Conict resolution

For other uses, see Conict resolution (disambiguation).

For conict resolution between editors of Wikipedia,
see Wikipedia:Dispute resolution.
Conict resolution, otherwise known as Reconcilia-
tion, is conceptualized as the methods and processes in-
volved in facilitating the peaceful ending of conict and
retribution. Often, committed group members attempt to
resolve group conicts by actively communicating infor-
mation about their conicting motives or ideologies to the
rest of the group (e.g., intentions; reasons for holding cer-
tain beliefs), and by engaging in collective negotiation.
[1]
Dimensions of resolution, typically parallel the dimen-
sions of conict in the way the conict is processed. Cog-
nitive resolution is the way disputants understand and
view the conict, with beliefs and perspectives and un-
derstandings and attitudes. Emotional resolution is in the
way disputants feel about a conict, the emotional energy.
Behavioral resolution is how one thinks the disputants
act,their behavior.
[2]
Ultimately, a wide range of meth-
ods and procedures for addressing conict exist, includ-
ing but not limited to, negotiation, mediation, diplomacy,
and creative peacebuilding.
The term conict resolution may also be used inter-
changeably with dispute resolution, where arbitration
and litigation processes are critically involved. Further-
more, the concept of conict resolution can be thought
to encompass the use of nonviolent resistance measures
by conicted parties in an attempt to promote eective
resolution. For examples of large-scale civil resistance
campaigns, see Civil Resistance and Power Politics: The
Experience of Non-violent Action from Gandhi to the
Present.
[3]
Conict resolution as an academic eld is rela-
tively new. George Mason University in Fairfax, VA was
the rst university to oer a PhD program.
1 Theories and models
1.1 Dual concern model
The dual concern model of conict resolution is a con-
ceptual perspective that assumes individuals preferred
method of dealing with conict is based on two under-
lying themes or dimensions:
[1]
1. A concern for self (i.e. assertiveness), and
2. A concern for others (i.e. empathy).
According to the model, group members balance their
concern for satisfying personal needs and interests with
their concern for satisfying the needs and interests of oth-
ers in dierent ways. The intersection point between
these two dimensions ultimately lead individuals towards
exhibiting dierent styles of conict resolution (Golden
& Robbennolt, 2007).
[4]
The dual model identies ve
conict resolution styles/strategies that individuals may
use depending on their dispositions toward pro-self or
pro-social goals.
1. Avoidance conict style
Characterized by changing of or avoiding the
topic, joking or even denying a problem exists.
Conict avoidance style is used when an indi-
vidual has no interest in dealing with the other
party, when one is uncomfortable with con-
ict and oftentimes because of cultural con-
texts. For example in Chinese culture rea-
sons for avoidance would be to sustain a good
mood, to protect the avoider and because of
philosophical and spiritual reason (Feng and
Wilson 2011). During conict, these avoiders
adopt a wait and see attitude, often allow-
ing conict to phase out on its own without
any personal involvement (Bayazit & Mannix,
2003).
[5]
Unfortunately, by neglecting to ad-
dress high-conict situations, avoiders risk al-
lowing problems to fester out of control.
2. Yielding conict style
1
2 2 POLITICAL CONFLICT RESOLUTION IN PRACTICE
In contrast, yielding or accommodating con-
ict styles are characterized by a high concern
for others while having a low concern for ones
own self. This passive pro-social approach
emerges when individuals derive personal sat-
isfaction from meeting the needs of others and
have a general concern for maintaining sta-
ble, positive social relationships.
[1]
When faced
with conict, individuals with a yielding con-
ict style tend to give into others demands out
of respect for the social relationship
3. Competitive conict style
Competitive or ghting conict style max-
imizes individual assertiveness (i.e., concern
for self) and minimizes empathy (i.e., concern
for others). Groups consisting of competitive
members generally enjoy seeking domination
over others, and typically see conict as a win
or lose predicament.
[1]
Fighters tend to force
others to accept their personal views by em-
ploying competitive, power tactics (e.g., argue;
insult; accuse; violence) that foster feelings of
intimidation (Morrill, 1995).
