Miniature Guide To Critical Thinking

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CriticalThinking
CONCEPTS AND TOOLS
ByDr.RichardPaul
and
Dr.LindaElder
TheFoundationforCriticalThinking
www.criticalthinking.org
707-878-9100
cct@criticalthinking.org
C lien t: FCT P r oof5 P r oof6 P r oof7 P r oof8
P r oject
T itle:
Concepts/ToolsC onf
2008 (07-069)
12/3/07
11:35a
12/3/07
12:40p
12/3/07
3:20p
12/4/07
1:15p

Please join us for the
28thAnnualInternational
ConferenceonCriticalThinking
NearUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeley
July1924,2008
For more than 25 years, the Foundation For Critical Thinking
has emphasized the importance of teaching for critical thinking
in a strong, rather than a weak, sense. We are committed to a clear
and substantive concept of critical thinking (rather than one that
is ill-dened); a concept that interfaces well wwith the disciplines,
that applies directly to the needs of everyday and professional life,
that emphasizes the affective as well as the cognitive dimensions of
thought. We advocate a concept of critical thinking that organizes
instruction in every subject area at every educational level, around
it, and on it, and through it. One implication of such an emphasis is
this: that only through long-term planning can a substantive concept
of critical thinking take root in instruction and learning. We need
short-term strategies, of course. But without long-term planning
nothing substantial occurs. Deep learning does not result.
The 28th International Conference will focus on
TheArtofTeachingforIntellectualEngagement.
Intellectually engaged students take ownership of content through
actively thinking it through, value questions more than answers, seek
understanding over rote memorization. As an integral part of these
processes, students learn how to learn, using disciplined reading,
writing, speaking, and listening as modalities in learning. In the
same spirit, all conference sessions will be interactiveintegrating
reading, writing, and teaching as modes for internalizing the ideas.
Toregister,visitourwebsite:www.criticalthinking.org
Orcalltoll-free800.833.3645.
1 TheMiniatureGuidetoCriticalThinkingConceptsandTools
Contents
WhyCriticalThinking?............................................ 2
TheElementsofThought ......................................... 3
AChecklistforReasoning......................................... 4
QuestionsUsingtheElementsofThought........................ 6
ThreeLevelsofThought.......................................... 7
UniversalIntellectualStandards .................................. 8
TemplateforAnalyzingtheLogicofArticlesandTextbooks......11
CriteriaforEvaluatingReasoning................................12
EssentialIntellectualTraits .......................................13
ThreeKindsofQuestions........................................16
ATemplateforProblem-Solving.................................17
AnalyzingandAssessingResearch...............................18
WhatCriticalThinkersRoutinelyDo..............................19
StagesofCriticalThinkingDevelopment.........................20
TheProblemofEgocentricThinking.............................21
TheProblemofSociocentricThinking ...........................22
EnvisioningCriticalSocieties.....................................23
FifthEdition 2008FoundationforCriticalThinkingPress www.criticalthinking.org
WhyCriticalThinking?
TheProblem:
Everyonethinks;itisournaturetodoso.Butmuchofourthinking,leftto
itself,isbiased,distorted,partial,uninformedordown-rightprejudiced. Yet
thequalityofourlifeandthatofwhatweproduce,make,orbuilddepends
preciselyonthequalityofourthought.Shoddythinkingiscostly,bothin
moneyandinqualityoflife.Excellenceinthought,however,mustbesystem-
aticallycultivated.
ADefnition:
Criticalthinkingistheartofanalyzingandevaluatingthinkingwithaviewto
improvingit.
TheResult:
Awellcultivatedcriticalthinker:
raisesvitalquestionsandproblems,formulatingthemclearlyandprecisely;
gathersandassessesrelevantinformation,usingabstractideastointerpretit
effectively;
comestowell-reasonedconclusionsandsolutions,testingthemagainst
relevantcriteriaandstandards;
thinksopenmindedlywithinalternativesystemsofthought,recognizing
andassessing,asneedbe,theirassumptions,implications,andpractical
consequences;and
communicateseffectivelywithothersinguringoutsolutionstocomplex
problems.
Criticalthinkingis,inshort,self-directed,self-disciplined,self-monitored,
andself-correctivethinking.Itrequiresrigorousstandardsofexcellence
andmindfulcommandoftheiruse.Itentailseffectivecommunicationand
problemsolvingabilitiesandacommitmenttoovercomingournativeegocen-
trismandsociocentrism.
2008FoundationforCriticalThinkingPress www.criticalthinking.org
TheElementsofThought
Point of View
frames of reference,
perspectives,
orientations
Implications and
Consequences
Elements
of
Assumptions
Thought
presuppositions,
axioms, taking for
granted
Concepts
theories,
defnitions, laws,
principles, models
Purpose
goals,
objectives
Question at issue
problem, issue
Information
data, facts,
observations,
experiences
Interpretation
and Inference
conclusions,
solutions
Used With Sensitivity to Universal Intellectual Standards
ClarityAccuracyDepthBreadth Signifcance
Precision
Relevance
AChecklistforReasoning
1) AllreasoninghasaPURPOSE.
