k } ( t r eat x as a const ant ) . ( 1.6)
For exampl e, i f u = f( x, y) = 3x
2
+ 2y
3
t hen
f/ x = 6x,
2
f/ x
2
= 6,
3
f/ x
3
= 0
and
f/ y = 6y
2
,
2
f/ y
2
= 12y,
3
f/ y
3
= 12, and
4
f/ y
4
= 0.
I f u = f( x, y) t h en t h e t ot al di ffer ent i al of t h e funct i on i s
du = ( f/ x) dx + (f/ y) dy
cor r espondi ng t o t he changes: x x + dx and y y + dy.
( Not e t hat du i s a funct i on of x, y, dx, and dy of t he i ndependent var i abl es x and y)
1.4 Gaussi an coor di nat es and t he i nvar i ant l i ne el ement
Consi der t he i nfi ni t esi mal separ at i on bet ween t wo poi nt s P and Q t hat ar e
descr i bed i n ei t her Car t esi an or Gaussi an coor di nat es:

y + d y Q v + d v Q
d s d s
y P v P
x x + d x u u + d u
Car t esi an Gaussi an
I n t he Gaussi an syst em, du and dv do not r epr esent di st ances.
Let
x = f( u, v) and y = F( u, v) ( 1.7 a,b)
t h en, i n t h e i nf i ni t esi mal l i mi t
dx = ( x/ u) du + (x/ v) dv and dy = ( y/ u) du + (y/ v) dv.
I n t h e Car t esi an syst em, t h er e i s a di r ect cor r esp ondence bet ween t h e mesh -number s and
di st ances so t hat
ds
2
= dx
2
+ dy
2
. ( 1.8)
But
dx
2
= ( x/ u)
2
du
2
+ 2( x/ u) (x/ v) dudv + (x/ v)
2
dv
2
and
dy
2
= ( y/ u)
2
du
2
+ 2( y/ u) (y/ v) dudv + (y/ v)
2
dv
2
.
We t her efor e obt ai n
ds
2
= { ( x/ u)
2
+ ( y/ u)
2
} du
2
+ 2{ ( x/ u) (x/ v) + ( y/ u) (y/ v) } dudv
+ { ( x/ v)
2
+ ( y/ v)
2
} dv
2

= g
11
du
2
+ 2g
12
dudv + g
22
dv
2
. ( 1.9)
I f we p ut u = u
1
and v = u
2
, t hen
ds
2
= g
i j
du
i
du
j
wh er e i ,j = 1,2. ( 1.10)

i

j
( Thi s i s a gener al for m for an n-di mensi onal space: i , j = 1, 2, 3, ...n) .
Two i mpor t ant poi nt s connect ed wi t h t hi s i n va r i a n t di ffer en ti a l l i n e el emen t ar e:
1. I n t er pr et a t i on of t he coeffi ci en t s g
i j
.
Consi der a Eucl i dean mesh of equi spaced par al l el ogr ams:
v
R
d s
d v
u
P d u Q
I n PQR
ds
2
= 1.du
2
+ 1.dv
2
+ 2cosdudv
= g
11
du
2
+ g
22
dv
2
+ 2g
12
dudv ( 1.11)
t h er ef or e, g
11
= g
22
= 1 ( t he mesh-l i nes ar e equi spaced)
and
g
12
= cos wher e i s t h e angl e bet ween t h e u-v axes.
We see t hat i f t he mesh-l i nes ar e l ocal l y or t hogonal t hen g
12
= 0.
2. Depen den ce of t he g
i j
s on t he coor di n a t e syst em a n d t he l oca l va l u es of u , v.
A sp eci f i c examp l e wi l l i l l u st r at e t h e mai n p o i n t s o f t h i s t o p i c: co n si d er a p o i n t P
d escr i bed i n t h r ee co o r d i n at e syst em s Car t esi an P[ x, y] , Pol ar P[ r , ] , and Gaussi an
P[ u, v] and t he squar e ds
2
of t h e l i ne el ement i n each syst em.
The t r ansfor mat i on [ x, y] [ r , ] i s
x = r cos and y = r si n. ( 1.12 a,b)
The t r ansfor mat i on [ r , ] [ u, v] i s di r ect , namel y
r = u and = v.
Now,
x/ r = cos, y/ r = si n, x/ = r si n, y/ = r cos
t her efor e,
x/ u = cosv, y/ u = si nv, x/ v = usi nv, y/ v = ucosv.
Th e coef f i ci ent s ar e t h er ef or e
g
11
= cos
2
v + si n
2
v = 1, ( 1.13 a-c)
1 0 M A T H E M A T I C A L P R E L I M I N A R I E S
g
22
= ( usi nv)
2
+ ( ucosv)
2
= u
2
,
and
g
12
= cos( usi nv) + si nv( ucosv) = 0 ( an or t hogonal mesh) .
We t her efor e have
ds
2
= dx
2
+ dy
2
( 1.14 a-c)
= du
2
+ u
2
dv
2
= d r
2
+ r
2
d
2
.
I n t h i s examp l e, t h e coef f i ci ent g
22
= f( u) .
Th e essen t i al p o i n t o f Gau ssi an coor di nat e syst ems i s t hat t he coeffi ci ent s, g
i j
,
co m p l et el y ch ar act er i ze t h e su r f ace t h ey ar e i n t r i n si c f eat u r es. We can , i n p r i n ci p l e,
d et er mi n e t h e n at u r e o f a su r f ace by measu r i n g t h e l o cal val u es o f t h e co ef f i ci en t s as we
move over t he sur face. We do not need t o l eave a sur face t o st udy i t s for m.
1.5 Geomet r y and gr oups
Fel i x Kl ei n ( 1849 1925) , i nt r oduced h i s i nf l uent i al Er l anger Pr ogr am i n 1872. I n
t h i s p r ogr am, Geomet r y i s devel op ed f r om t h e vi ewp oi nt of t h e i nvar i ant s associ at ed wi t h
gr ou ps of t r a n sfor m a t i on s. I n Eucl i dean Geomet r y, t h e f undament al obj ect s ar e t ak en t o
be r i gi d bodi es t h at r emai n f i xed i n si ze and sh ap e as t h ey ar e moved f r om p l ace t o p l ace.
The not i on of a r i gi d body i s an i deal i zat i on.
Kl ei n co n si d er ed t r an sf o r mat i o n s o f t h e en t i r e p l an e map p i n gs o f t h e set o f al l
p o i n t s i n t h e p l an e o n t o i t sel f . Th e p r o p er set o f r i gi d mo t i o n s i n t h e p l an e co n si st s o f
t r an sl at i o n s an d r o t at i o n s. A r ef l ect i o n i s an i m p r o p er r i gi d m o t i o n i n t h e p l an e; i t i s a
p h ysi cal i mp o ssi bi l i t y i n t h e p l an e i t sel f . Th e set o f al l r i gi d mo t i o n s bo t h p r o p er an d
M A T H E M A T I C A L P R E L I M I N A R I E S 1 1
i mpr oper for ms a gr ou p t h at h as t h e p r op er r i gi d mot i ons as a subgr oup . A gr oup G i s a
set o f d i st i n ct el emen t s { g
i
} f o r wh i ch a l a w of com posi t i on
o
i s gi ven su ch t h at t h e
composi t i on of any t wo el ement s of t he set sat i sfi es:
Cl osu r e: i f g
i
, g
j
bel ong t o G t h en g
k
= g
i

o
g
j
bel ongs t o G f or al l el ement s g
i
, g
j
,
and
Associ ati vi ty: for al l g
i
, g
j
, g
k
i n G, g
i

o
( g
j

o
g
k
) = ( g
i

o
g
j
)
o
g
k
. .
Fur t her mor e, t he set cont ai ns
A u n i qu e i den ti ty, e, such t hat g
i

o
e = e
o
g
i
= g
i
for al l g
i
i n G,
and
A u n i qu e i n ver se, g
i
1
, f or ever y el ement g
i
i n G,
such t h at g
i

o
g
i
1
= g
i
1

o
g
i
= e.
A gr oup t h at cont ai ns a f i ni t e number n of di st i nct el ement s g
n
i s sai d t o be a f i n i t e gr o u p
of or der n.
Th e set of i nt eger s Z i s a subset of t h e r eal s R; bot h set s for m i nfi ni t e gr oups under
t he composi t i on of addi t i on. Z i s a subgr oup of R.
Per mut at i ons of a set X for m a gr oup S
x
under composi t i on of funct i ons; i f a: X X
an d b: X X ar e p er m u t at i o n s, t h e co m p o si t e f u n ct i o n ab: X X gi ven b y ab ( x) =
a( b( x) ) i s a p er m u t at i o n . I f t he set X cont ai ns t he fi r st n posi t i ve number s, t he n!
p er mut at i ons f or m a gr oup , t h e symmet r i c gr oup , S
n
. Fo r examp l e, t h e ar r an gemen t s o f
t he t hr ee number s 123 for m t he gr oup
S
3
= { 123, 312, 231, 132, 321, 213 } .
I f t h e ver t i ces of an equi l at er al t r i angl e ar e l abel l ed 123, t h e si x p ossi bl e symmet r y
ar r an gem en t s o f t h e t r i an gl e ar e o bt ai n ed by t hr ee successi ve r ot at i ons t hr ough 120
o
about i t s cent er of gr avi t y, and by t h e t h r ee r ef l ect i ons i n t h e p l anes I , I I , I I I :
I
1
2 3
I I I I I
Thi s gr oup of i somet r i es of t he equi l at er al t r i angl e ( cal l ed t he di hedr al gr oup, D
3
) h as t h e
same st r u ct u r e as t h e gr o u p o f p er mu t at i o n s o f t h r ee o bj ect s. Th e gr o u p s S
3
an d D
3
ar e
sai d t o be i somor phi c.
Accor di ng t o Kl ei n, p l ane Eucl i dean Geomet r y i s t h e st udy of t h ose p r op er t i es of
pl ane r i gi d fi gur es t hat ar e unchanged by t he gr oup of i somet r i es. ( The basi c i nvar i ant s ar e
l en gt h and a n gl e) . I n hi s devel opment of t he subj ect , Kl ei n consi der ed Si m i l a r i t y
Geom et r y t h at i n vo l ves i so m et r i es wi t h a ch an ge o f scal e, ( t h e basi c i n var i an t i s a n gl e) ,
Affi n e Geom et r y, i n whi ch fi gur es can be di st or t ed under t r ansfor mat i ons of t he for m
x = ax + by + c ( 1.15 a,b)
y = dx + ey + f ,
wh er e [ x, y] ar e Car t esi an co o r d i n at es, and a, b, c, d, e, f, ar e r eal coeffi ci ent s, and
Pr oj ecti ve Geometr y, i n wh i ch al l coni c sect i ons ar e equi val ent ; ci r cl es, el l i p ses, p ar abol as,
and hyper bol as can be t r ansfor med i nt o one anot her by a pr oj ect i ve t r ansfor mat i on.
I t wi l l be sh o wn t h at t h e Lo r en t z t r an sf o r mat i o n s t h e f u n d amen t al t r an sf o r mat i o n s o f
event s i n space and t i me, as descr i bed by di ffer ent i ner t i al obser ver s for m a gr oup.
1.6 Vect or s
Th e i dea t h at a l i ne wi t h a def i ni t e l engt h and a def i ni t e di r ect i on a vect or can
be u sed t o r ep r esen t a p h ysi cal qu an t i t y t h at p o ssesses magn i t u d e and di r ect i on i s an
an ci en t o n e. Th e co mbi n ed act i o n o f t wo vect o r s A and B i s o bt ai n ed by m ean s o f t h e
par al l el ogr am l aw, i l l ust r at ed i n t h e fol l owi ng di agr am

A + B
B

A
The di agonal of t he par al l el ogr am for med by A and B gi ves t h e magni t ude and di r ect i on of
t h e r esul t ant vect or C. Symbol l i cal l y, we wr i t e
C = A + B ( 1.16)
i n wh i ch t h e = si gn h as a mean i n g t h at i s cl ear l y d i f f er en t f r om i t s mean i n g i n or d i n ar y
ar i t h met i c. Gal i l eo used t h i s emp i r i cal l y-based l aw t o obt ai n t h e r esul t ant f or ce act i ng on
a bod y. Al t h ou gh a geomet r i c ap p r oach t o t h e st u d y of vect or s h as an i n t u i t i ve ap p eal , i t
wi l l o f t en be ad van t ageo u s t o u se t h e al gebr ai c m et h o d p ar t i cu l ar l y i n t he st udy of
Ei nst ei n s Speci al Rel at i vi t y and Maxwel l s El ect r omagnet i sm.
1.7 Quat er ni ons
I n t h e decade 1830 - 1840, t h e r enowned H ami l t on i nt r oduced new k i nds of
number s t hat cont ai n fou r component s, and t hat do not obey t he commut at i ve pr oper t y of
mul t i pl i cat i on. He cal l ed t he new number s qu a t er n i on s. A quat er ni on has t he for m
u + xi + yj + zk ( 1.17)
i n wh i ch t h e qu an t i t i es i , j , k ar e ak i n t o t h e q u an t i t y i = 1 i n comp l ex n u mber s,
x + i y. Th e comp on en t u f or ms t h e scal ar p ar t , an d t h e t h r ee comp on en t s xi + yj + zk
f o r m t h e vect o r p ar t o f t h e qu at er n i o n . Th e co ef f i ci en t s x, y, z can be co n si d er ed t o be
t he Car t esi an component s of a poi nt P i n space. The quant i t i es i , j , k ar e qu al i t at i ve u n i t s
t h at ar e di r ect ed al ong t h e coor di nat e axes. Two quat er ni ons ar e equal i f t h ei r scal ar par t s
ar e equal , and i f t h ei r coeffi ci ent s x, y, z of i , j , k ar e r esp ect i vel y equ al . Th e su m o f t wo
qu at er n i o n s i s a qu at er n i o n . I n o p er at i o n s t h at i n vo l ve qu at er n i o n s, t h e u su al r u l es o f
mu l t i p l i cat i on h ol d excep t i n t h ose t er ms i n wh i ch p r od u ct s of i , j , k o ccu r i n t h ese
t er ms, t he commut at i ve l aw does not hol d. For exampl e
j k = i , k j = i , k i = j , i k = j , i j = k , j i = k , ( 1.18)
( t hese pr oduct s obey a r i ght -hand r ul e) ,
and
i
2
= j
2
= k
2
= 1. ( Not e t h e r el at i on t o i
2
= 1) . ( 1.19)
The pr oduct of t wo quat er ni ons does not commut e. For exampl e, i f
p = 1 + 2i + 3 j + 4 k , and q = 2 + 3i + 4 j + 5 k
t hen
p q = 36 + 6i + 12j + 12k
wher eas
qp = 36 + 23i 2j + 9 k .
Mul t i pl i cat i on i s associ at i ve.
Quat er ni ons can be used as op er at or s t o r ot at e and scal e a gi ven vect or i nt o a new
vect or :
( a + bi + cj + d k ) ( xi + yj + zk ) = ( x i + y j + z k )
I f t he l aw of composi t i on i s quat er ni oni c mul t i pl i cat i on t hen t he set
Q = { 1, i , j , k }
i s found t o be a gr oup of or der 8. I t i s a non-commut at i ve gr oup.
Hami l t on devel oped t he Cal cul us of Quat er ni ons. He consi der ed, for exampl e, t he
pr oper t i es of t he di ffer ent i al oper at or :
= i ( / x) + j ( / y) + k ( / z) . ( 1.20)
( He cal l ed t hi s oper at or nabl a ) .
I f f( x, y, z) i s a scal ar poi nt funct i on ( si ngl e-val ued) t hen
f = i ( f/ x) + j ( f/ y) + k ( f/ z) , a vect or .
I f
v = v
1
i + v
2
j + v
3
k
i s a cont i nuous vect or poi nt funct i on, wh er e t h e v
i
s ar e f u n ct i o n s o f x, y, an d z, H ami l t o n
i nt r oduced t he oper at i on
v = ( i / x + j / y + k / z) ( v
1
i + v
2
j + v
3
k ) ( 1.21)
= ( v
1
/ x + v
2
/ y + v
3
/ z)
+ ( v
3
/ y v
2
/ z) i + ( v
1
/ z v
3
/ x) j + ( v
2
/ x v
1
/ y) k
= a quat er ni on.
Th e scal ar p ar t i s t h e n egat i ve o f t h e d i ver gen ce o f v ( a t er m d u e t o Cl i f f o r d ) , an d t h e
vect or par t i s t he cur l of v ( a t er m due t o Maxwel l ) . Maxwel l used t h e r ep eat ed op er at or
2
, whi ch he cal l ed t he Lapl aci an.
1.8 3 vect or anal ysi s
Gi bbs, i n h i s n ot es f or Yal e st u d en t s, wr i t t en i n t h e p er i od 1881 - 1884, an d H eavi si d e, i n
ar t i cl es publ i shed i n t he El ectr i ci a n i n t h e 1880 s, i ndep endent l y devel op ed 3-di mensi onal
Vect or Anal ysi s as a subj ect i n i t s own r i ght det ached fr om quat er ni ons.
I n t h e Sci en ces, an d i n p ar t s o f Mat h emat i cs ( mo st n o t abl y i n An al yt i cal an d D i f f er en t i al
Geo m et r y) , t h ei r m et h o d s ar e wi d el y u sed . Two k i nds of vect or mul t i pl i cat i on wer e
i nt r oduced: scal ar mul t i pl i cat i on and vect or mul t i pl i cat i on. Consi der t wo vect or s v and v
wher e
v = v
1
e
1
+ v
2
e
2
+ v
3
e
3
and
v = v
1
e
1
+ v
2
e
2
+ v
3
e
3
.
Th e quant i t i es e
1
, e
2
, and e
3
ar e vect or s of uni t l engt h p oi nt i ng al ong mut ual l y or t h ogonal
axes, l abel l ed 1, 2, and 3.
i ) The scal ar mul t i pl i cat i on of v and v i s defi ned as
v v = v
1
v
1
+ v
2
v
2
+ v
3
v
3
, ( 1.22)
wh er e t h e uni t vect or s h ave t h e pr oper t i es
e
1
e
1
= e
2
e
2
= e
3
e
3
= 1, ( 1.23)
and
e
1
e
2
= e
2
e
1
= e
1
e
3
= e
3
e
1
= e
2
e
3
= e
3
e
2
= 0. ( 1.24)
Th e most i mp or t ant p r op er t y of t h e scal ar p r oduct of t wo vect or s i s i t s i nvar i ance
under r ot at i ons and t r ansl at i ons of t he coor di nat es. ( See Chapt er 1) .
i i ) The vect or pr oduct of t wo vect or s v and v i s defi ned as
e
1
e
2
e
3

v v = v
1
v
2
v
3
( wh er e | . . . | i s t h e det er mi nant ) ( 1.25)
v
1
v
2
v
3

= ( v
2
v
3
v
3
v
2
) e
1
+ ( v
3
v
1
v
1
v
3
) e
2
+ ( v
1
v
2
v
2
v
1
) e
3
.
The uni t vect or s have t he pr oper t i es
e
1
e
1
= e
2
e
2
= e
3
e
3
= 0 ( 1.26 a,b)
( not e t hat t hese pr oper t i es di ffer fr om t he quat er ni oni c pr oduct s of t he i , j , k s) ,
and
e
1
e
2
= e
3
, e
2
e
1
= e
3
, e
2
e
3
= e
1
, e
3
e
2
= e
1
, e
3
e
1
= e
2
, e
1
e
3
= e
2
These non-commut i ng vect or s, or cr oss pr oduct s obey t he st andar d r i ght -hand-r ul e.
Th e vect or pr oduct of t wo par al l el vect or s i s zer o even wh en nei t h er vect or i s zer o.
Th e n o n -asso ci at i ve p r o p er t y o f a vect o r p r o d u ct i s i l l ust r at ed i n t he fol l owi ng
exampl e
e
1
e
2
e
2
= ( e
1
e
2
) e
2
= e
3
e
2
= e
1
= e
1
( e
2
e
2
) = 0.
I mp or t ant op er at i ons i n Vect or Anal ysi s t h at f ol l ow di r ect l y f r om t h ose i nt r oduced
i n t he t heor y of quat er ni ons ar e:
1) t he gr a di en t of a scal ar funct i on f( x
1
, x
2
, x
3
)
f = ( f/ x
1
) e
1
+ ( f/ x
2
) e
2
+ ( f/ x
3
) e
3
, ( 1.27)
2) t he di ver gen ce of a vect or funct i on v
v = v
1
/ x
1
+ v
2
/ x
2
+ v
3
/ x
3
( 1.28)
wher e v has component s v
1
, v
2
, v
3
t hat ar e funct i ons of x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, and
3) t he cu r l of a vect or funct i on v
e
1
e
2
e
3

v = / x
1
/ x
2
/ x
3
. ( 1.29)
v
1
v
2
v
3

The physi cal si gni fi cance of t hese oper at i ons i s di scussed l at er .
1.9 Li near al gebr a and n-vect or s
A m aj o r p ar t o f Li n ear Al gebr a i s co n cer n ed wi t h t h e ext en si o n o f t h e al gebr ai c
pr oper t i es of vect or s i n t he pl ane ( 2-vect or s) , and i n space ( 3-vect or s) , t o vect or s i n hi gher
di mensi ons ( n-vect or s) . Th i s ar ea of st udy h as i t s or i gi n i n t h e wor k of Gr assmann ( 1809 -
77) , who gener al i zed t he quat er ni ons ( 4-component hyper -compl ex number s) , i nt r oduced
by Hami l t on.
An n-di mensi onal vect or i s defi ned as an or der ed col umn of number s
x
1

x
2

x
n
= . ( 1.30)
.
x
n

I t wi l l be conveni ent t o wr i t e t h i s as an or der ed r ow i n squar e br ack et s
x
n
= [ x
1
, x
2
, ... x
n
] . ( 1.31)
The t r anspose of t he col umn vect or i s t he r ow vect or
x
n
T
= ( x
1
, x
2
, ...x
n
) . ( 1.32)
Th e number s x
1
, x
2
, ...x
n
ar e cal l ed t h e co mp o n en t s o f x, an d t h e i n t eger n i s t h e
di mensi on of x. The or der of t he component s i s i mpor t ant , for exampl e
[ 1, 2, 3] [ 2, 3, 1] .
Th e t wo vect or s x = [ x
1
, x
2
, ...x
n
] and y = [ y
1
, y
2
, ...y
n
] ar e equal i f
x
i
= y
i
( i = 1 t o n) .
Th e l aws of Vect or Al gebr a ar e
1. x + y = y + x . ( 1.33 a-e)
2. [ x + y] + z = x + [ y + z] .
3. a[ x + y] = ax + ay wher e a i s a scal ar .
4. ( a + b) x = ax + b y wher e a,b ar e scal ar s .
5. ( ab) x = a( bx) wher e a,b ar e scal ar s .
I f a = 1 and b = 1 t h en
x + [ x] = 0,
wher e 0 = [ 0, 0, ...0] i s t h e zer o vect or .
The vect or s x = [ x
1
, x
2
, ...x
n
] and y = [ y
1
, y
2
...y
n
] can be added t o gi ve t h ei r sum or
r esul t ant :
x + y = [ x
1
+ y
1
, x
2
+ y
2
, ...,x
n
+ y
n
] . ( 1.34)
Th e set of vect or s t h at obeys t h e above r ul es i s cal l ed t h e sp ace of al l n-vect or s or
t he vect or space of di mensi on n.
I n gener al , a vect or v = ax + b y l i es i n t h e p l ane of x and y. Th e vect o r v i s sai d
t o depend l i near l y on x and y i t i s a l i near combi nat i on of x and y.
A k -vect or v i s sai d t o depend l i near l y on t he vect or s u
1
, u
2
, ... u
k
i f t h er e ar e scal ar s
a
i
such t hat
v = a
1
u
1
+ a
2
u
2
+ ...a
k
u
k
. ( 1.35)
For exampl e
[ 3, 5, 7] = [ 3, 6, 6] + [ 0, 1, 1] = 3[ 1, 2, 2] + 1[ 0, 1, 1] , a l i n ear co mbi n at i o n o f
t h e vect or s [ 1, 2, 2] and [ 0, 1, 1] .
A set o f vect o r s u
1
, u
2
, . . . u
k
i s cal l ed l i n ear l y d ep en d en t i f on e o f t h ese vect o r s
depends l i near l y on t he r est . For exampl e, i f
u
1
= a
2
u
2
+ a
3
u
3
+ ...+ a
k
u
k
., ( 1.36)
t h e set u
1
, ... u
k
i s l i near l y dependent .
I f none of t he vect or s u
1
, u
2
, ... u
k
can be wr i t t en l i n ear l y i n t er ms o f t h e r emai n i n g
ones we say t h at t h e vect or s ar e l i near l y i ndependent .
Al t er nat i vel y, t h e vect or s u
1
, u
2
, ...u
k
ar e l i n ear l y d ep en d en t i f an d o n l y i f t h er e i s
an equat i on of t he for m
c
1
u
1
+ c
2
u
2
+ ...c
k
u
k
= 0 , ( 1.37)
i n whi ch t he scal ar s c
i
ar e not al l zer o.
Consi der t h e vect or s e
i
o bt ai n ed by p u t t i n g t h e i
t h
-co mp o n en t equ al t o 1, an d al l
t he ot her component s equal t o zer o:
e
1
= [ 1, 0, 0, ...0]
e
2
= [ 0, 1, 0, ...0]
...
t hen ever y vect or of di mensi on n depends l i near l y on e
1
, e
2
, ... e
n
, t hus
x = [ x
1
, x
2
, ...x
n
]
= x
1
e
1
+ x
2
e
2
+ ...x
n
e
n
. ( 1.38)
The e
i
s ar e sai d t o spa n t he spa ce of al l n-vect or s; t hey for m a ba si s. Ever y basi s o f an n -
space has exact l y n el ement s. The connect i on bet ween a vect or x and a defi ni t e
coor di nat e syst em i s made by choosi ng a set of basi s vect or s e
i
.
1.10 The geomet r y of vect or s
The l aws of vect or al gebr a can be i nt er p r et ed geomet r i cal l y for vect or s of
d i men si o n 2 an d 3. Let t h e zer o vect o r r ep r esen t t h e o r i gi n o f a co o r d i n at e syst em, an d
l et t h e 2-vect or s, x and y, cor r esp on d t o p oi n t s i n t h e p l an e: P[ x
1
, x
2
] and Q[ y
1
, y
2
] . Th e
vect or sum x + y i s r epr esent ed by t he poi nt R, as shown
R[ x
1
+ y
1
, x
2
+ y
2
]
2nd comp onent

x
2
P[ x
1
, x
2
]

y
2
Q[ y
1
, y
2
]

O[ 0, 0]
x
1
y
1
1st component
R i s i n t he pl ane OPQ, even i f x and y ar e 3-vect or s.
Ever y vect o r p o i n t o n t h e l i n e OR r ep r esen t s t h e su m o f t h e t wo co r r esp o n d i n g vect o r
poi nt s on t he l i nes OP and OQ. We t her efor e i nt r oduce t he concept of t he di r ect ed vect or
l i nes OP, OQ, and OR, r el at ed by t he vect or equat i on
OP + OQ = OR . ( 1.39)
A vect or V can be r ep r esen t ed as a l i n e o f l en gt h OP p o i n t i n g i n t h e d i r ect i o n o f t h e u n i t
vect or v, t hus

P

V = v.OP
v
O

A vect or V i s unchanged by a pur e di spl acement :

= V
2

V
1

wher e t he = si gn means equal i t y i n magni t ude and di r ect i on.
Two cl asses of vect or s wi l l be met i n fut ur e di scussi ons; t hey ar e
1. Pol a r vect or s: t h e vect o r i s d r awn i n t he di r ect i on of t he physi cal quant i t y bei ng
r epr esent ed, for exampl e a vel oci t y,
and
2. Axi a l vect or s: t h e vect or i s dr awn p ar al l el t o t h e axi s about wh i ch t h e p h ysi cal quant i t y
act s, for exampl e an angul ar vel oci t y.
The associ at i ve pr oper t y of t he sum of vect or s can be r eadi l y demonst r at ed,
geomet r i cal l y

C
V

B

A
We see t hat
V = A + B + C = ( A + B) + C = A + ( B + C) = ( A + C) + B . ( 1.40)
Th e p r o cess o f vect o r ad d i t i o n can be r ever sed ; a vect o r V can be d eco m p o sed i n t o t h e
sum of n vect or s of whi ch ( n 1) ar e ar bi t r ar y, and t he n
t h
vect o r cl o ses t h e p o l ygo n . Th e
vect or s need not be i n t h e same pl ane. A speci al case of t h i s pr ocess i s t h e decomposi t i on
of a 3-vect or i nt o i t s Car t esi an component s.
A gener al case A sp eci al case
V
V
5
V
V
z

V
4

V
1
V
3

V
x

V
y

V
2

V
1
, V
2
, V
3
, V
4
: ar bi t r ar y V
z
cl oses t he pol ygon
V
5
cl oses t he pol ygon
The vect or pr oduct of A and B i s an axi al vect o r , p er p en d i cu l ar t o t h e p l an e co n t ai n i n g A
and B.
z

^ B y
A B

a u n i t vect or , + n A
per pendi cul ar t o t he A, B pl ane

x
A B = AB si n n = B A ( 1.41)
1.11 Li near Oper at or s and Mat r i ces
Tr ansfor mat i ons fr om a coor di nat e syst em [ x, y] t o anot her syst em [ x , y ] ,
wi t h out sh i ft of t h e or i gi n, or fr om a poi nt P[ x, y] t o anot h er poi nt P [ x , y ] , i n t h e same
syst em, t hat have t he for m
x = ax + by
y = cx + dy
wh er e a, b, c, d ar e r eal coeffi ci ent s, can be wr i t t en i n mat r i x not at i on, as fol l ows
x a b x
= , ( 1.41)
y c d y
Symbol i cal l y,
x = Mx, ( 1.42)
wher e
x = [ x, y] , and x = [ x , y ] , bot h col u m n 2-vect or s,
and
a b
M = ,
c d
a 2 2 mat r i x oper at or t hat changes [ x, y] i nt o [ x , y ] .
I n gener al , M t r ansfor ms a uni t squar e i nt o a par al l el ogr am:
y y [ a+ b,c+ d ]
[ b,d ]
[ 0,1] [ 1,1]
x
[ a,c]
[ 0,0] [ 1,0] x
Th i s t r an sf or mat i on p l ays a k ey r l e i n Ei n st ei n s Sp eci al Th eor y of Rel at i vi t y ( see
l at er di scussi on) .
1.12 Rot at i on oper at or s
Consi der t he r ot at i on of an x, y coor di nat e syst em about t he or i gi n t hr ough an angl e :
y y
P[ x, y] or P [ x , y ]
y
y

x
x
+
O,O x x
Fr om t h e di agr am, we see t h at
x = xcos + ysi n
and
y = xsi n + ycos
or
x cos si n x
= .
y si n cos y
Symbol i cal l y,
P =
c
( ) P ( 1.43)
wher e
cos si n

c
( ) = i s t h e r ot a t i on oper a t or .
si n cos
The subscr i pt c denot es a r ot at i on of t he coor di nat es t hr ough an angl e + .
The i nver se oper at or ,
c
1
( ) , i s obt ai ned by r ever si ng t h e angl e of r ot at i on: + .
We see t hat mat r i x pr oduct

c
1
( )
c
( ) =
c
T
( )
c
( ) = I ( 1.44)
wher e t he super scr i pt T i ndi cat es t he t r anspose ( r ows col umns) , and
1 0
I = i s t h e i dent i t y op er at or . ( 1.45)
0 1
Thi s i s t he defi ni ng pr oper t y of an or t hogon a l m a t r i x .
I f we l eave t h e axes f i xed and r ot at e t h e p oi nt P[ x, y] t o P [ x , y ] , t h en
we have
y
y P [ x , y ]
y P[ x, y]

O x x x
Fr om t h e di agr am, we see t h at
x = xcos ysi n, and y = xsi n + ycos
or
P =
v
( ) P ( 1.46)
wher e
cos si n

v
( ) = , t h e op er at or t h at r ot at es a vect or t h r ough + .
si n cos
1.13 Component s of a vect or under coor di nat e r ot at i ons
Consi der a vect or V [ v
x
, v
y
] , and t he same vect or V wi t h component s [ v
x
,v
y
] , i n a
coor di nat e syst em ( pr i med) , r ot at ed t hr ough an angl e + .
y y
v
y

v
y
V = V
x
v
x

O, O v
x
x
We h ave met t h e t r an sf o r mat i o n [ x, y] [ x , y ] u n d er t h e o p er at i o n
c
( ) ;
h er e, we h ave t h e sam e t r an sf o r m at i o n bu t n o w i t o p er at es o n t h e co m p o n en t s o f t h e
vect or , v
x
and v
y
,
[ v
x
, v
y
] =
c
( ) [ v
x
, v
y
] . ( 1.47)
PROBLEMS
1-1 i ) I f u = 3
x/ y
show t hat u/ x = ( 3
x/ y
l n3) / y and u/ y = ( 3
x/ y
xl n3) / y
2
.
i i ) I f u = l n{ ( x
3
+ y) / x
2
} show t hat u/ x = ( x
3
2y) / ( x( x
3
+ y) ) and u/ y = 1/ ( x
3
+ y) .
1-2 Cal cul at e t h e second par t i al der i vat i ves of
f ( x, y) = ( 1/ y) exp{ ( x a)
2
/ 4y} , a = const ant .
1-3 Check t he answer s obt ai ned i n pr obl em 1-2 by showi ng t hat t he funct i on f( x, y) i n
1-2 i s a sol ut i on of t h e p ar t i al di ffer ent i al equat i on
2
f/ x
2
f/ y = 0.
1-4 I f f ( x, y, z) = 1/ ( x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
)
1/ 2
= 1/ r , show t hat f( x, y, z) = 1/ r i s a sol ut i on of Lapl ace s
equat i on

2
f/ x
2
+
2
f/ y
2
+
2
f/ z
2
= 0.
Thi s i mpor t ant equat i on occur s i n many br anches of Physi cs.
1-5 At a gi ven i nst ant , t he r adi us of a cyl i nder i s r ( t ) = 4cm and i t s hei ght i s h( t ) = 10cm.
I f r ( t ) and h( t ) ar e bot h changi ng at a r at e of 2 cm.s
1
, show t hat t he i nst ant aneous
i ncr ease i n t h e vol ume of t h e cyl i nder i s 192 cm
3
.s
1
.
1-6 The t r ansfor mat i on bet ween Car t esi an coor di nat es [ x, y, z] and spher i cal pol ar
coor di nat es [ r , , ] i s
x = r si ncos, y = r si n si n, z = r cos.
Sh ow, by cal cul at i ng al l necessar y p ar t i al der i vat i ves, t h at t h e squar e of t h e l i ne
el ement i s
ds
2
= dr
2
+ r
2
si n
2
d
2
+ r
2
d
2
.
Obt ai n t h i s r esu l t u si n g geo met r i cal ar gu men t s. Th i s f o r m o f t h e squ ar e o f t h e l i n e
el ement wi l l be used on sever al occasi ons i n t he fut ur e.
1-7 Pr ove t h at t h e i nver se of each el ement of a gr oup i s uni que.
1-8 Pr ove t hat t he set of posi t i ve r at i onal number s does not for m a gr oup under di vi si on.
1-9 A f i n i t e gr ou p of or d er n h as n
2
p r o d u ct s t h at may be wr i t t en i n an n n ar r ay, cal l ed
t h e gr oup mul t i p l i cat i on t abl e. For examp l e, t h e 4t h -r oot s of uni t y { e, a, b, c} = { 1, i } ,
wh er e i = 1, f or ms a gr oup under mul t i p l i cat i on ( 1i = i , i ( i ) = 1, i
2
= 1, ( i )
2
= 1,
et c. ) wi t h a mul t i p l i cat i on t abl e
e = 1 a = i b = 1 c = i
e 1 i 1 i
a i 1 i 1
b 1 i 1 i
c i 1 i 1
I n t h i s case, t h e t abl e i s symmet r i c about t h e mai n di agonal ; t h i s i s a ch ar act er i st i c f eat ur e
of a gr oup i n whi ch al l pr oduct s commut e ( ab = ba) i t i s an Abel i an gr oup.
I f G i s t h e d i h ed r al gr o u p D
3
, d i scu ssed i n t h e t ext , wh er e G = { e, a, a
2
, b, c, d } ,
wh er e e i s t h e i d en t i t y, o b t ai n t h e gr o u p m u l t i p l i cat i o n t ab l e. I s i t an Ab el i an gr o u p ?.
No t i ce t h at t h e t hr ee el ement s { e, a, a
2
} for m a subgr oup of G, wher eas t he t hr ee
el ement s { b, c, d} do not ; t her e i s no i dent i t y i n t hi s subset .
Th e gr o u p D
3
h as t h e sam e m u l t i p l i cat i o n t abl e as t h e gr o u p o f p er m u t at i o n s o f
t hr ee obj ect s. Thi s i s t he condi t i on t hat si gni fi es gr oup i somor phi sm.
1-10 Ar e t h e set s
i ) { [ 0, 1, 1] , [ 1, 0, 1] , [ 1, 1, 0] }
and
i i ) { [ 1, 3, 5, 7] , [ 4, 3, 2, 1] , [ 2, 1, 4, 5] }
l i near l y dependent ? Expl ai n.
1-11 i ) Pr ove t h at t h e vect or s [ 0, 1, 1] , [ 1, 0, 1] , [ 1, 1, 0] for m a basi s for Eucl i dean sp ace
R
3
.
i i ) Do t h e vect or s [ 1, i ] and [ i , 1] , ( i = 1) , for m a basi s for t he compl ex space C
2
?
1-12 I nt er p r et t h e l i near i ndep endence of t wo 3-vect or s geomet r i cal l y.
1-13 i ) I f X = [ 1, 2, 3] and Y = [ 3, 2, 1] , p r o ve t h at t h ei r cr o ss p r o d u ct i s o r t h o go n al t o
t he X-Y pl ane.
i i ) I f X and Y ar e 3-vect or s, p r ove t h at XY = 0 i f f X and Y ar e l i near l y dep endent .
1-14 I f
a
11
a
12
a
13