4. Cooperation conict style
Characterized by an active concern for both
pro-social and pro-self behavior, cooperation
conict style is typically used when an indi-
vidual has elevated interests in their own out-
comes as well as in the outcomes of others.
During conict, cooperators collaborate with
others in an eort to nd an amicable solu-
tion that satises all parties involved in the con-
ict. Individuals with this type of conict style
tend to be highly assertive and highly empa-
thetic at the same time.
[4]
By seeing conict as
a creative opportunity, collaborators willingly
invest time and resources into nding a win-
win solution.
[1]
According to the literature on
conict resolution, a cooperative conict res-
olution style is recommended above all others
(Sternberg & Dobson, 1987; Jarboe & Witte-
man, 1996)
[6][7]
5. Conciliation conict style
Conciliation or compromising conict style
is typical of individuals who possess an
intermediate-level of concern for both per-
sonal and others outcomes. Compromisers
value fairness and, in doing so, anticipate mu-
tual give-and-take interactions.
[4]
By accepting
some demands put forth by others, compro-
misers believe this agreeableness will encour-
age others to meet half-way, thus promoting
conict resolution (van de Vliert & Euwema,
1994).
[8]
This conict style can be considered
an extension of both yielding and coopera-
tive strategies.
[1]
2 Political conict resolution in
practice
Moshe Dayan and Abdullah el Tell reach a cease re agreement
during the 1948 ArabIsraeli War, Jerusalem. 30 November
1948
Wars may occur between warring parties who contest an
incompatibility. The nature of an incompatibility can ei-
ther be territorial or governmental but a warring party
must be a government of a state or any opposition or-
ganisation or alliance of organisations that uses armed
force to promote its position in the incompatibility in an
intrastate or an interstate armed conict.
[9]
Wars some-
times conclude with a peace agreement, dened as a for-
mal agreement between warring parties, which addresses
the disputed incompatibility, either by settling all or part
of it, or by clearly outlining a process for how the war-
ring parties plan to regulate the incompatibility.
[10]
A
Ceasere is another form of agreement between waring
parties but unlike a peace agreement it only regulates the
conict behaviour of warring parties... [and] does not ad-
dress the incompatibility.
[11]
3
Peacekeeping measures may be deployed to avoid vio-
lence in solving such incompatibilities.
[12]
Beginning in
the last century, political theorists have been developing
the theory of a global peace system that relies upon broad
social and political measures to avoid war in the interest
of achieving world peace.
[13]
A Blue Peace Approach de-
veloped by Strategic Foresight Group facilitates coopera-
tion between countries over shared water resources, thus
reducing the risk of war and enabling sustainable devel-
opment.
Conict resolution is an expanding eld of professional
practice, both in the U.S. and around the world. The esca-
lating costs of conict have increased use of third parties
who may serve as a conict specialists to resolve conicts.
In fact relief and development organizations have added
peace-building specialists to their teams. Many of the
major international non-governmental organizations have
seen a growing need to hire practitioners trained in con-
ict analysis and resolution. Furthermore, this expansion
of the eld has resulted in the need for conict resolution
practitioners to work in a variety of settings such as in
businesses, court systems, government agencies nonprot
organizations, government agencies and educational in-
stitutions serving throughout the world.
3 Culture-based
Conict resolution as both a professional practice and
academic eld is highly sensitive to culture. In Western
cultural contexts, such as Canada and the United States,
successful conict resolution usually involves fostering
communication among disputants, problem solving, and
drafting agreements that meet their underlying needs. In
these situations, conict resolvers often talk about nd-
ing the win-win solution, or mutually satisfying scenario,
for everyone involved (see Fisher and Ury (1981), Get-
ting to Yes). In many non-Western cultural contexts, such
as Afghanistan, Vietnam, and China, it is also important
to nd win-win solutions; however, getting there can be
very dierent. In these contexts, direct communication
between disputants that explicitly addresses the issues at
stake in the conict can be perceived as very rude, mak-
ing the conict worse and delaying resolution. Rather,
it can make sense to involve religious, tribal or com-
munity leaders, communicate dicult truths indirectly
through a third party, and make suggestions through sto-
ries (see Vinod Swami (1992), Conict Mediation Across
Cultures). Intercultural conicts are often the most di-
cult to resolve because the expectations of the disputants
can be very dierent, and there is much occasion for mis-
understanding.