Stateyourpurposeclearly.
Distinguishyourpurposefromrelatedpurposes.
Checkperiodicallytobesureyouarestillontarget.
Choosesignicantandrealisticpurposes.
2) AllreasoningisanattempttoFIGUREsomethingout,tosettlesome
QUESTION,solvesomePROBLEM.
Statethequestionatissueclearlyandprecisely.
Expressthequestioninseveralwaystoclarifyitsmeaningandscope.
Breakthequestionintosub-questions.
Distinguishquestionsthathavedenitiveanswersfromthosethat
areamatterofopinionandfromthosethatrequireconsiderationof
multipleviewpoints.
3) AllreasoningisbasedonASSUMPTIONS.
Clearlyidentifyyourassumptionsanddeterminewhetherthey
arejustiable.
Considerhowyourassumptionsareshapingyourpointofview.
4) AllreasoningisdonefromsomePOINTOFVIEW.
Identifyyourpointofview.
Seekotherpointsofviewandidentifytheirstrengthsaswell
asweaknesses.
Strivetobefairmindedinevaluatingallpointsofview.
5) AllreasoningisbasedonDATA,INFORMATIONandEVIDENCE.
Restrictyourclaimstothosesupportedbythedatayouhave.
Searchforinformationthatopposesyourpositionaswellas
informationthatsupportsit.
Makesurethatallinformationusedisclear,accurate,andrelevant
tothequestionatissue.
Makesureyouhavegatheredsufcientinformation.
6) Allreasoningisexpressedthrough,andshapedby,CONCEPTSand
IDEAS.
Identifykeyconceptsandexplainthemclearly.
Consideralternativeconceptsoralternativedenitionsofconcepts.
Makesureyouareusingconceptswithcareandprecision.
7) AllreasoningcontainsINFERENCESorINTERPRETATIONSbywhichwe
drawCONCLUSIONSandgivemeaningtodata.
Inferonlywhattheevidenceimplies.
Checkinferencesfortheirconsistencywitheachother.
Identifyassumptionsthatleadtoinferences.
8) AllreasoningleadssomewhereorhasIMPLICATIONSand
CONSEQUENCES.
Tracetheimplicationsandconsequencesthatfollowfrom
yourreasoning.
Searchfornegativeaswellaspositiveimplications.
Considerallpossibleconsequences.

QuestionsUsingtheElementsofThought
(inapaper,anactivity,areadingassignment...)
Purpose: What am I trying to accomplish?
What is my central aim? My purpose?
Questions: What question am I raising?
What question am I addressing?
Am I considering the complexities in the question?
Information: What information am I using in coming to that conclusion?
What experience have I had to support this claim?
What information do I need to settle the question?
Inferences/
Conclusions:
How did I reach this conclusion?
Is there another way to interpret the information?
Concepts: What is the main idea here?
Can I explain this idea?
Assumptions: What am I taking for granted?
What assumption has led me to that conclusion?
Implications/
Consequences:
If someone accepted my position, what would be the
implications?
What am I implying?
Points of View: From what point of view am I looking at this issue?
Is there another point of view I should consider?
Three Levels of Thought
Level 3:
Highest Order Thinking
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analyzing and assessing thinking
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Level 2:
Higher Order Thinking
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Level 1:
Lower Order Thinking
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Lower order thinking is often distinguished from higher order
thinking. But higher order thinking can be inconsistent in quality. It
can be fair or unfair. To think at the highest level of quality, we need
not only intellectual skills, but intellectual traits as well.
UniversalIntellectualStandards:
Andquestionsthatcanbeusedtoapplythem
Universalintellectualstandardsarestandardswhichshouldbeappliedtothinkingto
ensureitsquality.Tobelearnedtheymustbetaughtexplicitly.Theultimategoal,then,is
forthesestandardstobecomeinfusedinthethinkingofstudents,formingpartoftheir
innervoice,guidingthemtoreasonbetter.
Clarity:
Couldyouelaboratefurtheronthatpoint?Couldyouexpressthatpointinanotherway?
Couldyougivemeanillustration?Couldyougivemeanexample?
Clarityisagatewaystandard.Ifastatementisunclear,wecannotdetermine
whetheritisaccurateorrelevant.Infact,wecannottellanythingaboutitbecausewe
dontyetknowwhatitissaying.Forexample,thequestionWhatcanbedoneaboutthe
educationsysteminAmerica?isunclear.Inordertoadequatelyaddressthequestion,
wewouldneedtohaveaclearerunderstandingofwhatthepersonaskingthequestionis
consideringtheproblemtobe.AclearerquestionmightbeWhatcaneducatorsdoto
ensurethatstudentslearntheskillsandabilitieswhichhelpthemfunctionsuccessfully
onthejobandintheirdailydecision-making?
Accuracy:
Isthatreallytrue?Howcouldwecheckthat?Howcouldwendoutifthatistrue?
Astatementcanbeclearbutnotaccurate,asinMostdogsareover300poundsin
weight.
Precision:
Couldyougivememoredetails?Couldyoubemorespecic?