T = a
21
a
22
a
23

0 0 1
r epr esent s a l i near t r ansfor mat i on of t he pl ane under whi ch di st a n ce i s an i n va r i a n t,
show t hat t he fol l owi ng r el at i ons must hol d :
a
11
2
+ a
21
2
= a
12
2
+ a
22
2
= 1, and a
11
a
12
+ a
21
a
22
= 0.
1-15 Det er mi n e t h e 22 t r ansfor mat i on mat r i x t hat maps each poi nt [ x, y] of t he pl ane
ont o i t s i mage i n t h e l i ne y = x3 ( Not e t hat t he t r ansfor mat i on can be consi der ed as
t he pr oduct of t hr ee successi ve oper at i ons) .
1-16 We have used t he convent i on t hat mat r i x oper at or s oper at e on col umn vect or s on
t hei r r i ght . Show t hat a t r ansfor mat i on i nvol vi ng r ow 2-vect or s has t he for m
( x , y ) = ( x, y) M
T
wh er e M
T
i s t he t r anspose of t he 22 mat r i x, M.
1-17 Th e 22 compl ex mat r i ces ( t he Paul i mat r i ces)
1 0 0 1 0 i 1 0
I = ,
1
= ,
2
= ,
3
=
0 1 1 0 i 0 0 1
pl ay an i mpor t ant par t i n Quant um Mechani cs. Show t hat t hey have t he pr oper t i es
2
= i
3
,
2
3
= i
1
,
3
1
= i
2
,
and
k
+
k
i
= 2
i k
I ( i , k = 1, 2, 3) wh er e
i k
i s t h e Kr oneck er del t a. H er e,
t he subscr i pt i i s not 1.
2
KI NEMATI CS: THE GEOMETRY OF MOTI ON
2.1 Vel oci t y and accel er at i on
Th e most i mp or t ant concep t s i n Ki nemat i cs a subj ect i n wh i ch t h e p r op er t i es of
t h e f o r ces r esp o n si bl e f o r t h e mo t i o n ar e i gn o r ed can be i n t r o d u ced by st u d yi n g t h e
si mpl est of al l mot i ons, namel y t hat of a poi nt P movi ng i n a st r ai ght l i ne.
Let a p oi nt P[ t , x] be at a di st ance x f r om a f i xed p oi nt O at a t i me t , and l et i t be at
a p oi nt P [ t , x ] = P [ t + t , x + x] at a t i me t l at er . Th e a ver a ge speed of P i n t h e
i nt er val t i s
< v
p
> = x/ t . ( 2.1)
I f t h e r at i o x/ t i s not const ant i n t i me, we def i ne t h e i n st a n t a n eou s speed o f P at t i m e
t as t h e l i mi t i ng val ue of t h e r at i o as t 0:

v
p
= v
p
( t ) = l i mi t as t 0 of x/ t = dx/ dt = x = v
x
.
Th e i nst ant aneous sp eed i s t h e m a gn i t u d e of a vect or cal l ed t h e i n st a n t a n eou s
vel oci ty of P:
v = d x/ dt , a quant i t y t hat has bot h magni t ude and di r ect i on. ( 2.2)
A spa ce-t i m e cu r ve i s obt ai ned by pl ot t i ng t he posi t i ons of P as a funct i on of t :
x v
p
v
p
P
P
O t
K I N E M A T I C S : T H E G E O M E T R Y O F M O T I O N 34
Th e t angent of t h e angl e made by t h e t angent t o t h e cur ve at any p oi nt gi ves t h e val ue of
t he i nst ant aneous speed at t he poi nt .
Th e i n st a n t a n eou s a ccel er a t i on, a , o f t h e p o i n t P i s gi ven by t h e t i me r at e-o f -ch an ge
of t h e vel oci t y

a = d v/ dt = d( dx/ dt ) / dt = d
2
x/ dt
2
= x . ( 2.3)
A change of var i abl e fr om t t o x gi ves
a = dv/ dt = dv( dx/ dt ) / dx = v( dv/ dx) . ( 2.4)
Th i s i s a u sef u l r el at i o n wh en d eal i n g wi t h p r o bl em s i n wh i ch t h e vel o ci t y i s gi ven as a
funct i on of t he posi t i on. For exampl e
v v
P
P
v

O N Q x
The gr adi ent i s dv/ dx and t an = dv/ dx, t her efor e
NQ, t he su bn or m a l , = v( dv/ dx) = a
p
, t h e accel er at i on of P. ( 2.5)
Th e ar ea u n d er a cu r ve o f t h e speed a s a f u n ct i on of t i m e b et w een t h e t i m es t
1
and t
2
i s
[ A]
[ t 1,t 2]
=
[ t 1,t 2]
v( t ) dt =
[ t 1,t 2]
( dx/ dt ) dt =
[ x1,x2]
dx = ( x
2
x
1
)
= di st ance t r avel l ed i n t h e t i me t
2
t
1
. ( 2.6)
Th e sol ut i on of a k i nemat i cal p r obl em i s somet i mes si mp l i f i ed by usi ng a gr ap h i cal
met hod, for exampl e:
A poi nt A moves al ong an x-axi s wi t h a const ant speed v
A
. Let i t b e at t h e o r i gi n O
( x = 0) at t i m e t = 0. I t co n t i n u es f o r a d i st an ce x
A
, at w h i ch p o i n t i t d ecel er at es at a
const ant r at e, fi nal l y st oppi ng at a di st ance X fr om O at t i me T.
A second poi nt B moves away fr om O i n t he + x-di r ect i on wi t h const ant
accel er at i on . Let i t begi n i t s mot i on at t = 0. I t con t i n u es t o accel er at e u n t i l i t r each es a
maxi mum speed v
B
max
at a t i me t
B
max
when at x
B
max
f r o m O. At x
B
max
, i t begi n s t o d ecel er at e
at a const ant r at e, f i nal l y st op p i ng at X at t i me T: To p r ove t h at t h e maxi mum sp eed of B
dur i ng i t s mot i on i s
v
B
max
= v
A
{ 1 ( x
A
/ 2X) }
1
, a val ue t h at i s i ndependent of t h e t i me at wh i ch
t he maxi mum speed i s r eached.
Th e vel oci t y-t i me cur ves of t h e poi nt s ar e
v
A possi bl e pat h for B
v
B
max
v
A
B
A
O
t = 0 t
A
t
B
max
T t
x = 0 x
A
x
B
max
X
Th e ar eas under t h e cur ves gi ve X = v
A
t
A
+ v
A
( T t
A
) / 2 = v
B
max
T/ 2, so t h at
v
B
max
= v
A
( 1 + ( t
A
/ T) ) , but v
A
T = 2X x
A
, t h er ef or e v
B
max
= v
A
{ 1 ( x
A
/ 2X) }
1
f ( t
B
max
) .
2.2 Di f f er ent i al equat i ons of k i nemat i cs
I f t h e accel er at i on i s a k nown funct i on of t i me t h en t h e di ffer ent i al equat i on
a( t ) = dv/ dt ( 2.7)
can be sol ved by per for mi ng t he i nt egr at i ons ( ei t her anal yt i cal l y or numer i cal l y)
a( t ) dt = dv ( 2.8)
I f a( t ) i s const ant t hen t he r esul t i s si mpl y
at + C = v, wh er e C i s a const ant t h at i s gi ven by t h e i ni t i al condi t i ons.
Let v = u wh en t = 0 t h en C = u and we h ave
at + u = v. ( 2.9)
Thi s i s t he st andar d r esul t for mot i on under const ant accel er at i on.
We can cont i nue t hi s appr oach by wr i t i ng:
v = dx/ dt = u + at .
Sep ar at i ng t h e var i abl es,
dx = udt + at dt .
I n t egr at i n g gi ves
x = ut + ( 1/ 2) at
2
+ C ( for const ant a) .
I f x = 0 wh en t = 0 t h en C = 0, and
x( t ) = ut + ( 1/ 2) at
2
. ( 2.10)
Mul t i pl yi ng t hi s equat i on t hr oughout by 2a gi ves
2ax = 2aut + ( at )
2
= 2aut + ( v u)
2
and t h er efor e, r ear r angi ng, we obt ai n
v
2
= 2ax 2aut + 2vu u
2
= 2ax + 2u( v at ) u
2
= 2ax + u
2
. ( 2.11)
I n gener al , t h e accel er at i on i s a gi ven funct i on of t i me or di st ance or vel oci t y:
1) I f a = f ( t ) t h en
a = dv/ dt = f ( t ) , ( 2.12)
dv = f ( t ) dt ,
t her efor e
v = f( t ) dt + C( a const ant ) .
Th i s equat i on can be wr i t t en
v = dx/ dt = F( t ) + C,
t her efor e
dx = F( t ) dt + Cdt .
x( t ) = F( t ) dt + Ct + C . ( 2.13)
Th e const ant s of i nt egr at i on can be det er mi ned i f t h e vel oci t y and t h e p osi t i on ar e k nown
at a gi ven t i me.
2) I f a = g( x) = v( dv/ dx) t hen ( 2.14)
vdv = g( x) dx.
v
2
= 2 g( x) dx + D,
t her efor e
v
2
= G( x) + D
so t hat
v = ( dx/ dt ) = ( G( x) + D) . ( 2.15)
I nt egr at i ng t h i s equat i on l eads t o
dx/ { ( G( x) + D) } = t + D . ( 2.16)
Al t er nat i vel y, i f
a = d
2
x/ dt
2
= g( x)
t hen, mul t i pl yi ng t hr oughout by 2( dx/ dt ) gi ves
2( dx/ dt ) ( d
2
x/ dt
2
) = 2( dx/ dt ) g( x) .
I nt egr at i ng t h en gi ves
( dx/ dt )
2
= 2 g( x) dx + D et c.
As an exampl e of t hi s met hod, consi der t he equat i on of si mpl e har moni c mot i on ( see l at er
di scussi on)
d
2
x/ dt
2
=
2
x. ( 2.17)
Mul t i pl y t hr oughout by 2( dx/ dt ) , t hen
2( dx/ dt ) d
2
x/ dt
2
= 2
2
x( dx/ dt ) .
Th i s can be i nt egr at ed t o gi ve
( dx/ dt )
2
=
2
x
2
+ D.
I f dx/ dt = 0 wh en x = A t h en D =
2
A
2
, t her efor e
( dx/ dt )
2
=
2
( A
2
x
2
) = v
2
,
so t hat
d x/ d t = ( A
2
x
2
) .
Sep ar at i ng t h e var i abl es, we obt ai n
d x/ { ( A
2
x
2
) } = d t . ( Th e m i n u s si gn i s ch o sen b ecau se d x an d d t h ave
opposi t e si gns) .
I n t egr at i n g, gi ves
cos
1
( x/ A) = t + D .
But x = A wh en t = 0, t h er ef or e D = 0, so t h at
x( t ) = Acos( t ) , wh er e A i s t h e ampl i t ude. ( 2.18)
3) I f a = h( v) , t hen ( 2.19)
dv/ dt = h ( v)
t her efor e
dv/ h ( v) = dt ,
and
dv/ h( v) = t + B. ( 2.20)
Some of t h e t ech ni ques used t o sol ve or di nar y di f f er ent i al equat i ons ar e di scussed
i n Appendi x A.
2.3 Vel oci t y i n Car t esi an and pol ar coor di nat es
Th e t r ansf or mat i on fr om Car t esi an t o Pol ar Coor di nat es i s r epr esent ed by t he
l i near equat i ons
x = r cos and y = r si n, ( 2.21 a,b)
or
x = f ( r , ) and y = g( r , ) .
Th e di f f er ent i al s ar e
d x = ( f/ r ) dr + ( f/ ) d and dy = ( g/ r ) dr + ( g/ ) d.
We ar e i nt er est ed i n t he t r ansfor mat i on of t he component s of t he vel oci t y vect or under
[ x, y] [ r , ] . Th e vel o ci t y co mp o n en t s i n vo l ve t h e r at es o f ch an ge o f d x an d d y wi t h
r esp ect t o t i me:
dx/ dt = ( f/ r ) dr / dt + ( f/ ) d/ dt and dy/ dt = ( g/ r ) dr / dt + ( g/ ) d/ dt
or

x = ( f/ r ) r + ( f/ ) and y = ( g/ r ) r + ( g/ ) . ( 2.22)
But ,
f/ r = cos, f/ = r si n, g/ r = si n, and g/ = r cos,
t her efor e, t he vel oci t y t r ansfor mat i ons ar e

x = cos r si n( r ) = v
x
( 2.23)
and

y = si n r + cos( r ) = v
y
. ( 2.24)
Th ese equat i ons can be wr i t t en
v
x
cos si n dr / dt
= .
v
y
si n cos r d / dt
Changi ng , gi ves t h e i nver se equat i ons
dr / dt cos si n v
x

=
r d / dt si n cos v
y

or
v
r
v
x
=
c
( ) . ( 2.25)
v
v
y
The vel oci t y component s i n [ r , ] coor di nat es ar e t her efor e
V

| v
| = r = r d / d t | v
r
| = r = dr / dt
P[ r , ]
r + , ant i cl ock wi se
O x
The quant i t y d / dt i s cal l ed t h e a n gu l a r vel oci t y of P about t he or i gi n O.
2.4 Accel er at i on i n Car t esi an and pol ar coor di nat es
We have found t hat t he vel oci t y component s t r ansfor m fr om [ x, y] t o [ r , ]
coor di nat es as fol l ows

v
x
= cos r si n( r ) = x
and

v
y
= si n r + cos( r ) = y.
The accel er at i on component s ar e gi ven by
a
x
= dv
x
/ dt and v
y
= dv
y
/ dt

a
x
= ( d/ dt ) { cos r si n( r ) } ( 2.26)

= cos( r r
2
) si n( 2r + r )
and

a
y
= ( d/ dt ) { si n r + cos( r ) } ( 2.27)

= cos( 2r + r ) + si n( r r
2
) .
Th ese equat i ons can be wr i t t en
a
r
cos si n a
x

= . ( 2.28)
a

si n cos a
y

The accel er at i on component s i n [ r , ] coor di nat es ar e t her efor e
A

| a
| = 2r + r
| a
r
| = r r
2

P[ r , ]
r
O x
These expr essi ons for t he component s of accel er at i on wi l l be of k ey i mpor t ance i n
di scussi ons of Newt on s Theor y of Gr avi t at i on.
We not e t hat , i f r i s const ant , and t he angul ar vel oci t y i s const ant t hen

= r = r = 0, ( 2.29)

a
r
= r
2
= r
2
= r ( v
/ r )
2
= v
2
/ r , ( 2.30)
an d
= r = r . ( 2.31)
These equat i ons ar e t r ue for ci r cu l a r mot i on.
PROBLEMS
2-1 A poi nt moves wi t h const ant accel er at i on, a, al ong t he x-axi s. I f i t moves di st ances x
1
and x
2
i n successi ve i nt er val s of t i me t
1
and t
2
, p r ove t h at t h e accel er at i on i s
a = 2( v
2
v
1
) / T
wh er e v
1
= x
1
/ t
1
, v
2
= x
2
/ t
2
, and T = t
1
+ t
2
.
2-2 A poi nt moves al ong t he x-axi s wi t h an i nst ant aneous decel er at i on ( negat i ve
accel er at i on) :
a( t ) v
n+ 1
( t )
wh er e v( t ) i s t h e i nst ant aneous sp eed at t i me t , and n i s a p osi t i ve i nt eger . I f t h e
i ni t i al sp eed of t h e p oi nt i s u ( at t = 0) , sh ow t h at
k
n
t = { ( u
n
v
n
) / ( uv)
n
} / n, wher e k
n
i s a const ant of pr opor t i onal i t y,
and t hat t he di st ance t r avel l ed, x( t ) , by t he poi nt fr om i t s i ni t i al posi t i on i s
k
n
x( t ) = { ( u
n 1
v
n 1
) / ( uv)
n 1
} / ( n 1) .
2-3 A poi nt moves al ong t he x-axi s wi t h an i nst ant aneous decel er at i on k v
3
( t ) , wher e v( t ) i s
t he speed and k i s a const ant . Show t hat
v( t ) = u/ ( 1 + k ux( t ) )
wh er e x( t ) i s t h e di st ance t r avel l ed, and u i s t h e i ni t i al sp eed of t h e p oi nt .
2-4 A poi nt moves al ong t he x-axi s wi t h an i nst ant aneous accel er at i on
d
2
x/ dt
2
=
2
/ x
2
wh er e i s a const ant . I f t he poi nt st ar t s fr om r est at x = a, show t hat t he speed of
t h e p ar t i cl e i s
dx/ dt = { 2( a x) / ( ax) }
1/ 2
.
Why i s t he negat i ve squar e r oot chosen?
2-5 A poi nt P moves wi t h const ant speed v al ong t he x-axi s of a Car t esi an syst em, and a
poi nt Q moves wi t h const ant speed u al ong t h e y-axi s. At t i me t = 0, P i s at x = 0, and
Q, movi ng t owar ds t he or i gi n, i s at y = D. Show t hat t he mi ni mum di st ance, d
mi n
,
bet ween P and Q dur i ng t h ei r mot i on i s
d
mi n
= D{ 1/ ( 1 + ( u/ v)
2
) }
1/ 2
.
Sol ve t hi s pr obl em i n t wo ways:1) by di r ect mi ni mi zat i on of a funct i on, and 2) by a
geomet r i cal met hod t hat depends on t he choi ce of a mor e sui t abl e fr ame of r efer ence
( for exampl e, t he r est fr ame of P) .
2-6 Two shi ps ar e sai l i ng wi t h const ant vel oci t i es u and v on st r ai ght cour ses t hat ar e
i ncl i ned at an angl e . I f, at a gi ven i nst ant , t hei r di st ances fr om t he poi nt of
i nt er sect i on of t hei r cour ses ar e a and b, fi nd t hei r mi ni mum di st ance apar t .
2-7 A poi nt moves al ong t he x-axi s wi t h an accel er at i on a( t ) = k t
2
, wh er e t i s t h e t i me t h e
poi nt has been i n mot i on, and k i s a const ant . I f t he i ni t i al speed of t he poi nt i s u,
sh ow t h at t h e di st ance t r avel l ed i n t i me t i s
x( t ) = ut + ( 1/ 12) k t
4
.
2-8 A poi nt , movi ng al ong t he x-axi s, t r avel s a di st ance x( t ) gi ven by t he equat i on
x( t ) = aexp{ k t } + bexp{ k t }
wh er e a, b, and k ar e const ant s. Pr ove t h at t h e accel er at i on of t h e p oi nt i s
p r op or t i onal t o t h e di st ance t r avel l ed.
2-9 A poi nt moves i n t he pl ane wi t h t he equat i ons of mot i on
d
2
x/ dt
2
2 1 x
= .
d
2
y/ dt
2
1 2 y
Let t he fol l owi ng coor di nat e t r ansfor mat i on be made
u = ( x + y) / 2 and v = ( x y) / 2.
Show t hat i n t he u-v fr ame, t he equat i ons of mot i on have a si mpl e for m, and t hat t he
t i me-dependence of t he coor di nat es i s gi ven by
u = Acost + Bsi nt ,
and
v = Ccos3 t + D si n 3 t , wh er e A, B, C, D ar e const ant s.
Thi s coor di nat e t r ansfor mat i on has di agonal i zed t he or i gi nal mat r i x:
2 1 1 0
.
1 2 0 3
Th e mat r i x wi t h zer os ever ywh er e, excep t al ong t h e mai n di agonal , h as t h e
i nt er est i ng p r op er t y t h at i t si mp l y sca l es t he vect or s on whi ch i t act s i t does not
r ot at e t h em. Th e scal i ng val ues ar e gi ven by t h e di agonal el ement s, cal l ed t h e
ei genval ues of t h e di agonal mat r i x. Th e scal ed vect or s ar e cal l ed ei genvect or s. A
smal l i ndust r y exi st s t hat i s devot ed t o fi ndi ng opt i mum ways of di agonal i zi ng l ar ge
mat r i ces. I l l ust r at e t h e mot i on of t h e syst em i n t h e x-y fr ame and i n t h e u-v fr ame.
3
CLASSI CAL AND SPECI AL RELATI VI TY
3.1 The Gal i l ean t r ansf or mat i on
Event s bel ong t o t he physi cal wor l d t hey ar e not abst r act i ons. We shal l ,
nonet hel ess, i nt r oduce t he i dea of an i dea l even t t h at h as n ei t h er ext en si on n or d u r at i on .
I deal event s may be r epr esent ed as poi nt s i n a space-t i me geomet r y. An even t i s
d escr i bed by a f o u r -vect o r E[ t , x, y, z] w h er e t i s t h e t i m e, an d x, y, z ar e t h e sp at i al
coor di nat es, r efer r ed t o ar bi t r ar i l y chosen or i gi ns.
Let an even t E[ t , x] , r eco r d ed b y an o b ser ver O at t he or i gi n of an x-axi s, be
r eco r d ed as t h e even t E [ t , x ] by a seco n d o bser ver O , mo vi n g at co n st an t sp eed V
al o n g t h e x-axi s. We su p p o se t h at t h ei r cl o ck s ar e syn ch r o n i zed at t = t = 0 wh en t h ey
coi nci de at a common or i gi n, x = x = 0.
At t i me t , we wr i t e t h e p l ausi bl e equat i ons
t = t
and
x = x Vt ,
wh er e Vt i s t h e di st ance t r avel l ed by O i n a t i me t . Th ese equat i ons can be wr i t t en
E = GE ( 3.1)
wher e
1 0
G = .
V 1
C L A S S I C A L A N D S P E C I A L R E L A T I V I T Y 47
G i s t he oper at or of t he Gal i l ean t r ansfor mat i on.
The i nver se equat i ons ar e
t = t
and
x = x + Vt
or
E = G
1
E ( 3.2)
wher e G
1
i s t h e i nver se Gal i l ean oper at or . ( I t undoes t h e effect of G) .
I f w e m u l t i p l y t an d t b y t h e co n st an t s k and k , r esp ect i vel y, wher e k and
k have di mensi ons of vel oci t y t hen al l t er ms have di mensi ons of l engt h.
I n sp ace-sp ace, we h ave t h e Pyt h ago r ean f o r m x
2
+ y
2
= r
2
( an i n var i an t u n d er
r ot at i ons) . We ar e t h er ef or e l ed t o ask t h e quest i on: i s ( k t )
2
+ x
2
an i nvar i ant under G i n
space-t i me? Di r ect cal cul at i on gi ves
( k t )
2
+ x
2
= ( k t )
2
+ x
2
+ 2Vx t + V
2
t
2
= ( k t )
2
+ x
2
onl y i f V = 0 !
We see, t h er ef o r e, t h at Gal i l ean sp ace-t i me d o es n o t l eave t h e su m o f squ ar es i n var i an t .
We not e, h owever , t h e k ey r l e p l ayed by a ccel er a t i on i n Gal i l ean-Newt oni an physi cs:
Th e vel oci t i es of t h e event s accor di ng t o O and O ar e obt ai ned by di ffer ent i at i ng
x = Vt + x wi t h r esp ect t o t i me, gi vi n g
v = V + v, ( 3.3)
a r esul t t hat agr ees wi t h ever yday obser vat i ons.
Di f f er ent i at i ng v wi t h r esp ect t o t i me gi ves
dv / dt = a = dv/ dt = a ( 3.4)
wher e a and a ar e t he accel er at i ons i n t he t wo fr ames of r ef er ence. The cl assi cal
accel er at i on i s an i n va r i a n t under t he Gal i l ean t r ansfor mat i on. I f t he r el at i onshi p
v = v V i s u sed t o d escr i be t h e m o t i o n o f a p u l se o f l i gh t , m o vi n g i n em p t y sp ace at
v = c 3 x 10
8
m/ s, i t does not f i t t h e f act s. For examp l e, i f V i s 0.5c, we exp ect t o obt ai n
v = 0.5c, wh er eas, i t i s f o u n d t h at v = c. I n d eed , i n al l cases st u d i ed , v = c f o r al l
val ues of V.
3.2 Ei nst ei n s space-t i me symmet r y: t he Lor ent z t r ansf or mat i on
I t was Ei nst ei n, above al l ot her s , who advanced our under st andi ng of t he nat ur e of
space-t i me and r el at i ve mot i on. He made use of a symmet r y ar gument t o fi nd t he changes
t h at must be made t o t h e Gal i l ean t r ansf or mat i on i f i t i s t o account f or t h e r el at i ve mot i on
o f r ap i d l y mo vi n g o bj ect s an d o f beams o f l i gh t . Ei n st ei n r eco gn i zed an i n co n si st en cy i n
t he Gal i l ean-Newt oni an equat i ons, based as t hey ar e, on ever yday exp er i ence. The
di scussi on wi l l be l i mi t ed t o non-accel er at i ng, or so cal l ed i ner t i al , fr ames
We have seen t hat t he cl assi cal equat i ons r el at i n g t he event s E and E ar e
E = GE, and t he i nver se E = G
1
E wher e
1 0 1 0
G = an d G
1
= .
V 1 V 1
These equat i ons ar e connect ed by t he subst i t ut i on V V; t h i s i s an al gebr ai c st at emen t
of t h e Newt oni an p r i nci p l e of r el at i vi t y. Ei nst ei n i ncor p or at ed t h i s p r i nci p l e i n h i s t h eor y.
H e al so r et ai n ed t h e l i n ear i t y of t h e cl assi cal equ at i on s i n t h e absen ce of an y evi d en ce t o
t h e co n t r ar y. ( Equ i sp aced i n t er val s o f t i m e an d d i st an ce i n one i ner t i al fr ame r emai n
equi spaced i n any ot her i ner t i al fr ame) . He t her efor e sym m et r i zed t he space-t i me
equat i ons as fol l ows:
t 1 V t
= . ( 3.5)
x V 1 x
No t e, h o wever , t h e i n co n si st en cy i n t h e d i m en si o n s o f t h e t i m e-equ at i o n t h at h as n o w
been i nt r oduced:
t = t Vx.
The t er m Vx has di mensi ons of [ L]
2
/ [ T] , and not [ T] . Th i s can be cor r ect ed by i nt r oduci ng
t he i n va r i a n t speed of l i ght , c a post ul at e i n Ei nst ei n' s t heor y t hat i s consi st ent wi t h t he
r esul t of t he Mi chel son-Mor l ey exper i ment :
ct = ct Vx/ c
so t hat al l t er ms now have di mensi ons of l engt h.
Ei n st ei n wen t f u r t h er , an d i n t r o d u ced a d i men si o n l ess qu an t i t y i n st ead o f t h e
scal i n g f act o r o f u n i t y t h at ap p ear s i n t h e Gal i l ean equ at i o n s o f sp ace-t i me. Th i s f act o r
must be consi st ent wi t h al l obser vat i ons. The equat i ons t hen become
ct = ct x
x = ct + x , wher e = V/ c.
Th ese can be wr i t t en
E = LE, ( 3.6)
wher e

L = ,

an d E = [ ct , x] .
L i s t he oper at or of t he Lor ent z t r ansfor mat i on.
The i nver se equat i on i s
E = L
1
E ( 3.7)
wher e

L
1
= .

Thi s i s t he i nver se Lor ent z t r ansfor mat i on, obt ai ned fr om L by changi ng
( V V) ; i t has t he effect of undoi ng t he t r ansfor mat i on L. We can t h er ef or e wr i t e
LL
1
= I ( 3.8)
Car r yi ng out t he mat r i x mul t i pl i cat i ons, and equat i ng el ement s gi ves

2

2
2
= 1
t her efor e,
= 1/ ( 1
2
) ( t ak i ng t he posi t i ve r oot ) . ( 3.9)
As V 0, 0 an d t h er ef o r e 1; t h i s r ep r esen t s t h e cl assi cal l i m i t i n wh i ch t h e
Gal i l ean t r an sf o r mat i o n i s, f o r al l p r act i cal p u r p o ses, val i d . I n p ar t i cu l ar , t i me an d sp ace
i nt er val s have t he same measur ed val ues i n al l Gal i l ean fr ames of r ef er ence, and
a ccel er a t i on i s t he si ngl e fundament al i nvar i ant .
3.3 The i nvar i ant i nt er val : cont r avar i ant and covar i ant vect or s
Pr evi ousl y, i t was shown t hat t he space-t i me of Gal i l eo and Newt on i s not
Pyt hagor ean under G. We n o w ask t h e qu est i o n : i s Ei n st ei n i an sp ace-t i m e Pyt h ago r ean
under L ? Di r ect cal cul at i on l eads t o
( ct )
2
+ x
2
=
2
( 1 +
2
) ( ct )
2
+ 4
2
x ct
+
2
( 1 +
2
) x
2
( ct )
2
+ x
2
i f > 0.
Not e, h owever , t h at t h e di ffer en ce of squ a r es i s a n i n va r i a n t :
( ct )
2
x
2
= ( ct )
2
x
2
( 3.10)
because

2
( 1
2
) = 1.
Sp ace-t i me i s sai d t o be p seu d o -Eu cl i d ean . Th e n egat i ve si gn t h at ch ar act er i zes Lo r en t z
i nvar i ance can be i ncl uded i n t he t heor y i n a gener al way as fol l ows.
We i nt r oduce t wo k i nds of 4-vect or s
x
= [ x
0
, x
1
, x
2
, x
3
] , a con t r a va r i a n t vect or , ( 3.11)
and
x
= [ x
0
, x
1
,

x
2
, x
3
] , a cova r i a n t vect or , wher e
x
= [ x
0
, x
1
, x
2
, x
3
] . ( 3.12)
The scal ar ( or i nner ) pr oduct of t he vect or s i s defi ned as
x
T
x
= ( x
0
, x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) [ x
0
, x
1
, x
2
, x
3
] , t o confor m t o mat r i x mul t i pl i cat i on

r ow col u mn
= ( x
0
)
2
( ( x
1
)
2
+ ( x
2
)
2
+ ( x
3
)
2
) . ( 3.13)
The super scr i pt T i s usual l y omi t t ed i n wr i t i ng t he i nvar i ant ; i t i s i mpl i ed i n t he for m x
.
Th e event 4-vect or i s
E
= [ ct , x, y, z] and t he covar i ant for m i s

E
= [ ct , x, y, z]
so t hat t he i nvar i ant scal ar pr oduct i s
E
= ( ct )
2
( x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
) . ( 3.14)
A gener al Lor ent z 4-vect or x
t r ansfor ms as fol l ows:

x'
= Lx
( 3.15)
wher e
0 0
L = 0 0

0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
Thi s i s t he oper at or of t he Lor ent z t r ansfor mat i on i f t he mot i on of O i s al ong t he x-axi s of
O' s fr ame of r efer ence, and t h e i ni t i al t i mes ar e synch r oni zed ( t = t = 0 at x = x = 0) .
Two i mp or t ant consequences of t h e Lor ent z t r ansf or mat i on, di scussed i n 3.5, ar e
t h at i nt er val s of t i me measur ed i n t wo di f f er ent i ner t i al f r ames ar e not t h e same; t h ey ar e
r el at ed by t h e equat i on
t = t ( 3.16)
wher e t i s an i nt er val measur ed on a cl ock at r est i n O' s fr ame, and di st ances ar e gi ven by
l = l / ( 3.17)
wher e l i s a l engt h measur ed on a r ul er at r est i n O' s fr ame.
3.4 The gr oup st r uct ur e of Lor ent z t r ansf or mat i ons
Th e sq u ar e o f t h e i n var i an t i n t er val s, b et w een t h e o r i gi n [ 0, 0, 0, 0] and an
ar bi t r ar y event x
= [ x
0
, x
1
, x
2
, x
3
] i s, i n i ndex not at i on
s
2
= x
= x

x

, ( sum over = 0, 1, 2, 3) . ( 3.18)
The l ower i ndi ces can be r ai sed usi ng t he met r i c t ensor
= di ag( 1, 1, 1, 1) , so t h at
s
2
=
x

x
v
, ( sum over and ) . ( 3.19)
The vect or s now have cont r avar i ant for ms.
I n mat r i x not at i on, t he i nvar i ant i s
s
2
= x
T
x = x
T
x . ( 3.20)
( The t r anspose must be wr i t t en expl i ci t l y) .
Th e p r i med an d u n p r i med co l u mn mat r i ces ( cont r avar i ant vect or s) ar e r el at ed by t he
Lor ent z mat r i x oper at or , L
x = Lx .
x
T
x = ( Lx)
T
( Lx)
= x
T
L
T
Lx .
The x s ar e ar bi t r ar y, t h er efor e
L
T
L = . ( 3.21)
Thi s i s t he defi n i n g pr oper t y of t he Lor ent z t r ansfor mat i ons.
The set of al l Lor ent z t r ansfor mat i ons i s t he set L o f al l 4 x 4 mat r i ces t h at sat i sf i es
t he defi ni ng pr oper t y
L = { L: L
T
L = ; L al l 4 x 4 r eal mat r i ces; = di ag( 1, 1, 1, 1} .
( No t e t h at each L h as 16 ( i n d ep en d en t ) r eal mat r i x el emen t s, an d t h er ef o r e bel o n gs t o
t he 16-di mensi onal space, R
16
) .
Consi der t he r esul t of t wo successi ve Lor ent z t r ansfor mat i ons L
1
and L
2
t hat
t r ansfor m a 4-vect or x as fol l ows
x x x
wher e
x = L
1
x ,
and
x = L
2
x .
Th e r esul t ant vect or x i s gi ven by
x = L
2
( L
1
x)
= L
2
L
1
x
= L
c
x
wher e
L
c
= L
2
L
1
( L
1
fol l owed by L
2
) . ( 3.22)
I f t he combi ned oper at i on L
c
i s al ways a Lor ent z t r ansfor mat i on t hen i t must sat i sfy
L
c
T
L
c
= .
We must t her efor e have
( L
2
L
1
)
T
( L
2
L
1
) =
or
L
1
T
( L
2
T
L
2
) L
1
=
so t hat
L
1
T
L
1
= , ( L
1
, L
2
L)
t her efor e
L
c
= L
2
L
1
L . ( 3.23)
An y n u mber o f su ccessi ve Lo r en t z t r an sf o r mat i o n s may be car r i ed o u t t o gi ve a r esu l t an t
t hat i s i t sel f a Lor ent z t r ansfor mat i on.
I f we t ak e t h e det er mi nant of t h e def i ni ng equat i on of L,
d et ( L
T
L) = det
we obt ai n
( det L)
2
= 1 ( d et L = d et L
T
)
so t hat
d et L = 1. ( 3.24)
Si n ce t h e d et er m i n an t o f L i s n o t zer o , an i nver se t r ansfor mat i on L
1
exi st s, and t he
equat i on L
1
L = I , t h e i dent i t y, i s al ways val i d.
Consi der t he i nver se of t he defi ni ng equat i on
( L
T
L)
1
=
1
,
or
L
1 1
( L
T
)
1
=
1
.
Usi ng =
1
, and r ear r angi ng, gi ves
L
1
( L
1
)
T
= . ( 3.25)
Thi s r esul t shows t hat t he i nver se L
1
i s al ways a member of t he set L.
The Lor ent z t r ansfor mat i ons L ar e mat r i ces, and t her efor e t hey obey t he
associ at i ve pr oper t y under mat r i x mul t i pl i cat i on.
We t h er ef or e see t h at
1. I f L
1
and L
2
L , t hen L
2
L
1
L
2. I f L L , t hen L
1
L
3. Th e i d en t i t y I = d i ag( 1, 1, 1, 1) L
and
4. The mat r i x oper at or s L obey associ at i vi t y.
The set of al l Lor ent z t r ansfor mat i ons t her efor e for ms a gr ou p.
3.5 The r ot at i on gr oup
Spat i al r ot at i ons i n t wo and t h r ee di mensi ons ar e Lor ent z t r ansfor mat i ons i n wh i ch
t he t i me-component r emai ns unchanged. I n Chapt er 1, t h e geo met r i cal p r o p er t i es o f t h e
r ot at i on op er at or s ar e di scussed. I n t h i s sect i on, we sh al l consi der t h e al gebr ai c st r uct ur e
of t he oper at or s.
Let be a r eal 33 mat r i x t hat i s par t of a Lor ent z t r ansfor mat i on wi t h a const ant
t i me-component ,
1 0 0 0
0 ( 3.26)
L = 0 .
0
I n t hi s case, t he defi ni ng pr oper t y of t he Lor ent z t r ansfor mat i ons l eads t o
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 -1 0 0 0 0 -1 0 0
0
T
0 0 -1 0 0 = 0 0 -1 0 ( 3.27)
0 0 0 0 -1 0 0 0 0 -1

so t hat
T
= I , t h e i dent i t y mat r i x, di ag( 1,1,1) .
Th i s i s t h e def i ni ng p r op er t y of a t h r ee-di mensi onal or t h ogonal mat r i x. ( Th e r el at ed t wo -
di mensi onal case i s t r eat ed i n Chapt er 1) .
I f x = [ x
1
, x
2
, x
3
] i s a t hr ee-vect or t hat i s t r ansfor med under t o gi ve x t hen
x
T
x = x
T T
x = x
T
x = x
1
2
+ x
2
2
+ x
3
2
= i nvar i ant under . ( 3.28)
Th e act i o n o f o n an y t h r ee-vect o r p r eser ves l en gt h . Th e set o f al l 33 or t h ogon al
mat r i ces i s denot ed by O( 3) ,
O( 3) = { :
T
= I , r
i j
Real s} .
The el ement s of t hi s set sat i sfy t he four gr oup axi oms.
3.6 The r el at i vi t y of si mul t anei t y: t i me di l at i on and l engt h cont r act i on
I n o r d er t o r eco r d t h e t i m e an d p l ace o f a sequence of event s i n a par t i cul ar
i ner t i al r ef er ence f r ame, i t i s necessar y t o i nt r oduce an i nf i ni t e set of adj acent obser ver s ,
l o cat ed t h r o u gh o u t t h e en t i r e sp ace. Each o bser ver , at a k n o wn , f i xed p o si t i o n i n t h e
r ef er ence f r ame, car r i es a cl ock t o r ecor d t h e t i me and t h e ch ar act er i st i c p r op er t y of ever y
even t i n h i s i mmed i at e n ei gh bo r h o o d . Th e o bser ver s ar e n o t co n cer n ed wi t h n o n -l o cal
even t s. Th e cl o ck s car r i ed by t h e o bser ver s ar e syn ch r o n i zed t h ey al l r ead t h e sam e
t i me t hr oughout t he r efer ence fr ame. The pr ocess of synchr oni zat i on i s di scussed l at er . I t
i s t h e j ob of t h e ch i ef obser ver t o col l ect t h e i nf or mat i on concer ni ng t h e t i me, p l ace, and
ch ar act er i st i c f eat u r e o f t h e even t s r eco r d ed by al l o bser ver s, an d t o co n st r u ct t h e wo r l d
l i n e ( a p at h i n sp ace-t i me) , associ at ed wi t h a p ar t i cu l ar ch ar act er i st i c f eat u r e ( t h e t yp e of
par t i cl e, for exampl e) .
Con si d er t wo sou r ces of l i gh t , 1 an d 2, an d a p oi n t M mi d way bet ween t h em. Let
E
1
denot e t h e event f l ash of l i gh t l eaves 1 , and E
2
d en o t e t h e even t f l ash o f l i gh t l eaves
2 . Th e event s E
1
and E
2
ar e si m u l t a n eou s i f t h e f l ash es o f l i gh t f r o m 1 an d 2 r each M at
t h e same t i me. Th e f act t h at t h e sp eed of l i gh t i n f r ee sp ace i s i n d ep en d en t of t h e sp eed
of t he sour ce means t hat si mu l ta n ei ty i s r el a ti ve.
The cl ock s of al l t he obser ver s i n a r efer ence fr ame ar e synchr oni zed by cor r ect i ng
t hem for t he speed of l i ght as fol l ows:
Co n si d er a set o f cl o ck s l o cat ed at x
0
, x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, ... al o n g t h e x-axi s o f a r ef er en ce
fr ame. Let x
0
be t h e ch i ef s cl ock , and l et a f l ash of l i gh t be sent f r om t h e cl ock at x
0
when
i t i s r eadi ng t
0
( 12 noon, say) . At t h e i nst ant t h at t h e l i gh t si gnal r each es t h e cl ock at x
1
, i t
i s set t o r ead t
0
+ ( x
1
/ c) , at t h e i nst ant t h at t h e l i gh t si gnal r each es t h e cl ock at x
2
, i t i s set
t o r ead t
0
+ ( x
2
/ c) , an d so o n f o r ever y cl o ck al o n g t h e x-axi s. Al l cl o ck s i n t h e r ef er en ce
fr ame t hen r ead t he same t i me t hey ar e synchr oni zed. Fr om t he vi ewpoi nt of al l ot her
i n er t i al obser ver s, i n t h ei r own r ef er en ce f r ames, t h e set of cl ock s, sych r on i zed u si n g t h e
above pr ocedur e, appear s t o be unsychr oni zed. I t i s t he l ack of symmet r y i n t he
sychr oni zat i on of cl ock s i n di ffer ent r efer ence fr ames t hat l eads t o t wo non-i nt ui t i ve r esul t s
namel y, l engt h cont r act i on and t i me di l at i on.
Len gt h con t r a ct i on : a n a ppl i ca t i on of t he Lor en t z t r a n sfor m a t i on .
Consi der a r i gi d r od at r est on t h e x-axi s of an i ner t i al r ef er ence f r ame S . Because i t i s at
r est , i t does not mat t er when i t s end-poi nt s x
1
and x
2
ar e measu r ed t o gi ve t h e r est -, o r
pr oper -l engt h of t he r od, L
0
= x
2
x
1
.
Co n si d er t h e sam e r o d o bser ved i n an i n er t i al r ef er en ce fr ame S t hat i s movi ng wi t h
const ant vel oci t y V wi t h i t s x-axi s p ar al l el t o t h e x -axi s. We wi sh t o d et er m i n e t h e
l engt h of t h e movi ng r od; we r equi r e t h e l engt h L = x
2
x
1
acco r d i n g t o t h e o bser ver s i n
S. Th i s mean s t h at t h e o bser ver s i n S mu st measu r e x
1
an d x
2
a t t he sa m e t i m e i n t h ei r
r ef er en ce f r am e. Th e even t s i n t h e t wo r ef er en ce f r am es S, an d S ar e r el at ed by t h e
spat i al par t of t he Lor ent z t r ansfor mat i on:
x = ct + x
and t her efor e
x
2
x
1
= c( t
2
t
1
) + ( x
2
x
1
) .
wher e
= V/ c and = 1/ ( 1
2
) .
Si nce we r equi r e t h e l engt h ( x
2
x
1
) i n S t o be measu r ed at t h e same t i me i n S, we mu st
have t
2
t
1
= 0, and t h er ef or e
L
0
= x
2
x
1
= ( x
2
x
1
) ,
or
L
0
( at r est ) = L ( movi ng) . ( 3.29)
Th e l engt h of a movi ng r od, L, i s t h er ef or e l ess t h an t h e l engt h of t h e same r od measur ed
at r est , L
0
because > 1.
Ti me di l a ti on
Consi der a cl ock at r est at t he or i gi n of an i ner t i al fr ame S , and a set of
synchr oni zed cl ocks at x
0
, x
1
, x
2
, ... on t h e x-axi s of anot h er i ner t i al f r ame S. Let S move at
const ant speed V r el at i ve t o S, al ong t he common x -, x - axi s. Let t he cl ock s at x
o
, and x
o
be sychr oni zed t o r ead t