4 In animals
Conict resolution has also been studied in non-humans,
like dogs, cats, monkeys, snakes, elephants, and primates
(see Frans de Waal, 2000). Aggression is more common
among relatives and within a group than between groups.
Instead of creating a distance between the individuals,
however, the primates were more intimate in the period
after the aggressive incident. These intimacies consisted
of grooming and various forms of body contact. Stress
responses, like an increased heart rate, usually decrease
after these reconciliatory signals. Dierent types of pri-
mates, as well as many other species who are living in
groups, show dierent types of conciliatory behaviour.
Resolving conicts that threaten the interaction between
individuals in a group is necessary for survival and hence
has a strong evolutionary value. These ndings contra-
dicted previous existing theories about the general func-
tion of aggression, i.e. creating space between individu-
als (rst proposed by Konrad Lorenz), which seems to be
more the case in conicts between groups than it is within
groups.
In addition to research in primates, biologists are be-
ginning to explore reconciliation in other animals. Un-
til recently, the literature dealing with reconciliation in
non-primates have consisted of anecdotal observations
and very little quantitative data. Although peaceful post-
conict behavior had been documented going back to
the 1960s, it wasnt until 1993 that Rowell made the
rst explicit mention of reconciliation in feral sheep.
Reconciliation has since been documented in spotted
hyenas,
[14][15]
lions, dolphins,
[16]
dwarf mongoose, do-
mestic goats,
[17]
domestic dogs,
[18]
and, very recently, in
red-necked wallabies.
[19]
5 Education
Universities worldwide oer programs of study pertain-
ing to conict research, analysis, and practice. The
Cornell University ILR School houses the Scheinman
Institute on Conict Resolution, which oers under-
graduate, graduate, and professional training on conict
4 6 CONFLICT MANAGEMENT
resolution.
[20]
Eastern Mennonite Universitys Center for
Justice and Peacebuilding oers a BA and MA with a
focus on practical applications in conict-aected com-
munities and regions. Additional graduate programs are
oered at Georgetown University, Johns Hopkins Uni-
versity, and Trinity College Dublin.
[21]
George Mason
Universitys School for Conict Analysis and Resolution
oers undergraduate, certicate and masters programs in
Conict Analysis and Resolution and a Ph.D. program in
The Philosophy in Conict and Conict Resolution.
[22]
Nova Southeastern University oers a Ph.D. in Conict
Analysis & Resolution which trains students in the skills
and techniques of practice, interdisciplinary research,
policy and program development, historical critique, cul-
tural analysis, and theoretical foundations of the eld. It
is oered in both online and on-campus formats.
[23]
Many students completing a doctoral program enter the
eld as researchers, theorists, analysts, policy makers and
professors in higher education.
Furthermore, the Pax Ludens Foundation based in the
Netherlands is an organization that puts together conict
resolution simulations set in an International Relations
scenario to help students learn about the intricacies of
where conict emerges in the world of international pol-
itics.
Conict resolution is a growing area of interest in UK
pedagogy, with teachers and students both encouraged
to learn about mechanisms that lead to aggressive action,
and those that lead to peaceful resolution.
Tel Aviv University oers two graduate degree programs
in the eld of conict resolution, including the English-
language International Program in Conict Resolution
and Mediation, aording students to learn in a region
which is the subject of much research on international
conict resolution. The Nelson Mandela Center for Peace
& Conict Resolution, Jamia Millia Islamia New Delhi
is one of the rst centers for peace and conict resolu-
tion to be established at an Indian university. It oers
a two-year full-time MA course in Conict Analysis and
Peace-Building, as well as a PhD in Conict and Peace
Studies.
[24]
6 Conict management
Conict management refers to the long-term manage-
ment of intractable conicts. It is the label for the variety
of ways by which people handle grievancesstanding up
for what they consider to be right and against what they
consider to be wrong. Those ways include such diverse
phenomena as gossip, ridicule, lynching, terrorism, war-
fare, feuding, genocide, law, mediation, and avoidance.