Astatementcanbebothclearandaccurate,butnotprecise,asinJackisover-
weight.(WedontknowhowoverweightJackis,onepoundor500pounds.)
Relevance:
Howisthatconnectedtothequestion?Howdoesthatbearontheissue?
Astatementcanbeclear,accurate,andprecise,butnotrelevanttothequestionat
issue.Forexample,studentsoftenthinkthattheamountofefforttheyputintoacourse
shouldbeusedinraisingtheirgradeinacourse.Often,however,effortdoesnot
measurethequalityofstudentlearning,andwhenthatisso,effortisirrelevanttotheir
appropriategrade.
Depth:
Howdoesyouransweraddressthecomplexitiesinthequestion?Howareyoutaking
intoaccounttheproblemsinthequestion?Areyoudealingwiththemostsignicant
factors?
Astatementcanbeclear,accurate,precise,andrelevant,butsupercial(thatis,lack
depth).Forexample,thestatementJustSayNo,whichisoftenusedtodiscouragechil-
drenandteensfromusingdrugs,isclear,accurate,precise,andrelevant.Nevertheless,it
lacksdepthbecauseittreatsanextremelycomplexissue,thepervasiveproblemofdrug
useamongyoungpeople,supercially.Itfailstodealwiththecomplexitiesoftheissue.
Breadth:
Doweneedtoconsideranotherpointofview?Isthereanotherwaytolookatthisques-
tion?Whatwouldthislooklikefromaconservativestandpoint?Whatwouldthislook
likefromthepointofviewof?
Alineofreasoningmaybeclear,accurate,precise,relevant,anddeep,butlack
breadth(asinanargumentfromeithertheconservativeorliberalstandpointswhich
getsdeeplyintoanissue,butonlyrecognizestheinsightsofonesideofthequestion).
Logic:
Doesthisreallymakesense?Doesthatfollowfromwhatyousaid?Howdoesthatfollow?
Beforeyouimpliedthisandnowyouaresayingthat,Idontseehowbothcanbetrue.
Whenwethink,webringavarietyofthoughtstogetherintosomeorder.Whenthe
combinationofthoughtsaremutuallysupportingandmakesenseincombination,the
thinkingislogical.Whenthecombinationisnotmutuallysupporting,iscontradictory
insomesense,ordoesnotmakesense,thecombinationisnotlogical.
Fairness:
Areweconsideringallrelevantviewpointsingoodfaith?Arewedistortingsomeinfor-
mationtomaintainourbiasedperspective?Arewemoreconcernedaboutourvested
intereststhanthecommongood?
Wenaturallythinkfromourownperspective,fromapointofviewwhichtends
toprivilegeourposition.Fairnessimpliesthetreatingofallrelevantviewpointsalike
withoutreferencetoonesownfeelingsorinterests.Becausewetendtobebiasedin
favorofourownviewpoint,itisimportanttokeepthestandardoffairnessatthefore-
frontofourthinking.Thisisespeciallyimportantwhenthesituationmaycallonusto
seethingswedontwanttosee,orgivesomethingupthatwewanttoholdonto.
Clarity
Accuracy
Precision
Relevance
Depth
Breadth
Logic
Signicance
Fairness
Couldyouelaboratefurther?
Couldyougivemeanexample?
Couldyouillustratewhatyoumean?
Howcouldwecheckonthat?
Howcouldwefndoutifthatistrue?
Howcouldweverifyortestthat?
Couldyoubemorespecifc?
Couldyougivememoredetails?
Couldyoubemoreexact?
Howdoesthatrelatetotheproblem?
Howdoesthatbearonthequestion?
Howdoesthathelpuswiththeissue?
Whatfactorsmakethisadifcultproblem?
Whataresomeofthecomplexitiesofthisquestion?
Whataresomeofthedifcultiesweneedtodealwith?
Doweneedtolookatthisfromanotherperspective?
Doweneedtoconsideranotherpointofview?
Doweneedtolookatthisinotherways?
Doesallthismakesensetogether?
Doesyourfrstparagraphftinwithyourlast?
Doeswhatyousayfollowfromtheevidence?
Isthisthemostimportantproblemtoconsider?
Isthisthecentralideatofocuson?
Whichofthesefactsaremostimportant?
DoIhaveanyvestedinterestinthisissue?
AmIsympatheticallyrepresentingtheviewpoints
ofothers?

TemplateforAnalyzingtheLogicofanArticle
Take an article that you have been assigned to read for class, completing the
logic of it using the template below. This template can be modifed for
analyzing the logic of a chapter in a textbook.
TheLogicof(nameofthearticle)
1) Themainpurposeofthisarticleis________________________________.
(Stateasaccuratelyaspossibletheauthorspurposeforwritingthearticle.)
2) Thekeyquestionthattheauthorisaddressingis____________________.
(Figureoutthekeyquestioninthemindoftheauthorwhens/hewrotethearticle.)
3) Themostimportantinformationinthisarticleis___________________.
(Figureoutthefacts,experiences,datatheauthorisusingtosupporther/his
conclusions.)
4) Themaininferences/conclusionsinthisarticleare__________________.