0
, and t
0
at t h e i nst ant t h at t h ey coi nci de i n space. A pr oper t i m e
i n t er va l i s d ef i n ed t o be t h e t i m e bet ween t wo even t s m easu r ed i n an i n er t i al f r am e i n
whi ch t he t wo event s occur at t he same pl ace. The t i me par t of t he Lor ent z
t r an sf o r mat i o n can be u sed t o r el at e an i n t er val o f t i me measu r ed o n t h e si n gl e cl o ck i n
t h e S f r ame, and t h e same i nt er val of t i me measur ed on t h e set of synch r oni zed cl ock s at
r est i n t h e S f r ame. We h ave
ct = ct + x
or
c( t
2
t
1
) = c( t
2
t
1
) + ( x
2
x
1
) .
Th er e i s no separ at i on bet ween a si ngl e cl ock and i t sel f, t h er efor e x
2
x
1
= 0, so t h at
c( t
2
t
1
) ( movi ng) = c( t
2
t
1
) ( at r est ) ( > 1) . ( 3.30)
A movi ng cl ock r uns mor e sl owl y t han a cl ock at r est .
I n Chapt er 1, i t was sh o wn t h at t h e gen er al 2 2 mat r i x op er at or t r ansf or ms r ect angul ar
coor di nat es i nt o obl i que coor di nat es. Th e Lor ent z t r ansf or mat i on i s a sp eci al case of t h e
2 2 mat r i ces, and t h er ef or e i t s ef f ect i s t o t r ansf or m r ect angul ar sp ace-t i me coor di nat es
i nt o obl i que space-t i me coor di nat es:
x x

t an
1

E[ ct , x] or E [ ct , x ]

ct

t an
1

ct
Th e geomet r i cal f or m of t h e Lor ent z t r ansf or mat i on
Th e symmet r y of space-t i me means t h at t h e t r ansfor med axes r ot at e t h r ough equal
an gl es, t an
1
. Th e r el at i vi t y o f si m u l t an ei t y i s cl ear l y exh i b i t ed o n t h i s di agr am: t wo
event s t h at occur at t h e same t i me i n t h e ct , x -fr ame necessar i l y occur at di ffer ent t i mes i n
t h e obl i que ct , x -fr ame.
3.7 The 4-vel oci t y
A di ffer ent i al t i me i nt er val , dt , cannot be used i n a Lor ent z-i nvar i ant way i n
k i nemat i cs. We must use t he pr oper t i me di ffer ent i al i nt er val , d, defi ned by
( cdt )
2
dx
2
= ( cdt )
2
dx
2
( cd)
2
. ( 3.31)
Th e Newt oni an 3-vel oci t y i s
v
N
= [ dx/ dt , dy/ dt , dz/ dt ] ,
and t hi s must be r epl aced by t he 4-vel oci t y
V
= [ d( ct ) / d, dx/ d, dy/ d, dz/ d]

= [ d( ct ) / dt , dx/ dt , dy/ dt , dz/ dt ] ( dt / d )
= [ c, v
N
] . ( 3.32)
The scal ar pr oduct i s t hen
V
= ( c)
2
( v
N
)
2
( t he t r anspose i s under st ood)
= ( c)
2
( 1 ( v
N
/ c)
2
)
= c
2
. ( 3.33)
Th e magni t ude of t h e 4-vel oci t y i s t h er ef or e V
= c, t h e i nvar i ant sp eed of l i gh t .

PROBLEMS
3-1 Two p oi nt s, A and B, move i n t h e p l ane wi t h const ant vel oci t i es | v
A
| = 2 m .s
1
and
| v
B
| = 2 2 m.s
1
. They move fr om t hei r i ni t i al ( t = 0) posi t i ons, A( 0) [ 1, 1] and B( 0) [ 6, 2]
as shown:
y, m
6
5
4
v
B
3
2 B( 0)
v
A

1 A( 0) R( 0)
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x, m
Sh ow t h at t h e cl osest di st ance bet ween t h e poi nt s i s | R|
mi n
= 2.529882..met er s,
and t h at i t occur s 1.40...seconds aft er t h ey l eave t h ei r i ni t i al posi t i ons. ( Remember
t h at al l i ner t i al fr ames ar e equi val ent , t h er efor e ch oose t h e most appr opr i at e for
deal i ng wi t h t h i s pr obl em) .
3-2 Show t hat t he set of al l st andar d ( mot i on al ong t he common x-axi s) Gal i l ean
t r ansfor mat i ons for ms a gr oup.
3-3 A fl ash of l i ght i s sent out fr om a poi nt x
1
on t he x-axi s of an i ner t i al fr ame S, and i t i s
r ecei ved at a p oi nt x
2
= x
1
+ l. Consi der anot her i ner t i al fr ame, S , movi ng wi t h
const ant speed V = c al ong t he x-axi s; show t hat , i n S :
i ) t he separ at i on bet ween t he poi nt of emi ssi on and t he poi nt of r ecept i on of t he l i ght
i s l = l{ ( 1 ) / ( 1 + ) }
1/ 2

i i ) t h e t i me i nt er val bet ween t h e emi ssi on and r ecep t i on of t h e l i gh t i s
t = ( l/ c) { ( 1 ) / ( 1 + ) }
1/ 2.
3-4 Th e di st ance bet ween t wo p h ot ons of l i gh t t h at t r avel al ong t h e x-axi s of an i ner t i al
f r ame, S, i s al ways l. Show t hat , i n a second i ner t i al fr ame, S , movi ng at const ant
sp eed V = c al ong t he x-axi s, t he separ at i on bet ween t he t wo phot ons i s
x = l{ ( 1 + ) / ( 1 ) }
1/ 2
.
3-5 An event [ ct , x] i n an i ner t i al fr ame, S, i s t r ansfor med under a st andar d Lor ent z
t r ansfor mat i on t o [ ct , x ] i n a st andar d pr i med fr ame, S , t hat has a const ant speed V
al ong t he x-axi s, show t hat t he vel oci t y component s of t he poi nt x, x ar e r el at ed by
t h e equat i on
v
x
= ( v
x
+ V) / ( 1 + ( v
x
V/ c
2
) ) .
3-6 An obj ect cal l ed a K
0
-meson decays when at r est i nt o t wo obj ect s cal l ed -mesons
( ) , each wi t h a sp eed of 0.8c. I f t h e K
0
-meson has a measur ed speed of 0.9c when i t
decays, sh ow t h at t h e gr eat est speed of one of t h e -mesons i s ( 85/ 86) c and t hat i t s
l east sp eed i s ( 5/ 14) c.
4
NEWTONI AN DYNAMI CS
Al t hough our di scussi on of t he geomet r y of mot i on has l ed t o maj or advances i n our
u n d er st an d i n g o f measu r emen t s o f sp ace an d t i me i n d i f f er en t i n er t i al syst ems, we h ave
yet t o come t o t he cr ux of t he mat t er , namel y a di scussi on of t he effect s of for ces o n t h e
mot i on of t wo or mor e i nt er act i ng par t i cl es. Thi s k ey br anch of Physi cs i s cal l ed
Dyn ami cs. I t was f ou n d ed by Gal i l eo an d Newt on an d p er f ect ed by t h ei r f ol l ower s, most
n o t abl y Lagr an ge an d H ami l t o n . We shal l see t hat t he Newt oni an concept s of mass,
moment um and k i net i c ener gy r equi r e f undament al r evi si ons i n t h e l i gh t of t h e Ei nst ei n s
Sp eci al Th eo r y o f Rel at i vi t y. Th e r evi sed co n cep t s co m e abo u t as a r esu l t o f Ei n st ei n ' s
r ecogni t i on of t h e cr uci al r l e of t h e Pr i nci p l e of Rel at i vi t y i n uni f yi ng t h e dynami cs of a l l
mech ani cal and op t i cal p h enomena. I n sp i t e of t h e concep t ual di f f i cul t i es i nh er ent i n t h e
cl assi cal concep t s, ( di ffi cul t i es t hat wi l l be di scussed l at er ) , t he subj ect of Newt oni an
dynami cs r epr esent s one of t he gr eat t r i umphs of Nat ur al Phi l osophy. The successes of t he
cl assi cal t h eor y r ange f r om accur at e descr i p t i ons of t h e dynami cs of ever yday obj ect s t o a
det ai l ed under st andi ng of t he mot i ons of gal axi es.
4.1 The l aw of i ner t i a
Gal i l eo ( 1544-1642) was t h e fi r st t o devel op a quant i t at i ve appr oach t o t he st udy of
mo t i o n . H e ad d r essed t h e qu est i o n wh at p r o p er t y o f mo t i o n i s r el at ed t o f o r ce? I s i t
t h e p osi t i on of t h e movi ng obj ect ? I s i t t h e vel oci t y of t h e movi ng obj ect ? I s i t t h e r at e of
change of i t s vel oci t y? ...Th e answer t o t he quest i on can be obt ai ned onl y fr om
N E W T O N I A N D Y N A M I C S 66
o bser vat i o n s; t h i s i s a basi c f eat u r e o f Ph ysi cs t h at set s i t ap ar t f r o m Ph i l o so p h y p r o p er .
Gal i l eo obser ved t hat for ce i nf l uences t h e cha n ges i n vel oci t y ( accel er at i on s) of an obj ect
an d t h at , i n t h e absen ce o f ext er n al f o r ces ( e.g: f r i ct i o n ) , n o f o r ce i s n eed ed t o k eep an
obj ect i n mot i on t hat i s t r avel l i ng i n a st r ai ght l i ne wi t h const ant speed. Thi s
obser vat i on al l y based l aw i s cal l ed t h e La w of I n er t i a . I t i s, p er h ap s, d i f f i cu l t f o r u s t o
ap p r eci at e t h e i mp act o f Gal i l eo ' s n ew i d eas co n cer n i n g mo t i o n . Th e f act t h at an o bj ect
r est i ng on a h or i zont al sur f ace r emai ns at r est unl ess somet h i ng we cal l f or ce i s ap p l i ed t o
ch an ge i t s st at e o f r est was, o f co u r se, wel l -k n o wn bef o r e Gal i l eo ' s t i me. H o wever , t h e
fact t hat t he obj ect cont i nues t o move aft er t he for ce ceases t o be appl i ed caused
consi der abl e concept ual di ffi cul t i es for t he ear l y Phi l osopher s ( see Feynman The
Cha r a ct er of Physi ca l La w ) . Th e o bser vat i o n t h at , i n p r act i ce, an o bj ect co m es t o r est
due t o fr i ct i onal for ces and ai r r esi st ance was r ecogni zed by Gal i l eo t o be a si de effect , and
not ger mane t o t h e f undament al quest i on of mot i on. Ar i st ot l e, f or examp l e, bel i eved t h at
t h e t r u e o r n at u r al st at e o f mo t i o n i s o n e o f r est . I t i s i n st r u ct i ve t o co n si d er Ar i st o t l e' s
co n j ect u r e f r o m t h e vi ewp o i n t o f t h e Pr i n ci p l e o f Rel at i vi t y - i s a n at u r al st at e o f r est
consi st ent wi t h t h i s gener al Pr i nci p l e? Accor di ng t o t h e gener al Pr i nci p l e of Rel at i vi t y, t h e
l aws o f m o t i o n h ave t h e sam e f o r m i n al l f r am es o f r ef er en ce t h at m o ve wi t h co n st an t
speed i n st r ai ght l i nes wi t h r espect t o each ot her . An obser ver i n a r efer ence fr ame movi ng
wi t h co n st an t sp eed i n a st r ai gh t l i n e wi t h r esp ect t o t h e r ef er en ce f r am e i n wh i ch t h e
o bj ect i s at r est wo u l d co n cl u d e t h at t h e n at u r al st at e o r m o t i o n o f t h e o bj ect i s o n e o f
co n st an t sp eed i n a st r ai gh t l i n e, an d n o t o n e o f r est . Al l i n er t i al o bser ver s, i n an i n f i n i t e
n u mber o f f r ames o f r ef er en ce, wo u l d co me t o t h e same co n cl u si o n . We see, t h er ef o r e,
t hat Ar i st ot l e' s conj ect ur e i s not consi st ent wi t h t hi s fundament al Pr i nci pl e.
4.2 Newt on s l aws of mot i on
Du r i n g h i s ear l y t wen t i es, Newt o n p o st u l at ed t h r ee Laws o f Mo t i o n t h at f o r m t h e
basi s o f Cl assi cal Dyn ami cs. H e u sed t h em t o so l ve a wi d e var i et y o f p r o bl ems i n cl u d i n g
t h e dynami cs of t h e p l anet s. Th e Laws of Mot i on, f i r st p ubl i sh ed i n t h e Pr i n ci pi a i n 1687,
pl ay a fundament al r l e i n Newt on s Theor y of Gr avi t at i on ( Chapt er 7) ; t hey ar e:
1. I n t h e a bsen ce of an appl i ed for ce, an obj ect wi l l r emai n at r est or i n i t s pr esent st at e of
const ant speed i n a st r ai ght l i ne ( Gal i l eo' s Law of I ner t i a)
2. I n t h e pr esen ce of an ap p l i ed f or ce, an obj ect wi l l be accel er at ed i n t h e di r ect i on of t h e
ap p l i ed f o r ce an d t h e p r o d u ct o f i t s m ass m u l t i p l i ed by i t s accel er at i o n i s equ al t o t h e
for ce.
and,
3. I f a bo d y A exer t s a f o r ce o f m agn i t u d e | F
AB
| o n a b o d y B, t h en B exer t s a f o r ce o f
equal magni t ude | F
BA
| on A.. The for ces act i n opposi t e di r ect i ons so t hat
F
AB
= F
BA
.
I n l aw n u m ber 2, t h e accel er at i o n l ast s o n l y wh i l e t h e ap p l i ed f o r ce l ast s. Th e ap p l i ed
f o r ce n eed n o t , h o wever , be co n st an t i n t i m e t h e l aw i s t r u e at al l t i m es d u r i n g t h e
mot i on. Law number 3 ap p l i es t o cont act i nt er act i ons. I f t h e bodi es ar e sep ar at ed, and
t h e i n t er act i o n t ak es a f i n i t e t i m e t o p r o p agat e b et ween t h e b o d i es, t h e l aw m u st b e
m o d i f i ed t o i n cl u d e t h e p r o p er t i es o f t h e f i el d bet ween t h e bo d i es. Th i s i m p o r t an t
poi nt i s di scussed i n Chapt er 7.
4.3 Syst ems of many i nt er act i ng par t i cl es: conser vat i on of l i near and angul ar
moment um
St udi es of t h e dynami cs of t wo or mor e i nt er act i ng par t i cl es for m t h e basi s of a k ey
par t of Physi cs. We shal l deduce t wo fundament al pr i nci pl es fr om t he Laws of Mot i on; t hey
ar e:
1) Th e Con ser va t i on of Li n ea r Mom en t u m wh i ch st at es t h at , i f t h er e i s a d i r ect i o n i n
wh i ch t h e su m o f t h e co mp o n en t s o f t h e ext er n al f o r ces act i n g o n a syst em i s zer o , t h en
t he l i near moment um of t he syst em i n t hat di r ect i on i s const ant .
and,
2) Th e Con ser va t i on of An gu l a r Mom en t u m whi ch st at es t hat , i f t he sum of t he moment s
of t h e ext er nal f or ces about any f i xed axi s ( or or i gi n) i s zer o, t h en t h e angul ar moment um
about t hat axi s ( or or i gi n) i s const ant .
Th e new t er ms t h at ap p ear i n t h ese st at ement s wi l l be def i ned l at er .
Th e f i r st o f t h ese p r i n ci p l es wi l l be d ed u ced by co n si d er i n g t h e d yn ami cs o f t wo
i nt er act i ng par t i cl es of masses m
l
an d m
2
wi i t h i nst ant aneous coor di nat es [ x
l
, y
1
] an d [ x
2
,
y
2
] , r esp ect i vel y. I n Ch ap t er 12, t h ese p r i n ci p l es wi l l be d ed u ced by consi der i ng t he
i nvar i ance of t he Laws of Mot i on under t r ansl at i ons and r ot at i ons of t he coor di nat e
syst ems.
Let t h e ext er n al f o r ces act i n g o n t h e p ar t i cl es be F
1
an d F
2
, an d l et t h e m u t u al
i nt er act i ons be F
21
and F
12
. The syst em i s as shown
y

F
1
F
2

m
2

F
12

m
1
F
21

O
x
Resol vi ng t he for ces i nt o t hei r x- and y-component s gi ves
y
F
y2

F
y1

F
x12
F
x2

F
y21
m
2

F
x1
F
y12

m
1
F
x21

O
x
a) The equ a t i on s of m ot i on
The equat i ons of mot i on for each par t i cl e ar e
1) Resol vi ng i n t he x-di r ect i on
F
x1
+ F
x21
= m
1
( d
2
x
1
/ dt
2
) ( 4.1)
and
F
x2
F
x12
= m
2
( d
2
x
2
/ dt
2
) . ( 4.2)
Addi ng t hese equat i ons gi ves
F
x1
+ F
x2
+ ( F
x21
F
x12
) = m
1
( d
2
x
1
/ dt
2
) + m
2
( d
2
x
2
/ dt
2
) . ( 4.3)
2) Resol vi ng i n t he y-di r ect i on gi ves a si mi l ar equat i on, namel y
F
y1
+ F
y2
+ ( F
y12
F
y12
) = m
1
( d
2
y
1
/ dt
2
) + m
2
( d
2
y
2
/ dt
2
) . ( 4.4)
b) The r l e of Newt on s 3r d La w
For i nst ant aneous mut ual i nt er act i ons, Newt on s 3r d Law gi ves | F
21
| = | F
12
|
so t h at t h e x- and y-comp onent s of t h e i nt er nal f or ces ar e t h emsel ves equal and op p osi t e,
t her efor e t he t ot al equat i ons of mot i on ar e
F
x1
+ F
x2
= m
1
( d
2
x
1
/ dt
2
) + m
2
( d
2
x
2
/ dt
2
) , ( 4.5)
and
F
y1
+ F
y2
= m
1
( d
2
y
1
/ dt
2
)

+ m
2
( d
2
y
2
/ dt
2
) . ( 4.6)
c) The con ser va t i on of l i n ea r m om en t u m
I f t h e sum of t h e ext er nal for ces act i ng on t h e masses i n t h e x-di r ect i on i s zer o, t h en
F
x1
+ F
x2
= 0 , ( 4.7)
i n whi ch case,
0 = m
1
( d
2
x
1
/ dt
2
) + m
2
( d
2
x
2
/ dt
2
)
or
0 = ( d/ dt ) ( m
1
v
x1
) + ( d/ dt ) ( m
2
v
x2
) ,
whi ch, on i nt egr at i on gi ves
const ant = m
1
v
x1
+ m
2
v
x2
. ( 4.8)
The pr oduct ( mass vel o ci t y) i s t h e l i n ear mo men t u m. We t h er ef o r e see t h at i f t h er e i s
no r esul t ant ext er nal f or ce i n t h e x-di r ect i on, t h e l i near moment um of t h e t wo p ar t i cl es i n
t h e x-di r ect i on i s conser ved. Th e above ar gument can be gener al i zed so t h at we can st at e:
t h e l i near moment um of t h e t wo p ar t i cl es i s const ant i n any di r ect i on i n wh i ch t h er e i s no
r esul t ant ext er nal f or ce.
4.3.1 I nt er act i on of n-par t i cl es
The anal ysi s gi ven i n 4.3 can be car r i ed out for an ar bi t r ar y number of par t i cl es, n,
wi t h masses m
1
, m
2
, ...m
n
and wi t h i nst ant aneous coor di nat es [ x
1
, y
1
] , [ x
2
, y
2
] ..[ x
n
, y
n
] . The
mut ual i nt er act i ons cancel i n pai r s so t hat t he equat i ons of mot i on of t he n-par t i cl es ar e, i n
t he x-di r ect i on

F
x1
+ F
x2
+ ... F
xn
= m
1
x
1
+ m
2
x
2
+ ... m
n
x
n
= sum of t he x-component s of ( 4.9)
t h e ext er nal for ces act i ng on t h e masses,
and, i n t he y-di r ect i on

F
y1
+ F
y2
+ ... F
yn
= m
1
y
1
+ m
1
y
2
+ ...m
n
y
n
= sum of t he y-component s of ( 4.10)
t h e ext er nal for ces act i ng on t h e masses.
I n t h i s case, we see t h at i f t h e sum of t h e comp onent s of t h e ext er nal f or ces act i ng
on t h e syst em i n a p ar t i cul ar di r ect i on i s zer o, t h en t h e l i near moment um of t h e syst em i n
t hat di r ect i on i s const ant . I f, for exampl e, t he di r ect i on i s t he x-axi s t hen
m
1
v
x1
+ m
2
v
x2
+ ... m
n
v
xn
= const ant . ( 4.11)
4.3.2 Rot at i on of t wo i nt er act i ng par t i cl es about a f i xed poi nt
We begi n t he di scussi on of t he second fundament al conser vat i on l aw by cosi der i ng
t h e mot i on of t wo i nt er act i ng p ar t i cl es t h at move under t h e i nf l uence of ext er nal f or ces F
1
and F
2
, and mut ual i nt er act i ons ( i nt er nal f or ces) F
21
and F
12
. We ar e i n t er est ed i n t h e
mot i on of t he t wo masses about a fi xed poi nt O t hat i s chosen t o be t he or i gi n of Car t esi an
coor di nat es. The syst em i s i l l ust r at ed i n t he fol l owi ng fi gur e
y F
2

F
1

F
12
m
2

m
1
F
21

^
+ Mo men t

R
O
R
2
R
1
x

a) The m om en t of for ces a bou t a fi xed or i gi n
Th e t ot al moment
1,2
of t he for ces about t he or i gi n O i s defi ned as

1,2
= R
1
F
1
+ R
2
F
2
+ ( R F
12
R F
21
) ( 4.12)
--------------- ------------------------

moment of moment of
ext er nal f or ces i nt er nal f or ces
A posi t i ve moment act s i n a count er -cl ock wi se sense.
Newt on s 3r d Law gi ves
| F
21
| = | F
12
| ,
t h er efor e t h e moment of t h e i nt er nal for ces obout O i s zer o. ( Th ei r l i nes of act i on ar e t h e
same) .
Th e t ot al ef f ect i ve moment about O i s t h er ef or e due t o t h e ext er nal f or ces, al one. Wr i t i ng
t he moment i n t er ms of t he x- and y-component s of F
1
and F
2
, we obt ai n

1,2
= x
1
F
y1
+ x
2
F
y2
y
1
F
x1
y
2
F
x2
( 4.13)
b) The con ser va t i on of a n gu l a r m om en t u m
I f t he moment of t he ext er nal for ces about t he or i gi n O i s zer o t hen, by
i nt egr at i on, we h ave
const ant = x
1
p
y1
+ x
2
p
y2
y
1
p
x1
y
2
p
x2
.
wher e p
x1
i s t he x-component of t he moment um of mass 1, et c..
Rear r angi ng, gi ves
const ant = ( x
1
p
y1
y
1
p
x1
) + ( x
2
p
y2
y
2
p
x2
) . ( 4.14)
Th e r i gh t -h and si de of t h i s equat i on i s cal l ed t h e angul ar moment um of t h e t wo p ar t i cl es
about t he fi xed or i gi n, O.
Al t er nat i vel y, we can di scuss t h e conser vat i on of angul ar moment um usi ng vect or
anal ysi s. Consi der a non-r el at i vi st i c p ar t i cl e of mass m and moment um p, m o vi n g i n t h e
pl ane under t he i nfl uence of an ext er nal for ce F about a fi xed or i gi n, O:
y
F

p
m
r
O
x
The angul ar moment um, L, of m about O can be wr i t t en i n vect or for m
L = r p. ( 4.15)
The t or qu e, , associ at ed wi t h t h e ext er nal for ce F act i ng about O i s
= r F. ( 4.16)
The r at e of change of t he angul ar moment um wi t h t i me i s
d L/ dt = r ( dp/ dt ) + p ( dr / dt ) ( 4.17)
= r m( dv/ dt ) + mv v
= r F ( because v v = 0)
= .
I f t h er e i s no ext er nal t or que, = 0. We h ave, t h er ef or e
= d L/ d t = 0, ( 4.18)
so t hat L i s a const ant of t he mot i on.
4.3.3 Rot at i on of n-i nt er act i ng par t i cl es about a f i xed poi nt
The anal ysi s gi ven i n 4.3.2 can be ext en d ed t o a syst em o f n -i n t er act i n g p ar t i cl es.
Th e moment s of t h e mut ual i nt er act i ons about t h e or i gi n O cancel i n p ai r s ( Newt on s 3r d
Law) so t h at we ar e l eft wi t h t h e moment of t h e ext er nal for ces about O. Th e equat i on for
t h e t ot al moment i s t h er ef or e

1, 2, . . . . n
=
[ i = 1, n]
( x
i
d( m
i
v
yi
) / dt y
i
d( m
i
v
xi
) / dt ) .
I f t h e mo men t o f t h e ext er n al f o r ces abo u t t h e f i xed o r i gi n i s zer o t h en t h e t o t al
an gu l ar mo men t u m o f t h e syst em abo u t O i s a co n st an t . Th i s r esu l t f o l l o ws d i r ect l y by
i nt egr at i ng t he expr essi on for
1, 2, . . . n
= 0. ( 4.19)
I f t h e o r i gi n o f co o r d i n at es i s mo vi n g, t h e an gu l ar mo men t u m o f t h e syst em i s a
const ant of t he mot i on pr ovi ded t he r esul t ant ext er nal t or que on t he syst em i s zer o.
4.4 Wor k and ener gy i n Newt oni an dynami cs
4.4.1 The pr i nci pl e of wor k : k i net i c ener gy and t he wor k done by f or ces
Consi der a mass m movi ng al ong a pat h i n t he [ x, y] -pl ane under t he i nfl uence of a
r esul t ant f or ce F t h at i s n o t n ecessar i l y co n st an t . Let t h e co mp o n en t s o f t h e f o r ce be F
x
and F
y
wh en t h e mass i s at t h e p oi nt P[ x, y] . We wi sh t o st udy t h e mot i on of m i n movi ng
fr om a poi nt A[ x
A
, y
A
] wher e t he for ce i s F
A
t o a p oi n t B[ x
B
, y
B
] wh er e t h e f o r ce i s F
B
. Th e
equat i ons of mot i on ar e
m( d
2
x/ dt
2
) = F
x
( 4.20)
and
m( d
2
y/ dt
2
) = F
y
( 4.21)
Mul t i pl yi ng t hese equat i ons by dx/ dt and dy/ dt , r espect i vel y, and addi ng, we obt ai n
m( dx/ dt ) ( d
2
x/ dt
2
) + m( dy/ dt ) ( d
2
y/ dt
2
) = F
x
( dx/ dt ) + F
y
( dy/ dt ) .
Th i s equat i on now can be i nt egr at ed wi t h r esp ect t o t , so t h at
m( ( dx/ dt )
2
+ ( dy/ dt )
2
) / 2 = ( F
x
dx + F
y
dy) .
or
mv
2
/ 2 = ( F
x
dx + F
y
dy) , ( 4.22)
wher e v = ( ( dx/ dt )
2
+ ( dy/ dt )
2
)
1/ 2
i s t h e sp eed of t h e p ar t i cl e at t h e p oi n t [ x, y] . Th e t er m
mv
2
/ 2 i s cal l ed t h e cl a ssi ca l k i n eti c en er gy o f t h e mass m. I t i s i mp o r t an t t o n o t e t h at t h e
k i net i c ener gy i s a sca l a r .
I f t h e r esul t ant for ces act i ng on m ar e F
A
at A[ x
A
, y
A
] at t i me t
A
, and F
B
at B[ x
B
, y
B
] at
t i me t
B
, t h en we h ave
mv
B
2
/ 2 mv
A
2
/ 2 =
[ xA, xB]
F
x
dx +
[ yA, yB]
F
y
dy . ( 4.23)
The t er ms on t he r i ght -hand si de of t hi s equat i on r epr esent t he wor k don e by t he
r esu l t an t f o r ces act i n g o n t h e p ar t i cl e i n m o vi n g i t f r o m A t o B. Th e eq u at i o n i s t he
mat hemat i cal for m of t he gener al Pr i n ci pl e of Wor k : t h e ch an ge i n t h e k i n et i c en er gy o f a
syst em i n an y i n t er val of t i me i s equ al t o t h e wor k d on e by t h e r esu l t an t f or ces act i n g on
t h e syst em dur i ng t h at i nt er val .
4.5 Pot ent i al ener gy
4.5.1 Gener al f eat ur es
Newt oni an dynami cs i nvol ves vect or quant i t i es for ce, moment um, angul ar
moment um, et c.. Ther e i s, however , anot her for m of dynami cs t hat i nvol ves scal ar
qu an t i t i es; a for m t hat or i gi nat ed i n t he wor k s of Huygens and Lei bni z, i n t he 17t h
cen t u r y. Th e scal ar f o r m r el i es u p o n t h e co n cep t o f en er gy, i n i t s br o ad est sen se. We
h ave m et t h e co n cep t o f k i n et i c en er gy i n t h e p r evi o u s sect i o n . We n o w m eet a m o r e
abst r act quant i t y cal l ed pot en t i a l en er gy.
Th e wo r k d o n e, W, b y a f o r ce, F, i n m o vi n g a m ass m f r o m a posi t i on s
A
t o a
posi t i on s
B
al ong a pat h s i s, fr om sect i on 4.3,
W =
[ sA, sB]
Fds = t h e ch ange i n t h e k i net i c ener gy dur i ng t h e mot i on,
=
[ sA, sB]
Fdscos, wher e i s t h e angl e bet ween F and ds. ( 4.24)
I f t h e for ce i s const ant , we can wr i t e
W = F( s
B
s
A
) ,
wher e s
B
s
A
i s t h e ar c l engt h .
I f t he mot i on i s al ong t he x-axi s, and F = F
x
i s const ant t hen
W = F
x
( x
B
x
A
) , t he for ce mul t i pl i ed by t he di st ance moved. ( 4.25)
Thi s equat i on can be r ear r anged, as fol l ows
mv
xB
2
/ 2 F
x
x
B
= mv
xA
2
/ 2 F
x
x
A
. ( 4.26)
Th i s i s a su r p r i si n g r esu l t ; t h e k i n et i c en er gy o f t h e m ass i s n ot con ser ved dur i ng t he
mot i on wh er eas t h e quant i t y ( mv
x
2
/ 2 F
x
x) i s con ser ved d u r i n g t h e mo t i o n . Th i s mean s
t h at t h e ch ange i n t h e k i net i c ener gy i s exact l y bal anced by t h e ch ange i n t h e quant i t y F
x
x.
Si nce t h e quant i t y mv
2
/ 2 h as di mensi ons of ener gy, t h e quant i t y F
x
x must have di mensi ons
o f en er gy i f t h e equ at i o n i s t o be d i men si o n al l y co r r ect . Th e qu an t i t y F
x
x i s cal l ed t h e
p o t en t i al en er gy o f t h e mass m, wh en at t h e p o si t i o n x, d u e t o t h e i n f l u en ce o f t h e f o r ce
F
x
. We sh al l d en o t e t h e p o t en t i al en er gy by V. Th e n egat i ve si gn t h at ap p ear s i n t h e
d ef i n i t i o n o f t h e p o t en t i al en er gy wi l l be d i scu ssed l at er wh en exp l i ci t r ef er en ce i s mad e
t o t h e nat ur e of t h e for ce ( for exampl e, gr avi t at i onal or el ect r omagnet i c) .
Th e ener gy equat i on can t h er ef or e be wr i t t en
T
B
+ V
B
= T
A
+ V
A
. ( 4.27)
Th i s i s f o u n d t o b e a gen er al r esu l t t h at h o l d s i n al l cases i n wh i ch a p o t en t i al
ener gy funct i on can be found t hat depends onl y on t he posi t i on of t he obj ect ( or obj ect s) .
4.5.2 Conser vat i ve f or ces
Let F
x
and F
y
be t he Car t esi an component s of t he for ces act i ng on a movi ng par t i cl e
wi t h coor di nat es [ x, y] . The wor k done W
12
by t h e f o r ces wh i l e t h e p ar t i cl e mo ves f r o m
t he posi t i on P
1
[ x
1
, y
1
] t o anot her posi t i on P
2
[ x
2
, y
2
] i s
W
12
=
[ x1, x2]
F
x
dx +
[ y1, y2]
F
y
dy ( 4.28)
=
[ P1, P2]
( F
x
dx + F
y
dy) .
I f t h e quant i t y F
x
dx + F
y
dy i s a p er f ect di f f er ent i al t h en a f unct i on U = f ( x, y) exi st s
such t hat
F
x
= U/ x and F
y
= U/ y . ( 4.29)
Now, t he t ot a l di ffer ent i al of t he funct i on U i s
dU = ( U/ x) dx + (U/ y) dy ( 4.30)
= F
x
dx + F
y
dy.
I n t h i s case, we can wr i t e
dU = ( F
x
dx + F
y
dy) = U = f( x, y) .
Th e def i ni t e i nt egr al eval uat ed bet ween P
1
[ x
1
, y
1
] and P
2
[ x
2
, y
2
] i s
[ P1, P2]
( F
x
dx + F
y
dy) = f( x
2
, y
2
) f( x
1
, y
1
) = U
2
U
1
. ( 4.31)
We see t h at i n eval u at i n g t h e wo r k d o n e by t h e f o r ces d u r i n g t h e mo t i o n , n o men t i o n i s
m ad e o f t h e act u al p at h t ak en by t h e p ar t i cl e. I f t h e f o r ces ar e su ch t h at t h e f u n ct i o n
U( x, y) exi st s, t h en t h ey ar e sai d t o be con ser va ti ve. Th e f u n ct i o n U( x, y) i s cal l ed t h e
for ce fu n ct i on.
Th e above met h od of anal ysi s can be ap p l i ed t o a syst em of many p ar t i cl es, n. Th e
t ot al wor k done by t h e r esul t ant f or ces act i ng on t h e syst em i n movi ng t h e p ar t i cl es f r om
t hei r i ni t i al confi gur at i on, i , t o t hei r fi nal confi gur at i on, f, i s
W
i f
=
[ k = 1, n]