Which forms of conict management will be used in any
given situation can be somewhat predicted and explained
by the social structureor social geometryof the case.
Conict management is often considered to be distinct
from conict resolution. In order for actual conict to
occur, there should be an expression of exclusive pat-
terns, and tell why the conict was expressed the way it
was. Conict is not just about simple inaptness, but is
often connected to a previous issue. The latter refers to
resolving the dispute to the approval of one or both par-
ties, whereas the former concerns an ongoing process that
may never have a resolution. Neither is it considered the
same as conict transformation, which seeks to reframe
the positions of the conict parties.
6.1 Counseling
When personal conict leads to frustration and loss of
eciency, counseling may prove to be a helpful anti-
dote. Although few organizations can aord the luxury
of having professional counselors on the sta, given some
training, managers may be able to perform this function.
Nondirective counseling, or listening with understand-
ing, is little more than being a good listenersomething
every manager should be.
[25]
Sometimes the simple process of being able to vent ones
feelingsthat is, to express them to a concerned and un-
derstanding listener, is enough to relieve frustration and
make it possible for the frustrated individual to advance
to a problem-solving frame of mind, better able to cope
with a personal diculty that is aecting his work ad-
versely. The nondirective approach is one eective way
for managers to deal with frustrated subordinates and
coworkers.
[26]
There are other more direct and more diagnostic ways
that might be used in appropriate circumstances. The
great strength of the nondirective approach (nondirec-
tive counseling is based on the client-centered therapy of
Carl Rogers), however, lies in its simplicity, its eective-
ness, and the fact that it deliberately avoids the manager-
counselors diagnosing and interpreting emotional prob-
lems, which would call for special psychological training.
Listening to sta with sympathy and understanding is un-
5
likely to escalate the problem, and is a widely used ap-
proach for helping people to cope with problems that in-
terfere with their eectiveness in their place of work.
[26]
7 See also
Dispute resolution
Civil resistance
The Center for the Study of Genocide, Conict Res-
olution, and Human Rights
Collaborative law
Collaborative divorce
Conict Continuum
Conict Management
Conict style inventory
Conict Resolution Day
Conict resolution research
Conict transformation
Cost of conict
Creative Peacebuilding
Dialogue
Family therapy
Georgetown University Master of Arts in Conict
Resolution
Gunnysacking
George Mason University Institute for Conict Res-
olution
Heidelberg Institute for International Conict Re-
search
Interpersonal communication
Mediation
Negotiation
Nonviolent Communication
Peace and conict studies
Peninsula Conict Resolution Center
Restorative justice
Search for Common Ground One of the worlds
largest non-government organisations dedicated to
conict resolution.
Seeds of Peace develops and empowers young lead-
ers from regions of conict to work towards peace
through coexistence
University for Peace United Nations mandated or-
ganization and graduate school dedicated to conict
resolution and peace studies.
United Network of Young Peacebuilders (UNOY)
A global NGO and youth network dedicated to the
role of youth in peacebuilding and conict resolution
Uppsala Conict Data Program An academic data
collection project that provides descriptions of po-
litical violence and conict resolution.
8 Notes
[1] Forsyth, D. R. (2009). Group dynamics (5th ed.). Pacic
Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
[2] The Dynamics of Conict (2nd ed.) . San Francisco CA:
Jossey-Bass.
[3] Adam Roberts and Timothy Garton Ash (eds.), Civil
Resistance and Power Politics: The Experience of
Non-violent Action from Gandhi to the Present, Oxford
University Press, 2009. http://books.google.com/books?
id=BxOQKrCe7UUC&dq=Civil+resistance+and+
power+politics&source=gbs_navlinks_s
[4] Golden, J. H., & Robbennolt, J. K. (2007). What if the
lawyers have their way? An empirical assessment of con-
ict strategies and attitudes toward mediation styles. Ohio
State Journal on Dispute Resolution, 22, 277-320.