(Identifythekeyconclusionstheauthorcomestoandpresentsinthearticle.)
5) Thekeyconcept(s)weneedtounderstandinthisarticleis(are)____________.
Bytheseconceptstheauthormeans_________________________.
(Figureoutthemostimportantideasyouwouldhavetounderstandinorderto
understandtheauthorslineofreasoning.)
6) Themainassumption(s)underlyingtheauthorsthinkingis(are)___________.
(Figureoutwhattheauthoristakingforgranted[thatmightbequestioned].)
7a) Ifwetakethislineofreasoningseriously,theimplicationsare______________.
(Whatconsequencesarelikelytofollowifpeopletaketheauthorslineofreasoning
seriously?)
7b) Ifwefailtotakethislineofreasoningseriously,theimplicationsare__________.
(Whatconsequencesarelikelytofollowifpeopleignoretheauthorsreasoning?)
8) Themainpoint(s)ofviewpresentedinthisarticleis(are)_________________.
(Whatistheauthorlookingat,andhowiss/heseeingit?)

CriteriaforEvaluatingReasoning
1. Purpose: Whatisthepurposeofthereasoner?Isthepurposeclearly
statedorclearlyimplied?Isitjustiable?
2. Question: Isthequestionatissuewell-stated?Isitclearandunbiased?
Doestheexpressionofthequestiondojusticetothecomplexityofthe
matteratissue?Arethequestionandpurposedirectlyrelevanttoeach
other?
3. Information: Doesthewriterciterelevantevidence,experiences,and/or
informationessentialtotheissue?Istheinformationaccurate?Doesthe
writeraddressthecomplexitiesoftheissue?
4. Concepts: Doesthewriterclarifykeyconceptswhennecessary?Arethe
conceptsusedjustiably?
5. Assumptions: Doesthewritershowasensitivitytowhatheorsheis
takingforgrantedorassuming?(Insofarasthoseassumptionsmight
reasonablybequestioned?)Doesthewriterusequestionableassump-
tionswithoutaddressingproblemswhichmightbeinherentinthose
assumptions?
6. Inferences: Doesthewriterdevelopalineofreasoningexplainingwell
hows/heisarrivingatherorhismainconclusions?
7. Point of View: Doesthewritershowasensitivitytoalternativerelevant
pointsofvieworlinesofreasoning?Doess/heconsiderandrespondto
objectionsframedfromotherrelevantpointsofview?
8. Implications: Doesthewritershowasensitivitytotheimplicationsand
consequencesofthepositions/heistaking?

TheMiniatureGuidetoCriticalThinkingConceptsandTools 13
Intellectual
Integrity
Intellectual Intellectual
Autonomy Humility
Intellectual
Intellectual
Confdence
Empathy
Traits or Virtues
inReason
Intellectual Intellectual
Courage Perseverance
Fairmindedness
EssentialIntellectualTraits
IntellectualHumility vsIntellectualArrogance
Havingaconsciousnessofthelimitsofonesknowledge,includingasensitivityto
circumstancesinwhichonesnativeegocentrismislikelytofunctionself-deceptively;
sensitivitytobias,prejudiceandlimitationsofonesviewpoint.Intellectualhumility
dependsonrecognizingthatoneshouldnotclaimmorethanoneactuallyknows.Itdoes
notimplyspinelessnessorsubmissiveness.Itimpliesthelackofintellectualpretentious-
ness,boastfulness,orconceit,combinedwithinsightintothelogicalfoundations,orlack
ofsuchfoundations,ofonesbeliefs.
IntellectualCourage vsIntellectualCowardice
Havingaconsciousnessoftheneedtofaceandfairlyaddressideas,beliefsorviewpoints
towardwhichwehavestrongnegativeemotionsandtowhichwehavenotgivena
serioushearing.Thiscourageisconnectedwiththerecognitionthatideasconsidered
dangerousorabsurdaresometimesrationallyjustied(inwholeorinpart)andthat
conclusionsandbeliefsinculcatedinusaresometimesfalseormisleading.Todeter-
mineforourselveswhichiswhich,wemustnotpassivelyanduncriticallyacceptwhat
wehavelearned.Intellectualcouragecomesintoplayhere,becauseinevitablywewill
cometoseesometruthinsomeideasconsidereddangerousandabsurd,anddistortion
orfalsityinsomeideasstronglyheldinoursocialgroup.Weneedcouragetobetrueto
ourownthinkinginsuchcircumstances.Thepenaltiesfornonconformitycanbesevere.
IntellectualEmpathy vsIntellectualNarrow-mindedness
Havingaconsciousnessoftheneedtoimaginativelyputoneselfintheplaceofothersin
ordertogenuinelyunderstandthem,whichrequirestheconsciousnessofouregocentric
tendencytoidentifytruthwithourimmediateperceptionsoflong-standingthoughtor
belief.Thistraitcorrelateswiththeabilitytoreconstructaccuratelytheviewpointsand
reasoningofothersandtoreasonfrompremises,assumptions,andideasotherthan
ourown.Thistraitalsocorrelateswiththewillingnesstorememberoccasionswhenwe
werewronginthepastdespiteanintenseconvictionthatwewereright,andwiththe
abilitytoimagineourbeingsimilarlydeceivedinacase-at-hand.