[ Pk1, Pk2]
( F
k x
dx
k
+ F
k y
dy
k
) , ( 4.32)
= U
f
U
i
,
a scal ar quant i t y t hat i s i ndependent of t he pat hs t ak en by t he i ndi vi dual par t i cl es.
P
k 1
[ x
k 1
, y
k 1
] and P
k 2
[ x
k 2
, y
k 2
] ar e t he i ni t i al and fi nal coor di nat es of t he k t h-par t i cl e.
Th e p ot ent i al ener gy, V, of t h e syst em movi ng under t h e i nf l uence of conser vat i ve
for ces i s defi ned i n t er ms of t he funct i on U: V U .
Exampl es of i nt er act i ons t hat t ak e pl ace vi a conser vat i ve for ces ar e:
1) gr avi t at i onal i nt er act i ons
2) el ect r omagnet i c i nt er act i ons
and
3) i n t er act i o n s bet ween p ar t i cl es o f a syst em t h at , f o r ever y p ai r o f p ar t i cl es, act
al ong t h e l i ne j oi ni ng t h ei r cent er s, and t h at dep end i n some way on t h ei r di st ance ap ar t .
Th ese ar e t h e so-cal l ed cen t r a l i n t er a ct i on s.
Fr i ct i onal for ces ar e exampl es of non-conser vat i ve for ces.
Th er e ar e t wo o t h er maj o r met h o d s o f so l vi n g d yn ami cal p r o bl ems t h at d i f f er i n
fundament al ways fr om t he met hod of Newt oni an dynami cs; t hey ar e Lagr angi an dynami cs
an d H ami l t o n i an d yn ami cs. We sh al l d el ay a d i scu ssi o n o f t h ese mo r e gen er al met h o d s
unt i l our st udy of t he Cal cul us of Var i at i ons i n Chapt er 9.
4.6 Par t i cl e i nt er act i ons
4.6.1 El ast i c col l i si ons
St udi es of t h e col l i si ons bewt een obj ect s, f i r st made i n t h e 17t h -cent ur y, l ed t o t h e
d i sco ver y o f t wo basi c l aws o f Nat u r e: t h e co n ser vat i o n of l i near moment um, and t he
co n ser vat i o n o f k i n et i c en er gy asso ci at ed wi t h a sp eci al cl ass o f co l l i si o n s cal l ed el a st i c
col l i si on s.
Th e co n ser vat i o n o f l i n ear mo men t u m i n an i so l at ed syst em f o r ms t h e basi s f o r a
qu an t i t at i ve d i scu ssi o n o f al l p r o bl ems t h at i n vo l ve t he i nt er act i ons bet ween par t i cl es.
Th e p r esen t d i scu ssi o n wi l l be l i mi t ed t o an an al ysi s o f t h e el ast i c co l l i si o n bet ween t wo
p ar t i cl es. A t yp i cal t wo-bod y col l i si on , i n wh i ch an obj ect of mass m
1
an d mo men t u m p
1
mak es a gr azi n g col l i si on wi t h an ot h er obj ect of mass m
2
and moment um p
2
( p
2
< p
1
) , i s
shown i n t he fol l owi ng di agr am. ( The coor di nat es ar e chosen so t hat t he vect or s p
1
and p
2
have t he same di r ect i ons) . Aft er t he col l i si on, t he t wo obj ect s move i n di r ect i ons
ch ar act er i zed by t h e angl es and wi t h moment a p
1
and p
2
.
Bef o r e Af t er
m
1
p
1

m
1
p
1
m
2

p
2

m
2
p
2

I f t h er e ar e n o ext er n al f o r ces act i n g o n t h e p ar t i cl es so t h at t h e ch an ges i n t h ei r
st at es of mot i on come about as a r esul t of t h ei r mut ual i nt er act i ons al one, t h e t ot al l i near
moment um of t he syst em i s conser ved. We t her efor e have
p
1
+ p
2
= p
1
+ p
2
( 4.33)
or , r ear r angi ng t o gi ve t he moment um t r ansfer ,
p
1
p
1
= p
2
p
2
.
Th e k i net i c ener gy of a p ar t i cl e, T i s r el at ed t o t h e squar e of i t s moment um
( T = p
2
/ 2m) ; we t her efor e for m t he scal ar pr oduct of t he vect or equat i on for t he
moment um t r ansfer , t o obt ai n
p
1
2
2p
1
p
1
+ p
1
2
= p
2
2
2p
2
p
2
+ p
2
2
. ( 4.34)
I nt r oduci ng t h e scat t er i ng angl es and , we have
p
1
2
2p
1
p
1
cos + p
1
2
= p
2
2
2p
2
p
2
cos + p
2
2
.
Th i s equat i on can be wr i t t en
p
1
2
( x
2
2xcos + 1) = p
2
2
( y
2
2ycos + 1) ( 4.35)
wher e
x = p
1
/ p
1
and y = p
2
/ p
2
.
I f we choose a fr ame i n whi ch p
2
= 0 t h en y = 0 and we h ave
x
2
2xcos + 1 = ( p
2
/ p
1
)
2
. ( 4.36)
I f t h e col l i si on i s el ast i c, t h e k i net i c ener gy of t h e syst em i s conser ved, so t h at
T
1
+ 0 = T
1
+ T
2
( T
2
= 0 because p
2
= 0) . ( 4.37)
Subst i t ut i ng T
i
= p
i
2
/ 2m
i
, and r ear r angi ng, gi ves
( p
2
/ p
1
)
2
= ( m
2
/ m
1
) ( x
2
1) .
We t her efor e obt ai n a quadr at i c equat i on i n x:
x
2
+ 2x( m
1
/ ( m
2
m
1
) ) cos [ ( m
2
+ m
1
) / ( m
2
m
1
) ] = 0 .
The val i d sol ut i on of t hi s equat i on i s
x = ( T
1
/ T
1
)
1/ 2
= ( m
1
/ ( m
2
m
1
) ) cos
+ { ( m
1
/ ( m
2
m
1
) )
2
cos
2
+ [ ( m
2
+ m
1
) / ( m
2
m
1
) ] }
1/ 2
. ( 4.38)
I f m
1
= m
2
, t he sol ut i on i s x = 1/ cos, i n whi ch case
T
1
= T
1
cos
2
. ( 4.39)
I n t h e f r ame i n wh i ch p
2
= 0, a geo m et r i cal an al ysi s o f t h e t wo -bo d y co l l i si o n i s
useful . We have
p
1
+ ( p
1
) = p
2
, ( 4.40)
l eadi ng t o
p
1

p
1

p
2
p
1

I f t he masses ar e equal t hen
p
1
= p
1
cos .
I n t h i s case, t h e t wo p ar t i cl es al ways emer ge f r o m t h e el ast i c co l l i si o n at r i gh t an gl es t o
each ot her ( + = 90
o
) .
I n t h e ear l y 1930 s, t h e measur ed angl e bet ween t wo out goi ng h i gh -sp eed nucl ear
par t i cl es of equal mass was shown t o di ffer fr om 90
o
. Such exper i ment s cl ear l y
demonst r at ed t he br eak down of Newt oni an dynami cs i n t hese i nt er act i ons.
4.6.2 I nel ast i c col l i si ons
Col l i si ons bet ween ever yday obj ect s ar e never p er f ect l y el ast i c. An obj ect t h at h as
an i n t er n al st r u ct u r e can u n d er go i n el ast i c co l l i si o n s i n vo l vi n g ch an ges i n i t s st r uct ur e.
I nel ast i c col l i si ons ar e found t o obey t wo l aws; t hey ar e
1) t he conser vat i on of l i near moment um
and
2) an emp i r i cal l aw, due t o Newt on, t h at st at es t h at t h e r el at i ve vel oci t y of t h e
col l i di ng obj ect s, measur ed al ong t h ei r l i ne of cent er s i mmedi at el y aft er i mpact , i s
e t i mes t h ei r r el at i ve vel oci t y bef or e i mp act .
Th e qu an t i t y e i s cal l ed t h e co ef f i ci en t o f r est i t u t i o n . I t s val u e d ep en d s o n t h e n at u r e o f
t h e mat er i al s of t h e col l i di ng obj ect s. For ver y h ar d subst ances such as st eel , e i s cl ose t o
uni t y, wher eas for ver y soft mat er i al s such as put t y, e appr oaches zer o.
Consi der , i n t h e si mp l est case, t h e i mp act of t wo def or mabl e sp h er es wi t h masses
m
1
and m
2
. Let t h ei r vel o ci t i es be v
1
an d v
2
, an d v
1
an d v
2
( al o n g t h ei r l i n e o f cen t er s)
befor e and aft er i mpact , r espect i vel y. The l i near moment um i s conser ved, t her efor e
m
1
v
1
+ m
2
v
2
= m
1
v
1
+ m
2
v
2
and, usi ng Newt on s empi r i cal l aw,

v
1
v
2
= e( v
1
v
2
) . ( 4.41)
Rear r angi ng t hese equat i ons , we can obt ai n t he val ues v
1
an d v
2
af t er i mp act , i n t er ms
of t hei r val us befor e i mpact :
v
1
= [ m
1
v
1
+ m
2
v
2
em
2
( v
1
v
2
) ] / ( m
1
+ m
2
) , ( 4.42)
and
v
2
= [ m
1
v
1
+ m
2
v
2
+ em
1
( v
1
v
2
) ] / ( m
1
+ m
2
) . ( 4.43)
I f t h e t wo sp h er es i n i t i al l y m o ve i n d i r ect i o n s t h at ar e n o t co l i n ear , t he above
met h o d o f an al ysi s i s st i l l val i d becau se t h e mo men t a can be r eso l ved i n t o co mp o n en t s
al ong and per pendi cul ar t o a chosen axi s. The per pendi cul ar component s r emai n
unchanged by t he i mpact .
We shal l fi nd t hat t he cl assi cal appr oach t o a quant i t at i ve st udy of i nel ast i c col l i si ons
m u st b e r ad i cal l y al t er ed wh en we t r eat t h e subj ect wi t hi n t he fr amewor k of Speci al
Rel at i vi t y. I t wi l l be sh o wn t h at t h e co mbi n ed mass ( m
1
+ m
2
) o f t h e co l l i d i n g o bj ect s i s
n ot con ser ved i n an i nel ast i c col l i si on.
4.7 The mot i on of r i gi d bodi es
Newt on s Laws of Mot i on ap p l y t o ever y p oi n t -l i k e mass i n an obj ect of f i n i t e si ze.
The smal l est obj ect s of pr act i cal si ze cont ai n ver y l ar ge number s of mi cr oscopi c par t i cl es
Avogadr o s number i s about 6 10
23
at oms p er gr am-at om. Th e mot i on s of t h e i n d i vi d u al
mi cr oscopi c par t i cl es i n an ext ended obj ect can be anal yzed i n t er ms of t he mot i on of t hei r
equi val ent t ot al mass, l ocat ed at t h e cen t er of m a ss of t h e obj ect .
4.7.1 The cent er of mass
For a syst em of di scr et e masses, m
i
, l ocat ed at t h e vect or posi t i ons, r
i
, t h e p osi t i on ,
r
CM
, of t he cent er of mass i s defi ned as
r
CM

i
m
i
r
i
/
i
m
i
=
i
m
i
r
i
/ M, wh er e M i s t h e t ot al mass. ( 4.44)
Th e cen t er o f mass ( CM) o f an ( i d eal i zed ) co n t i n u o u s d i st r i bu t i o n o f mass wi t h a
densi t y ( mass/ vol ume) , can be obt ai ned by consi der i ng an el ement of vol ume dV wi t h an
el ement al mass dm. We t hen have
dm = dV. ( 4.45)
The posi t i on of t he CM i s t her efor e
r
CM
= ( 1/ M) r dm = ( 1/ M) r dV. ( 4.46)
The Car t esi an component s of r
CM
ar e
x
i CM
= ( 1/ M) x
i
dV. ( 4.47)
I n non-uni for m mat er i al s, t he densi t y i s a funct i on of r .
4.7.2 Ki net i c ener gy of a r i gi d body i n gener al mot i on
Consi der a r i gi d body t h at h as bot h t r ansl at i onal and r ot at i onal mot i on i n a p l ane.
Let t h e angul ar vel oci t y, , be const ant . At an ar bi t r ar y t i me ,t , we h ave
y y
y y v = r , t h e vel oci t y of m
r r el at i ve t o G
O ,G
x x = const ant
Tot al mass, M = m
O x
x
Let t he coor di nat es of an el ement of mass m of t he body be [ x, y] i n t he fi xed fr ame ( or i gi n
O) and [ x , y ] i n t h e f r ame movi ng wi t h t h e cent er of mass, G ( or i gi n O ) , and l et u and
v be t h e comp onent s of vel oci t y of G, i n t h e f i xed f r ame. For const ant angul ar vel oci t y ,
t he i nst ant aneous vel oci t y of t he el emen t of mass m, r el at i ve t o G has a di r ect i on
per pendi cul ar t o t he r adi us vect or r , and a magni t ude
v = r . ( 4.48)
The component s of t he i nst ant aneous vel oci t y of G, r el at i ve t o t he fi xed fr ame, ar e
u i n t h e x-di r ect i on, and
v i n t h e y-di r ect i on.
The vel oci t y component s of m i n t he [ x, y] -fr ame ar e t her efor e
u r si n = u y i n t he x-di r ect i on,
and
v + r cos = v + x i n t h e y-di r ect i on.
Th e k i net i c ener gy of t h e body, E
K
, of mass M i s t her efor e
E
K
= ( 1/ 2) m{ ( u y )
2
+ ( v + x )
2
} ( 4.49)
= ( 1/ 2) M( u
2
+ v
2
) + ( 1/ 2)
2
m( x
2
+ y
2
)
u my + vmx .
Ther efor e
E
K
= ( 1/ 2) Mv
G
2
+ ( 1/ 2) I
G
2
, ( 4.50)
wher e
v
G
= ( u
2
+ v
2
)
1/ 2
t h e sp eed of G, r el at i ve t o t h e f i xed f r ame,
my = mx = 0, by defi ni t i on of t he cent er of mass,
and
I
G
= m( x
2
+ y
2
) = mr
2
, i s cal l ed t h e m om en t of i m er t i a o f M
about an axi s t hr ough G, per pendi cul ar t o t he pl ane.
We see t h at t h e t o t al k i n et i c en er gy o f t h e m o vi n g o bj ect o f m ass M i s m ad e u p o f t wo
par t s,
1) t h e k i net i c ener gy of t r a n sl a t i on of t he whol e mass movi ng wi t h t he vel oci t y of
t h e cent er of mass ,
and
2) t h e k i net i c ener gy of r ot a t i on of t he whol e mass about i t s cent er of mass.
4.8 Angul ar vel oci t y and t he i nst ant aneous cent er of r ot at i on
Th e an gu l ar vel o ci t y o f a bo d y i s d ef i n ed as t he r at e of i ncr ease of t he angl e
bet ween any l i ne AB, f i xed i n t h e body, and any l i ne f i xed i n t h e p l ane of t h e mot i on. I f
i s t h e i n st an t an eo u s an gl e b et ween AB an d an axi s Oy, i n t h e p l an e, t h en t h e an gu l ar
vel oci t y i s d / dt .
Consi der a ci r cul ar di sc of r adi us a, t h at r ol l s wi t h out sl i di ng i n cont act wi t h a l i ne
Ox, and l et be t h e i n st an t an eou s an gl e t h at t h e f i xed l i n e AB i n t h e d i sc mak es wi t h t h e
y-axi s. At t = 0, t h e r ol l i ng begi ns wi t h t h e p oi nt B t ouch i ng t h e or i gi n, O:
y
a
v
y
A
y B
v
x
O x P ( cor r esponds t o = 0) x
At t i me t , af t er t h e r ol l i ng begi ns, t h e coor di nat es of B[ x, y] ar e
x = OP asi n = BP asi n = a asi n = a( si n) ,
and
y = AP acos = a( 1 cos) .
The component s of t he vel oci t y of B ar e t her efor e
v
x
= dx/ dt = a( d / dt ) ( 1 cos) , ( 4.51)
and
v
y
= dy/ dt = a( d / dt ) si n. ( 4.52)
The component s of t he accel er at i on of B ar e
a
x
= dv
x
/ dt = ( d/ dt ) ( a( d/ dt ) ( 1 cos) ) ( 4.53)
= a( d / dt )
2
si n + a( 1 cos) ( d
2
/ dt
2
) ,
and
a
y
= dv
y
/ dt = ( d/ dt ) ( a( d/ dt ) si n) ( 4.54)
= a( d / dt )
2
cos + asi n( d
2
/ dt
2
) .
I f = 0,
dx/ dt = 0 and dy/ dt = 0, whi ch means t hat t he poi nt P has no
i n st an t an eo u s vel o ci t y. Th e p o i n t B i s t h er ef o r e i n st an t an eo u sl y r o t at i n g abo u t P wi t h a
vel oci t y equal t o 2asi n( / 2) ( d/ dt ) ; P i s a cent er of r ot at i on .
Al so,
d
2
x/ dt
2
= 0 and d
2
y/ dt
2
= a( d/ dt )
2
, t he poi nt of cont act onl y has an
accel er at i on t owar ds t h e cent er .
4.9 An appl i cat i on of t he Newt oni an met hod
The fol l owi ng exampl e i l l ust r at es t he use of some basi c pr i nci pl es of cl assi cal
dynami cs, such as t h e conser vat i on of l i near moment um, t h e conser vat i on of ener gy, and
i nst ant aneous r ot at i on about a movi ng poi nt :
Consi der a p er f ect l y smoot h , st r ai gh t h or i zont al r od wi t h a r i ng of mass M t h at can
sl i d e al o n g t h e r o d . At t ach ed t o t h e r i n g i s a st r ai gh t , h i n ged r o d o f l en gt h L an d of
negl i gi bl e mass; i t h as a mass m at i t s end. At t i me t = 0, t h e syst em i s h el d i n a h or i zont al
posi t i on i n t he const ant gr avi t at i onal fi el d of t he Ear t h.
At t = 0:
g
m L M
x = 0 at t = 0
At t = 0, t h e mass m i s r el eased and f al l s under gr avi t y. At t i me t , we h ave
g
v
x

x x = 0
L
v
x
Lsi n ( d/ dt )
Lcos( d/ dt ) L( d/ dt ) = i nst ant aneous vel oci t y of m
about M
Th er e ar e n o ext er n al f o r ces act i n g o n t h e syst em i n t h e x-d i r ect i o n an d t h er ef o r e t h e
hor i zont al moment um r emai ns zer o:
M( dx/ dt ) + m( ( dx/ dt ) Lsi n( d/ dt ) ) = 0. ( 4.56)
I nt egr at i ng, we h ave
Mx + mx + mLcos = const ant . ( 4.57)
I f x = 0 and = 0 at t = 0, t h en
mL = const ant , ( 4.58)
t her efor e
( M + m) x + mL( cos 1) = 0,
so t hat
x = mL( 1 cos) / ( M + m) . ( 4.59)
We see t h at t h e i n st an t an eo u s p o si t i o n x( t ) i s o bt ai n ed by i n t egr at i n g t he moment um
equat i on.
The equat i on of conser vat i on of ener gy can now be used; i t i s
( M/ 2) v
x
2
+ ( m/ 2) ( v
x
Lsi n( d/ dt ) )
2
+ ( m/ 2) ( Lcos( d/ dt ) )
2
= mgLsi n.
( Th e ch ange i n k i net i c ener gy i s equal t o t h e ch ange i n t h e p ot ent i al ener gy) .
Rear r angi ng, gi ves
( M + m) v
x
2
2mLsi nv
x
( d/ dt ) + ( mL
2
( d/ dt )
2
2mgLsi n) = 0. ( 4.40)
Thi s i s a quadr at i c i n v
x
wi t h a sol ut i on
( M + m) v
x
= mLsi n( d/ dt ) [ 1 { 1 [ ( M + m) ( mL
2
( d/ dt )
2

2mLgsi n) ] / [ m
2
L
2
( d/ dt )
2
si n
2
] }
1/ 2
] .
The l eft -hand si de of t hi s equat i on i s al so gi ven by t he moment um equat i on:
( M + m) v
x
= mLsi n( d/ dt ) .
We t her efor e obt ai n, aft er subst i t ut i on and r ear r angement ,
d/ dt = { [ 2( M + m) gsi n] / [ L( M + mcos
2
) ] }
1/ 2
, ( 4.41)
t h e angul ar vel oci t y of t h e r od of l engt h L at t i me t .
PROBLEMS
4-1 A st r ai ght uni for m r od of mass m and l engt h 2l i s h el d at an angl e
0
t o t h e ver t i cal .
I t s l ower end r est s on a per fect l y smoot h hor i zont al sur face. The r od i s r el eased and
f al l s under gr avi t y. At t i me t af t er t h e mot i on begi ns, we h ave
g
0

I ni t i al p osi t i on

m Mass m, l engt h 2l
mg
I f t he moment of i ner t i a of t he r od about an axi s t hr ough i t s cent er of mass,
per pendi cul ar t o t he pl ane of t he mot i on, i s m l
2
/ 3, p r ove t h at t h e angul ar vel oci t y of
t h e r od wh en i t mak es an angl e wi t h t h e ver t i cal , i s
d/ dt = { 6g( cos
0
cos) / l( 1 + 3si n
2
) }
1/ 2
.
4-2 Show t hat t he cent er of mass of a uni for m sol i d hemi spher e of r adi us R i s 3R/ 8 above
t h e cent er of i t s p l ane sur f ace.
4-3 Show t hat t he moment of i ner t i a of a uni for m sol i d spher e of r adi us R and mass M
about a di amet er i s 2MR
2
/ 5.
4-4 A uni for m sol i d spher e of r adi us r can r ol l , under gr avi t y, on t he i nner sur face of a
per fect l y r ough spher i cal sur face of r adi us R. The mot i on i s i n a ver t i cal pl ane.
At t i me t dur i ng t h e mot i on, we h ave:
g

R

m g
r ol l i ng spher e, r adi us r
Sh ow t h at
d
2
/ dt
2
+ [ 5g/ ( 7( R r ) ) ] si n = 0.
As a pr el i mi nar y r esul t , show t hat r = ( R r ) ( d/ dt ) for r ol l i ng mot i on wi t hout
sl i ppi ng.
4-5 A par t i cl e of mass m hangs on an i next ensi bl e st r i ng of l engt h l and negl i gi bl e
mass. The st r i ng i s at t ached t o a fi xed poi nt O. The mass osci l l at es i n a ver t i cal pl ane
under gr avi t y. At t i me t , we h ave
O
l = d / dt
Tensi on, T
m
m g
Sh ow t h at
1) d
2
/ dt
2
+ ( g/ l) si n = 0.
2)
2
= ( 2g/ l) [ cos cos
0
] , wher e
0
i s t h e i ni t i al angl e of t h e st r i ng wi t h r esp ect
t o t h e ver t i cal , so t h at = 0 wh en =
0
. Th i s equat i on gi ves t h e angul ar vel oci t y
i n any posi t i on.
4-6 Let l
0
be t h e nat ur al l engt h of an el ast i c st r i ng fi xed at t h e poi nt O. Th e st r i ng h as a
negl i gi bl e mass. Let a mass m be at t ach ed t o t h e st r i ng, and l et i t st r et ch t h e sp r i ng
unt i l t he equi l i br i um posi t i on i s r eached. The t ensi on i n t he st r i ng i s gi ven by Hook e s
l aw:
Tensi on, T = ( ext ensi on) / or i gi nal l engt h , wh er e i s a const ant for a gi ven mat er i al .
The mass i s di spl aced ver t i cal l y fr om i t s equi l i br i um posi t i on, and osci l l at es under
gr avi t y. We h ave
O Equi l i br i um Gener al p osi t i on
g
l
0
y
E

y( t )
T
E
m g
T
mg
Show t hat t he mass osci l l at es about t he equi l i br i um posi t i on wi t h si mpl e har moni c
mot i on, and t hat
y( t ) = l
0
+ ( mgl
0
/ ) { 1 cos[ t / ml
0
] } .

5
I NVARI ANCE PRI NCI PLES AND CONSERVATI ON LAWS
5.1 I nvar i ance of t he pot ent i al under t r ansl at i ons and t he conser vat i on of
l i near moment um
Th e equat i on of mot i on of a Newt oni an p ar t i cl e of mass m movi ng al ong t h e x-axi s
under t he i nfl uence of a for ce F
x
i s
md
2
x/ dt
2
= F
x
. ( 5.1)
I f F
x
can be r epr esent ed by a pot ent i al V( x) t hen
md
2
x/ dt
2
= dV( x) / dx . ( 5.2)
I n t h e sp eci al case i n wh i ch t h e p o t en t i al i s n o t a f u n ct i o n o f x, t h e equ at i o n o f mo t i o n
becomes
md
2
x/ dt
2
= 0,
or
md( v
x
) / dt = 0. ( 5.3)
I nt egr at i ng t h i s equat i on gi ves
mv
x
= const ant . ( 5.4)
We see t hat t he l i near moment um of t he par t i cl e i s const ant i f t he pot ent i al i s
i ndependent of t he posi t i on of t he par t i cl e.
5.2 I nvar i ance of t he pot ent i al under r ot at i ons and t he conser vat i on of angul ar
moment um
I N V A R I A N C E P R I N C I P L E S A N D C O N S E R V A T I O N L A W S 95
Let a Newt o n i an p ar t i cl e o f m ass m m o ve i n t h e p l an e ab o u t a f i xed o r i gi n , O,
under t he i nfl uence of a for ce F. The equat i ons of mot i on, i n t he x-and y-di r ect i ons, ar e
md
2
x/ dt
2
= F
x
and md
2
y/ dt
2
= F
y
. ( 5.5 a,b)
I f t h e for ce can be r ep r esent ed by a p ot ent i al V( x, y) t h en we can wr i t e
md
2
x/ dt
2
= V/ x and md
2
y/ dt
2
= V/ y . ( 5.6 a,b)
Th e t ot al di f f er ent i al of t h e p ot ent i al i s
dV = ( V/ x) dx + (V/ y) dy.
Let a t r ansfor mat i on fr om Car t esi an t o pol ar coor di nat es be made usi ng t he st andar d l i near
equat i ons
x = r cos and y = r si n .
Th e p ar t i al der i vat i ves ar e
x/ = r si n = y, x/ r = cos, y/ = r cos= x, and y/ r = si n .
V/ = ( V/ x) (x/ ) + ( V/ y) (y/ ) ( 5.7)
= ( V/ x) ( y) + (V/ y) ( x)
= yF
x
+ x( F
y
)
= m( ya
x
xa
y
) ( a
x
and a
y
ar e t he component s of accel er at i on)
= m( d/ dt ) ( yv
x
xv
y
) ( v
x
and v
y
ar e t he component s of vel oci t y) .
I f t h e p ot ent i al i s i ndep endent of t h e angl e t hen
V/ = 0, ( 5.8)
i n whi ch case
I N V A R I A N C E P R I N C I P L E S A N D C O N S E R V A T I O N L A W S 96
m( d/ dt ) ( yv
x
xv
y
) = 0
and t her efor e
m( yv
x
xv
y
) = a const ant . ( 5.9)
The quant i t y on t he l eft -hand si de of t hi s equat i on i s t he angul ar moment um ( yp
x
xp
y
) of
t h e mass abo u t t h e f i xed o r i gi n . We t h er ef o r e see t h at i f t h e p o t en t i al i s i n var i an t u n d er
r ot at i on s obou t t h e or i gi n ( i n d ep en d en t of t h e an gl e ) , t h e an gu l ar m o m en t u m o f t h e
mass about t he or i gi n i s conser ved.
I n Ch ap t er 9, we sh al l t r eat t h e su bj ect o f i n var i an ce p r i n ci p l es an d co n ser vat i o n
l aws i n a mor e gen er al way, usi ng ar gument s t hat i nvol ve t he Lagr angi ans and
Hami l t oni ans of dynami cal syst ems.
6
EI NSTEI NI AN DYNAMI CS
6.1 4-moment um and t he ener gy-moment um i nvar i ant
I n Cl assi cal Mech ani cs, t h e concept of moment um i s i mpor t ant because of i t s r l e as an
i n var i an t i n an i so l at ed syst em. We t h er ef o r e i n t r o d u ce t h e co n cep t o f 4-mo men t u m i n
Rel at i vi st i c Mechani cs i n or der t o fi nd possi bl e Lor ent z i nvar i ant s i nvol vi ng t hi s new
quant i t y. The cont r avar i ant 4-moment um i s defi ned as:
P
= mV
( 6.1)
wh er e m i s t h e mass of t h e p ar t i cl e. ( I t i s a Lor ent z scal ar t h e mass measur ed i n t h e r est
fr ame of t he par t i cl e) .
The scal ar pr oduct i s
P
= ( mc)
2
. ( 6.2)
Now,
P
= [ mc, mv
N
] ( 6.3)
t her efor e,
P
= ( mc)
2
( mv
N
)
2
.
Wr i t i ng
M = m, t h e r el at i vi st i c mass, we obt ai n
P
= ( Mc)
2
( Mv
N
)
2
= ( mc)
2
. ( 6.4)
Mul t i pl yi ng t hr oughout by c
2
gi ves
M
2
c
4
M
2
v
N
2
c
2
= m
2
c
4
. ( 6.5)
E I N S T E I N I A N D Y N A M I C S 98
Th e quant i t y Mc
2
has di mensi ons of ener gy; we t her efor e wr i t e
E = Mc
2
, ( 6.6)
t h e t ot al ener gy of a f r eel y movi ng p ar t i cl e.
Thi s l eads t o t he fundament al i nvar i ant of dynami cs
c
2
P
= E
2
( pc)
2
= E
o2
( 6.7)
wher e
E
o
= mc
2
i s t h e r est ener gy of t h e p ar t i cl e, and p i s i t s r el a t i vi st i c 3-m om en t u m.
Th e t ot al ener gy can be wr i t t en:
E = E
o
= E
o
+ T, ( 6.8)
wher e
T = E
o
( - 1) , ( 6.9)
t he r el a ti vi sti c k i n eti c en er gy.
The magni t ude of t he 4-moment um i s a Lor ent z i nvar i ant
| P
| = mc. ( 6.10)
The 4- moment um t r ansfor ms as fol l ows:
P
= LP
. ( 6.11)
6.2 The r el at i vi st i c Doppl er shi f t
For r el at i ve mot i on al ong t h e x-axi s, t h e equat i on P

= LP
i s equi val ent t o t h e equat i ons

E = E cp
x
( 6.12)
and,
cp
x
= E + cp
x
. ( 6.13)
Usi n g t h e Pl an ck -Ei n st ei n equ at i o n s E = h and E = p
x
c for phot ons, t he ener gy
equat i on becomes
=
= ( 1 )
= ( 1 ) / ( 1
2
)
1/ 2
= { ( 1 ) / ( 1 + ) }
1/ 2
. ( 6.14)
Th i s i s t h e r el at i vi st i c Do p p l er sh i f t f o r t h e f r equ en cy , m easu r ed i n an i n er t i al f r am e
( pr i med) i n t er ms of t he fr equency measur ed i n anot her i ner t i al fr ame ( unpr i med) .
6.3 Rel at i vi st i c col l i si ons and t he conser vat i on of 4-moment um
Co n si d er t h e i n t er act i o n bet ween t wo p ar t i cl es, 1 an d 2, t o f o r m t wo p ar t i cl es, 3
an d 4. ( 3 an d 4 ar e n o t n ecessar i l y t h e same as 1 an d 2) . Th e co n t r avar i an t 4-mo men t a
ar e P
i
:
Bef o r e Af t er
3 P
3

P
1
P
2

1
2
4
P
4

1 + 2 3 + 4
Al l exp er i ment s ar e consi st ent wi t h t h e f act t h at t h e 4-moment um of t h e syst em i s
conser ved. We have, for t he cont r avar i ant 4-moment um vect or s of t he i nt er act i ng
par t i cl es,
100
P
1
+ P
2
= P
3
+ P
4
( 6.15)
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

i ni t i al f r ee st at e f i nal f r ee st at e
and a si mi l ar equat i on for t he covar i ant 4-moment um vect or s,
P
1
+ P
2
= P
3
+ P
4
. ( 6.16)
I f we ar e i nt er est ed i n t h e ch ange P
1
P
3
, t h en we r equi r e
P
1
P
3
= P
4
P
2
( 6.17)
and
P
1
P
3
= P
4
P
2
. ( 6.18)
For mi ng t he i nvar i ant scal ar pr oduct s, and usi ng P
i
P
i
= ( E
i
0
/ c)
2
, we obt ai n
( E
1
0
/ c)
2
2( E
1
E
3
/ c
2
p
1
p
3
) + ( E
3
0
/ c)
2
= ( E
4
0
/ c)
2
2( E
2
E
4
/ c
2
p
2
p
4
) + ( E
2
0
/ c)
2
. ( 6.19)
I nt r oduci ng t h e scat t er i ng angl es, and , t hi s equat i on becomes
E
1
0 2
2( E
1
E
3
c
2
p
1
p
3
cos) + E
3
0 2
= E
2
0 2
2( E
2
E
4
c
2
p
2
p
4
cos) + E
4
0 2
.
I f we ch oose a r ef er en ce f r ame i n wh i ch p ar t i cl e 2 i s at r est ( t h e LAB f r ame) , t h en
p
2
= 0 and E
2
= E
2
0
, so t hat
E
1
0 2
2( E
1
E
3
c
2
p
1
p
3
cos) + E
3
0 2
= E
2
0 2
2E
2
0
E
4
+ E
4
0 2
. ( 6.20)
Th e t ot al ener gy of t h e syst em i s conser ved, t h er efor e
E
1
+ E
2
= E
3
+ E
4
= E
1
+ E
2
0
( 6.21)
or
E
4
= E
1
+ E
2
0
E
3
El i mi nat i ng E
4
fr om t he above scal ar pr oduct equat i on gi ves
E
1
0 2
2( E
1
E
3
c
2
p
1
p
3
cos) + E
3
0 2
= E
4
0 2
E
2
0 2
2E
2
0
( E
1
E
3
) . ( 6.22)
Th i s i s t h e basi c equat i on f or al l i nt er act i ons i n wh i ch t wo r el at i vi st i c ent i t i es i n t h e i ni t i al
st at e i n t er act t o gi ve t wo r el at i vi st i c en t i t i es i n t h e f i n al st at e. I t ap p l i es equ al l y wel l t o
i nt er act i ons t hat i nvol ve massi ve and massl ess ent i t i es.
6.3.1 The Compt on ef f ect
Th e gen er al met h o d d i scu ssed i n t h e p r evi o u s sect i o n can be u sed t o p r o vi d e an
exact an al ysi s o f Co mp t o n s f amo u s exp er i men t i n wh i ch t h e scat t er i n g o f a p h o t o n by a
st at i onar y, fr ee el ect r on was st udi ed. I n t h i s exampl e, we h ave
E
1
= E
ph
( t h e i n ci d en t p h o t o n en er gy) , E
2
= E
e
0
( t h e r est en er gy o f t h e st at i o n ar y
el ect r on, t h e t ar get ) , E
3
= E
ph
( t h e ener gy of t h e scat t er ed p h ot on) , and E
4
= E
e
( t h e
ener gy of t h e r ecoi l l i ng el ect r on) . Th e r est ener gy of t h e p h ot on i s zer o:
E
ph

E
ph
= p
ph
c E
e
0

>

E
e

Th e gener al equat i on i s now
0 2( E
ph
E
ph
E
ph
E
ph
cos) = E
e
0 2
2E
e
0
( E
ph
+ E
e
0
E
ph
) + E
e
0 2
( 6.23)
or
2E
ph
E
ph
( 1 cos) = 2E
e
0
( E
ph
- E
ph
)
so t hat
E
ph
E
ph
= E
ph
E
ph
( 1 cos) / E
e
0
. ( 6.24)
Compt on measur ed t he ener gy-l oss of t he phot on on scat t er i ng and i t s cos-dependence.
6.4 Rel at i vi st i c i nel ast i c col l i si ons
We shal l consi der an i nel ast i c col l i si on bet ween a par t i cl e 1 and a par t i cl e 2
( i n i t i al l y at r est ) t o f o r m a co mp o si t e p ar t i cl e 3. I n su ch a co l l i si o n , t h e 4-mo men t u m i s
co n ser ved ( as i t i s i n an el ast i c co l l i si o n ) h o wever , t h e k i n et i c en er gy i s n o t co n ser ved .
Par t o f t he k i n et i c ener gy of par t i cl e 1 i s t r ansfor med i nt o exci t at i on ener gy of t he
composi t e par t i cl e 3. Thi s exci t at i on ener gy can t ak e many for ms heat ener gy,
r ot at i onal ener gy, and t he exci t at i on of quant um st at es at t he mi cr oscopi c l evel .
The i nel ast i c col l i si on i s as shown:
Bef o r e Af t er

1 2 3

p
1
p
2
= 0 p
3

Rest ener gy: E
1
0
E
2
0
E
3
0
Tot al ener gy: E
1
E
2
= E
2
0
E
3
3-moment um: p
1
p
2
= 0 p
3
Ki n et i c en er gy: T
1
T
2
= 0 T
3

I n t hi s pr obl em, we shal l use t he ener gy-moment um i nvar i ant s associ at ed wi t h each
p ar t i cl e, di r ect l y:
i ) E
1
2
( p
1
c)
2
= E
1
0

2
( 6.25)
i i ) E
2
2
= E
2
0 2
( 6.26)
i i i ) E
3
2
( p
3
c)
2
= E
3
0

2
. ( 6.27)
Th e t ot al ener gy i s conser ved, t h er ef or e
E
1
+ E
2
= E
3
= E
1
+ E
2
0
. ( 6.28)
I nt r oduci ng t h e k i net i c ener gi es of t h e p ar t i cl es, we h ave
( T
1
+ E
1
0
) + E
2
0
= T
3
+ E
3
0
. ( 6.29)
The 3-moment um i s conser ved, t her efor e
p
1
+ 0 = p
3
. ( 6.30)
Usi ng
E
3
0

2
= E
3
2
( p
3
c)
2
, ( 6.31)
we obt ai n
E
3
0

2
= ( E
1
+ E
2
0
)
2
( p
3
c)
2
= E
1
2
+ 2E
1
E
2
0
+ E
2
0

2
( p
1
c)
2
= E
1
0

2
+ 2E
1
E
2
0
+ E
2
0

2
= E
1
0

2
+ E
2
0

2
+ 2( T
1
+ E
1
0
) E
2
0
( 6.32)
or
E
3
0

2
= ( E
1
0
+ E
2
0
)
2
+ 2T
1
E
2
0
( E
3
0
> E
1
0
+ E
2
0
) . ( 6.33)
Usi ng T
1
=
1
E
1
0
E
1
0
, wher e
1
= ( 1
1
2
)
1/ 2
and
1
= v
1
/ c, we have
E
3
0

2
= E
1
0

2
+ E
2
0

2
+ 2
1
E
1
0
E
2
0
. ( 6.34)
I f t wo i dent i cal par t i cl es mak e a compl et el y i nel ast i c col l i si on t h en
E
3
0

2
= 2(
1
+ 1) E
1
0

2
. ( 6.35)
6.5 The Mandel st am var i abl es
I n d i scu ssi o n s o f r el at i vi st i c i n t er act i o n s i t i s o f t en u sef u l t o i n t r o d u ce ad d i t i o n al
Lor ent z i nvar i ant s t hat ar e k nown as Mandel st am var i abl es. They ar e, for t he speci al case
of t wo p ar t i cl es i n t h e i ni t i al and f i nal st at es ( 1 + 2 3 + 4) :
s = ( P
1
+ P
2
) [ P
1
+ P
2
] , t he t ot al 4-moment um i nvar i ant
= ( ( E
1
+ E
2
) / c, ( p
1
+ p
2
) ) [ ( E
1
+ E
2
) / c, ( p
1
+ p
2
) ]
= ( E
1
+ E
2
)
2
/ c
2
( p
1
+ p
2
)
2
( 6.36)
Lor ent z i nvar i ant ,
t = ( P
1
P
3
) [ P
1
P
3
] , t he 4-moment um t r ansfer ( 13) i nvar i ant
= ( E
1
E
3
)
2
/ c
2
( p
1
p
3
)
2
( 6.37)
Lor ent z i nvar i ant ,
and
` u = ( P
1
P
4
) [ P
1
P
4
] , t he 4-moment um t r ansfer ( 14) i nvar i ant
= ( E
1
E
4
)
2
/ c
2
( p
1
p
4
)
2
( 6.38)
Lor ent z i nvar i ant .
Now,
sc
2
= E
1
2
+ 2E
1
E
2
+ E
2
2
( p
1
2
+ 2 p
1
p
2
+ p
2
2
) c
2
= E
1
0

2
+ E
2
0

2
+ 2E
1
E
2
2p
1
p
2
c
2
= E
1
0

2
+ E
2
0

2
+ 2( E
1
, p
1
c) [ E
2
, p
2
c] . ( 6.39)
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