[5] Bayazit, M. & Mannix, E. A. (2003). Should I stay or
should I go? Predicting team members intent to remain in
the team. Small Group Research, 34(3), 290-321.
[6] Sternberg, R. J., & Dobson, D. M. (1987). Resolving in-
terpersonal conicts: An analysis of stylistic consistency.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 794-
812.
6 9 REFERENCES
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ict management in task-oriented groups: The inuence
of problem sources and problem analysis. Small Group
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[8] Van de Vliert, E., & Euwema, M. C. (1994). Agreeable-
ness and activeness as components of conict behaviors.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 674
687.
[9] Uppsala Conict Data Program Denitions, warring
party, http://www.pcr.uu.se/research/ucdp/definitions/,
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[10] Uppsala Conict Data Program Denitions, Peace agree-
ment, http://www.pcr.uu.se/research/ucdp/definitions/,
accessed April, 2013
[11] Uppsala Conict Data Program Denitions, Cease-
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[12] Bellamy, Alex J.; Williams, Paul (29 March 2010). Un-
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[13] McElwee, Timothy A. (2007). The Role of UNPolice in
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[15] Smith, J.E., *Powning, K.S., *Dawes, S.E., *Estrada,
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[20] About Cornell ILR Scheinman Institute. Cornell Uni-
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[21] Peace and Collaborative Development Network.http:
//www.internationalpeaceandconflict.org/profiles/blogs/
guide-to-ma-program-in-peace extquotedbl
[22] Academics and Centers: Website of the School for
Conict Analysis and Resolution http://scar.gmu.edu/
academics-and-centers
[23] NSU - Ph.D. in Conict Analysis & Resolution. http:
//shss.nova.edu/programs/dcar/phddcar/
[24] http://jmi.ac.in/aboutjamia/centres/conflict-resolution/
introduction
[25] Henry P Knowles; Brje O Saxberg (1971). Personal-
ity and leadership behavior. Reading, Mass.: Addison-
Wesley Pub. Co. Chapter 8. OCLC 118832.
[26] Richard Arvid Johnson (1976). Management, systems,
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540-2. OCLC 2299496.
9 References
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Conict Resolution in the Twenty-rst Century: Prin-
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Michigan Press, Ann Arbor.
de Waal, Frans B. M. and Angeline van Roosmalen.
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7
de Waal, Frans B. M. 1989. Peacemaking Among
Primates. Harvard University Press, Cambridge,
MA.
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Reaching into thought: The minds of the great apes
(Eds. Anne E. Russon, Kim A. Bard, Sue Taylor
Parker), Cambridge University Press, New York,
NY: 80110.
Aureli, Filippo. 1997. Post-conict anxiety in non-
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conict resolution. Aggressive Behavior 23: 315
328.
Castles, Duncan L. and Andrew Whiten. 1998.
Post-conict behaviour of wild olive baboons, I.
Reconciliation, redirection, and consolation. Ethol-
ogy 104: 126147.
Aureli, Filippo and Frans B. M. de Waal, eds. 2000.
Natural Conict Resolution. University of California
Press, Berkeley, CA.
de Waal, Frans B. M. 2000. PrimatesA natural
heritage of conict resolution. Science 289: 586
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Hicks, Donna. 2011. Dignity: The Essential Role It
Plays in Resolving Conict. Yale University Press
Silk, Joan B. 2002. The form and function of rec-
onciliation in primates. Annual Review of Anthro-
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Weaver, Ann and Frans B. M. de Waal. 2003. The
mother-ospring relationship as a template in so-
cial development: reconciliation in captive brown
capuchins (Cebus apella). Journal of Comparative
Psychology 117: 101110.
Palagi, Elisabetta et al. 2004. Reconciliation
and consolation in captive bonobos (Pan paniscus).
American Journal of Primatology 62: 1530.
Palagi, Elisabetta et al. 2005. Aggression and rec-
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Lorenzen, Michael. 2006. Conict Resolution and
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Winslade, John & Monk, Gerald. 2000. Narrative
Mediation: A New Approach to Conict Resolution.
Jossey-Bass Publishers, San Francisco.