IntellectualAutonomy vsIntellectualConformity
Havingrationalcontrolofonesbeliefs,values,andinferences.Theidealofcritical
thinkingistolearntothinkforoneself,togaincommandoveronesthoughtprocesses.
Itentailsacommitmenttoanalyzingandevaluatingbeliefsonthebasisofreasonand
evidence,toquestionwhenitisrationaltoquestion,tobelievewhenitisrationalto
believe,andtoconformwhenitisrationaltoconform.
IntellectualIntegrity vsIntellectualHypocrisy
Recognitionoftheneedtobetruetoonesownthinking;tobeconsistentinthe
intellectualstandardsoneapplies;toholdonesselftothesamerigorousstandardsof
evidenceandprooftowhichoneholdsonesantagonists;topracticewhatoneadvocates
forothers;andtohonestlyadmitdiscrepanciesandinconsistenciesinonesownthought
andaction.
IntellectualPerseverance vsIntellectualLaziness
Havingaconsciousnessoftheneedtouseintellectualinsightsandtruthsinspiteof
difculties,obstacles,andfrustrations;rmadherencetorationalprinciplesdespite
theirrationaloppositionofothers;asenseoftheneedtostrugglewithconfusionand
unsettledquestionsoveranextendedperiodoftimetoachievedeeperunderstanding
orinsight.
ConfdenceInReason vsDistrustofReasonandEvidence
Condencethat,inthelongrun,onesownhigherinterestsandthoseofhumankind
atlargewillbebestservedbygivingthefreestplaytoreason,byencouragingpeople
tocometotheirownconclusionsbydevelopingtheirownrationalfaculties;faiththat,
withproperencouragementandcultivation,peoplecanlearntothinkforthemselves,to
formrationalviewpoints,drawreasonableconclusions,thinkcoherentlyandlogically,
persuadeeachotherbyreasonandbecomereasonablepersons,despitethedeep-seated
obstaclesinthenativecharacterofthehumanmindandinsocietyasweknowit.
Fairmindedness vsIntellectualUnfairness
Havingaconsciousnessoftheneedtotreatallviewpointsalike,withoutreferenceto
onesownfeelingsorvestedinterests,orthefeelingsorvestedinterestsofonesfriends,
communityornation;impliesadherencetointellectualstandardswithoutreferenceto
onesownadvantageortheadvantageofonesgroup.
ThreeKindsofQuestions
Inapproachingaquestion,itisusefultogureoutwhattypeitis.Isitaquestionwith
onedenitiveanswer?Isitaquestionthatcallsforasubjectivechoice?Ordoestheques-
tionrequireyoutoconsidercompetingpointsofview?
2 3
One
1
No Multi-
System System System
Requir es
evidence&
r easoning
withina
system
Acorr ect
answer
Knowledge
Callsfor
statinga
subjective
pr efer ence
Asubjective
opinion
Cannotbe
assessed
Requires
evidence
&r easoning
withinmultiple
systems
Better&worse
answers
Judgment

ATemplateforProblem-Solving
Tobeaneffectiveproblemsolver:
1)Figureout,andregularlyre-articulate,yourgoals,purposes,andneeds.
Recognizeproblemsasobstaclestoreachingyourgoals,achievingyour
purposes,orsatisfyingyourneeds.
2)Whereverpossibletakeproblemsonebyone.Stateeachproblemasclearly
andpreciselyasyoucan.
3)Studytheproblemtodeterminethekindofproblemyouaredealing
with.Forexample,whatdoyouhavetodotosolveit?
4)Distinguishproblemsoverwhichyouhavesomecontrolfromproblems
overwhichyouhavenocontrol.Concentrateyoureffortsonproblemsyou
canpotentiallysolve.
5)Figureouttheinformationyouneedtosolvetheproblem. Activelyseek
thatinformation.
6)Carefullyanalyzeandinterprettheinformationyoucollect,drawing
reasonableinferences.
7)Determineyouroptionsforaction. Whatcanyoudointheshortterm?In
thelongterm?Recognizeyourlimitationsintermsofmoney,time,and
power.
8)Evaluateyouroptions,determiningtheiradvantagesanddisadvantages.
9)Adoptastrategy.Followthroughonit.Thismayinvolvedirectactionora
carefullythought-throughwait-and-seeapproach.
10)Whenyouact,monitortheimplicationsofyouraction.Bereadytorevise
yourstrategyifthesituationrequiresit.Bepreparedtochangeyouranaly-
sisorstatementoftheproblem,asmoreinformationabouttheproblem
becomesavailable.
Analyzing&AssessingResearch
Usethistemplatetoassessthequalityofanyresearchprojectorpaper.
1) All research has a fundamental PURPOSE and goal.
Researchpurposesandgoalsshouldbeclearlystated.
Relatedpurposesshouldbeexplicitlydistinguished.
Allsegmentsoftheresearchshouldberelevanttothepurpose.