Lor ent z i nvar i ant
The Mandel st am var i abl e sc
2
h as t h e same val ue i n al l i ner t i al f r ames. We t h er ef or e
eval uat e i t i n t h e LAB fr ame, defi ned by t h e vect or s
[ E
1
L
, p
1
L
c] and [ E
2
L
= E
2
0
, p
2
L
c = 0] , ( 6.40)
so t hat
2( E
1
L
E
2
L
p
1
L
p
2
L
c
2
) = 2E
1
L
E
2
0
, ( 6.41)
and
sc
2
= E
1
0

2
+ E
2
0

2
+ 2E
1
L
E
2
0
. ( 6.42)
We can eval uat e sc
2
i n t he cent er -of -mass ( CM) fr ame, defi ned by t he condi t i on
p
1
CM
+ p
2
CM
= 0 ( t h e t ot al 3-moment um i s zer o) :
sc
2
= ( E
1
CM
+ E
2
CM
)
2
. ( 6.43)
Th i s i s t h e squar e of t h e t ot al CM ener gy of t h e syst em.
6.5.1 The t ot al CM ener gy and t he pr oduct i on of new par t i cl es
Th e quant i t y cs i s t h e ener gy avai l abl e f or t h e p r oduct i on of new p ar t i cl es, or f or
exci t i n g t h e i n t er n al st r u ct u r e o f p ar t i cl es. We can n o w o bt ai n t h e r el at i o n bet ween t h e
t o t al CM en er gy an d t h e LAB en er gy o f t h e i n ci d en t p ar t i cl e ( 1) an d t h e t ar get ( 2) , as
fol l ows:
sc
2
= E
1
0

2
+ E
2
0

2
+ 2E
1
L
E
2
0
= ( E
1
CM
+ E
2
CM
)
2
= W
2
, say. ( 6.44)
H er e, we h ave eval u at ed t h e l ef t -h an d si d e i n t h e LAB f r ame, an d t h e r i gh t -h an d si d e i n
t he CM fr ame!
At ver y h i gh ener gi es, cs > > E
1
0
and E
2
0
, t h e r est en er gi es o f t h e p ar t i cl es i n t h e
i ni t i al st at e, i n wh i ch case,
W
2
= sc
2
2E
2
L
E
2
0
. ( 6.45)
Th e t o t al CM en er gy, W, avai l abl e f o r t h e p r o d u ct i o n o f n ew p ar t i cl es t h er ef o r e d ep en d s
on t h e squ ar e r oot of t h e i n ci d en t l abor at or y en er gy. Th i s r esu l t l ed t o t h e d evel op men t
of col l i di ng, or i nt er sect i ng, beams of par t i cl es ( such as pr ot ons and ant i -pr ot ons) i n or der
t o p r oduce suf f i ci ent ener gy t o gener at e p ar t i cl es wi t h r est masses t yp i cal l y 100 t i mes t h e
r est mass of t he pr ot on ( ~ 10
9
eV) .
6.6 Posi t r on-el ect r on anni hi l at i on-i n-f l i ght
A d i scu ssi o n o f t h e an n i h i l at i o n -i n -f l i gh t o f a r el at i vi st i c p o si t r o n an d a st at i o n ar y
el ect r o n p r o vi d es a t o p i cal exam p l e o f t he use of r el at i vi st i c conser vat i on l aws. Thi s
p r ocess, i n wh i ch t wo p h ot ons ar e sp ont aneousl y gener at ed, h as been used as a sour ce of
n ear l y mon oen er get i c h i gh -en er gy p h ot on s f or t h e st u d y of n u cl ear p h ot o-d i si n t egr at i on
si n ce 1960. Th e gen er al r esu l t f o r a 1 + 2 3 + 4 i n t er act i o n , gi ven i n sect i o n 6. 3,
pr ovi des t he basi s for an exact cal cul at i on of t hi s pr ocess; we have
E
1
= E
p o s
( t he i nci dent posi t r on ener gy) , E
2
= E
e
0
( t h e r est en er gy o f t h e st at i o n ar y
el ect r on) , E
3
= E
ph1
( t he ener gy of t he for war d-goi ng phot on) , and E
4
= E
ph2
( t h e en er gy o f
t h e back war d -go i n g p h o t o n ) . Th e r est en er gi es o f t h e posi t r on and t he el ect r on ar e
equal . Th e gener al equat i on now r eads
E
e
02
2{ E
p o s
E
ph1
cp
p o s
E
ph1
( cos) } + 0 = 0 E
e
02
2E
e
0
( E
p o s
E
ph1
) ( 6.46)
t her efor e
E
ph1
{ E
p o s
+ E
e
0
[ E
p o s
2
E
e
02
]
1/ 2
cos} = ( E
p o s
+ E
e
0
) E
e
0
,
gi vi ng
E
ph1
= E
e
0
/ ( 1 k cos) ( 6.47)
wher e
k = [ ( E
p o s
E
e
0
) / ( E
p o s
+ E
e
0
) ]
1/ 2
.
Th e maxi mum ener gy of t h e p h ot on, E
ph1
max
occur s wh en = 0, co r r esp o n d i n g t o
mot i on i n t he for war d di r ect i on; i t s ener gy i s
E
ph1
max
= E
oe
/ ( 1 k ) . ( 6.48)
I f , f or examp l e, t h e i n ci d en t t ot al p osi t r on en er gy i s 30 MeV, an d E
e
0
= 0.511MeV
t hen
E
ph1
max
= 0.511/ [ 1 ( 29.489/ 30.511)
1/ 2
] MeV
= 30.25 MeV.
Th e f o r war d -go i n g p h o t o n h as an en er gy equ al t o t he k i n et i c ener gy of t he i nci dent
posi t r on ( T
1
= 30 0.511 MeV) p l u s abo u t t h r ee-qu ar t er s o f t h e t o t al r est en er gy o f t h e
posi t r on-el ect r on pai r ( 2E
e
0
= 1.02 MeV) . Usi n g t h e co n ser vat i o n o f t h e t o t al en er gy o f
t h e syst em, we see t h at t h e ener gy of t h e back war d-goi ng p h ot on i s about 0.25 MeV.
The met hod of posi t r on-el ect r on anni hi l at i on-i n-fl i ght pr ovi des one of t he ver y few ways of
gener at i ng near l y monoener get i c ph ot ons at h i gh ener gi es.
PROBLEMS
6-1 A p ar t i cl e of r est ener gy E
0
has a r el at i vi st i c 3-moment um p and a r el at i vi st i c k i net i c
ener gy T. Sh ow t h at
1) | p| = ( 1/ c) ( 2TE
0
)
1/ 2
{ 1 + ( T/ 2E
0
) }
1/ 2
,
and
2) | v| = c{ 1 + [ E
02
/ T( T + 2E
0
) ] }
1/ 2
, wher e v i s t h e 3-vel oci t y.
6-2 Two si mi l ar r el at i vi st i c p ar t i cl es, A and B, each wi t h r est ener gy E
0
, move t owar ds
each ot h er i n a st r ai gh t l i ne. Th e const ant speed of each par t i cl e , measur ed i n t h e
LAB fr ame i s V = c. Sh ow t h at t h ei r t ot al ener gy, measur ed i n t h e r est fr ame of A, i s
E
0
( 1 +
2
) / ( 1
2
) .
6-3 An at om of r est ener gy E
A
0
i s i ni t i al l y at r est . I t compl et el y absor bs a ph ot on of ener gy
E
ph
, and t h e exci t ed at om of r est ener gy E
A
0
* r ecoi l s f r eel y. I f t h e exci t at i on ener gy of
t h e at om i s gi ven by
E
ex
= E
A
0
* E
A
0
, show t hat
E
ex
= E
A
0
+ E
A
0
{ 1 + ( 2E
ph
/ E
A
0
) }
1/ 2
, exact l y.
I f, as i s oft en t he case, E
ph
E
A
0
, sh ow t h at t h e r ecoi l ener gy of t h e at om i s
E
r ecoi l
E
ph
2
/ 2E
A
0
.
Expl ai n how t hi s appr oxi mat i on can be deduced usi ng a Newt oni an-l i ke anal ysi s.
6-4 A comp l et el y i nel ast i c col l i si on occur s bet ween p ar t i cl e 1 and p ar t i cl e 2 ( i ni t i al l y at
r est ) t o for m a composi t e par t i cl e, 3. Sh ow t h at t h e speed of 3 i s
v
3
= v
1
/ { 1 + ( E
2
0
/ E
1
) } ,
wh er e v
1
and E
1
ar e t h e sp eed and t h e t ot al ener gy of 1, and E
2
0
i s t h e r est ener gy of 2.
6-5 Sh ow t h at t h e m i n i m u m ener gy t h at a -r ay must have t o j ust br eak up a deut er on
i nt o a neut r on and a pr ot on i s
mi n
2.23 MeV, gi ven
E
neut
0
= 939.5656 MeV,
E
pr ot
0
= 938.2723 MeV, an d
E
deut
0
= 1875.6134 MeV.
6-6 I n a gener al r el at i vi st i c col l i si on:
1 + 2 n-par t i cl es
( 3 + 4 + ...m) + ( m+ 1, m+ 2. + ...n)
wh er e t h e p ar t i cl es 3 m ar e obser ved , and t he par t i cl es m+ 1 n ar e
unobser ved . We have
E
1
+ E
2
= ( E
3
+ E
4
+ ...E
m
) + ( E
m+ 1
+ E
m+ 2
+ ...E
n
) , t h e t ot al ener gy,
= E
obs
+ E
u n o b s
and
p
1
+ p
2
= p
obs
+ p
u n o b s
.
I f W
u n o b s
/ c
2
i s t he unobser ved ( mi ssi ng) mass of t he par t i cl es m+ 1 t o n, show t hat , i n
t he LAB fr ame
( W
u n o b s
)
2
= ( E
1
L
+ E
2
0

[ i = 3,m]
E
i
L
)
2
( p
1
L
c c
[ i = 3,m]
p
i
L
)
2
.
Thi s i s t he mi ssi ng ( ener gy)
2
i n t er ms of t he obser ved quant i t i es. Thi s i s t he pr i nci pl e
behi nd t he so-cal l ed mi ssi ng-mass spect r omet er s used i n Nucl ear and Par t i cl e
Physi cs.
6.7 I f t h e cont r avar i ant 4-for ce i s defi ned as
F
= dP
/ d = [ f
0
, f] wher e i s t he pr oper t i me, and P
i s t he
cont r avar i ant 4-moment um, show t hat
F
= 0, wh er e V
i s t h e covar i ant 4-vel oci t y.

( Th e 4- for ce and t h e 4-vel oci t y ar e or t h ogonal ) .
Obt ai n dE/ dt i n t er ms of , v, and f .
7
NEWTONI AN GRAVI TATI ON
We come now t o one of t he hi ghl i ght s i n t he hi st or y of i nt el l ect ual endeavor ,
namel y Newt on s Theor y of Gr avi t at i on. Thi s spect acul ar wor k r ank s wi t h a handful of
mast er pi eces i n Nat ur al Phi l osophy t he Gal i l eo-Newt on Theor y of Mot i on, t he Car not -
Cl ausi us-Kel vi n Theor y of Heat and Ther modynami cs, Maxwel l s Theor y of
El ect r omagnet i sm, t he Maxwel l -Bol t zmann-Gi bbs Theor y of St at i st i cal Mechani cs,
Ei nst ei n s Theor i es of Speci al and Gener al Rel at i vi t y, Pl anck s Quant um Theor y of
Radi at i on, and t he Bohr -deBr ogl i e-Schr di nger -Hei senber g Quant um Theor y of Mat t er .
Newt on s most si gni fi cant i deas on Gr avi t at i on wer e devel oped i n hi s ear l y
t went i es at a t i me wh en t h e Uni ver si t y of Cambr i dge cl osed down because of t h e Gr eat
Pl ague. He r et ur ned t o hi s home, a far m at Wool st hor pe-by-Col st er wor t h, i n Li ncol nshi r e.
I t i s a par t of Engl and domi nat ed by vast , changi ng sk i es; a r egi on buffet ed by t he wi nds
fr om t he Nor t h Sea. The t hought s of t he young Newt on nat ur al l y t ur ned sk ywar d t her e
was l i t t l e on t he gr ound t o st i r hi s i magi nat i on except , per haps, t he pr over bi al appl e t r ee
and t he fal l i ng appl e.
Newt on s wor k set us on a new cour se.
Befor e di scussi ng t h e det ai l s of t h e t h eor y, i t wi l l be useful t o gi ve an over vi ew
usi ng t he si mpl est model , consi st ent wi t h l ogi cal accur acy. I n t hi s way, we can appr eci at e
Newt on s r adi cal i deas, and hi s devel opment of t he now st andar d Sci ent i fi c Met hod i n
whi ch a cr uci al i nt er pl ay exi st s bet ween t he r esul t s of obser vat i ons and mat hemat i cal
N E W T O N I A N G R A V I T A T I O N 111
model s t hat best account for t he obser vat i ons. The gr eat t heor i es ar e oft en based upon
r el at i vel y smal l number s of obser vat i ons. The uncover i ng of t he Laws of Nat ur e r equi r es
deep and i magi nat i ve t hought s t hat go far beyond t he demonst r at i on of mat hemat i cal
pr owess.
Newt on s devel opment of Di ffer ent i al Cal cul us i n t h e l at e 1660 s was st r ongl y
i nfl uenced by hi s at t empt s t o under st and, anal yt i cal l y, t he empi r i cal i deas concer ni ng
mot i on t h at h ad been put for war d by Gal i l eo. I n par t i cul ar , h e i nvest i gat ed t h e anal yt i cal
pr oper t i es of mot i on i n cur ved pat hs. These pr oper t i es ar e r equi r ed i n hi s Theor y of
Gr avi t at i on. We shal l consi der mot i on i n 2-di mensi ons.
7.1 Pr oper t i es of mot i on al ong cur ved pat hs i n t he pl ane
The vel oci t y of a poi nt i n t he pl ane i s a vect or , dr awn at t he poi nt , such t hat i t s
component i n any di r ect i on i s gi ven by t he r at e of change of t he di spl acement , i n t hat
di r ect i on. Consi der t he fol l owi ng di agr am
y B
y + y Q
PQ
y P y
A x
O x
x x + x
t t + t
P and Q ar e t he posi t i ons of a poi nt movi ng al ong t he cur ved pat h AB. The coor di nat es ar e
P[ x, y] at t i me t and Q[ x + x, y + y] at t i me t + t . The component s of t he vel oci t y of
t he poi nt ar e
l i m( t0) x/ t = dx/ dt = v
x
,
and
l i m( t0) y/ t = dy/ dt = v
y
.
x and y ar e t he component s of t he vect or PQ. Th e vel oci t y i s t h er ef or e
l i m( t0) chor dPQ/ t .
We have
l i m( QP) chor d PQ/ s = 1,
wher e s i s t he l engt h of t he cur ve AP and s i s t h e l engt h of t h e ar c PQ.
Th e vel oci t y can be wr i t t en
l i m( t0) ( chor dPQ/ s) ( s/ t ) = ds/ dt . ( 7.1)
Th e di r ect i onof t h e i nst ant aneous vel oci t y at P i s al ong t h e t angent t o t h e p at h at P.
The x- and y-component s of t he accel er at i on of P ar e
l i m( t0) v
x
/ t = dv
x
/ dt = d
2
x/ dt
2
,
and
l i m( t0) v
y
/ t = dv
y
/ dt = d
2
y/ dt
2
.
Th e r esul t ant accel er at i on i s not di r ect ed al ong t h e t angent at P.
Consi der t he mot i on of P al ong t he cur ve APQB:
y B
v + v
Q

P v
A
O x
The change v i n t h e vect or v i s shown i n t he di agr am:
v + v v
v
Th e vect or v can be wr i t t en i n t er ms of t wo component s, a, per pendi cul ar t o t he
di r ect i on of v, and b, al ong t h e di r ect i on of v + v: Th e accel er at i on i s
l i m( t0) v/ t ,
The component al ong a i s
l i m( t0) a/ t = l i m( t 0) v/ t = l i m( t0) ( v/ s) ( s/ t )
= v
2
( d/ ds) = v
2
/ ( 7.2)
wher e
= ds/ d, i s t he r adi us of cur vat ur e at P. ( 7.3)
The di r ect i on of t hi s component of t he accel er at i on i s al ong t he i nwar d nor mal at P.
I f t he par t i cl e moves i n a ci r cl e of r adi us R t hen i t s accel er at i on t owar ds t he cent er i s v
2
/ R,
a r esul t f i r st gi ven by Newt on.
The component of accel er at i on al ong t he t angent at P i s dv/ dt = v( dv/ ds) = d
2
s/ dt
2
.
7.2 An over vi ew of Newt oni an gr avi t at i on
Newt on consi der ed t he fundament al pr oper t i es of mot i on, embodi ed i n hi s t hr ee
Laws, t o be uni ver sal i n char act er t he nat ur al l aws appl y t o al l mot i ons of al l par t i cl es
t hr oughout al l space, at al l t i mes. Such consi der at i ons for m t he basi s of a Nat ur al
Phi l osophy. I n t he Pr i n ci pi a , Newt on wr ot e .. I began t o t h i nk of gr avi t y as ext endi ng t o
t he or b of t he Moon... He r easoned t hat t he Moon, i n i t s st eady or bi t ar ound t he Ear t h, i s
al ways accel er at i ng t owar ds t he Ear t h! He est i mat ed t he accel er at i on as fol l ows:
I f t he or bi t of t he Moon i s ci r cul ar ( a r easonabl e assumpt i on) , t he dynami cal pr obl em i s
v
a
R
Moon
Ear t h R Th e accel er at i on of t h e Moon
t owar d s t h e Ear t h i s
| a
R
| = v
2
/ R
Newt on cal cul at ed v = 2R/ T, wh er e R = 240,000 mi l es, and T = 27.4 days, t h e p er i od,
so t hat
a
R
= 4
2
R/ T
2
0.007 f t / sec
2
. ( 7.4)
H e k new t h at al l obj ect s, cl ose t o t h e sur face of t h e Ear t h , accel er at e t owar ds t h e Ear t h
wi t h a val ue det er mi ned by Gal i l eo, namel y g 32f t / sec
2
. H e was t h er efor e faced wi t h
t h e p r obl em of exp l ai ni ng t h e or i gi n of t h e ver y l ar ge di f f er ence bet ween t h e val ue of t h e
accel er at i on a
R
, near l y a quar t er of a mi l l i on mi l es away fr om Ear t h, and t he l ocal val ue, g.
He had pr evi ousl y for mul at ed hi s 2nd Law t hat r el at es for ce t o a ccel er a t i on, and
t h er ef or e h e r easoned t h at t h e di f f er ence bet ween t h e accel er at i ons, a
R
and g, must be
associ at ed wi t h a pr oper t y of t he for ce act i ng bet ween t h e Ear t h and t h e Moon t h e
for ce must decr ease i n some unknown way.
Newt on t h en i nt r oduced h i s convi ct i on t h at t h e for ce of gr avi t y bet ween obj ect s i s
a u n i ver sa l for ce; each pl anet i n t he sol ar syst em i nt er act s wi t h t he Sun vi a t he same basi c
for ce, and t her efor e under goes a char act er i st i c accel er at i on t owar ds t he Sun. He
concl uded t hat t he answer t o t he pr obl em of t he nat ur e of t he gr avi t at i onal for ce must be
cont ai ned i n t he t hr ee empi r i cal Laws of Pl anet ar y Mot i on announced by Kepl er , a few
decades befor e. Th e t h r ee Laws ar e
1) The pl anet s descr i be el l i pses about t he Sun as focus,
2) Th e l i ne j oi ni ng t h e p l anet t o t h e Sun sweep s out equal ar eas i n equal i nt er val s
of t i me,
and
3) The per i od of a pl anet i s pr opor t i onal t o t he l engt h of t he semi -maj or axi s of
t h e or bi t , r ai sed t o t h e p ower of 3/ 2.
These r emar k abl e Laws wer e deduced aft er an exhaust i ve st udy of t he mot i on of
t he pl anet s, made over a per i od of about 50 year s by Tycho Br ahe and Kepl er .
Th e 3r d Law was of par t i cul ar i nt er est t o Newt on because i t r el at es t h e squar e of
t he per i od t o t he cube of t he r adi us for a ci r cul ar or bi t :
T
2
R
3
( 7.5)
or
T
2
= CR
3
,
wher e C i s a const ant . He r epl aced t he speci fi c val ue of ( R/ T
2
) t hat occur s i n t he
expr essi on for t he accel er at i on of t he Moon t owar ds t he Ear t h wi t h t he val ue obt ai ned
fr om Kepl er s 3r d Law and obt ai ned a val ue for t he accel er at i on a
R
:
a
R
= v
2
/ R = 4
2
R/ T
2
( Newt on) ( 7.6)
but
R/ T
2
= 1/ CR
2
( Kepl er ) ( 7.7)
t her efor e
a
R
= 4
2
( R/ T
2
)
= ( 4
2
/ C) ( 1/ R
2
) ( Newt on) . ( 7.8)
The accel er at i on of t he Moon t owar ds t he Ear t h var i es as t he i n ver se squ a r e of t he
di st ance bet ween t h em.
Newt on was now p r ep ar ed t o devel op a gener al t h eor y of gr avi t at i on. I f t h e accel er at i on
of a pl anet t owar ds t he Sun depends on t he i nver se squar e of t hei r separ at i on, t hen t he
for ce bet ween t hem can be wr i t t en, usi ng t he 2nd Law of Mot i on, as fol l ows
F = M
p l an et
a
p l an et
= M
p l an et
( 4
2
/ C) ( 1/ R
2
) . ( 7.9)
At t hi s poi nt , Newt on i nt r oduced t he fi r st sym m et r y ar gument i n Physi cs: i f t he
pl anet exper i ences a for ce fr om t he Sun t hen t he Sun must exper i ence t he same for ce
fr om t he pl anet ( t he 3r d Law of Mot i on!) . He t her efor e ar gued t hat t he expr essi on for t he
for ce bet ween t he pl anet and t he Sun must cont ai n, expl i ci t l y, t he masses of t he pl anet
and t h e Sun. Th e gr avi t at i onal f or ce F
G
bet ween t h em t h er efor e h as t h e for m
F
G
= GM
Sun
M
p l an et
/ R
2
, ( 7.10)
wher e G i s a const ant .
Newt on saw no r eason t o l i mi t t hi s for m t o t he Sun-pl anet syst em, and t her efor e
he announced t hat for a n y t wo spher i cal masses, M
1
and M
2
, t h e gr avi t at i onal f or ce
bet ween t h em i s gi ven by
F
G
= GM
1
M
2
/ R
2
, ( 7.11)
wher e G i s a uni ver sal const ant of Nat ur e.
Al l evi dence poi nt s t o t h e fact t h at t h e gr avi t at i onal for ce bet ween t wo masses i s
al ways a t t r a ct i ve.
Ret ur ni ng t o t he Ear t h-Moon syst em, t he for ce on t he Moon ( mass M
M
) i n or bi t i s
F
R
= GM
E
M
M
/ R
2
= M
M
a
R
( 7.12)
so t hat
a
R
= GM
E
/ R
2
, whi ch i s i ndependent of M
M
. ( Th e cancel l at i on of t h e
mass M
M
i n t he expr essi ons for F
R
i nvol ves an i mpor t ant poi nt t hat i s di scussed l at er i n t he
sect i on 8.1) .
At t he sur face of t he Ear t h, t he accel er at i on, g, of a mass M i s essent i al l y const ant . I t does
not depend on t he val ue of t he mass, M, t hus
g = GM
E
/ R
E
2
, wher e R
E
i s t he r adi us of t he Ear t h. ( 7.13)
( I t t ook Newt on many year s t o pr ove t h at t h e ent i r e mass of t h e Ear t h , M
E
, i s equi val ent t o
a poi nt mass, M
E
, l ocat ed at t h e cent er of t h e Ear t h wh en cal cul at i ng t h e Ear t h s
gr avi t at i onal i nt er act i on wi t h a mass on i t s suface. Thi s r esul t depends on t he exact 1/ R
2
-
nat ur e of t he for ce) .
Th e r at i o of t h e accel er at i ons, a
R
/ g, i s t h er ef or e
a
R
/ g = ( GM
E
/ R
2
) / ( GM
E
/ R
E
2
) = ( R
E
/ R)
2
. ( 7.14)
Newt on k new fr om obser vat i ons t hat t he r at i o of t he r adi us of t he Ear t h t o t he r adi us of
t he Moon s or bi t i s about 1/ 60, and t her efor e he obt ai ned
a
R
/ g ( 1/ 60)
2
= 1/ 3600.
so t hat
a
R
= g/ 3600 = ( 32/ 3600) f t / sec
2
= 0.007...f t / sec
2
.
I n one of t he gr eat under st at ement s of anal ysi s, Newt on sai d, i n compar i ng t hi s r esul t wi t h
t he val ue for a
R
t hat he had deduced usi ng a
R
= v
2
/ R, .. t h at i t agr eed p r et t y near l y ..Th e
di scr epancy came l ar gel y fr om t he er r or s i n t he obser ved r at i o of t he r adi i .
7.3 Gr avi t at i on: an exampl e of a cent r al f or ce
Cent r al for ces, i n whi ch a par t i cl e moves under t he i nfl uence of a for ce t hat act s on
t h e par t i cl e i n such a way t h at i t i s al ways di r ect ed t owar ds a si ngl e poi nt t h e cent er of
for ce for m an i mpor t ant cl ass of pr obl ems . Let t he cent er of for ce be chosen as t he
or i gi n of coor di nat es:
v
m
P[ r , ]
F
r
Cen t er of For ce
O x
The descr i pt i on of par t i cl e mot i on i n t er ms of pol ar coor di nat es ( Chapt er 2) , i s wel l -sui t ed
t o t he anal ysi s of t he cent r al for ce pr obl em. For gener al mot i on, t he accel er at i on of a
poi nt P[ r , ] movi ng i n t he pl ane has t he fol l owi ng component s i n t he r - and -
di r ect i ons
a
r
= u
r
( d
2
r / dt
2
r ( d/ dt )
2
) , ( 7.15)
and
a
= u
( r( d
2
/ dt
2
) + 2( dr / dt ) ( d/ dt ) ) , ( 7.16)
wher e u
r
and u
ar e uni t vect or s i n t he r - and -di r ect i ons.

I n t h e cent r al for ce pr obl em, t h e for ce F i s al ways di r ect ed t owar ds O, and
t her efor e t he component a
, per pendi cul ar t o r , i s al ways zer o:

a
= u
( r( d
2
/ dt
2
) + 2( dr / dt ) ( d/ dt ) = 0, ( 7.17)
and t her efor e
r ( d
2
/ dt
2
) + 2( dr / dt ) ( d/ dt ) = 0. ( 7.18)
Thi s i s t he equat i on of mot i on of a par t i cl e movi ng under t he i nfl uence of a cent r al for ce,
cent er ed at O.
I f we t ak e t h e Sun as t h e ( fi xed) cent er of for ce, t h e mot i on of a pl anet movi ng
about t he Sun i s gi ven by t hi s equat i on. The di ffer ent i al equat i on can be sol ved by mak i ng
t he subst i t ut i on
= d / dt , ( 7.19)
gi vi ng
r d / d t + 2( dr / dt ) = 0, ( 7.20)
or
r d = 2 dr .
Sep ar at i ng t h e var i abl es, we obt ai n
d / = 2dr / r .
I n t egr at i n g, gi ves
l o g
e
= 2l o g
e
r + C ( const ant ) ,
t her efor e
l o g
e
( r
2
) = C.
Tak i ng ant i l ogs gi ves
r
2
= r
2
( d/ dt ) = e
C
= k , a const ant . ( 7.21)
7.4 Mot i on under a cent r al f or ce and t he conser vat i on of angul ar moment um
The above sol ut i on of t he equat i on of mot i on of a par t i cl e of mass m, movi ng under
t he i nfl uence of a cent r al for ce at t he or i gi n, O, can be mul t i pl i ed t hr oughout by t he mass
m t o gi ve
mr
2
( d/ dt ) = mk ( 7.22)
or
mr ( r ( d/ dt ) ) = K, a const ant for a gi ven mass, ( 7.23)
We not e t hat r ( d / dt ) = v
, t he component of vel oci t y per pendi cul ar t o r , t her efor e

angul ar moment um of m about O = r ( mv
) = K, a con st a n t of t he m ot i on for a
cen t r a l for ce.
7.5 Kepl er s 2nd l aw expl ai ned
The equat i on r
2
( d/ dt ) = const ant , K, can be i nt er pr et ed i n t er ms of an el ement
of ar ea swept out by t he r adi us vect or , r , as fol l ows
A r ( r + r )
r + r
r

O x
Fr om t he di agr am, we see t hat t he fol l owi ng i nequal i t y hol ds
r
2
/ 2 < A < ( r + r )
2
/ 2
or
r
2
/ 2 < A/ < ( r + r )
2
/ 2.
When 0, r + r r , so t h at , i n t h e l i mi t ,
dA/ d = r
2
/ 2.
Th e el ement of ar ea i s t h er ef or e
dA = r
2
d/ 2.
Twi ce t h e t i me r at e of ch ange of t h i s el ement i s t h er ef or e
2dA/ dt = r
2
( d/ dt ) . ( 7.24)
We r ecogni ze t hat t hi s expr essi on i s equal t o k , t he const ant t hat occur s i n t he sol ut i on of
t he di ffer ent i al equat i on of mot i on for a cent r al pat h. The r adi us vect or r t her efor e
sweeps out ar ea at a const ant r at e. Thi s i s Kepl er s 2nd Law of Pl anet ar y Mot i on; i t i s seen
t o be a di r ect consequence of t h e f act t h at t h e gr avi t at i onal at t r act i on bet ween t h e Sun
and a pl anet i s a cent r al for ce pr obl em.
7.6 Cent r al or bi t s
A cent r al or bi t must be a pl ane cur ve ( t her e i s no for ce out of t he pl ane) , and t he
moment of t he vel oci t y r
2
( d/ dt ) , about t he cent er of for ce, must be a const ant of t he
mot i on. Th e moment can be wr i t t en i n t h r ee equi val ent ways:
r d / d t v v y d y/ d y v
d r / d t
r F
c
F
c
F
c
dx/ dt
O x O x O x
p
The moment of t he vel oci t y about O i s t hen
r ( r ( d/ dt ) = p v = x( dy/ dt ) y( dx/ dt )
= a const ant , h , say. ( 7.25)
The r esul t r
2
( d/ dt ) = const ant for a cent r al for ce can be der i ved i n t he fol l owi ng
al t er nat i ve way:
Th e t i me der i vat i ve of r
2
( d/ dt ) i s
( d/ dt ) ( r
2
( d/ dt ) ) = r
2
( d
2
/ dt
2
) + ( d/ dt ) 2r ( dr / dt ) ( 7.26)
I f t hi s equat i on i s di vi ded t hr oughout by r t hen
( 1/ r ) ( d/ dt ) ( r
2
( d/ dt ) ) = r ( d
2
/ dt
2
) + 2( dr / dt ) ( d/ dt ) ( 7.27)
= t h e t r ansver se accel er at i on
= 0 f or a cent r al f or ce. ( 7.28)
I nt egr at i ng t h en gi ves
r
2
( d/ dt ) = const ant for a cent r al for ce. ( 7.29)
7.6.1 The l aw of f or ce i n [ p, r ] coor di nat es
Ther e ar e advant ages t o be gai ned i n usi ng a new set of coor di nat es [ p, r ]
coor di nat es i n whi ch a poi nt P i n t he pl ane i s defi ned i n t er ms of t he r adi al di st ance r
fr om t he or i gi n, and t he per pendi cul ar di st ance p fr om t he or i gi n ont o t he t angent t o t he
pat h at P.
Let a par t i cl e of uni t mass move al ong a pat h under t he i nfl uence of a cent r al for ce
di r ect ed t owar ds a fi xed poi nt , O. Let a
c
be t h e cent r al accel er at i on of t h e uni t mass at P,
l et t h e per pendi cul ar di st ance fr om O t o t h e t angent at P be p, and l et t h e i nst ant aneous
r adi us of cur vat ur e of t he pat h at t he poi nt P be :
Cen t r al o r bi t
v
Comp onent of accel er at i on P[ r , p]
al ong i nwar d nor mal at P, a

a
c
r
p
Cen t er of For ce O
The component of t he cent r al accel er at i on al ong t he i nwar d nor mal at P i s
a
= a
c
si n = v
2
/ = a
c
( p/ r ) . ( 7.30)
The i nst ant aneous r adi us of cur vat ur e i s gi ven by
= r ( dr / dp) . ( 7.31)
For a l l cent r al for ces,
pv = const ant = h , ( 7.32)
t her efor e
a
= v
2
/ = ( h
2
/ p
2
) ( 1/ r ) ( dp/ dr ) = a
c
( p/ r ) , ( 7.33)
so t hat
a
c
= ( h
2
/ p
3
) ( dp/ dr ) . ( 7.34)
Th i s di ffer ent i al equat i on i s t h e l a w of for ce per uni t mass gi ven t he or bi t i n [ p, r ]
coor di nat es.
( I t i s l eft as a pr obl em t o show t hat gi ven t he or bi t i n pol ar coor di nat es, t he l aw of for ce
per uni t mass i s
a
c
= h
2
u
2
{ u + d
2
u/ d
2
} , wh er e u = 1/ r ) . ( 7.35)
I n or der t o fi nd t he l aw of for ce per uni t mass ( accel er at i on) , gi ven t he [ p, r ]
equat i on of t he or bi t , i t i s necessar y t o cal cul at e dp/ dr . For exampl e, i f t he or bi t i s
par abol i c, t he [ p, r ] equat i on can be obt ai ned as fol l ows
y P
Tan gen t at P
Q
p r
Ap ex , A x
F , t h e Focu s
The t r i angl es FAQ and FQP ar e si mi l ar , t her efor e
p / a = r / p , wh er e AF = a, ( 7.36)
gi vi ng
1/ p
2
= 1/ ar , t he p-r equat i on of a par abol a. ( 7.37)
Di ffer ent i at i ng t h i s equat i on, we obt ai n
( 1/ p
3
) dp/ dr = 1/ 2ar
2
. ( 7.38)
Th e l aw of accel er at i on for t h e par abol i c cent r al or bi t i s t h er efor e
a
c
= ( h
2
/ p
3
) dp/ dr = ( h
2
/ 2a) ( 1/ r
2
) = const ant / r
2
. ( 7.39)
The i nst ant aneous speed of P i s gi ven by t he equat i on v = h/ p; we t her efor e fi nd
v = h / ar . ( 7.40)
Thi s appr oach can be t ak en i n di scussi ng cent r al or bi t s wi t h el l i pt i c and hyper bol i c for ms.
Consi der t he el l i pse
Q y
P
R
b p
1
r
1
r
2
p
2

x
F
1
F
2
a
The foci ar e F
1
and F
2
, t he semi -maj or axi s i s a, t he semi -mi nor axi s i s b, t he r adi us vect or s
t o t he poi nt P[ r , ] ar e r
1
and r
2
, and t he per pendi cul ar s fr om F
1
and F
2
ont o t h e t angent
at P ar e p
1
and p
2
.
Usi ng st andar d r esul t s fr om anal yt i c geomet r y, we have for t he el l i pse
1) r
1
+ r
2
= 2a, ( 7.41 a-c)
2) p
1
p
2
= b
2
,
and
3) angl e QPF
1
= angl e RPF
2
.
Th e t r i angl es F
1
QP and F
2
RP ar e si mi l ar , and t her efor e
p
1
/ r
1
= p
2
/ r
2
( 7.42)
or
( p
1
p
2
/ r
1
r
2
)
1/ 2
= b/ { r
1
( 2a r
1
) }
1/ 2
= p
1
/ r
1
so t hat
b
2
/ p
1
2
= 2a/ r
1
1. ( 7.43)
Thi s i s t he [ p, r ] equat i on of an el l i pse.
The [ p, r ] equat i on for t he hyper bol a can be obt ai ned usi ng a si mi l ar anal ysi s. The
st andar d r esul t s fr om anal yt i cal geomet r y t hat appl y i n t hi s case ar e
1) p
1
p
2
= b
2
, ( 7.44 a-c)
2) r
2
r
1
= 2a
and
3) t h e t angent at P bi sect s t h e angl e bet ween t h e f ocal di st ances.
( b
2
= a
2
( e
2
1) wh er e e i s t h e eccent r i ci t y ( e
2
> 1) , and 2b
2
/ a i s t he l at us r ect um) .
b
1
2
/ p
1
2
= 2a/ r
1
+ 1. ( 7.45)
Thi s i s t he [ p, r ] equat i on of an hyper bol a.
7.7 Bound and unbound or bi t s
For a cent r al for ce, we have t he equat i on for t he accel er at i on i n [ p, r ] for m
( h
2
/ p
3
) dp/ dr = a
c
. ( 7.46)
I f t h e accel er at i on var i es as 1/ r
2
, t h en t h e for m of t h e or bi t i s gi ven by separ at i ng t h e
var i abl es, and i nt egr at i ng, t hus
h
2
dp/ p
3
= k dr / r
2
, ( 7.47)
so t hat
h
2
/ 2p
2
= k / r , wh er e k i s a const ant ,
or
h
2
/ p
2
= 2k / r + C, wh er e t h e val ue of C depends on t h e for m of t h e or bi t .
Compar i ng t hi s for m wi t h t he gener al for m of t he [ p, r ] equat i ons of coni c sect i ons, we see
t hat t he or bi t i s an el l i pse, par abol a, or hyper bol a dependi ng on t he val ue of C. I f
C i s negat i ve, t h e or bi t i s an el l i p se,
C i s zer o, t he or bi t i s a par abol a,
and i f
C i s posi t i ve, t he or bi t i s an hyper bol a.
Th e sp eed of t h e p ar t i cl e i n a cent r al or bi t i s gi ven by v = h / p . I f , t h er ef or e, t h e
par t i cl e i s pr oj ect ed fr om t he or i gi n, O ( cor r espondi ng t o r = r
0
) wi t h a speed v
0
, t hen
h
2
/ p
2
= v
0
2
= 2k / r
0
+ C, ( 7.48)
so t hat t he or bi t i s
1) an el l i p se i f v
0
2
< 2k / r
0
, ( 7.49 a-c)
2) a par abol a i f v
0
2
= 2k / r
0
,
or
3) an hyper bol a i f v
0
2
> 2k / r
0
.
Th e escap e vel oci t y, t h e i ni t i al vel oci t y r equi r ed f or t h e p ar t i cl e t o go i nt o an
unbound or bi t i s t her efor e gi ven by
v
2
escape
= 2k / r
0
= 2GM
E
/ R
E
, for a par t i cl e l aunched fr om t he sur face of t he
Ear t h. Thi s condi t i on i s, i n fact , an ener gy equat i on
( 1/ 2) ( m = 1) v
2
escape
= GM
E
( m = 1) / R
E
. ( 7.50)
k i n et i c en er gy p ot en t i al en er gy
7. 8 The concept of t he gr avi t at i onal f i el d
Newt on was wel l -awar e of t h e gr eat di f f i cul t i es t h at ar i se i n any t h eor y of t h e
gr avi t at i onal i nt er act i on bet ween t wo masses not i n di r ect cont act wi t h each ot h er . I n t h e
Pr i n ci pi a , he assumes, i n t he absence of any exper i ment al k nowl edge of t he speed of
p r op agat i on of t h e gr avi t at i onal i nt er act i on, t h at t h e i nt er act i on t ak es p l ace
i nst ant aneousl y. However , i n l et t er s t o ot her l umi nar i es of hi s day, he post ul at ed an
i nt er veni ng agent bewt een t wo appr oach i ng masses an agent t h at r equi r es a fi n i te ti me
t o r eact . I n t h e ear l y 17t h cent ur y, t h e p r obl em of under st andi ng t h e i nt er act i on bet ween
spat i al l y separ at ed obj et s appear ed i n a new gui se, t hi s t i me i n di scussi ons of t he
el ect r omagnet i c i nt er act i on bet ween cha r ged obj ect s. Far aday i nt r oduced t he i dea of a
fi el d of for ce wi th dyn a mi ca l pr oper ti es. I n t h e Far aday model , an accel er at i ng el ect r i c
char ge act s as t he sou r ce of a dynami cal el ect r omagnet i c f i el d t h at t r avel s at a f i ni t e sp eed
t hr ough space-t i me, and i nt er act s wi t h a di st ant char ge. Ener gy and moment um ar e
t her eby t r ansfer r ed fr om one char ged obj ect t o anot her di st ant char ged obj ect .
Maxwel l devel oped Far aday s i dea i nt o a mat h emat i cal t h eor y t h e el ect r omagnet i c
t heor y of l i ght i n whi ch t he speed of pr opagat i on of l i ght appear s as a fundament al
const ant of Nat ur e. Hi s t heor y i nvol ves t he di ffer ent i al equat i ons of mot i on of t he el ect r i c
and magnet i c fi el d vect or s; t he equat i ons ar e not i nvar i ant under t he Gal i l ean
t r ansfor mat i on but t hey ar e i nvar i ant under t he Lor ent z t r ansfor mat i on. ( The di scover y of
t he t r ansfor mat i on t hat l eaves Maxwel l s equat i ons i nvar i ant for al l i ner t i al obser ver s was
made by Lor ent z i n 1897) . We have pr evi ousl y di scussed t he devel opment of t he Speci al
Th eor y of Rel at i vi t y by Ei nst ei n, a t heor y i n whi ch t her e i s bu t on e u n i ver sa l con st a n t , c,
for t he speed of pr opa ga t i on of a dyn a m i ca l fi el d i n a va cu u m . Thi s means t hat c i s not
onl y t he speed of l i ght i n fr ee space but al so t he speed of t he gr avi t at i onal fi el d i n t he voi d
bet ween i nt er act i ng masses.
We can gai n some i nsi ght i nt o t he dynami cal pr oper t i es associ at ed wi t h t he
i nt er act i on bet ween di st ant masses by i nvest i gat i ng t h e effect of a fi ni t e speed of
pr opagat i on, c, of t he gr avi t at i onal i nt er act i on on Newt on s Laws of Mot i on. Consi der a
non-or bi t i ng mass M, at a di st ance R fr om a mass mass M
S
, si mpl y fal l i ng wi t h an
accel er at i on a( R) t owar ds M
S
. Accor di ng t o Newt on s Theor y of Gr avi t at i on, t he
magni t ude of t he for ce on t he mass M i s
| F( R) | = GM
S
M/ R
2
= Ma( R) , ( 7.51)
a( R) = GM
S
/ R
2
. ( 7.52)
Let t be t h e t i me t h at i t t ak es f or t h e gr avi t at i onal i nt er act i on t o t r avel t h e di st ance R at
t he uni ver sal speed c, so t hat
t = R/ c. ( 7.53)
I n t h e t i me i nt er val t , t he mass M moves a di st ance, R, t owar ds t he mass M
S
;
R = aT
2
/ 2
= ( GM
S
/ R
2
) t
2
/ 2
= ( GM
S
/ R
2
) ( R/ c)
2
/ 2. ( 7.54)
Consi der t he si t uat i on i n whi ch t he mass M i s i n a ci r cul ar or bi t of r adi us R about
t he mass, M
S
. Let v( t ) be t h e vel oci t y of t h e mass M at t i me t , and v( t + t ) i t s vel oci t y at
t + t , wh er e t i s chosen t o be t he i nt er act i on t r avel t i me. Let us consi der t he mot i on of
M i f t her e wer e no mass M
S
pr esent , and t her efor e no i nt er act i on; t he mass M t hen woul d
cont i nue i t s mot i on wi t h const ant vel oci t y v( t ) i n a st r ai gh t l i ne. We ar e i nt er est ed i n t h e
di ffer ence i n t h e posi t i ons of M at t i me t + t , wi t h and wi t hout t he mass M
S
i n pl ace. We
have, t o a good appr oxi mat i on:
M v( t )
ext r apol at ed posi t i on ( no mass M
S
)
F( R) M
R
v( t + t )
R R
M
S
Th e magni t ude of t h e gr avi t at i onal f or ce, F
EX
, at t h e ext r ap ol at ed p osi t i on, wi t h M
S
i n
pl ace, i s
F
EX
= GM
S
M/ ( R + R)
2
( 7.55)
= ( GM
S
M/ R
2
) ( 1 + R/ R)
2
( GM
S
M/ R
2
) ( 1 2R/ R) , for R < < R. ( 7.56)
Subst i t ut i ng t h e val ue of R obt ai ned above, we fi nd
F
EX
GM
S
M/ R
2
( GM
S
M/ Rc
2
) ( GM
S
/ R
2
) . ( 7.57)
Ner wt on s 3r d Law st at es t h at
F
MS, M
= F
M,