Bar-Siman-Tov, Yaacov (Ed.) (2004). From Con-
ict Resolution to Reconciliation. Oxford University
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Tesler, Pauline. 2001, 2008. Collaborative Law:
Achieving Eective Resolution in Divorce without
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Tesler, Pauline and Thompson, Peggy. 2006. Col-
laborative Divorce: The Revolutionary New Way to
Restructure Your Family, Resolve Legal Issues, and
Move On with Your Life (Harper Collins).
Kellett, Peter M. (2007). Conict Dialogue. Lon-
don: Sage Publications. ISBN 1-4129-0930-9.
10 Further reading
Peter T. Coleman (2011). The Five Percent: Finding
Solutions to Seemingly Impossible Conicts. ISBN
978-1-58648-921-2.
Michal Alberstein, Amy Cohen, Hanan Mandel,
Orna Rabinovitch-Eini, Jay Rothman, Amira Schi
and Ephraim Tabory, ed. (2013). International
Journal of Conict Engagement and Resolution.
ISSN 2211-9965.
11 External links
School for Conict Analysis and Resolution at
George Mason University
8 11 EXTERNAL LINKS
TruceWorks.com a non-prot conict resolution
service
Intelligent Power and Conict Reslution Lecture at
Department of Political Science, University of the
Punjab, the Quaid--Azam Campus, Lahore
Employee conict resolution at DMOZ
Party-Directed Mediation: Helping Others Resolve
Dierences by Gregorio Billikopf. Free book PDF
download, at the University of California
Party-Directed Mediation: Facilitating Dialogue
Between Individuals by Gregorio Billikopf, free
complete book download, from Internet Archive
(3rd Edition, multiple le formats including PDF,
EPUB, and others)
Conict Resolution training at Michigan State Uni-
versity
Search for Common Ground
Beyond Intractability
CR Info The Conict Resolution Information
Source
The Institute for Multi-Track Diplomacy
Peace Education Foundation
Intelligent Power, Conict Reslution, Complexity
and International Trade Lecture at Institute of Busi-
ness Administration, City Campus, Karachi
Conict Management Articles - A collection of
Conict Management Articles
Archival audio of a panel on storytelling, peace, and
conict resolution
Conict Gateway a collection of free conict reso-
lution articles and training materials.
Comisin Nacional de Acceso a Justicia Corte
Suprema de Justicia de la Nacin Argentina.
9
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Bernstein, Yangerwanger, Y2kcrazyjoker4, SiobhanHansa, Magioladitis, VoABot II, SearchforCommonGround, Animum, Dr.peter, Ed-
ward321, Tracyjoh, WLU, Sirard, Duanerh, Dalejarvis, Phelenet, Seductionreport.com, WotherspoonSmith, VirtualDelight, Erkan Yilmaz,
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colton, Amesserer, Haroldlei, Bonadea, Smith780, Squids and Chips, Jason127, Carnival222, Ph8l, TheLedBalloon, Gchinkle, Jackfork,
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Ann1eP456, AnomieBOT, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Ef7254a, Interim imago, LilHelpa, Joey Cameron, Addihockey10, Bryan es-
ler, Grim23, Ched, Omnipaedista, Montana2009, Former student1, FrescoBot, Mystery ace, Rlg1586, CBSOFLA, Biker Biker, Under-
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Df.bokeloh, Krbi2009, Acategory, Jneal2, RaphaelBonaque, Jacobisq, Dispute Resolution Practioner, LLWB1, ClueBot NG, Faizanali-
varya, Kalomfa, Aberdonian99, MerlIwBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, Tsett, HMSSolent, DBigXray, BG19bot, TCN7JM, Scarwriter, Mnch13,
MUNpsych, Dobrich, CeraBot, Sindri32, Mediator2013, ChrisGualtieri, Rhlozier, Rashid.abbasi87, Sahar.Ahmed, Bc239, Kritter88,
Wareditor2013, Kittytrish, CogitoErgoSum14, DrUUU7, Pb&jkidsdad, Lbsalum and Anonymous: 259
12.2 Images
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artist: ?
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10 12 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
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