Allresearchpurposesshouldberealisticandsignicant.
2) All research addresses a fundamental QUESTION, problem or issue.
Thefundamentalquestionatissueshouldbeclearlyandpreciselystated.
Relatedquestionsshouldbearticulatedanddistinguished.
Allsegmentsoftheresearchshouldberelevanttothecentralquestion.
Allresearchquestionsshouldberealisticandsignicant.
Allresearchquestionsshoulddeneclearlystatedintellectualtasksthat,beingfullled,settle
thequestions.
3) All research identies data, INFORMATION, and evidence relevant to its fundamental
question and purpose.
Allinformationusedshouldbeclear,accurate,andrelevanttothefundamentalquestionat
issue.
Informationgatheredmustbesufcienttosettlethequestionatissue.
Informationcontrarytothemainconclusionsoftheresearchshouldbeexplained.
4) All research contains INFERENCES or interpretations by which conclusions are drawn.
Allconclusionsshouldbeclear,accurate,andrelevanttothekeyquestionatissue.
Conclusionsdrawnshouldnotgobeyondwhatthedataimply.
Conclusionsshouldbeconsistentandreconcilediscrepanciesinthedata.
Conclusionsshouldexplainhowthekeyquestionsatissuehavebeensettled.
5) All research is conducted from some POINT OF VIEW or frame of reference.
Allpointsofviewintheresearchshouldbeidentied.
Objectionsfromcompetingpointsofviewshouldbeidentiedandfairlyaddressed.
6) All research is based on ASSUMPTIONS.
Clearlyidentifyandassessmajorassumptionsintheresearch.
Explainhowtheassumptionsshapetheresearchpointofview.
7) All research is expressed through, and shaped by, CONCEPTS and ideas.
Assessforclaritythekeyconceptsintheresearch.
Assessthesignicanceofthekeyconceptsintheresearch.
8) All research leads somewhere (i.e., have IMPLICATIONS and consequences).
Tracetheimplicationsandconsequencesthatfollowfromtheresearch.
Searchfornegativeaswellaspositiveimplications.
Considerallsignicantimplicationsandconsequences.

Critical thinkers routinely apply intellectual standards to the
elements of reasoning in order to develop intellectual traits.
As we learn
to develop
Clarity
Accuracy
Relevance
Logicalness
Breadth
Precision
Signifcance
Completeness
Fairness
Depth
THE STANDARDS
Purposes
Questions
Points of view
Information
Inferences
Concepts
Implications
Assumptions
THE EL E M E N T S
Must be
applied to
Intellectual Humility
Intellectual Autonomy
Intellectual Integrity
Intellectual Courage
Intellectual Perseverance
Confdence in Reason
Intellectual Empathy
Fairmindedness
INTELLECTUAL TRAI TS
StagesofCriticalThinkingDevelopment
MasterThinker
(Goodhabitsof
thoughtarebecoming
secondnature)
AdvancedThinker
(Weadvanceinkeeping
withourpractice)
PracticingThinker
(Werecognizetheneed
forregularpractice)
BeginningThinker
(Wetrytoimprovebut
withoutregularpractice)
ChallengedThinker
(Wearefacedwithsignifcant
problemsinourthinking)
UnrefectiveThinker
(Weareunawareofsignifcant
problemsinourthinking)

TheProblemofEgocentricThinking
Egocentricthinkingresultsfromtheunfortunatefactthathumansdonotnaturally
considertherightsandneedsofothers.Wedonotnaturallyappreciatethepointof
viewofothersnorthelimitationsinourownpointofview.Webecomeexplicitlyaware
ofouregocentricthinkingonlyiftrainedtodoso.Wedonotnaturallyrecognizeour
egocentricassumptions,theegocentricwayweuseinformation,theegocentricwaywe
interpretdata,thesourceofouregocentricconceptsandideas,theimplicationsofour
egocentricthought.Wedonotnaturallyrecognizeourself-servingperspective.
Ashumanswelivewiththeunrealisticbutcondentsensethatwehavefundamentally
guredoutthewaythingsactuallyare, andthatwehavedonethisobjectively. Wenaturally
believeinourintuitiveperceptionshoweverinaccurate.Insteadofusingintellectual
standardsinthinking,weoftenuseself-centeredpsychologicalstandardstodetermine
whattobelieveandwhattoreject.Herearethemostcommonlyusedpsychological
standardsinhumanthinking.
ITS TRUE BECAUSE I BELIEVE IT.Innateegocentrism:IassumethatwhatI
believeistrueeventhoughIhaveneverquestionedthebasisformanyofmybeliefs.
ITS TRUE BECAUSE WE BELIEVE IT.Innatesociocentrism:Iassumethatthe
dominantbeliefsofthegroupstowhichIbelongaretrueeventhoughIhavenever
questionedthebasisforthosebeliefs.
ITS TRUE BECAUSE I WANT TO BELIEVE IT.Innatewishfulllment:Ibelievein
whateverputsme(orthegroupstowhichIbelong)inapositivelight.Ibelievewhatfeels
good,whatdoesnotrequiremetochangemythinkinginanysignicantway,whatdoes
notrequiremetoadmitIhavebeenwrong.