MS
( 7.58)
Thi s Law i s t r ue, however , for con t a ct i nt er act i ons onl y. For al l i nt er act i ons t h at t ak e
p l ace bet ween sep ar at ed obj ect s, t h er e i s a mi s-mat ch bet ween t h e act i on and t h e
r eact i on. I t t ak es t i me for one par t i cl e t o r espond t o t h e pr esence of t h e ot h er !
I n t h e p r esent examp l e, we obt ai n a good est i mat e of t h e m i sm a t ch by t ak i ng t h e
di f f er ence bet ween F
EX
( R + R) and F( R) , namel y
F
EX
( R + R) F( R) ( GM
S
M/ Rc
2
) ( GM
S
/ R
2
) . ( 7.59)
On t he r i ght -hand si de of t hi s equat i on, we not e t hat t he t er m ( GM
S
/ R
2
) has di mensi ons of
accel er at i on , and t her efor e t he t er m ( GM
S
M/ Rc
2
) must have di mensi ons of mass . We
see t h at t h i s t er m i s an est i mat e of t h e mass associ at ed wi t h t h e i nt er act i on, i t sel f. Th e
space bet ween t he i nt er act i ng masses must be endowed wi t h t hi s effect i ve mass i f
Newt on s 3r d Law i s t o i ncl ude non-cont act i nt er act i ons. The appear ance of t he t er m c
2
i n
t he denomi nat or of t hi s effect i ve mass t er m has a speci al si gni fi cance. I f we i nvok e
Ei nst ei n s famous r el at i on E = Mc
2
, t hen E = Mc
2
so t hat t he effect i ve mass of t he
gr avi t at i onal i nt er act i on can be wr i t t en as an ef f ect i ve ener gy:
E
GRAV
= GM
S
M/ R. ( 7.60)
Th i s i s t h e ener gy st or ed i n t h e gr avi t at i onal f i el d bet ween t h e t wo i nt er act i ng masses.
Not e t h at i t h as a 1/ R-dependence t h e cor r ect for m for t h e pot en t i a l en er gy associ at ed
wi t h a 1/ R
2
gr avi t at i onal for ce. We see t hat t he not i on of a dynami cal fi el d of for ce i s a
necessar y consequence of t he fi ni t e pr opagat i on t i me of t he i nt er act i on.
7.9 The gr avi t at i onal pot ent i al
Th e concept of a gr avi t at i onal pot ent i al h as i t s or i gi ns i n t h e wor k of Lei bni z. Th e
p ot ent i al ener gy, V( x) , asssoci at ed wi t h n i nt er act i ng par t i cl es, of masses m
1
, m
2
, ...m
n
,
si t uat ed at x
1
, x
2
, ... x
n
, i s r el at ed t o t h e gr avi t at i onal for ce on a mass M at x, due t o t he n
par t i cl es, by t h e equat i on
F( x) = V(x) . ( 7.61)
The exact for ms of F( x) and V( x) ar e
F( x) = GM
[ i = 1, n ]
m
i
( x x
i
) / | x x
i
|
3
, ( 7.62)
and
V( x) = GM
[ i = 1, n ]
m
i
/ | x x
i
| .
I n upper -i ndex not at i on, t he component s of t he for ce ar e
F
k
( x) = V/ x
k
, k = 1, 2, 3. ( 7.63)
Th e gr avi t at i onal f i el d, g( x) , i s t he for ce per uni t mass:
g( x) = F( x) / M, ( 7.64)
and t he gr avi t at i onal pot ent i al i s defi ned as
( x) = V( x) / M =
[ i = 1, n ]
Gm
i
/ | x x
i
| . ( 7.65)
Th e si gn of t h e pot ent i al i s ch osen t o be negat i ve because t h e gr avi t at i onal for ce i s al ways
at t r act i ve. ( Th i s convent i on agr ees wi t h t h at used i n El ect r ost at i cs) .
I f t he mass consi st s of a cont i nuous di st r i but i on t hat can be descr i bed by a mass
densi t y ( x) , t h en t h e p ot ent i al i s
( x) = ( G ( x ) / | x x | ) d
3
x . ( 7.66)
I t i s l eft as an exer ci se t o show t hat t hi s for m of means t hat t he pot ent i al obeys
Poi sson s equat i on

2
( x) 4G( x) = 0.
We shoul d not e t hat t he gr avi t at i onal pot ent i al of a mass M has t he for m
V( r ) = GM/ r ( 7.67)
onl y ar ound a mass di st r i but i on wi t h spher i cal symmet r y. For an ar bi t r ar y mass
di st r i but i on, t he pot ent i al can be wr i t t en as a ser i es of mul t i pol es. Thi s subj ect i s
di scussed i n Par t 2, i n connect i on wi t h t he anal ogous case i nvol vi ng t he pot ent i al
associ at ed wi t h an ar bi t r ar y di st r i but i on of char ges.
The pot ent i al of a ci r cul ar di sc at a poi nt on i t s axi s can be found as fol l ows
P
R p
d r
Q r O
Let t h e di sc be di vi ded i nt o concent r i c ci r cl es. Th e p ot ent i al at P, on t h e axi s, due t o t h e
el ement al r i ng of r adi us r and wi dt h dr i s 2r dr G/ PQ, wher e i s t he mass per uni t ar ea
of t h e di sc. Th e p ot ent i al at P of t h e ent i r e di sc i s t h er ef or e
V
P
=
[ 0, a]
2Gr dr / PQ, ( 7.68)
wher e a i s t he r adi us of t he di sc. Ther efor e,
V
P
= 2 G[
0, a]
r dr / ( r
2
+ p
2
)
1/ 2
= 2 G[ ( r
2
+ p
2
)
1/ 2
]
[ 0, a]
= 2 G( R p) , ( 7.69)
wher e R i s t he di st ance of P fr om any poi nt on t he ci r cumfer ence.
PROBLEMS
7-1 Show t hat t he gr avi t at i onal pot ent i al of a t hi n spher i cal shel l of r adi us R and mass M at
a p oi nt P i s
1) GM/ d wh er e d i s t h e di st ance fr om P t o t h e cent er of t h e sh el l i f d > R, and
2) GM/ R i f P i s i nsi de or on t he shel l .
7-2 I f d i s t he di st ance fr om t he cent er of a sol i d spher e ( r adi us R and densi t y ) t o a poi nt
P i nsi de t h e sp h er e, sh ow t h at t h e gr avi t at i onal p ot ent i al at P i s

P
= 2 G( R
2
d
2
/ 3) .
7-3 Show t hat t he gr avi t at i onal at t r act i on of a ci r cul ar di sc of r adi us R and mass per uni t
ar ea , at a poi nt P di st ant p fr om t he cent er of t he di sc, and on t he axi s, i s
2G{ [ p/ ( p
2
+ R
2
)
1/ 2
] 1} .
7-4 A par t i cl e moves i n an el l i pse about a cent er of for ce at a focus. Pr ove t h at t h e
i nst ant aneous vel oci t y v of t h e par t i cl e at any poi nt i n i t s or bi t can be r esol ved i nt o
t wo component s, each of const ant magni t ude: 1) of magni t ude ah/ b
2
, per pendi cul ar t o
t h e r adi us vect or r at t he poi nt , and 2) of magni t ude ahe/ b
2
per pendi cul ar t o t he maj or
axi s of t he el l i pse. Her e, a and b ar e t he semi -maj or and semi -mi nor axes, e i s t he
eccent r i ci t y, and h = pv = const ant for a cent r al or bi t .
7.5 A par t i cl e moves i n an or bi t under a cent r al accel er at i on a = k / r
2
wh er e k = const ant .
I f t h e p ar t i cl e i s p r oj ect ed wi t h an i ni t i al vel oci t y v
0
i n a di r ect i on at r i gh t angl es t o
t h e r adi us vect t or r when at a di st ance r
0
fr om t he cent er of for ce ( t he or i gi n ) , pr ove
( dr / dt )
2
= { ( 2k / r
0
) v
o
2
( 1 + ( r
0
/ r ) ) } { ( r
0
/ r ) 1} .
Thi s pr obl em i nvol ves t he ener gy and moment um equat i ons i n r , coor di nat es.
7-6 A par t i cl e moves i n a car di oi dal or bi t , r = a( 1 + cos) , under t he i nfl uence of a
cent r al f or ce v
a P[ r , ]
p F
r

O 2a
1) show t hat t he p-r equat i on of t he car di oi d i s p
2
= r
3
/ 2a, and
2) sh ow t h at t h e cent r al accel er at i on i s 3ah
2
/ r
4
, wher e h = pv = const ant .
7-7 A pl anet moves i n a ci r cul ar or bi t of r adi us r about t he Sun as focus at t he cent er .
I f t h e gr avi t at i onal const ant G ch anges sl owl y wi t h t i me G( t ) , t h en sh ow t h at t h e
angul ar vel oci t y, , of t he pl anet and t he r adi us of t he or bi t change i n t i me accor di ng
t o t h e equat i ons
( 1/ ) ( d/ dt ) = ( 2/ G) ( dG/ dt ) and ( 1/ r ) ( dr / dt ) = ( 1/ G) ( dG/ dt ) .
( Thi s i s a cent r al for ce pr obl em!) .
7-8 A par t i cl e moves under a cent r al accel er at i on a = k ( 1/ r
3
) wher e k i s a const ant .
I f k = h
2
, wh er e h = r
2
( d/ dt ) = pv, t hen show t hat t he pat h i s
1/ r = A + B, a r eci pr ocal spi r al , wher e A and B ar e const ant s.
8
EI NSTEI NI AN GRAVI TATI ON:
AN I NTRODUCTI ON TO GENERAL RELATI VI TY
8.1 The pr i nci pl e of equi val ence
The t er m mass t hat appear s i n Newt on s equat i on for t he gr avi t at i onal for ce
bet ween t wo i nt er act i ng masses r efer s t o gr avi t at i onal mass t hat pr oper t y of mat t er
t hat r esponds t o t he gr avi t at i onal for ce... Newt on s Law shoul d i ndi cat e t hi s pr oper t y of
mat t er :
F
G
= GM
G
m
G
/ r
2
, wher e M
G
and m
G
ar e t he gr avi t at i onal masses of t he
i nt er act i ng obj ect s, separ at ed by a di st ance r .
The t er m mass t hat appear s i n Newt on s equat i on of mot i on, F = ma, r efer s t o
t he i ner t i al mass t hat pr oper t y of mat t er t hat r esi st s changes i n i t s st at e of mot i on.
Newt on s equat i on of mot i on shoul d i ndi cat e t hi s pr oper t y of mat t er :
F( r ) = m
I
a( r ) , wher e m
I
i s t he i ner t i al mass of t he par t i cl e movi ng wi t h
an accel er at i on a( r ) i n t he gr avi t at i onal fi el d of t he masss M
G
.
Newt on showed by exper i ment t hat t he i ner t i al mass of an obj ect i s equal t o i t s
gr avi t at i onal mass, m
I
= m
G
t o an accur acy of 1 par t i n 10
3
. Recent exper i ment s h ave
shown t hi s equal i t y t o be t r ue t o an accur acy of 1 par t i n 10
12
. Newt on t h er ef or e t ook t h e
equat i ons
F( r ) = GM
G
m
G
/ r
2
= m
I
a( r ) , ( 8.1)
and used t he condi t i on m
G
= m
I
t o obt ai n
E I N S T E I N I A N G R A V I T A T I O N
137
a( r ) = GM
G
/ r
2
. ( 8.2)
Gal i l eo had, of cour se, pr evi ousl y shown t hat obj ect s made fr om di ffer ent mat er i al s
f al l wi t h t h e same accel er at i on i n t h e gr avi t at i onal f i el d at t h e sur f ace of t h e Ear t h , a r esul t
t hat i mpl i es m
G
m
I
. Th i s i s t h e Newt oni an Pr i nci pl e of Equi val ence.
Ei nst ei n used t hi s Pr i nci pl e as a basi s for a new Theor y of Gr avi t at i on! He ext ended t he
axi oms of Speci al Rel at i vi t y, t hat appl y t o fi el d-fr ee fr ames, t o fr ames of r efer ence i n fr ee
fal l . A fr eel y fal l i ng fr ame must be i n a st at e of u n power ed m ot i on i n a u n i for m
gr a vi ta ti on a l fi el d . Th e fi el d r egi on must be suffi ci ent l y smal l for t h er e t o be no
measur abl e var i at i on i n t h e fi el d t h r ough out t h e r egi on. I f a fi el d gr adi ent does exi st i n
t he r egi on t hen so cal l ed t i dal effect s ar e pr esent , and t hese can, i n pr i nci pl e, be
det er mi ned ( by di st or t i ng a l i qui d dr op, for exampl e) . The r esul t s of al l exper i ment s
car r i ed out i n i deal fr eel y fal l i ng fr ames ar e t h er efor e ful l y consi st ent wi t h Speci al
Rel at i vi t y. Al l fr eel y-fal l i ng obser ver s measur e t h e speed of l i gh t t o be c, i t s const ant fr ee-
space val ue. I t i s not possi bl e t o car r y out exper i ment s i n i deal fr eel y-fal l i ng fr ames t hat
p er mi t a di st i nct i on t o be made bet ween t h e accel er at i on of l ocal , f r eel y-f al l i ng obj ect s,
and t h ei r mot i on i n an equi val ent ext er nal gr avi t at i onal fi el d. As an i mmedi at e
consequence of t he ext ended Pr i nci pl e of Equi val ence, Ei nst ei n showed t hat a beam of
l i ght woul d be obser ved t o be defl ect ed fr om i t s st r ai ght pat h i n a cl ose encount er wi t h a
suffi ci ent l y massi ve obj ect . The obser ver s woul d, t hemsel ves, be far r emoved fr om t he
gr avi t at i onal fi el d of t he massi ve obj ect causi ng t he defl ect i on. Ei nst ei n s or i gi nal
cal cul at i on of t he defl ect i on of l i ght fr om a di st ant st ar , gr azi ng t he Sun, as obser ved her e
on t he Ear t h, i ncl uded onl y t hose changes i n t i m e i n t er va l s t hat he had pr edi ct ed woul d
138
occur i n t he near fi el d of t he Sun. Hi s r esul t t ur ned out t o be i n er r or by exact l y a fact or of
t wo. H e l at er obt ai ned t h e cor r ect val ue for t h e defl ect i on by i ncl udi ng i n t h e
cal cul at i on t he changes i n spa t i a l i n t er va l s caused by t he gr avi t at i onal fi el d. A pl ausi bl e
ar gument i s gi ven i n t h e sect i on 8.6 for i nt r oduci ng a non-i nt ui t i ve concept , t he r efr a ct i ve
i n dex of spa cet i m e due t o a gr avi t at i onal fi el d. Thi s concept i s, per haps, t he char act er i st i c
physi cal feat ur e of Ei nst ei n s r evol ut i onar y Gener al Theor y of Rel at i vi t y.
8.2 Ti me and l engt h changes i n a gr avi t at i onal f i el d
We have pr evi ousl y di scussed t he changes t hat occur i n t he measur ement of l engt h
and t i me i nt er val s i n di ffer ent i n er t i a l fr ames. These changes have t hei r or i gi n i n t he
i nvar i ant speed of l i ght and t he necessar y synchr oni zat i on of cl ock s i n a gi ven i ner t i al
fr ame. Ei nst ei n showed t hat measur ement s of l engt h and t i me i nt er val s i n a gi ven
gr avi t at i onal pot ent i al ar e ch anged r el at i ve t o t h e measur ement s made i n a di ffer ent
gr avi t at i onal pot ent i al . Th ese fi el d-dependent ch anges ar e not t o be confused wi t h t h e
Speci al -Rel at i vi st i c changes di scussed i n 3.5. Al t hough an exact t r eat ment of t hi s t opi c
r equi r es t he sol ut i on of t he ful l Ei nst ei n gr avi t at i onal fi el d equat i ons, we can obt ai n some
of t he k ey r esul t s of t he t heor y by mak i ng appr oxi mat i ons t hat ar e val i d i n t he case of our
sol ar syst em. These appr oxi mat i ons ar e t r eat ed i n t he fol l owi ng sect i ons.
8.3 The Schwar zschi l d l i ne el ement
An obser ver i n an i deal fr eel y-fal l i ng fr ame measur es an i nvar i ant i nfi ni t esi mal
i nt er val of t he st andar d Speci al Rel at i vi st i c for m
ds
2
= ( cdt )
2
( dx
2
+ dy
2
+ dz
2
) . ( 8.3)
139
I t i s advant ageous t o t r ansfor m t hi s for m t o spher i cal pol ar coor di nat es, usi ng t he l i near
equat i ons
x = r si ncos, y = r si n si n, and z = r cos.
We t hen have
z dr dl , t h e di agonal of t h e cube
d
z r d
r y
d r si n
x
x
Th e squar e of t h e l engt h of t h e di agonal of t h e i nfi ni t esi mal cube i s seen t o be
dl
2
= dr
2
+ ( r d)
2
+ ( r si nd)
2
. ( 8.4)
Th e i nvar i ant i nt er val can t h er ef or e be wr i t t en
ds
2
= ( cdt )
2
dr
2
r
2
( d
2
+ si n
2
d
2
) . ( 8.5)
The k ey quest i on t hat now faces us i s t hi s: how do we i nt r oduce gr avi t at i on i nt o t he
pr obl em? We can sol ve t he pr obl em by i nt r oduci ng an ener gy equat i on i nt o t he
ar gument .
Consi der t wo obser ver s O and O , passi ng by one anot her i n a st at e of fr ee fa l l i n a
gr avi t at i onal fi el d due t o a mass M, fi xed at t he or i gi n of coor di nat es. Bot h obser ver s
measur e a st andar d i nt er val of spacet i me, ds accor di ng t o O, and ds accor di ng t o O , so
t hat
140
ds
2
= ds
2
= ( cdt )
2
dr
2
r
2
( d
2
+ si n
2
d
2
) ( 8.6)
The si t uat i on i s as shown
z
v
O
( r )
O
O
r v
O
( r ) 0 y

Mass, M
( t he sour ce of t he fi el d)

x
Let t h e obser ver O j ust begi n f r ee f al l t owar ds M at t h e r adi al di st ance r , and l et t h e
obser ver O, cl ose t o O , be fr eel y fa l l i n g a wa y fr om t he mass M. The obser ver O i s i n a
st at e of unpower ed mot i on wi t h j ust t he r i ght amount of k i net i c ener gy t o escape t o
i nfi ni t y . Si nce bot h obser ver s ar e i n st at es of fr ee fal l , we can, accor di ng t o Ei nst ei n, t r eat
t h em as i f t h ey wer e i ner t i al obser ver s . Th i s means t h at t h ey can r el at e t h ei r l ocal space-
t i me measur ement s by a Lor ent z t r ansfor mat i on. I n par t i cul ar , t hey can r el at e t hei r
measur ement s of t he squar ed i nt er val s, ds
2
and ds
2
, i n t h e st andar d way. Si nce t h ei r
r el at i ve mot i on i s al ong t h e r adi al di r ect i on, r , t i me i nt er val s and r adi al di st ances wi l l be
measur ed t o be changed:
t = t and r = r , ( 8.7 a,b)
wher e
= 1/ { 1 ( v/ c)
2
}
1/ 2
, i n whi ch v = v
O
( r ) because v
O
( r ) 0.
141
I f O h as j ust enough k i net i c ener gy t o escap e t o i nf i ni t y, t h en we can equat e t h e
k i net i c ener gy t o t h e p ot ent i al ener gy, so t h at
v
O
2
( r ) / 2 = 1( r ) i f t he obser ver O has uni t mass. ( 8.8)
( r ) i s t h e gr avi t at i onal pot ent i al at r due t o t h e pr esence of t h e mass, M, at t h e or i gi n.
Thi s pr ocedur e enabl es us t o i nt r oduce t he gr avi t at i onal pot ent i al i nt o t he val ue of i n
t he Lor ent z t r ansfor mat i on. We have v
O
2
= 2 ( r ) = v
2
, and t her efor e
t = t / { 1 2( r ) / c
2
}
1/ 2
, ( 8.9)
and
r = r { 1 2( r ) / c
2
}
1/ 2
. ( 8.10)
Onl y l engt hs par al l el t o r ch ange, t h er ef or e
r
2
( d
2
+ si n
2
d
2
) = r
2
( d
2
+ si n d
2
) , ( 8.11)
and t her efor e we obt ai n
ds
2
= ds
2
= c
2
( 1 2( r ) / c
2
) dt
2
dr
2
/ ( 1 2 ( r ) / c
2
) r
2
( d
2
+ si n
2
d
2
) . ( 8.12)
I f t h e pot ent i al i s due t o a mass M at t h e or i gi n t h en
( r ) = GM/ r , ( r > R, t he r adi us of t he mass, M)
t her efor e,
ds
2
= c
2
( 1 2GM/ r c
2
) dt
2
( 1 2GM/ r c
2
)
1
dr
2
r
2
( d
2
+ si n
2
d
2
) .
( 8.13)
Thi s i s t he famous Schwar zschi l d l i ne el ement , or i gi nal l y obt ai ned as an exact sol ut i on of
t he Ei nst ei n fi el d equat i ons. The pr esent appr oach for t ui t ousl y gi ves t he exact r esul t !
8.4 The met r i c i n t he pr esence of mat t er
142
I n t h e absence of mat t er , t h e i nvar i ant i nt er val of space-t i me i s
ds
2
=
dx
dx
( , = 0, 1, 2, 3) , ( 8.14)
wher e

= di ag( 1, 1, 1, 1) ( 8.15)
i s t h e met r i c of Sp eci al Rel at i vi t y; i t l ower s t h e i ndi ces
dx
dx
. ( 8.16)
The for m of t he Schwar zschi l d l i ne el ement , ds
2
sch
, sh ows t h at t h e met r i c g
i n t he
pr esence of mat t er di ffer s fr om
. We have
ds
2
sch
= g
dx
dx
, ( 8.17)
wher e
dx
0
= cdt , dx
1
= dr , dx
2
= r d , and dx
3
= r si nd,
and
g
= di ag( ( 1 ) , ( 1 )
1
, ( 1 )
1
, ( 1 )
1
)
i n whi ch
= 2GM/ r c
2
.
The Schwar zschi l d met r i c l ower s t he i ndi ces
dx
= g
dx
, ( 8.18)
so t hat
ds
2
sch
= dx
dx
. ( 8.19)
8.5 The weak f i el d appr oxi mat i on
143
I f = 2GM/ r c
2
< < 1, t h e coef f i ci ent , ( 1 )
1
, of dr
2
i n t he Schwar zschi l d l i ne
el ement can be r epl aced by t h e l eadi ng t er m of i t s bi nomi al expansi on, ( 1 + ...) t o gi ve
t h e weak f i el d l i ne el ement :
ds
2
W
= ( 1 ) ( cdt )
2
( 1 + ) dr
2
r
2
( d
2
+ si n
2
d
2
) . ( 8.20)
At t he sur face of t he Sun, t he val ue of i s 4.2 x 8
6
, so t h at t h e weak f i el d
appr oxi mat i on i s val i d i n al l gr avi t at i onal phenomena i n our sol ar syst em.
Consi der a beam of l i ght t r avel l i ng r adi al l y i n t he weak fi el d of a mass M, t hen
ds
2
W
= 0 ( a l i gh t -l i k e i nt er val ) , and d
2
+ si n
2
d
2
= 0, ( 8.21)
gi vi ng
0 = ( 1 ) ( cdt )
2
( 1 + ) dr
2
. ( 8.22)
Th e vel oci t y of t h e l i gh t v
L
= dr / dt , as det er mi ned by obser ver s far fr om t he gr avi t at i onal
i nfl uence of M, i s t her efor e
v
L
= c{ ( 1 ) / ( 1 + ) }
1/ 2
c i f 0 !. ( 8.23)
( Obser ver s i n fr ee fal l near M al ways measur e t he speed of l i ght t o be c) .
Expandi ng t he t er m { ( 1 ) / ( 1 + ) }
1/ 2
t o fi r st or der i n , we obt ai n
v
L
( r ) / c ( 1 / 2 ...) ( 1 / 2 ...)
= ( 1 ...) . ( 8.24)
Ther efor e
v
L
( r ) c( 1 2GM/ r c
2
...) , ( 8.25)
so t hat v
L
( r ) < c i n t he pr esence of a mass M accor di ng t o obser ver s far r emoved fr om M.
8.6 The r ef r act i ve i ndex of space-t i me i n t he pr esence of mass
144
I n Geomet r i cal Opt i cs, t he r efr act i ve i ndex, n, of a mat er i al i s defi ned as
n c/ v
medi um
( 8.26)
wher e v
medi um
i s t he speed of l i ght i n t he medi um. We i nt r oduce t he concept of t he
r efr a cti ve i n dex of spa ce-ti me, n
G
( r ) , at a poi nt r i n t he gr avi t at i onal fi el d of a mass, M:
n
G
c/ v
L
( r )
1/ ( 1 )
= 1 + t o fi r st -or der i n .
= 1 + 2GM/ r c
2
. ( 8.27)
The val ue of n
G
i ncr eases as r decr eases . Thi s effect can be i nt er pr et ed as an i ncr ease i n
t he densi t y of space-t i me as M i s appr oached.
8.7 The def l ect i on of l i ght gr azi ng t he sun
As a pl ane wave of l i ght appr oaches a spher i cal mass, t hose par t s of t he wave fr ont
near est t he mass ar e sl owed down mor e t han t hose par t s far t hest fr om t he mass. The
speed of t he wave fr ont i s no l onger const ant al ong i t s sur face, and t her efor e t he nor mal t o
t he sur face must be defl ect ed:
v
L
c v
L
c
Def l ect i on angl e
Nor mal t o
wavefr ont
v
L
< c
Mass, M, t h e sour ce of t h e fi el d
145
The defl ect i on of a pl ane wave of l i ght by a spher i cal mass, M, as i t t r avel s t hr ough space-
t i me can be cal cul at ed i n t he weak fi el d appr oxi mat i on. We choose coor di nat es as shown
y
dx = v dt
x d y
Pl ane wave
of l i gh t d x = vd t
y r
y = 0 x
Mass, M ( t hi s i ncl udes t he mass of
i t s f i el d)
R
We have shown t hat t he speed of l i ght i n a gr avi t at i onal fi el d, as measur ed by an obser ver
far fr om t he sour ce of t he fi el d, depends on t he di st ance, r , fr om t he sour ce :
v( r ) = c( 1 2GM/ r c
2
) ( 8.28)
wher e c i s t he i nvar i ant speed of l i ght as r .
We wi sh t o compar e dx wi t h dx , t he di st ances t r avel l ed i n t he x-di r ect i on by t he
wavef r ont at y and y + dy, i n t h e i nt er val dt .
We have
r
2
= ( y + R)
2
+ x
2
( 8.29)
146
t her efor e v( r ) v( x, y) so t hat
2r ( r / y) = 2( y + R) ,
and
r / y = ( y + R ) / r . ( 8.30)
Ver y cl ose t o t he sur face of t he mass M ( r adi us R) , t he gr adi ent i s
r / y|
y 0
R/ r . ( 8.31)
Now,
v( r ) / y = ( / r ) ( c( 1 2GM/ r c
2
) ) (r / y)
= ( 2GM/ r
2
c) (r / y) . ( 8.32)
v( r ) / y|
y0
= ( 2GM/ r
2
c) ( R/ r ) = 2GMR/ r
3
c. ( 8.33)
Let t h e speed of t h e wavefr ont be v at y + dy and v at y. Th e di st ances moved i n t h e
i nt er val dt ar e t h er ef or e
dx = v dt and dx = vdt . ( 8.34 a,b)
The fi r st -or der Tayl or expansi on of v i s
v = v + ( v/ y) dy,
and t her efor e
dx dx = ( v + ( v/ y) dy) dt vdt = ( v/ y) dydt . ( 8.35)
Let t he cor r espondi ng angl e of defl ect i on of t he nor mal t o t he wavefr ont be d, t hen
d = ( dx dx) / dy
= ( v/ y) dt = ( v/ y) ( dx/ v) . ( 8.36)
147
Th e t ot al defl ect i on of t h e nor mal t o t h e pl ane wavefr ont i s t h er efor e
=
[ , ]
( v/ y) ( dx/ v) ( 8.37)
( 1/ c)
[ , ]
( v/ y) dx .
( v c over most of t h e r ange of t h e i nt egr al ) .
The por t i on of t he wavefr ont t hat gr azes t he sur face of t he mass M ( y 0) t h er ef or e
under goes a t ot al defl ect i on
( 1/ c)
[ , ]
( 2GMR/ r
3
c) dx ( 8.38)
= 2GMR/ c
2
[ , ]
dx/ ( R
2
+ x
2
)
3/ 2
= 2GMR/ c
2
[ x/ ( R
2
( R
2
+ x
2
)
1/ 2
) ]

= 2( GMR/ c
2
) ( 2/ R
2
) .
so t hat
= 4GM/ Rc
2
.
Thi s i s Ei nst ei n s famous pr edi ct i on; put t i ng i n t he k nown val ues for G, M, R, and c, gi ves
= 1.75 ar cseconds. ( 8.39)
Measur ement s of t hi s ver y smal l effect , made dur i ng t ot al ecl i pses of t he Sun at var i ous
t i mes and pl aces si nce 1919, ar e ful l y consi st ent wi t h Ei nst ei n s pr edi ct i on.
PROBLEMS
8-1 I f a p ar t i cl e A i s l aunch ed wi t h a vel oci t y v
0A
fr om a poi nt P on t he sur face of t he
Ear t h at t he same i nst ant t hat a par t i cl e B i s dr opped fr om a poi nt Q, use t he Pr i nci pl e
of Equi val ence t o sh ow t h at i f A and B ar e t o col l i de t h en v
0A
must be di r ect ed al ong
t h e l i ne PQ.
148
g Q
B

A
v
0A
P
8-2 A sat el l i t e i s i n a ci r cul ar or bi t above t h e Ear t h . I t car r i es a cl ock t h at i s si mi l ar t o a
cl ock on t h e Ear t h . Th er e ar e t wo ef f ect s t h at must be t ak en i nt o account i n
comp ar i ng t h e r at es of t h e t wo cl ock s. 1) t h e t i me sh i f t due t o t h ei r r el at i ve sp eeds
( Sp eci al Rel at i vi t y) , and 2) t h e t i me sh i f t due t o t h ei r di f f er ent gr avi t at i onal p ot ent i al s
( Gener al Rel at i vi t y) . Cal cul at e t h e SR sh i ft t o second-or der i n ( v/ c) , wh er e v i s t h e
or bi t al speed , and t h e GR sh i ft t o t h e same or der . I n cal cul at i ng t h e di ffer ence i n t h e
p ot ent i al s , i nt egr at e fr om t h e sur face of t h e Ear t h t o t h e or bi t r adi us. Th e t wo
ef f ect s di f f er i n si gn. Sh ow t h at t h e t ot al r el at i ve ch ange i n t h e f r equency of t h e
sat el l i t e cl ock comp ar ed wi t h t h e Ear t h cl ock i s
( /
E
) ( gR
E
/ c
2
) { 1 ( 3R
E
/ 2r
S
) } , wher e r
S
i s t he r adi us of t he
sat el l i t e or bi t ( measur ed f r om t h e cent er of t h e Ear t h ) .
9
AN I NTRODUCTI ON TO THE CALCULUS OF VARI ATI ONS
9.1 The Eul er equat i on
A fr equent pr obl em i n Di ffer ent i al Cal cul us i s t o fi nd t he st at i onar y val ues ( maxi ma
and mi ni ma) of a funct i on y( x) . The necessar y condi t i on for a st at i onar y val ue at x = a i s
dy/ dx|
x = a
= 0.
For a mi ni mum,
d
2
y/ dx
2
|
x = a
> 0,
and for a maxi mum,
d
2
y/ dx
2
|
x = a
< 0.
The Cal cul us of Var i at i ons i s concer ned wi t h a r el at ed pr obl em, namel y t hat of
fi ndi ng a fu n ct i on y( x) such t h at a defi ni t e i nt egr al t ak en over a fu n cti on of thi s fu n cti on
shal l be a maxi mum or a mi ni mum. Thi s i s cl ear l y a mor e compl i cat ed pr obl em t han t hat
of si mpl y fi ndi ng t he st at i onar y val ues of a funct i on, y( x) .
Expl i ci t l y, we wi sh t o fi nd t h at funct i on y( x) t h at wi l l cause t h e defi ni t e i nt egr al
[ x1, x2]
F( x, y, dy( x) / dx) dx ( 9.1)
t o have a st at i onar y val ue.
The i nt egr and F i s a funct i on of y( x) as wel l as of x and dy( x) / dx. The l i mi t s x
1
and x
2
ar e
assumed t o be fi xed , as ar e t he val ues y( x
1
) and y( x
2
) . Th e i nt egr al h as di ffer ent val ues
al ong di ffer ent pat hs t hat connect ( x
1
, y
1
) and ( x
2
, y
2
) . Let a pat h be Y( x) , and l et t hi s be
C A L C U L U S O F V A R I A T I O N S 150
one of a set of pat hs t hat ar e adj acent t o y( x) . We t ak e Y( x) y( x) t o be an i nfi ni t esi mal for
ever y val ue of x i n t h e r ange of i nt egr at i on.
Let t h e di ffer ence be defi ned as
Y( x) y( x) y( x) ( a fi r st -or der change ) , ( 9.2)
and
F( x, Y( x) , dY( x) / dx) F( x, y( x) , dy( x) / dx) F. ( 9.3)
The symbol i s cal l ed a va r i a t i on ; i t r ep r esent s t h e ch ange i n t h e quant i t y t o
whi ch i t i s appl i ed as we go fr om y( x) t o Y( x) a t t he sa m e va l u e of x . No t e x = 0, and
( dy/ dx) = dY( x) / dx dy( x) / dx = ( d/ dx) ( Y( x) y( x) ) = ( d/ dx) ( y( x) ) .
The symbol s and ( d/ dx) commut e:
( d/ dx) ( d/ dx) = 0. ( 9.4)
Gr aphi cal l y, we have
y Y( x) , t he var i ed pat h
y
2
y
y
1
y( x) , t h e t r u e p at h
O x
1
x
2
x
Usi ng t he defi ni t i on of F, we fi nd
F = F( x, y + y, dy/ dx + ( dy/ dx) ) F( x, y, dy/ dx) ( 9.5)