ITS TRUE BECAUSE I HAVE ALWAYS BELIEVED IT.Innateself-validation:
IhaveastrongdesiretomaintainbeliefsthatIhavelongheld,eventhoughIhavenot
seriouslyconsideredtheextenttowhichthosebeliefsarejustiedbytheevidence.
ITS TRUE BECAUSE IT IS IN MY SELFISH INTEREST TO BELIEVE IT. Innate
selshness:Ibelievewhateverjustiesmygettingmorepower,money,orpersonal
advantageeventhoughthesebeliefsarenotgroundedinsoundreasoningorevidence.
TheProblemofSociocentricThinking
Mostpeopledonotunderstandthedegreetowhichtheyhaveuncritically
internalizedthedominantprejudicesoftheirsocietyorculture.Sociologists
andanthropologistsidentifythisasthestateofbeingculturebound.This
phenomenoniscausedbysociocentricthinking,whichincludes:
Theuncriticaltendencytoplaceonesculture,nation,religionaboveallothers.
Theuncriticaltendencytoselectself-servingpositivedescriptionsofourselves
andnegativedescriptionsofthosewhothinkdifferentlyfromus.
Theuncriticaltendencytointernalizegroupnormsandbeliefs,takeongroup
identities,andactasweareexpectedtoactwithouttheleastsensethatwhat
wearedoingmightreasonablybequestioned.
Thetendencytoblindlyconformtogrouprestrictions(manyofwhichare
arbitraryorcoercive).
Thefailuretothinkbeyondthetraditionalprejudicesofonesculture.
Thefailuretostudyandinternalizetheinsightsofothercultures(improving
therebythebreadthanddepthofonesthinking).
Thefailuretodistinguishuniversalethicsfromrelativisticculturalrequirements
andtaboos.
Thefailuretorealizethatmassmediaineverycultureshapesthenewsfromthe
pointofviewofthatculture.
Thefailuretothinkhistoricallyandanthropologically(andhencetobetrapped
incurrentwaysofthinking).
Thefailuretoseesociocentricthinkingasasignicantimpedimentto
intellectualdevelopment.
Sociocentricthinkingisahallmarkofanuncriticalsociety.Itcanbe
diminishedonlywhenreplacedbycross-cultural,fairmindedthinkingcritical
thinkinginthestrongsense.
EnvisioningCriticalSocieties
The critical habit of thought, if usual in society, will pervade all its
mores, because it is a way of taking up the problems of life. Men
educated in it cannot be stampeded by stump orators ... They are
slow to believe. They can hold things as possible or probable in
all degrees, without certainty and without pain. They can wait
for evidence and weigh evidence, uninfuenced by the emphasis
or confdence with which assertions are made on one side or the
other. They can resist appeals to their dearest prejudices and
all kinds of cajolery. Education in the critical faculty is the only
education of which it can be truly said that it makes good citizens.
William Graham Sumner, 1906
Humanshavethecapacitytoberationalandfair.Butthiscapacitymustbe
developed.Itwillbesignicantlydevelopedonlyifcriticalsocietiesemerge.
Criticalsocietieswilldeveloponlytotheextentthat:
Criticalthinkingisviewedasessentialtolivingareasonableandfairmindedlife.
Criticalthinkingisroutinelytaught;consistentlyfostered.
Theproblematicsofthinkingareanabidingconcern.
Closed-mindednessissystemicallydiscouraged;open-mindedness
systematicallyencouraged.
Intellectualintegrity,intellectualhumility,intellectualempathy,condencein
reason,andintellectualcouragearesocialvalues.
Egocentricandsociocentricthinkingarerecognizedasabaneinsociallife.
Childrenareroutinelytaughtthattherightsandneedsofothersareequaltotheirown.
Amulti-culturalworldviewisfostered.
Peopleareencouragedtothinkforthemselvesanddiscouragedfromuncritically
acceptingthethinkingorbehaviorofothers.
Peopleroutinelystudyanddiminishirrationalthought.
Peopleinternalizeuniversalintellectualstandards.
Ifwewantcriticalsocietieswemustcreatethem.
TheThinkersGuideLibrary
The Thinkers Guide series provides convenient, inexpensive, portable references that students
and faculty can use to improve the quality of studying, learning, and teaching. Their modest cost
enables instructors to require them of all students (in addition to a textbook). Their compactness
enables students to keep them at hand whenever they are working in or out of class. Their
succinctness serves as a continual reminder of the most basic principles of critical thinking.
ForStudents&Faculty
AnalyticThinkingThis guide focuses
on the intellectual skills that enable
one to analyze anything one might
think about questions, problems,
disciplines, subjects, etc. It provides the
common denominator between all forms
of analysis. #595m
AskingEssentialQuestions
Introduces the art of asking essential
questions. It is best used in conjunction
with the Miniature Guide to Critical
Thinking and the How to Study mini-
guide. #580m
HowtoStudy&LearnA variety
of strategiesboth simple and
complexfor becoming not just
a better student, but also a master
student. #530m
HowtoReadaParagraphThis
guide provides theory and activities
necessary for deep comprehension.
Imminently practical for students.
#525m
HowtoWriteaParagraphFocuses
on the art of substantive writing. How
to say something worth saying about
something worth saying something
about. #535m
TheHumanMindDesigned to
give the reader insight into the basic
functions of the human mind and to
how knowledge of these functions (and
their interrelations) can enable one to
use ones intellect and emotions more
effectively. #570m
FoundationsofEthicalReasoning
Provides insights into the nature of
ethical reasoning, why it is so often
flawed, and how to avoid those flaws. It
lays out the function of ethics, its main
impediments, and its social counterfeits.
#585m
HowtoDetectMediaBiasand
PropagandaDesigned to help
readers come to recognize bias in
their nations news and to recognize
propaganda so that they can reasonably
determine what media messages need
to be supplemented, counter-balanced
or thrown out entirely. It focuses on
the internal logic of the news as well as
societal infuences on the media. #575m
ScientificThinkingThe essence of
scientific thinking concepts and tools. It
focuses on the intellectual skills inherent
in the well-cultivated scientific thinker.
#590m
Fallacies:TheArtofMentalTrickery
andManipulationIntroduces the
concept of fallacies and details 44 foul
ways to win an argument. #533m
EngineeringReasoningContains
the essence of engineering reasoning
concepts and tools. For faculty it pro-
vides a shared concept and vocabulary.
For students it is a thinking supplement
to any textbook for any engineering
course. #573m
CriticalThinkingforChildren
Designed for K6 classroom use.
Focuses on explaining basic critical
thinking principles to young children
using cartoon characters. #540m
ForFaculty
ActiveandCooperativeLearning
Provides 27 simple ideas for the
improvement of instruction. It lays the
foundation for the ideas found in the
mini-guide How to Improve Student
Learning. #550m
HowtoImproveStudentLearning
Provides 30 practical ideas for the
improvement of instruction based on
critical thinking concepts and tools. It
cultivates student learning encouraged
in the How to Study and Learn mini-
guide. #560m
Concepts&Tools
Mini-GuidePriceList:
(+shippingandhandling)
124copies . . . . . . . . . .$4.00each
25199copies. . . . . . . .$2.00each
200499copies . . . . . .$1.75each
500999copies . . . . . .$1.50each
10001499copies . . . .$1.25each
Forpricingofotherguides,pleasevisit
ourwebsiteatwww.criticalthinking.org
CriticalandCreativeThinking
Focuses on the interrelationship
between critical and creative thinking
through the essential role of both in
learning. #565m
CriticalThinkingReadingand
WritingTestAssesses the ability of
students to use reading and writing as
tools for acquiring knowledge. Provides
grading rubrics and outlines five levels
of close reading and substantive writing.
#563m
SocraticQuestioningFocuses on the
mechanics of Socratic dialogue, on the
conceptual tools that critical thinking
brings to Socratic dialogue, and on the
importance of questioning in cultivating
the disciplined mind. #553m
CriticalThinkingCompetency
Standards Provides a framework
for assessing students critical thinking
abilities. #555m
EducationalFads Analyzes and
critiques educational trends and fads
from a critical thinking perspective,
providing the essential idea of each one,
its proper educational use, and its likely
misuse. #583m
ForMoreInformation
(Toorderguidesortoinquire
aboutotherresources)
Phone:707-878-9100
Fax:707-878-9111
E-mail:cct@criticalthinking.org
Website:www.criticalthinking.org
Mail:FoundationforCriticalThinking
P.O.Box220
DillonBeach,CA94929
AbouttheAuthors:
Dr.LindaElderis an educational
psychol ogi st who has t aught
both psychol ogy and cr i ti cal
thinking at the college level. She
is the President of the Foundation for Critical
Thinking and the Executi ve Director of the
Center for Cri tical Thinking. Dr. Elder has a
special i nterest i n the relati on of thought
and emotion, the cognitive and the af fective,
and has developed an original theory of the
stages of critical thinking development. She
has coauthored four books on critical thinking,
as well as eighteen thinkers guides. She is a
dynamic presenter with extensive experience in
leading seminars on critical thinking..
Dr. Ri chard Paul i s a maj or
leader in the international criti
cal thi nki ng movement. He i s
Director of Research at the Center
for Cri ti cal Thi nki ng, and the Chai r of the
Nati onal Counci l for Excellence i n Cri ti cal
Thi nki ng, author of over 200 ar ti cles and
seven books on critical thinking. Dr. Paul has
gi ven hundreds of workshops on cri ti cal
thinking and made a series of eight critical
thinking video programs for PBS. His views
on critical thinking have been canvassed in
New York Ti mes, Educat i on Week, The
Chroni cl e of Hi gher Educati on, Ameri can
Teacher, Educational Leadership, Newsweek,
U. S. News and Worl d Report, and Reader s
Digest.
ISBN0-944583-10-5
Item#520m
TheFoundation
forCriticalThinking
www.criticalthinking.org
707-878-9100 800-833-3645
cct@criticalthinking.org
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