Y( x) ( d/ dx) Y( x)
= ( F/ y) y + ( F/ y ) y for fi xed x. ( Her e, dy/ dx = y ) .
Th e i n t egr al
[ x1, x2]
F( x, y, y ) dx, ( 9.6)
i s st at i onar y i f i t s val ue al ong t he pat h y i s t he same as i t s val ue al ong t he var i ed pat h,
y + y = Y. We t h er ef or e r equi r e
[ x1, x2]
F( x, y, y ) dx = 0. ( 9.7)
Th i s i nt egr al can be wr i t t en
[ x1, x2]
{ ( F/ y) y + ( F/ y ) y } dx = 0. ( 9.8)
Th e second t er m i n t h i s i nt egr al can be eval uat ed by par t s, gi vi ng
[ (F/ y ) y]
x1

x2

[ x1, x2]
( d/ dx) ( F/ y ) ydx. ( 9.9)
But y
1
= y
2
= 0 at t h e end-poi nt s x
1
and x
2
, t h er ef or e t h e t er m [ ]
x1
x2
= 0, so t h at t h e
st at i onar y condi t i on becomes
[ x1, x2]
{ F/ y ( d/ dx)F/ y } ydx = 0. ( 9.10)
Th e i nfi ni t esi mal quant i t y y i s posi t i ve and ar bi t r ar y, t her efor e, t he i nt egr and i s zer o:
F/ y ( d/ dx)F/ y = 0. ( 9.11)
Thi s i s k nown as Eul er s equat i on.
9.2 The Lagr ange equat i ons
Lagr ange, one of t h e gr eat est mat h emat i ci ans of t h e 18t h cent ur y, devel oped
Eul er s equat i on i n or der t o t r eat t he pr obl em of par t i cl e dynami cs wi t hi n t he fr amewor k
of gener al i zed coor di nat es. He made t he t r ansfor mat i on
F( x, y, dy/ dx) L( t , u, du/ dt ) ( 9.12)
wh er e u i s a gener al i zed coor di nat e and du/ dt i s a gener al i zed vel oci t y.
Th e Eul er equat i on t h en becomes t h e La gr a n ge equ a t i on -of-m ot i on :
L/ u ( d/ dt ) (L/ u) = 0, wh er e u i s t h e gener al i zed vel oci t y. ( 9.13)
The Lagr angi an L( t ; u, u) i s defi ned i n t er ms of t he k i net i c and pot ent i al ener gy of a
par t i cl e, or syst em of par t i cl es:
L T V. ( 9.14)
I t i s i nst r uct i ve t o consi der t he Newt oni an pr obl em of t he mot i on of a mass m,
movi ng i n t he pl ane, under t he i nfl uence of an i nver se-squar e-l aw for ce of at t r act i on usi ng
Lagr ange s equat i ons-of-mot i on. Let t he cent er of for ce be at t he or i gi n of pol ar
coor di nat es. Th e k i net i c ener gy of m at [ r , ] i s
T = ( dr / dt )
2
+ r
2
( d/ dt )
2
, ( 9.15)
and i t s pot ent i al ener gy i s
V = k / r , wh er e k i s a const ant . ( 9.16)
The Lagr angi an i s t her efor e
L = T V = m( ( dr / dt )
2
+ r
2
( d/ dt )
2
) / 2 + k / r . ( 9.17)
Put r = u, and = v, t he gener al i zed coor di nat es. We have, for t he u-equat i on
( d/ dt ) ( L/ u) = ( d/ dt ) ( L/ r ) = ( d/ dt ) ( mr ) = mr , ( 9.18)
and
L/ u = L/ r = mr ( d/ dt )
2
k / r
2
( 9.19)
Usi ng Lagr ange s equat i on-of-mot i on for t he u-coor di nat e, we have
m( d
2
r / dt
2
) mr ( d/ dt )
2
+ k / r
2
= 0 ( 9.20)
or
m( d
2
r / dt
2
r ( d/ dt )
2
) = k / r
2
. ( 9.21)
Thi s i s, as i t shoul d be, t he Newt oni an equat i on
mass accel er at i on i n t h e r -di r ect i on = for ce i n t h e r -di r ect i on.
I nt r oduci ng a second gener al i zed coor di nat e, we have, for t he v-equat i on

( d/ dt ) ( L/ v) = ( d/ dt ) (L/ ) = ( d/ dt ) ( mr
2
) ( 9.22)

= m( r
2
+ 2r r ) ,
and
L/ v = L/ = 0, ( 9.23)
t her efor e

m( r
2
+ 2r r ) = 0
so t hat

( d/ dt ) ( mr
2
) = 0. ( 9.24)
I nt egr at i ng , we obt ai n

mr
2
= const ant , ( 9.25)
showi ng, agai n, t hat t he angul ar moment um i s conser ved.
The advant ages of usi ng t he Lagr angi an met hod t o sol ve dynami cal pr obl ems st em
fr om t he fact t hat L i s a sca l a r funct i on of gen er a l i zed coor di n a tes.
9.3 The Hami l t on equat i ons
The Lagr angi an L i s a funct i on of t he gener al i zed coor di nat es and vel oci t i es, and
t h e t i me:

L = L( u, v, ...;u, v, ...;t ) . ( 9.26)
I f t he di scussi on i s l i mi t ed t o t wo coor di nat es, u and v, t he t ot al di ffer ent i al of L i s

dL = ( L/ u) du + (L/ v) dv + ( L/ u) du + (L/ v) dv + ( L/ t ) dt .
Consi der t he si mpl est case of a mass m movi ng al ong t he x-axi s i n a pot ent i al , so t hat u = x

and u = x = v
x
, t hen
L = T V = mv
x
2
/ 2 V ( 9.27)
and
L/ v
x
= mv
x
= p
x
, t he l i near moment um. ( 9.28)

I n gener al , i t i s found t hat t er ms of t he for m L/ u and L/ v ar e moment um t er ms;
t h ey ar e cal l ed gener al i zed moment a, and ar e wr i t t en

L/ u = p
u
, L/ v = p
v
, ..et c. ( 9.29)
Such for ms ar e not l i mi t ed t o l i near moment a.
The Lagr ange equat i on

( d/ dt ) ( L/ u) L/ u = 0 ( 9.30)
can be t r ansfor med, t her efor e, i nt o an equat i on t hat i nvol ves t he gener al i zed moment a:
( d/ dt ) ( p
u
) L/ u = 0
or

L/ u = p
u
. ( 9.31)
Th e t ot al di f f er ent i al of L i s t h er ef or e

dL = p
u
du + p
v
dv + p
u
du + p
v
dv + ( L/ t ) dt . ( 9.32)
We now i nt r oduce an i mpor t ant funct i on, t he Hami l t oni an funct i on, H, defi ned by

H p
u
u + p
v
v L, ( 9.33)
t her efor e

dH = { p
u
du + udp
u
+ p
v
dv + vdp
v
} dL . ( 9.34)
I t i s not by ch ance t h at H i s defi ned i n t h e way gi ven above. Th e defi ni t i on per mi t s t h e
cancel l at i on of t he t er ms i n dH t hat i nvol ve du and dv, so t hat dH depends onl y on du, dv,
dp
u
, and dp
v
( and per haps, t ) . We can t her efor e wr i t e
H = f ( u, v, p
u
, p
v
; t ) ( l i mi t i ng t he di scussi on t o t he t wo coor di nat es
u and v) . ( 9.35)
Th e t ot al di f f er ent i al of H i s t h er ef or e
dH = ( H/ u) du + (H/ v) dv + ( H/ p
u
) dp
u
+ ( H/ p
v
) dp
v
+ ( H/ t ) dt . ( 9.36)
Compar i ng t he t wo equat i ons for dH, we obt ai n Ha m i l t on s equ a t i on s-of-m ot i on :

H/ u = p
u
, H/ v = p
v
, ( 9.37)

H/ p
u
= u , H/ p
v
= v, ( 9.38)
and
H/ t = L/ t . ( 9.39)
We see t hat

H = p
u
u + p
v
v ( T V) . ( 9.40)
I f we consi der a mass m movi ng i n t he ( x, y) -pl ane t hen
H = ( mv
x
) v
x
+ ( mv
y
) v
y
T + V ( 9.41)
= 2( mv
x
2
/ 2 + mv
y
2
/ 2 ) T + V
= T + V, t h e t ot al en er gy. ( 9.42)
I n advanced t r eat ment s of Anal yt i cal Dynami cs, t hi s for m of t he Hami l t oni an i s shown t o
h ave gener al val i di t y.
PROBLEMS
9-1 St udi es of geodesi cs t he shor t est di st ance bet ween t wo poi nt s on a sur face
for m a nat ur al par t of t he Cal cul us of Var i at i ons. Show t hat t he st r ai ght l i ne
bet ween t wo p oi nt s i n a p l ane i s t h e sh or t est di st ance bet ween t h em.
9-2 The sur face gener at ed by r evol vi ng t he y-coor di nat e about t he x-axi s has an ar ea
2yds wher e ds = { dx
2
+ dy
2
}
1/ 2.
Use Eul er s var i at i onal met hod t o show t hat
t he sur face of r evol ut i on i s a mi ni mum i f
( dy/ dx) = { ( y
2
/ a
2
) 1}
1/ 2
wher e a = const ant .
Hence show t hat t he equat i on of t he mi ni mum sur face i s
y = acosh{ ( x/ a) + b} wher e b = const ant .
9-3 The Pr i nci pl e of Least Ti me pr e-dat es t he Cal cul us of Var i at i ons. The pr opagat i on of
a r ay of l i ght i n adj oi ni ng medi a t hat have di ffer ent i ndi ces of r efr act i on i s found t o
be gover ned by t hi s pr i nci pl e. A r ay of l i ght moves at const ant speed v
1
i n a medi um
( 1) fr om a poi nt A t o a poi nt B
0
on t he x-axi s. At B
0
, i t s speed changes t o
a new const ant val ue v
2
on ent er i ng medi um ( 2) . The r ay cont i nues unt i l i t r eaches a
p oi nt C i n ( 2) . I f t h e t r ue p at h A B
0
C i s such t h at t h e t ot al t r avel t i me of t h e
l i ght i n goi ng fr om A t o C i s a mi ni mum, show t hat
( v
1
/ v
2
) = x
0
{ [ y
c
2
+ ( d x
0
)
2
] / [ y
A
2
+ x
0
2
] }
1/ 2
/ ( d x
0
) , ( Snel l s l aw)
wher e t he symbol s ar e defi ned i n t he fol l owi ng di agr am:
y Medi um 1, speed v
1
A
y
A
0 B
0
B x
x
0
y
C
x
C
d
Medi um 2, speed v
2
Th e p at h A B C i s an ar bi t r ar i l y var i ed pat h.
9-4 Hami l t on s Pr i nci pl e st at es t hat when a syst em i s movi ng under conser vat i ve for ces
t h e t i me i nt egr al of t h e Lagr ange funct i on i s st at i onar y. ( I t i s possi bl e t o sh ow t h at
t hi s Pr i nci pl e hol ds for non-conser vat i ve for ces) . Appl y Hami l t on s Pr i nci pl e t o t he
case of a pr oj ect i l e of mass m movi ng i n a const ant gr avi t at i onal fi el d, i n t he pl ane.
Let t h e p r oj ect i l e be l aunch ed f r om t h e or i gi n of Car t esi an coor di nat es at t i me t = 0.
Th e Lagr angi an i s
L = m( ( dx/ dt )
2
+ ( dy/ dt )
2
) / 2 mgy
Cal cul at e
[ 0, t 1]
Ldt , and obt ai n Newt on s equat i ons of mot i on
d
2
y/ dt
2
+ g = 0 and d
2
x/ dt
2
= 0.
10
CONSERVATI ON LAWS, AGAI N
10.1 The conser vat i on of mechani cal ener gy
I f t he Hami l t oni an of a syst em does not depend expl i ci t l y on t he t i me, we have
H = H ( u, v, ...;p
u
, p
v
, ...) . ( 10.1)
I n t hi s case, t he t ot al di ffer ent i al dH i s ( for t wo gener al i zed coor di nat es, u and v)
dH = ( H/ u) du + (H/ v) dv + ( H/ p
u
) dp
u
+ ( H/ p
v
) dp
v
. ( 10.2)
I f t he posi t i ons and t he moment a of t he par t i cl es i n t he syst em change wi t h t i me under
t hei r mut ual i nt er act i ons, t hen H al so changes wi t h t i me, so t hat
dH/ dt = ( H/ u) du/ dt + (H/ v) dv/ dt + ( H/ p
u
) dp
u
/ dt + ( H/ p
v
) dp
v
/ dt

= ( p
u
u) + ( p
v
v) + ( up
u
) + ( vp
v
) ( 10.3)
= 0, usi ng Hami l t on s equat i ons-of-mot i on. ( 10.4)
I nt egr at i on t h en gi ves
H = const ant . ( 10.5)
I n any syst em movi ng under t he i nfl uence of conser vat i ve for ces, a pot ent i al V exi st s. I n
such syst ems, t he t ot al mechani cal ener gy i s H = T + V, and we see t hat i t i s a const ant of
t he mot i on.
10.2 The conser vat i on of l i near and angul ar moment um
I f t h e H ami l t oni an, H , does not depend expl i ci t l y on a gi ven gener al i zed
coor di nat e t hen t he gener al i zed moment um associ at ed wi t h t hat coor di nat e i s conser ved.
C O N S E R V A T I O N L A W S 159
For exampl e, i f H cont ai ns no expl i ci t r efer ence t o an a n gu l a r coor di n a t e t hen t he
a n gu l a r m om en t u m a ssoci a ted wi th tha t a n gl e i s con ser ved. For mal l y, we h ave
dp
j
/ dt = H/ q
j
, wher e p
j
and q
j
ar e t h e gener al i zed moment a and
coor di nat es. ( 10.6)
Let an i nfi ni t esi mal change i n t he j t h-coor di nat e q
j
be made, so t hat
q
j
q
j
+ q
j
, ( 10.7)
t hen we have
H = ( H/ q
j
) q
j
. ( 10.8)
I f t he Hami l t oni an i s i n va r i a n t under t he i nfi ni t esi mal di spl acement q
j
, t h en t h e
gener al i zed moment um p
j
i s a const ant of t he mot i on. The con ser va t i on of l i n ea r
m om en t u m i s t her efor e a con sequ en ce of t he hom ogen ei t y of spa ce, a n d t he
con ser va t i on of a n gu l a r m om en t u m i s a con sequ en ce of t he i sot r opy of spa ce.
The obser ved conser vat i on l aws t her efor e i mpl y t hat t he choi ce of a poi nt i n space for t he
or i gi n of coor di nat es, and t he choi ce of an axi s of or i ent at i on pl ay no par t i n t he
for mul at i on of t he physi cal l aws; t he Laws of Nat ur e do not depend on an absol ut e space .
11
CHAOS
The behavi or of many non-l i near dynami cal syst ems as a funct i on of t i me i s found t o
be chaot i c. The char act er i st i c feat ur e of chaos i s t hat t he syst em never r epeat s i t s past
behavi or . Chaot i c syst ems nonet hel ess obey cl assi cal l aws of mot i on whi ch means t hat t he
equat i ons of mot i on ar e det er mi ni st i c.
Poi ncar was t he fi r st t o st udy t he effect s of smal l changes i n t he i ni t i al condi t i ons
on t he evol ut i on of chaot i c syst ems t hat obey non-l i near equat i ons of mot i on. I n a chaot i c
syst em, t he er r at i c behavi or i s due t o t he i nt er nal , or i nt r i nsi c, dynami cs of t he syst em.
Let a dynami cal syst em be descr i bed by a set of fi r st -or der di ffer ent i al equat i ons:
d x
1
/ dt = f
1
( x
1
,x
2
,x
3
,...x
n
) ( 11.1)
d x
2
/ dt = f
2
( x
1
,x
2
,x
3
,...x
n
)
. .
. .
d x
n
/ dt = f
n
( x
1
,x
2
,x
3
,...x
n
)
wher e t he funct i ons f
n
ar e funct i ons of n-var i abl es.
The necessar y condi t i ons for chaot i c mot i on of t he syst em ar e
1) t he equat i ons of mot i on must cont ai n a non-l i near t er m t hat coupl es sever al of t he
var i abl es.
A t ypi cal non-l i near equat i on, i n whi ch t wo of t he var i abl es ar e coupl ed, i s t her efor e
C H A O S 161
d x
1
/ dt = ax
1
+ bx
2
+ cx
1
x
2
+ ... r x
n
, ( a, d, c, ...r ar e const ant s) ( 11.2)
and
2) t h e number of i ndependent var i abl es, n, must be at l east t h r ee.
The second condi t i on i s di scussed l at er .
The non-l i near i t y oft en mak es t he sol ut i on of t he equat i ons unst abl e for par t i cul ar choi ces
of t he par amet er s. Numer i cal met hods of sol ut i on must be adopt ed i n al l but a few
st andar d cases.
11.1 The gener al mot i on of a damped, dr i ven pendul um
The equat i on of a damped, dr i ven pendul um i s
ml ( d
2
/ dt
2
) + k ml ( d/ dt ) + mgsi n = Acos(
D
t ) ( 11.3)
or
( d
2
/ dt
2
) + k ( d/ dt ) + ( g/ l ) si n = ( A/ ml ) cos(
D
t ) , ( 11.4)
wher e i s t he angul ar di spl acement of t he pendul um, l i s i t s l engt h, m i s i t s mass, t he
r esi st ance i s pr opor t i onal t o t he vel oci t y ( const ant of pr opor t i onal i t y, k ) , A i s t he ampl i t ude
and
D
i s t he angul ar fr equency of t he dr i vi ng for ce.
Bak er and Gol l ub i n Cha ot i c Dyn a m i cs ( Cambr i dge, 1990) wr i t e t h i s equat i on i n t h e for m
( d
2
/ dt
2
) + ( 1/ q) ( d/ dt ) + si n = Ccos(
D
t ) , ( 11.5)
wher e q i s t he dampi ng fact or . The l ow-ampl i t ude nat ur al angul ar fr equency of t he
pendul um i s uni t y, and t i me i s di mensi onl ess. We can t her efor e wr i t e
t he equat i on i n t er ms of t hr ee fi r st -or der di ffer ent i al equat i ons
d / dt = ( 1/ q) si n + Ccos() wher e i s t he phase, ( 11.6)
C H A O S 162
d / dt = , ( 11.7)
and
d / dt =
D
. ( 11.8)
Th e t h r ee var i abl es ar e ( , , ) .
The onset of chaot i c mot i on of t he pendul um depends on t he choi ce of t he par amet er s q,
C, and
D
.
Th e pha se spa ce of t he osci l l at i ons i s t hr ee-di mensi onal :

A sp i r al wi t h a p i t ch of 2

The - t r aj ect or i es ar e pr oj ect i ons of t he spi r al ont o t he - pl ane.
Th e mot i on i s sensi t i ve t o
D
si nce t he non-l i near t er ms gener at e many new
r esonances t hat occur when
D
/
n at u r al
i s a r at i onal number . ( Her e,
n at u r al
i s t he angul ar
fr equency of t he undamped l i near osci l l at or ) . For par t i cul ar val ues of q and
D
, t he
for ci ng t er m pr oduces a damped mot i on t hat i s no l onger per i odi c t he mot i on becomes
C H A O S 163
chaot i c. Per i odi c mot i on i s char act er i zed by cl osed or bi ts i n t he ( - ) p l ane. I f t h e
dampi ng i s r educed consi der abl y, t he mot i on can become hi ghl y chaot i c.
The syst em i s sensi t i ve t o smal l changes i n t he i ni t i al condi t i ons. The t r aj ect or i es
i n phase space di ver ge fr om each ot her wi t h exponent i al t i me-dependence. For chaot i c
mot i on, t he pr oj ect i on of t he t r aj ect or y i n ( , , ) - space ont o t he ( - ) pl ane
gener at es t r aj ect or i es t h at i nt er sect . H owever , i n t h e f ul l 3 - sp ace, a sp i r al l i ng l i ne al ong
t he -axi s never i nt er sect s i t sel f. We t her efor e see t hat chaot i c mot i on can exi st onl y
when t he syst em has at l east a 3 - di mensi onal phase space. The pat h t hen conver ges
t owar ds t he a t t r a ct or wi t hout sel f-cr ossi ng.
Smal l changes i n t he i ni t i al condi t i ons of a chaot i c syst em may pr oduce ver y
di f f er ent t r aj ect or i es i n p h ase sp ace. Th ese t r aj ect or i es di ver ge, and t h ei r di ver gence
i ncr eases exponent i al l y wi t h t i me. I f t h e di ffer ence bet ween t r aj ect or i es as a funct i on of
t i me i s d( t ) t hen i t i s found t hat l ogd( t ) ~ t or
d ( t ) ~ e
t
( 11.9)
wher e > 0 - a posi t i ve quant i t y cal l ed t h e Lyapunov exponent . I n a weak l y ch aot i c
syst em < < 0.1 wh er eas, i n a st r ongl y ch aot i c syst em, > > 0.1.
11.2 The numer i cal sol ut i on of di f f er ent i al equat i ons
A numer i cal met hod of sol vi ng l i near di ffer ent i al equat i ons t hat i s sui t abl e i n t he
pr esent case i s k nown as t he Runge-Kut t a met hod. The al gor i t hm for sol vi ng t wo
equat i ons t hat ar e funct i ons of sever al var i abl es i s:
Let
C H A O S 164
dy/ dx = f ( x, y, z) and dz/ dx = g( x, y, z) . ( 11.10)
I f y = y
0
and z = z
0
when x = x
0
t hen, for i ncr ement s h i n x
0
, k i n y
0
, and l i n z
0

t he Runge-Kut t a equat i ons ar e
k
1
= hf( x
0
, y
0
, z
0
) l
1
= hg( x
0
, y
0
, z
0
)
k
2
= hf( x
0
+ h / 2, y
0
+ k
1
/ 2, z
0
+ l
1
/ 2) l
2
= hg( x
0
+ h / 2, y
0
+ k
1
/ 2, z
0
+ l
1
/ 2)
k
3
= hf( x
0
+ h / 2, y
0
+ k
2
/ 2, z
0
+ l
2
/ 2) l
3
= hg( x
0
+ h / 2, y
0
+ k
2
/ 2, z
0
+ l
2
/ 2)
k
4
= hf( x
0
+ h, y
0
+ k
3
, z
0
+ l
3
) l
4
= hg( x
0
+ h, y
0
+ k
3
, z
0
+ l
3
)
k = ( k
1
+ 2k
2
+ 2k
3
+ k
4
) / 6
and
l = ( l
1
+ 2l
2
+ 2l
3
+ l
4
) / 6. ( 11.11)
Th e i ni t i al val ues ar e i ncr ement ed, and successi ve val ues of t h e x, y, and z ar e gener at ed
by i t er at i ons. I t i s oft en advant ageous t o use var yi ng val ues of h t o opt i mi ze t he
pr ocedur e.
I n t h e p r esent case,
f( x, y, z) f( t , , ) and g( x, y, z) g( ) .
As a pr obl em, devel op an al gor i t hm t o sol ve t he non-l i near equat i on 11.5 usi ng t he
Runge-Kut t a met h od for t h r ee equat i ons ( 11.6, 11.7, and 11.8) . Wr i t e a p r ogr am t o
cal cul at e t he necessar y i t er at i ons. Choose i ncr ement s i n t i me t hat ar e smal l enough t o
r eveal t h e det ai l s i n t h e - pl ane. Exampl es of non-chaot i c and chaot i c behavi or ar e
shown i n t he fol l owi ng t wo di agr ams.
C H A O S 165

Poi nt s i n t he - pl ane for a non-chaot i c syst em
-200
-150
-100
-50
0
50
100
150
200
-400 -300 -200 -100 0 100
The par amet er s used t o obt ai n t hi s pl ot i n t he - pl ane ar e :

dampi ng fact or ( 1/ q) = 1/ 5,
ampl i t ude ( C) = 2,
dr i ve fr equency (
D
) = 0.7, and
t i me i ncr ement , t = 0.05.
Al l t h e i ni t i al val ues ar e zer o.
C H A O S 166

Poi nt s i n t he - pl ane for a chaot i c syst em
-100
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
80
100
-60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60
The par amet er s used t o obt ai n t hi s pl ot i n t he - pl ane ar e:

dampi ng fact or ( 1/ q) = 1/ 2,
amp l i t ude ( C) = 1.15,
dr i ve fr equency (
D
) = 0.597, and
t i me i ncr ement , t = 1.
Th e i nt i al val ue of t h e t i me i s 100.
12
WAVE MOTI ON
12.1 The basi c f or m of a wave
Wave mot i on i n a medi um i s a col l ecti ve phenomenon t hat i nvol ves l ocal
i nt er act i ons among t he par t i cl es of t he medi um. Waves ar e char act er i zed by:
1) a di st ur bance i n space and t i me.
2) a t r ansfer of ener gy fr om one pl ace t o anot her ,
and
3) a non-t r ansfer of mat er i al of t he medi um.
( I n a wat er wave, for exampl e, t h e mol ecul es move per pendi cul ar l y t o t h e vel oci t y
vect or of t h e wave) .
Consi der a k i nk i n a r ope t hat pr opagat es wi t h a vel oci t y V al ong t he + x-axi s, as
shown
y
Di sp l acement
V , t h e vel oci t y of t h e wavef or m
x
x at t i me t
Assume t hat t he shape of t he k i nk does not change i n movi ng a smal l di st ance x i n a shor t
i nt er val of t i me t . Th e sp eed of t h e k i nk i s def i ned t o be V = x/ t . Th e di sp l acement
i n t he y-di r ect i on i s a funct i on of x and t ,
W A V E M O T I O N 168
y = f ( x, t ) .
We wi sh t o answer t he quest i on: what basi c pr i nci pl es det er mi ne t he for m of t he ar gument
of t h e funct i on, f ? For wat er waves, acoust i cal waves, waves al ong fl exi bl e st r i ngs, et c. t h e
wave vel oci t i es ar e much l ess t han c. Si nce y i s a funct i on of x and t , we see t hat al l poi nt s
on t he wavefor m move i n such a way t hat t he Gal i l ean t r ansfor mat i on hol ds for al l i ner t i al
obser ver s of t he wavefor m. Consi der t wo i ner t i al obser ver s, obser ver # 1 at r est on t he x-
axi s, wat chi ng t he wave move al ong t he x-axi s wi t h const ant speed, V, and a second
obser ver # 2, movi ng wi t h t he wave. I f t he obser ver s synchr oni ze t hei r cl ock s so t hat
t
1
= t
2
= t
0
= 0 at x
1
= x
2
= 0, t h en
x
2
= x
1
Vt .
We t her efor e see t hat t he funct i onal for m of t he wave i s det er mi ned by t he for m of t he
Gal i l ean t r ansfor mat i on, so t hat
y( x, t ) = f( x Vt ) , ( 12.1)
wher e V i s t he wave vel oci t y i n t he par t i cul ar medi um. No ot her funct i onal for m i s
possi bl e! For exampl e,
y( x, t ) = Asi nk ( x Vt ) i s per mi t t ed, wher eas
y( x, t ) = A( x
2
+ V
2
t ) i s not .
I f t h e wave moves t o t h e l ef t ( i n t h e x di r ect i on) t h en
y( x, t ) = f( x + Vt ) . ( 12.2)
We shal l consi der waves t hat super i mpose l i n ea r l y. I f, for examp l e, t wo waves
move al ong a r ope i n opposi t e di r ect i ons, we obser ve t hat t hey pass t hr ough each ot her .
I f t he wave i s har moni c, t he di spl acement measur ed as a funct i on of t i me at t he or i gi n,
x = 0, i s al so har moni c:
y
0
( 0, t ) = Acos( t )
wher e A i s t he maxi mum ampl i t ude, and = 2 i s t he angul ar fr equency.
The gener al for m of y( x, t ) , consi st ent wi t h t he Gal i l ean t r ansfor mat i on, i s
y( x, t ) = Acos{ k ( x Vt ) }
wher e k i s i nt r oduced t o make t he ar gument di mensi onl ess ( k has di mensi ons of
1/ [ l engt h ] ) . We t h en h ave
y
0
( 0, t ) = Acos( kVt ) = Acos( t ) .
Ther efor e,
= k V, t h e angul ar fr equency, ( 12.3)
or
2 = k V,
so t hat ,
k = 2/ V = 2/ VT wh er e T = 1/ , i s t he per i od. ( 12.4)
Th e gener al for m i s t h en
y( x, t ) = Acos{ ( 2/ VT) ( x Vt ) }
= Acos{ ( 2/ ) ( x Vt ) } , wher e = VT i s t h e wavel engt h ,
= Acos{ ( 2x/ 2t / T) } ,
= Acos( k x 2t / T) , wh er e k = 2/ , t he wavenumber ,
= Acos( k x t ) ,
= A cos(t k x) , because cos( ) = cos() . ( 12.5)
For a wave movi ng i n t h r ee di mensi ons, t h e di pl acement at a poi nt x, y, z at t i me t h as t h e
for m
( x, y, z, t ) = Acos( t k r ) , ( 12.6)
wher e | k | = 2 / and r = [ x, y, z] .
12.2 The gener al wave equat i on
An ar bi t r ar y wavefor m i n one space di mensi on can be wr i t t en as t he super posi t i on
of t wo waves, one t r avel l i ng t o t h e r i gh t ( + x) and t h e ot h er t o t h e l ef t ( x) of t h e or i gi n.
The di spl acement i s t hen
y( x, t ) = f ( x Vt ) + g( x + Vt ) . ( 12.7)
Put
u = f( x Vt ) = f( p) , and v = g( x + Vt ) = g( q) ,
t hen
y = u + v .
Now,
y/ x = u/ x + v/ x = ( du/ dp) ( p/ x) + ( dv/ dq) ( q/ x)
= f ( p) ( p/ x) + g ( q) (q/ x) .
Al so,

2
y/ x
2
= ( / x) { ( du/ dp) ( p/ x) + ( dv/ dq) ( q / x) }
= f ( p) (
2
p/ x
2
) + f (p)( p/ x)
2
+ g ( q) (
2
q/ x
2
) + g ( q) ( q/ x)
2
.
We can obt ai n t he second der i vat i ve of y wi t h r espect t o t i me usi ng a si mi l ar met hod:

2
y/ t
2
= f ( p) (
2
p/ t
2
) + f (p)( p/ t )
2
+ g ( q) (
2
q/ t
2
) + g ( q) ( q/ t )
2
.
Now, p/ x = 1, q/ x = 1, p/ t = V, and q/ t = V, and al l second der i vat i ves ar e
zer o ( V i s a const ant ) . We t her efor e obt ai n

2
y/ x
2
= f ( p) + g ( q) ,
and

2
y/ t
2
= f ( p) V
2
+ g ( q) V
2
.
Ther efor e,

2
y/ t
2
= V
2
(
2
y/ x
2
) .
or

2
y/ x
2
( 1/ V
2
) (
2
y/ t
2
) = 0. ( 12.8)
Thi s i s t he wave equat i on i n one-di mensi onal space. For a wave pr opagat i ng i n t hr ee-
di mensi onal space, we have

2
( 1/ V
2
) (
2
/ t
2
) = 0, ( 12.9)
t h e gener al for m of t h e wave equat i on, i n wh i ch ( x, y, z, t ) i s t h e gener al amp l i t ude
funct i on.
12.3 The Lor ent z i nvar i ant phase of a wave and t he r el at i vi st i c Doppl er shi f t
A wave pr opagat i ng t hr ough space and t i me has a wave funct i on
( x, y, z, t ) = Acos( t k r )
wher e t he symbol s have t he meani ngs gi ven i n 12.2 .
The ar gument of t hi s funct i on can be wr i t t en as fol l ows
= Acos{ ( / c) ( ct ) k r ) . ( 12.10)
I t was not unt i l deBr ogl i e devel oped hi s r evol ut i onar y i dea of pa r ti cl e-wa ve du a l i ty i n
1923-24 t hat t he Lor ent z i nvar i ance of t he ar gument of t hi s funct i on was ful l y appr eci at ed!
We have
= Acos{ [ / c, k ]
T
[ ct , r ] }
= Acos{ K

E
} = Acos, wher e i s t he phase . ( 12.11)

deBr ogl i e r ecogni zed t h at t h e p h ase i s a Lor ent z i nvar i ant for med fr om t he 4-vect or s
K
= [ / c, k ] , t h e fr equency-wavel engt h 4-vect or , ( 12.12)

and
E
= [ ct , r ] , t h e covar i ant event 4-vect or .

deBr ogl i e s di scover y t ur ned out t o be of gr eat i mpor t ance i n t he devel opment of
Quant um Physi cs. I t i s al so pr ovi des us wi t h t he basi c equat i ons for an exact der i vat i on of
t he r el a ti vi sti c Doppl er shi ft. Th e f r equency-wavel engt h vect or i s a Lor ent z 4-vect or ,
whi ch means t hat i t t r ansfor ms bet ween i ner t i al obser ver s i n t he st andar d way:
K
= LK
, ( 12.13)
or
/ c 0 0 / c
k
x
0 0 k
x
k
y
= 0 0 1 0 k
y
k
z
0 0 0 1 k
z
Th e t r ansfor mat i on of t h e fi r st el ement t h er efor e gi ves
/ c = ( / c) k
x
. ( 12.14)
t her efor e
2 = 2 c( 2/ )
or
= V( / c) , ( wher e = 2 , V/ c = , and c = )
t her efor e
= ( 1 )
or = ( / ( 1
2
)
1/ 2
) ( 1 )
gi vi ng
= { ( 1 ) / ( 1 + ) }
1/ 2
. ( 12.15)
Thi s i s t he r el at i vi st i c Doppl er shi ft ; i t i s an excel l ent exampl e of Lor ent z i nvar i ance i n
act i on. Thi s r esul t was der i ved i n sect i on 6.2 usi ng t he Lor ent z i nvar i ance of t he ener gy-
moment um 4-vect or , and t he Pl anck -Ei nst ei n r esul t E = h f or t h e r el at i on bet ween t h e
ener gy E and t he fr equency of a phot on. The pr esent der i vat i on of t he r el at i vi st i c
Doppl er shi ft i s compl et el y i ndependent of t he Pl anck -Ei nst ei n r esul t , and t her efor e
pr ovi des an i ndependent ver i fi cat i on of t hei r fundament al equat i on E = h for a phot on.
12.4 Pl ane har moni c waves
The one-di mensi onal wave equat i on ( 12.8) has t he sol ut i on
y( t , x) = Acos( k x t ) ,
wher e = k V and A f( t , x) .
Thi s for m i s r eadi l y shown t o be a sol ut i on of ( 12.8) by di r ect cal cul at i on of i t s 2nd par t i al
der i vat i ves, and t hei r subst i t ut i on i n t he wave equat i on.
The t hr ee-di mensi onal wave equat i on ( 12.9) has t he sol ut i on
( t , x, y, z) =
0
cos{ ( k
x
x + k
y
y + k
z
z) t } ,
wher e = | k | V, and k = [ k
x
, k
y
, k
z
] , t h e wave vect or .
The sol ut i on ( t , x, y, z) i s cal l ed a pl a n e ha r m on i c wa ve because const ant val ues of t he
ar gument ( k
x
x + k
y
y + k
z
z) t defi ne a set of pl anes i n space sur faces of const ant
phase:
z k , nor mal t o t he wave sur face
Equi phase sur faces of a pl ane wave
y
O
x
I t i s oft en useful t o r epr esent a pl ane har moni c wave as t he r eal par t of t he r emar k abl e
Cot es-Eul er equat i on
e
i
= cos + i si n , i = 1,
so t hat

0
cos( ( k r ) t ) = R.P.
0
e
i ( k r t )
.
The compl ex for m i s r eadi l y shown t o be a sol ut i on of t he t hr ee-di mensi onal wave
equat i on.
12.5 Spher i cal waves
For gi ven val ues of t he r adi al coor di nat e, r , and t he t i me, t , t he funct i ons
cos( k r t ) and e
i ( k r t )
have const ant val ues on a spher e of r adi us r . I n or der for t he
wave funct i ons t o r epr esent expandi ng spher i cal waves , we must modi fy t hei r for ms as
fol l ows:
( 1/ r ) cos( k r t ) and ( 1/ r ) e
i ( k r t )
( k al ong r ) . ( 12.16)
These changes ar e needed t o ensur e t hat t he wave funct i ons ar e sol ut i ons of t he wave
equat i on. To demonst r at e t hat t he spher i cal wave ( 1/ r ) cos( k r t ) i s a sol ut i on of ( 12.9) ,
we must t r ansfor m t he Lapl aci an oper at or fr om Car t esi an t o pol ar coor di nat es,
2
( x, y, z)
2
( r , , ) .
The t r ansfor mat i on i s
2
/ x
2
+
2
/ y
2
+
2
/ z
2
( 1/ r
2
) [ (/ r ) ( r
2
( / r ) ) + ( 1/ si n) (/ ) ( si n( / ) )
+ ( 1/ si n
2
) (
2
/
2
) ] . ( 12.17)
Thi s t r ansfor mat i on i s set as a pr obl em.
I f t her e i s spher i cal symmet r y, t her e i s no angul ar -dependence, i n whi ch case,
2
( r ) = ( 1/ r
2
) (/ r ) ( r
2
( / r ) )
=
2
/ r
2
+ ( 2/ r ) ( / r ) . ( 12.18)
We can check t hat
=
0
( 1/ r ) cos( k r t )
i s a sol ut i on of t he r adi al for m of ( 12.9) ,
Di f f er ent i at i ng t wi ce, we f i nd

2
/ r
2
=
0
[ ( k
2
/ r ) cosu + ( 2k / r
2
) si nu + ( 2/ r
3
) cosu] , wher e u = k r t ,
and

2
/ t
2
=
0
(
2
/ r ) cosu, = k V,
fr om whi ch we obt ai n
( 1/ V
2
)
2
/ t
2
[
2
/ r
2
+ ( 2/ r ) / r ] = 0. ( 12.19)
12.6 The super posi t i on of har moni c waves
Consi der t wo har moni c waves wi t h t he same ampl i t udes,
0
, t r avel l i ng i n t h e same
di r ect i on, t h e x-axi s. Let t h ei r angul ar fr equenci es be sl i gh t l y di ffer ent wi t h
cor r espondi ng wavenumber s k k . Th ei r r esul t ant , , i s gi ven by
=
0
e
i { ( k + k ) x (+ ) t }
+
0
e
i { ( k k ) x ( ) t }
=
0
e
i ( k x t )
[ e
i ( k x t )
+ e
i ( k x t )
]
=
0
e
i ( k x t )
[ 2cos( k x t ) ]
= Acos, ( 12.20)
wher e
A = 2
0
e
i ( k x t )
, t h e r esul t ant ampl i t ude,
and
= k x t , t he phase of t he modul at i on envel ope .
Th e i ndi vi dual waves t r avel at a speed
/ k = v
, t h e p h ase vel oci t y, ( 12.21)

and t he modul at i on envel ope t r avel s at a speed
/ k = v
G
, t h e gr oup vel oci t y. ( 12.22)
I n t he l i mi t of a ver y l ar ge number of waves, each di ffer i ng sl i ght l y i n fr equency fr om t hat
of a nei ghbor , dk 0, i n whi ch case
d/ dk = v
G
.
For el ect r omagnet i c waves t r avel l i ng t hr ough a vacuum, v
G
= v
= c, t h e sp eed of l i gh t .
We shal l not , at t hi s st age, deal wi t h t he pr obl em of t he super posi t i on of an ar bi t r ar y
number of har moni c waves.
12.7 St andi ng waves
The super posi t i on of t wo waves of t he same ampl i t udes and fr equenci es but
t r avel l i ng i n opposi t e di r ect i ons has t he for m
=
1
+
2
= Acos( k x t ) + Acos( k x + t )
= 2Acos( k x) cos( t ) . ( 12.23)
Thi s for m descr i bes a st a n di n g wa ve t hat pul sat es wi t h angul ar fr equency , associ at ed
wi t h t h e t i me-dependent t er m cost .
I n a t r avel l i ng wave, t h e amp l i t udes of t h e waves of al l p ar t i cl es i n t h e medi um ar e t h e
same and t hei r phases depend on posi t i on. I n a st andi ng wave, t he ampl i t udes depend on
posi t i on and t he phases ar e t he same.
For st andi ng waves, t he ampl i t udes ar e a maxi mum when k x = 0, , 2, 3, ...
and t hey ar e a mi ni mum when k x = / 2, 3/ 2, 5/ 2, ...( t he nodes) .
PROBLEMS
The mai n t r eat ment of wave mot i on, i ncl udi ng i nt er fer ence and di ffr act i on effect s,
t ak es pl ace i n t he second semest er ( Par t 2) i n di scussi ng El ect r omagnet i sm and Opt i cs.
12-1 Ri ppl es on t he sur face of wat er wi t h wavel engt hs of about one cent i met er ar e found
t o h ave a p h ase vel oci t y v
= ( k ) wher e k i s t he wave number and i s a

const ant ch ar act er i st i c of wat er . Sh ow t h at t h ei r gr oup vel oci t y i s
v
G
= ( 3/ 2) v
.
12-2 Sh ow t h at
y( x, t ) = exp{ x vt }
r ep r esent s a t r avel l i ng wave but not a p er i odi c wave.
12-3 Two pl ane waves h ave t h e same fr equency and t h ey osci l l at e i n t h e z-di r ect i on; t h ey
have t he for ms
( x, t ) = 4si n{ 20t + ( x/ 3) + } , and
( y, t ) = 2si n{ 20t + ( y/ 4) + } .
Sh ow t h at t h ei r sup er p osi t i on at x = 5 and y = 2 i s gi ven by
( t ) = 2.48si n{ 20t ( / 5) } .
12-4 Expr ess t he st andi ng wave y = Asi n( ax) si n( bt ) , wher e a and b ar e const ant s as a
combi nat i on of t r avel l i ng waves.
12-5 Per haps t he most i mpor t ant appl i cat i on of t he r el at i vi st i c Doppl er shi ft has been, and
cont i nues t o be, t he measur ement of t he vel oci t i es of r ecessi on of di st ant gal axi es
r el at i ve t o t h e Ear t h . Th e el ect r omagnet i c r adi at i on associ at ed wi t h i oni zed cal ci um
at oms t hat escape fr om a gal axy i n Hydr a has a measur ed wavl engt h of 4750 10
10
m,
and t h i s i s t o be comp ar ed wi t h a wavel engt h of 3940 10
10
m for t he same pr ocess
measur ed for a st at i onar y sour ce on Ear t h. Show t hat t he measur ed
13
ORTHOGONAL FUNCTI ONS AND FOURI ER SERI ES
13.1 Def i ni t i ons
Two n-vect or s
A
n
= [ a
1
, a
2
, ...a
n
] and B
n
= [ b
1
, b
2
, ...b
n
]
ar e sai d t o be or t hogon a l i f

[ i = 1, n ]
a
i
b
i
= 0. ( 13.1)
( Thei r scal ar pr oduct i s zer o) .
Two fu n ct i on s A( x) and B( x) ar e or t hogon a l i n t h e r ange x = a t o x = b i f
[ a, b]
A( x) B( x) dx = 0. ( 13.2)
The l i mi t s must be gi ven i n or der t o speci fy t he r ange i n whi ch t he funct i ons A( x) and B( x)
ar e defi ned.
The set of r eal , cont i nuous funct i ons {
1
( x) ,
2
( x) , ...} i s or t hogonal i n [ a, b] i f

[ a, b]

m
( x)
n
( x) dx = 0 for m n. ( 13.3)
I f, i n addi t i on,

[ a, b]

n
2
( x) dx = 1 for al l n, ( 13.4)
t he set i s n or m a l , and t h er efor e i t i s sai d t o be or t hon or m a l .
Th e i nf i ni t e set
{ cos0x, cos1x, cos2x, ... si n0x, si n1x, si n2x, ...} ( 13.5)
i n t he r ange [ , ] of x i s an exampl e of an or t hogonal set . For exampl e,
[ , ]
cosxcos2xdx = 0 et c., ( 13.6)
O R T H O G O N A L F U N C T I O N S 180
and

[ , ]
cos
2
xdx 0 = , et c.
Thi s set , whi ch i s or t hogonal i n any i nt er val of x of l engt h 2, i s of i nt er est i n
Mat hemat i cs because a l ar ge cl ass of funct i ons of x can be expr essed as l i near combi nat i ons
of t h e member s of t h e set i n t h e i nt er val 2. For examp l e we can of t en wr i t e
( x) = c
1
1
+ c
2
2
+ wh er e t h e c s ar e const ant s
= a
0
cos0x + a
1
cos1x + a
2
cos2x + ...
+ b
0
si n0x + b
1
si n1x + b
2
si n2x + ... ( 13.7)
A l ar ge cl ass of per i odi c funct i ons ,of per i od 2, can be expr essed i n t hi s way. When a
funct i on can be expr essed as a l i near combi nat i on of t he or t hogonal set
{ 1, cos1x, cos2x, ...0, si n1x, si n2x, ...} ,
i t i s sai d t o be expa n ded i n i t s Fou r i er ser i es.
13.2 Some t r i gonomet r i c i dent i t i es and t hei r Four i er ser i es
Some of t h e fami l i ar t r i gonomet r i c i dent i t i es i nvol ve Four i er ser i es. For exampl e,
cos2x = 1 2si n
2
x ( 13.8)
can be wr i t t en
si n
2
x = ( 1/ 2) ( 1/ 2) cos2x
and t hi s can be wr i t t en
si n
2
x = { ( 1/ 2) cos0x + 0cos1x ( 1/ 2) cos2x + 0cos3x + ...
+ 0{ si n0x + si n1x + si n2x + ...} ( 13.9)
t he Four i er ser i es of si n
2
x.
The Four i er ser i es of cos
2
x i s
cos
2
x = ( 1/ 2) + ( 1/ 2) cos2x. ( 13.10)
Mor e compl i cat ed t r i gonomet r i c i dent i es al so can be expanded i n t hei r Four i er ser i es. For
examp l e, t h e i dent i t y
si n3x = 3si nx 4si n
3
x
can be wr i t t en
si n
3
x = ( 3/ 4) si nx ( 1/ 4) si n3x, ( 13.11)
and t hi s i s t he Four i er ser i es of si n
3
x.
The t er ms i n t he ser i es r epr esent t he har moni cs of t he funct i on si n
3
x. They ar e shown i n
t he fol l owi ng di agr am
The Fourier component s of sin
3
x
-1
1
1
-180 -150 -120 -90 -60 -30 0 30 60 90 120 150 180
Degr ees
I n a si mi l ar fashi on, we fi nd t hat t he i dent i t y
cos3x = 4cos
3
x 3cosx
can be r ear r anged t o gi ve t he Four i er ser i es of cos
3
x
cos
3
x = ( 3/ 4) + ( 1/ 4) cos3x. ( 13.12)
I n gener al , a combi nat i on of deMoi vr e s t heor em and t he bi nomi al t heor em can be
used t o wr i t e cos( nx) and si n( nx) ( for n a posi t i ve i nt eger ) i n t er ms of power s of si nx and
cosx. We have
cos( nx) + i si n( nx) = ( cosx + i si nx)
n
( i = 1) ( deMoi vr e) ( 13.13)
and
( a + b)
n
= a
n
+ na
n 1
b + ( n( n 1) / 2!) a
n 2
b
2
...+ b
n
. ( 13.14)
For examp l e, i f n = 4, we obt ai n
cos
4
x = ( 1/ 8) cos4x + ( 1/ 2) cos2x + ( 3/ 8) , ( 13.15)
and
si n
4
x = ( 1/ 8) cos4x ( 1/ 2) cos2x + ( 3/ 8) . ( 13.16)
13.3 Det er mi nat i on of t he Four i er coef f i ci ent s of a f unct i on
I f, i n t he i nt er val [ a, b] , t he funct i on f( x) can be expanded i n t er ms of t he set
{
1
( x) ,
2
( x) , ...} , whi ch means t hat
f( x) =
[ i = 1, ]
c
i
i
( x) , ( 13.17)
wher e {
1
( x) ,
2
( x) , ...} i s or t hogonal i n [ a, b] , t hen t he coeffi ci ent s can be eval uat ed as
fol l ows:
t o det er mi ne t h e k t h -coef f i ci ent , c
k
, mul t i pl y f( x) by
k
( x) , and i nt egr at e over t h e
i nt er val [ a, b] :
[ a, b]
f( x)
k
( x) dx =
[ a, b]
c
1
k
d x + ...
[ a, b]
c
k
k
2
dx + ... ( 13.18)
= 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 ...
The i nt egr al s of t he pr oduct s
m
n
i n t he r ange [ , ] ar e al l zer o excep t f or t h e case
t hat i nvol ves
k
2
. We t h er ef or e obt ai n t h e k t h -coef f i ci ent
c
k
=
[ a, b]
f( x)
k
( x) dx /
[ a, b]

k
2
( x) dx k = 1, 2, 3, ... ( 13.19)
13.4 The Four i er ser i es of a per i odi c saw-t oot h wavef or m
I n st andar d wor ks on Four i er anal ysi s i t i s pr oved t hat ever y per i odi c cont i nuous
funct i on f( x) of per i od 2 can be expanded i n t er ms of { 1, cosx, cos2x, ...0, si nx, si n2x, ...} ;
t hi s or t hogonal set i s sai d t o be compl et e wi t h r espect t o t he set of per i odi c cont i nuous
funct i ons f( x) i n [ a, b] .
Let f( x) be a per i odi c saw-t oot h wavefor m wi t h an ampl i t ude of 1:
f( x)
+ 1
2 0 2 x
-1
The funct i on has t he fol l owi ng for ms i n t he t hr ee i nt er val s
f ( x) = ( 2/ ) ( x + ) for x / 2,
= 2x/ f or / 2 x / 2,
and
= ( 2/ ) ( x ) f o r / 2 x .
Th e per i odi ci t y means t h at f( x + 2) = f( x) .
The funct i on f( x) can be r epr esent ed as a l i near combi nat i on of t he ser i es { 1, cosx,
cos2x, ...si nx, si n2x, ...} :
f ( x) = a
0
cos0x + a
1
cos1x + a
2
cos2x + ...a
k
cosk x + ...
+ b
0
si n0x + b
1
si n1x + b
2
si n2x + ...b
k
si nk x + ... ( 13.20)
Th e coef f i ci ent s ar e gi ven by
a
k
=
[ , ]
coskx f( x) dx /
[ , ]
cos
2
k xdx = 0, ( f( x) i s odd, cosk x i s even, and
[ , ] i s symmet r i c about 0) , ( 13.21)
and
b
k
=
[ , ]
si nkx f( x) dx /
[ , ]
si n
2
k xdx 0,
= ( 1/ ) {
[ , / 2]
( 2/ ) ( x + ) si nk xdx +
[ / 2, / 2]
( 2x/ ) si nkxdx
+
[ / 2, ]
( 2/ ) ( x ) si nkxdx }
= { 8/ ( k )
2
} si n( k/ 2) . ( 13.22)
The Four i er ser i es of f( x) i s t her efor e
f( x) = ( 8/
2
) { si nx ( 1/ 3
2
) si n3x + ( 1/ 5
2
) si n5x ( 1/ 7
2
) si n7x + ...} .
Sum of Four Four i er Component s of a Saw-Toot h Wavefor m
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0 30 60 90 120 150 180
Degr ees
The above pr ocedur e can be gener al i zed t o i ncl ude funct i ons t hat ar e not per i odi c.
The sum of di scr et e Four i er component s t hen becomes an i nt egr al of t he ampl i t ude of t he
component of angul ar fr equency = 2 wi t h r esp ect t o . Thi s i s a subj ect cover ed i n
t he mor e advanced t r eat ment s of Physi cs.
PROBLEMS
13-1 Use deMoi vr e s t heor em and t he bi nomi al t heor em t o obt ai n t he Four i er expansi ons:
1) cos
4
x = 3/ 8 + ( 1/ 2) cos2x + ( 1/ 8) cos4x,
and
2) si n
4
x = 3/ 8 ( 1/ 2) cos2x + ( 1/ 8) cos4x.
Pl ot t hese component s ( har moni cs) and t hei r sums for 0 .
13-2 Use t he met hod of i nt egr at i on of or t hogonal funct i ons t o obt ai n t he Four i er ser i es of
pr obl em 13-1; you shoul d obt ai n t he same r esul t s as above!
13-3 Show t hat 1) i f f( x) = f( x) , onl y si ne funct i ons occur i n t he Four i er ser i es for f( x) ,
and
2) i f f( x) = f( x) , onl y cosi ne funct i ons occur i n t he Four i er ser i es for f( x) .
13-4 The Four i er ser i es of a funct i on f( t ) t hat i s per i odi c out si de ( T, T) wi t h per i od 2 i s
of t en wr i t t en i n t h e f or m
f ( t ) = ( a
0
/ 2) +
[ n = 1, ]
{ a
n
cos( nt / T) + b
n
si n( nt / T) } ,
wh er e
a
n
= ( 1/ T)
[ T, T]
f( t ) cos( nt / T) d t ,
and
b
n
= ( 1/ T)
[ T, T]
f( t ) si n( nt / T) d t .
I f f( t ) i s a per i odi c squar e-wave:
f ( t ) = 3 f or 0 < t < 5s
= 0 f o r 5 < t < 10s, wi t h p er i od 2T = 10s
f( t )
3
0
10 5 0 5 10 t
obt ai n t he Four i er ser i es :
f ( t ) = ( 3/ 2) + ( 3/ )
[ n = 1, ]
[ ( 1 cosn) / n] si n( nt / 5) ) .
Comput e t h i s ser i es for n = 1 t o 5 and 5 < t < 5, and compar e t h e t r uncat ed
ser i es wi t h t h e exact wavef or m.
13-5 I t i s i nt er est i ng t o not e t h at t h e ser i es i n 13-4 conver ges t o t h e exact val ue f ( t ) = 3
at t h e val u e t = 5/ 2 s, so t hat
3 = ( 3/ 2) + ( 3/ )
[ n= 1,

]
[ ( 1 cosn) / n] si n( n/ 2) .
Use t h i s r esul t t o obt ai n t h e i mpor t ant Gr egor y-Lei bni z i nfi ni t e ser i es :
( / 4) = 1 ( 1/ 3) + ( 1/ 5) ( 1/ 7) + ...
Appendi x A
Sol vi ng or di nar y di f f er ent i al equat i ons
Typi cal dynami cal equat i ons of Physi cs ar e
1) For ce i n t he x-di r ect i on = mass accel er at i on i n t h e x-di r ect i on wi t h t h e
mat hemat i cal for m
F
x
= ma
x
= md
2
x/ dt
2
,
and
2) Th e ampl i t ude y( x, t ) of a wave at ( x, t ) , t r avel l i ng at const ant speed V al ong
t he x-axi s wi t h t he mat hemat i cal for m
( 1/ V
2
)
2
y/ t
2

2
y/ x
2
= 0.
Such equat i ons, t h at i nvol ve di ffer ent i al coeffi ci ent s, ar e cal l ed di ffer en ti a l equ a ti on s.
An equat i on of t he for m
f( x, y( x) , dy( x) / dx; a
r
) = 0 ( A.1)
t hat cont ai ns
i ) a var i abl e y t hat depends on a si ngl e, i ndependent var i abl e x,
i i ) a fi r st der i vat i ve dy( x) / dx,
and
i i i ) const ant s, a
r
,
O R D I N A R Y D I F F E R E N T I A L E Q U A T I O N S 188
i s cal l ed an or di nar y ( a si ngl e i ndependent var i abl e) di ffer ent i al equat i on of t he fi r st or der
( a fi r st der i vat i ve, onl y) .
An equat i on of t he for m
f( x
1
, x
2
, ...x
n
, y( x
1
, x
2
, ...x
n
) , y/ x
1
, y/ x
2
, ... y/ x
n
;
2
yx
1
2
,
2
y/ x
2
2
,
...
2
y/ x
n
2
;
n
y/ x
1
n
,
n
y/ x
2
n
, ...
n
y/ x
n
n
; a
1
, a
2
, ...a
r
) = 0 ( A.2)
t hat cont ai ns
i ) a var i abl e y t hat depends on n-i ndependent var i abl es x
1
, x
2
, ...x
n
,
i i ) t h e 1st -, 2nd-, ...nt h -or der par t i al der i vat i ves:
y/ x
1
, ...
2
y/ x
1
2
, ...
n
y/ x
1
n
, ...,
and
i i i ) r const ant s, a
1
, a
2
, ...a
r
,
i s cal l ed a par t i al di ffer ent i al equat i on of t he nt h-or der .
Some of t he t echni ques for sol vi ng or di nar y l i near di ffer ent i al equat i ons ar e gi ven i n t hi s
appendi x.
An or di nar y di ffer ent i al equat i on i s for med fr om a par t i cul ar funct i onal r el at i on,
f( x, y; a
1
, a
2
, ...a
n
) t hat i nvol ves n ar bi t r ar y const ant s. Successi ve di ffer ent i at i ons of f wi t h
r espect t o x, yi el d n r el at i onshi ps i nvol vi ng x, y, and t he fi r st n der i vat i ves of y wi t h r espect
t o x, and some ( or possi bl y al l ) of t he n const ant s. Ther e ar e ( n + 1) r el at i onshi ps fr om
wh i ch t h e n const ant s can be el i mi nat ed. Th e r esul t wi l l i nvol ve d
n
y/ dx
n
, di f f er ent i al
coeffi ci ent s of l ower or der s, t oget her wi t h x, and y, and n o ar bi t r ar y const ant s.
Consi der , for exampl e, t he st andar d equat i on of a par abol a:
y
2
4ax. = 0, wh er e a i s a const ant .
Di f f er ent i at i ng, gi ves
2y( dy/ dx) 4a = 0
so t hat
y 2x( dy/ dx) = 0, a di ffer ent i al equat i on t hat does not cont ai n t he const ant a.
As anot her exampl e, consi der t he equat i on
f ( x, y, a, b, c) = 0 = x
2
+ y
2
+ ax + by + c = 0.
Di f f er ent i at i ng t h r ee t i mes successi vel y, wi t h r esp ect t o x, gi ves
1) 2x + 2y( dy/ dx) + a + b( dy/ dx) = 0,
2) 2 + 2{ y( d
2
y/ dx
2
) + ( dy/ dx)
2
} + b( d
2
y/ dx
2
) = 0,
and
3) 2{ y( d
3
y/ dx
3
) + ( d
2
y/ dx
2
) ( dy/ dx) } + 4( dy/ dx) ( d
2
y/ dx
2
) + b( d
3
y/ dx
3
) = 0.
El i mi nat i ng b fr om 2) and 3) ,
( d
3
y/ dx
3
) { 1 + ( dy/ dx)
2
} = ( dy/ dx) ( d
2
y/ dx
2
)
2
.
The most gener al sol ut i on of an or di nar y di ffer ent i al equat i on of t he nt h-or der
cont ai ns n ar bi t r ar y const ant s. The sol ut i on t hat cont ai ns a l l t he ar bi t r ar y const ant s i s
cal l ed t h e compl ete pr i ma ti ve. I f a sol ut i on i s obt ai ned fr om t he compl et e pr i mat i ve by
gi vi ng defi ni t e val ues t o t he const ant s t hen t he ( non-uni que) sol ut i on i s cal l ed a
pa r t i cu l a r i n t egr a l .
Equ a t i on s of t he 1st -or der a n d degr ee.
The equat i on
M( x, y) ( dy/ dx) + N( x, y) = 0 ( A.3)
i s separ abl e i f M/ N can be r educed t o t he for m f
1
( y) / f
2
( x) , wher e f
1
does not i nvol ve x, and f
2
does not i nvol ve y. Speci fi c cases t h at ar e met ar e:
i ) y absent i n M and N, so t hat M and N ar e funct i ons of x onl y; Eq. ( A.3) t hen can be
wr i t t en
( dy/ dx) = ( M/ N) = F( x)
t her efor e
y = F( x) dx + C, wher e C i s a const ant of i nt egr at i on.
i i ) x absent i n M and N.
Eq. ( A.3) t hen becomes
( M/ N) ( dy/ dx) = 1,
so t hat
F( y) ( dy/ dx) = 1, ( M/ N = F( y) )
t her efor e
x = F( y) dy + C.
i i i ) x and y pr esent i n M and N, but t he var i abl es ar e separ abl e.
Put M/ N = f( y) / g( x) , t hen Eq. ( A.3) becomes
f( y) ( dy/ dx) + g( x) = 0.
I nt egr at i ng over x,
f( y) ( dy/ dx) dx + g( x) dx = 0.
or
f( y) ) dy + g( x) dx = 0.
For exampl e, consi der t he di ffer ent i al equat i on
x( dy/ dx) + cot y = 0.
Th i s can be wr i t t en
( si ny/ cosy) ( dy/ dx) + 1/ x = 0.
I nt egr at i ng, and p ut t i ng t h e const ant of i nt egr at i on C = l nD,
( si ny/ cosy) dy + ( 1/ x) dx = l nD,
so t hat
l n( cosy) + l nx = l nD,
or
l n( x/ cosy) = l nD.
The sol ut i on i s t her efor e
y = cos
1
( x/ D) .
Exa ct equ a t i on s
The equat i on
ydx + xdy = 0 i s sai d t o be exact because i t can be wr i t t en as
d( xy) = 0, or
xy = const ant .
Consi der t he non-exact equat i on
( t any) dx + ( t anx) dy = 0.
We see t hat i t can be made exact by mul t i pl yi ng t hr oughout by cosxcosy, gi vi ng
si nycosxdx + si nxcosydy = 0 ( exact )
so t hat
d( si nysi nx) = 0,
or
si nysi nx = const ant .
The t er m cosxcosy i s cal l ed an i n t egr a t i n g fa ct or .
Hom ogen eou s di ffer en t i a l equ a t i on s.
A homogeneous equat i on of t he nt h degr ee i n x and y i s such t hat t he power s of x
and y i n ever y t er m of t he equat i on i s n. For exampl e, x
2
y + 2xy
2
+ 3y
3
i s a homogeneous
equat i on of t h e t h i r d degr ee. I f , i n t h e di f f er ent i al equat i on M( dy/ dx) + N = 0 t h e t er ms
M and N ar e homogeneous funct i ons of x and y, of t he same degr ee, t hen we have a
homogeneous di ffer ent i al equat i on of t he 1st or der and degr ee. The di ffer ent i al equat i on
t hen r educes t o
dy/ dx = ( N/ M) = F( y/ x)
To fi nd whet her or not a funct i on F( x, y) can be wr i t t en F( y/ x) , put
y = vx.
I f t he r esul t i s F( v) ( al l x s cancel ) t hen F i s homogeneous. For exampl e
dy/ dx = ( x
2
+ y
2
) / 2x
2
dy/ dx = ( 1 + v
2
) / 2 = F( v) , t h er ef or e t h e
equat i on i s homogeneous.
Si nce dy/ dx F( v) by put t i ng y = vx on t he r i ght -hand si de of t he equat i on, we mak e t he
same subst i t ut i on on t he l eft -hand si de t o obt ai n
v + x( dv/ dx) = ( 1 + v
2
) / 2
t her efor e
2xd v = ( 1 + v
2
2v) dx.
Sep ar at i ng t h e var i abl es
2dv/ ( v 1)
2
= dx/ x., and t h i s can be i nt egr at ed.
Li n ea r Equ a t i on s
The equat i on
dy/ dx + M( x) y = N( x)
i s sai d t o be l i near and of t he 1st or der . An exampl e of such an equat i on i s
dy/ dx + ( 1/ x) y = x
2
.
Thi s equat i on can be sol ved by i nt r oduci ng t he i nt egr at i ng fact or , x, so t hat
x( dy/ dx) + y = x
3
,
t her efor e
( d/ dx) ( xy) = x
3
,
gi vi ng
xy = x
4
/ 4 + const ant .
I n gener al , l et R be an i nt egr at i ng f act or , t h en
R( dy/ dx) + RMy = RN,
i n whi ch case, t he l eft -hand si de i s t he di ffer ent i al coeffi ci ent of some pr oduct wi t h a fi r st
t er m R( dy/ dx) . The pr oduct must be Ry! Put , t her efor e
R( dy/ dx) + RMy = ( d/ dx) ( Ry) = R( dy/ dx) + y( dR/ dx) .
Now,
RMy = y( dR/ dx) ,
whi ch l eads t o
M( x) dx = dR/ R = l nR,
or
R = exp{ M( x) dx} .
We t h er efor e h ave t h e fol l owi ng pr ocedur e: t o sol ve t h e di ffer ent i al equat i on
( dy/ dx) + M( x) y = N( x) ,
mul t i pl y each si de by t h e i nt egr at i ng fact or exp{ M( x) dx} , and i nt egr at e. For exampl e, l et
( dy/ dx) + ( 1/ x) y = x
2
,
so t hat M( x) dx = ( 1/ x) dx = l nx and t he i nt egr at i ng fact or i s exp{ l nx} = x:. We
t h er efor e obt ai n t h e equat i on
x( dy/ dx) + ( 1/ x) y = x
3
,
deduced pr evi ousl y on i nt ui t i ve gr ounds.
Li n ea r Equ a t i on s wi t h Con st a n t Coeffi ci en t s.
Consi der t he 1st or der l i near di ffer ent i al equat i on
p
0
( dy/ dx) + p
1
y = 0, wh er e p
0
, p
1
ar e const ant s.
Wr i t i ng t hi s as
p
0
( dy/ y) + p
1
x = 0,
we can i nt egr at e t er m-by-t er m, so t h at
p
0
l ny + p
1
x = const ant ,
t her efor e
l ny = ( p
1
/ p
0
) x + const ant
= ( p
1
/ p
0
) x + l nA, say
t her efor e
y = Aexp{ ( p
1
/ p
0
) x} .
Li near di ffer ent i al equat i ons wi t h const ant coeffi ci ent s of t he 2nd or der occur oft en i n
Physi cs. They ar e t ypi fi ed by t he for ms
p
0
( d
2
y/ dx
2
) + p
1
( dy/ dx) + p
2
y = 0.
The sol ut i on of an equat i on of t hi s for m i s obt ai ned by fol l owi ng t he i nsi ght gai ned i n
sol vi ng t he 1st or der equat i on!. We t r y a sol ut i on of t he t ype
y = Aexp{ mx} ,
so t hat t he equat i on i s
Aexp{ mx} ( p
0
m
2
+ p
1
m + p
2
) = 0.
I f m i s a r oot of
p
0
m
2
+ p
1
m + p
2
= 0
t hen y = Aexp{ mx} i s a sol ut i on of t he or i gi nal equat i on for al l val ues of A.
Let t h e r oot s be and . I f t her e ar e t wo sol ut i ons
y = Aexp{ x } and y = Bexp{ x.} .
I f we put
y = Aexp { x} + Bexp{ x}
i n t h e or i gi nal equat i on t h en
Aexp{ x} ( p
0
2
+ p
1
+ p
2
) + Bexp{ x} ( p
0
2
+ p
1
+ p
2
) = 0,
whi ch i s t r ue as and ar e t he r oot s of
p
0
m
2
+ p
1
m + p
2
= 0, ( cal l ed t h e a u xi l l i a r y equ a t i on )
The or i gi nal equat i on i s l i near , t her efor e t he sum of t he t wo sol ut i ons i s, i t sel f, a ( t hi r d)
sol ut i on. The t hi r d sol ut i on cont ai ns t wo ar bi t r ar y const ant s ( t he or der of t he equat i on) ,
and i t i s t h er ef or e t h e gen er a l sol u t i on .
As an exampl e of t he met hod, consi der sol vi ng t he equat i on
2( d
2
y/ dx
2
) + 5( dy/ dx) + 2y = 0.
Put y = Aexp{ mx } as a t r i al sol ut i on, t hen
Aexp{ mx} ( 2m
2
+ 5m + 2) = 0, so t h at
m = 2 or 1/ 2, t h er ef or e t h e gener al sol ut i on i s
y = Aexp{ 2x} + Bexp{ ( 1/ 2) x} .
I f t he r oot s of t he auxi l l i ar y equat i on ar e compl ex, t hen
y = Aexp{ p + i q} + Bexp{ p i q} ,
wh er e t h e r oot s ar e p i q ( p, q R) .
I n p r act i ce, we wr i t e
y = exp{ px} [ Ecosqx + Fsi nqx]
wher e E and F ar e ar bi t r ar y const ant s.
For exampl e, consi der t he sol ut i on of t he equat i on
d
2
y/ dx
2
6( dy/ dx) + 13y = 0,
t her efor e
m
2
6m + 13 = 0,
so t hat
m = 3 i 2.
y = Aexp { ( 3 + i 2) x} + Bexp { 3 i 2) x}
= exp { 3x} ( Ecos2x + Fsi n2x) .
The gener al sol ut i on of a l i near di ffer ent i al equat i on wi t h const ant coeffi ci ent s i s t he sum
of a pa r t i cu l a r i n t egr a l and t he com pl em en t a r y fu n ct i on ( obt ai ned by put t i ng zer o for
t he funct i on of x t hat appear s i n t he or i gi nal equat i on) .
BI BLI OGRAPHY
Those book s t hat have had an i mpor t ant i nfl uence on t he subj ect mat t er and t he
st yl e of t hi s book ar e r ecogni zed wi t h t he symbol * . I am i ndebt ed t o t he many aut hor s
for pr ovi di ng a sour ce of fundament al k nowl edge t hat I have at t empt ed t o absor b i n a
pr ocess of cont i nui ng educat i on over a per i od of fi ft y year s.
Gener al Physi cs
* Feynman, R. P., Lei ght on, R. B., and Sands, M., The Feyn m a n Lect u r es on Physi cs,
3 vol s., Addi son-Wesl ey Publ i shi ng Company, Readi ng, MA ( 1964) .
* Joos, G., Theor eti ca l Physi cs, Dover Publ i cat i ons, I nc., New Yor k , 3r d edn ( 1986) .
Li ndsay, R. B., Con cepts a n d Methods of Theor eti ca l Physi cs, Van Nost r and Company,
I nc., New Yor k ( 1952) .
Mat hemat i cs
Ar mst r ong, M. A., Gr ou ps a n d Sym m et r y, Sp r i nger -Ver l ag, New Yor k ( 1988) .
* Caunt , G. W., An I n t r odu ct i on t o I n fi n i t esi m a l Ca l cu l u s, The Cl ar endon Pr ess, Oxfor d
( 1949) .
* Cour ant R., and John F., I n t r odu ct i on t o Ca l cu l u s a n d An a l ysi s, 2 vol s., John Wi l ey &
Sons, New Yor k ( 1974) .
Kl i n e, M., Ma t hem a t i ca l Thou ght fr om An ci en t t o Moder n Ti m es, Oxfor d Uni ver si t y
Pr ess, Oxfor d ( 1972) .
B I B L I O G R A P H Y 199
* Mar genau, H., and Mur phy, G. M., The Ma t hem a t i cs of Physi cs a n d Chem i st r y, Van
Nost r and Company, I nc., New Yor k , 2nd edn ( 1956) .
Mi r sk y, L., An I n t r odu ct i on t o Li n ea r Al gebr a , Dover Publ i cat i ons, I nc., New Yor k ( 1982) .
* Pi aggi o, H . T. H ., An El em en t a r y Tr ea t i se on Di ffer en t i a l Equ a t i on s, G. Bel l & Sons,
Lt d., London ( 1952) .
Samel son, H., An I n t r odu ct i on t o Li n ea r Al gebr a , Joh n Wi l ey & Sons, New Yor k ( 1974) .
St ephenson, G., An I n t r odu ct i on t o Ma t r i ces, Set s a n d Gr ou ps for Sci en ce St u den t s,
Dover Publ i cat i ons, I nc., New yor k ( 1986) .
Your gr au, W., and Mandel st am, S., Va r i a t i on a l Pr i n ci pl es i n Dyn a m i cs a n d Qu a n t u m
Theor y, Dover Publ i cat i ons, I nc., New Yor k 1979) .
Dynami cs
Beck er , R. A., I n t r odu ct i on t o Theor et i ca l Mecha n i cs, McGr aw-Hi l l Book Company, I nc.,
New Yor k ( 1954) .
Byer l y, W. E., An I n t r odu ct i on t o t he Use of Gen er a l i zed Coor di n a t es i n Mecha n i cs a n d
Physi cs, Dover Publ i cat i ons, I nc., New Yor k ( 1965) .
Ki l mi st er , C. W., La gr a n gi a n Dyn a m i cs: a n I n t r odu ct i on for St u den t s, Pl enum Pr ess, New
Yor k ( 1967) .
* Ramsey, A. S., Dyn a m i cs Pa r t I , Cambr i dge Uni ver si t y Pr ess, Cambr i dge ( 1951) .
* Rout h, E. J., Dyn a mi cs of a Syst em of Ri gi d Bodi es, Dover Publ i cat i ons, I nc., New Yor k
( 1960) .
Wh i t t ak er , E. T., A Tr ea ti se on the An a l yti ca l Dyn a mi cs of Pa r ti cl es a n d Ri gi d Bodi es,
Cambr i dge Uni ver si t y Pr ess, Cambr i dge ( 1961) . Thi s i s a cl assi c wor k t hat goes
wel l beyond t h e l evel of t h e p r esent book . I t i s, nonet h el ess, wel l wor t h
consul t i ng t o see what l i es ahead!
Rel at i vi t y and Gr avi t at i on
* Ei nst ei n, A.., The Pr i n ci pl e of Rel a ti vi ty, Dover Publ i cat i ons, I nc., New Yor k ( 1952) . A
col l ect i on of t h e or i gi nal paper s on t h e Speci al and Gener al Th eor i es of Rel at i vi t y.
Di xon, W. G., Speci a l Rel a ti vi ty, Cambr i dge Uni ver si t y Pr ess, Cambr i dge ( 1978) .
Fr ench, A. P., Speci a l Rel a ti vi ty, W. W. Nor t on & Company, I nc., New Yor k ( 1968) .
Kenyon, I . R., Gen er a l Rel a ti vi ty, Oxfor d Uni ver si t y Pr ess, Oxfor d ( 1990) .
Lucas, J. R., and Hodgson, P. E., Spa cet i m e a n d El ect r om a gn et i sm, Oxfor d Uni ver si t y Pr ess,
Oxfor d ( 1990) .
* Ohani an, H. C., Gr a vi t a t i on a n d Spa cet i m e, W. W. Nor t on & Company, I nc., New Yor k
( 1976) .
* Ri ndl er , W., I n tr odu cti on to Speci a l Rel a ti vi ty, Oxfor d Uni ver si t y Pr ess, Oxfor d, 2nd edn
( 1991) .
Rosser , W. G. V., I n tr odu ctor y Rel a ti vi ty, But t er wor t h & Co. Lt d., London ( 1967) .
Non-Li near Dynami cs
* Bak er , G. L., and Gol l ub, J. P., Cha ot i c Dyn a m i cs, Cambr i dge Uni ver si t y Pr ess,
Cambr i dge ( 1991) .
Pr ess, W. H ., Teuk ol sk y, S. A., Vet t er l i ng W. T., and Fl anner y, B. P., Nu m er i ca l Reci pes i n
C, Cambr i dge Uni ver si t y Pr ess, Cambr i dge 2nd edn ( 1992) .
Waves
Cr awfor d, F. S., Wa ves, ( Ber k el ey Physi cs Ser i es, vol 3) , McGr aw-Hi l l Book Company, I nc.,
New Yor k ( 1968) .
Fr ench, A. P., Vi br a t i on s a n d Wa ves, W. W. Nor t on & Company, I nc., New Yor k ( 1971) .
Gener al r eadi ng
Br onowsk i , J., The Ascen t of Ma n , Li t t l e, Br own and Company, Bost on ( 1973) .
Cal der , N., Ei n stei n s Un i ver se, Th e Vi k i ng Pr ess, New Yor k ( 1979) .
Davi es, P. C. W., Spa ce a n d Ti m e i n t he Moder n Un i ver se, Cambr i dge Uni ver si t y Pr ess,
Cambr i dge ( 1977) .
Schr i er , E. W., and Al l man, W. F., eds., Newt on a t t he Ba t , Char l es Scr i bner s Sons, New
Yor k ( 1984) .

Essential Physics 1 - F. Firk

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Essential Physics 1 - F. Firk

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E S S E N T I A L P H Y S I C S

= [ ct , x, y, z] and t he covar i ant for m i s

t r ansfor ms as fol l ows:

be sychr oni zed t o r ead t

= [ d( ct ) / d, dx/ d, dy/ d, dz/ d]

= c, t h e i nvar i ant sp eed of l i gh t .

and, usi ng Newt on s empi r i cal l aw,

i s equi val ent t o t h e equat i ons

i s t h e covar i ant 4-vel oci t y.

ar e uni t vect or s i n t he r - and -di r ect i ons.

, per pendi cul ar t o r , i s al ways zer o:

, t he component of vel oci t y per pendi cul ar t o r , t her efor e

The par amet er s used t o obt ai n t hi s pl ot i n t he - pl ane ar e :

The par amet er s used t o obt ai n t hi s pl ot i n t he - pl ane ar e:

} = Acos, wher e i s t he phase . ( 12.11)

= [ / c, k ] , t h e fr equency-wavel engt h 4-vect or , ( 12.12)

= [ ct , r ] , t h e covar i ant event 4-vect or .

, t h e p h ase vel oci t y, ( 12.21)

= ( k ) wher e k i s t he wave number and i s a

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