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suImNUEs<m nigGg;sUEs<m
emeronTI1
suImNUEs<m Gymnosperm
1-RbePTepSgnsuImNUEs<m
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suImNUEs<mKWCarukC
atimanRKab;TImYy EtRKab;KansMbkkarBarBIxageRkAeT vamanRKab;nnl.
-bcb,nenH etIsmuI NUEs<mmanbu:nanRbePT?GVIxH?
suImNUEs<mman 4RbePTKW
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Etvamanplitekan. eBllUtlas;ekanrbs;Rbg;manragdUc)al;.
-kUnIEP ConifersKwRsl; EdlmanswkragdUcml lkNEbbenHbgarkar
)at;bg;CatiTwk nigbnSaMCIvitkgGakasFatust.
-KIgkU GinkgoesmanlkNFn;ngw kgVk;briyakas)an.
-sueI NtUPIt Cinetophytes

rUbTI1 Rbg;
rUbTI2 kUnIEP
rUbTI3 KIgkU
rUbTI4 sueI NtUPIt
2-karbnBUCrbs;suImNUEs<m
2>! srIraglUtlas;
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edImmansNanCa edImeTalRtg; nigbBab;edaykUnswk bkenSamEmkenAkMBUledIm.
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swkmansMeNIKuyTInRkas;xag
M sma:tticEtkb;eRCA. swkman TMhMFM RTnugsti nigragEbkKW ragpwt
ragml ragRska.
2>@ srIragbnBUC
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srIragbnBUCeQal manlkNCaRskamYyEdlpkmIRkUs,:rg
: ; microsporangium mannaTIplitRKab;
lMGg rWmIRkUs,: microspores . RKab;lMGgmanekasikaBIrKW ekasikabnBUC nigekasikalUtlas;.
srIragbnBUCjI manrUbpE RbRbYlKW
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GUvlu sitenAkg eksrjImYyEdlbiTminCit.
2># vdCIvitsumI NUEs<m
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srIragbnBC
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KW -ekaneQalplitRKab;lMGglitkaEm:tUPIteQal)aneRcInrab;Ban; EdleRkaymkkayCaEs<m:a
tUsUGIut.
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dMeNIrlMGgeRcInRbRBwte TAedaysarxl;. RKab;lGM gFak;BIekaneQaleTAelIekanjI eBlenaHkaEm:teQal
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eTAelIdI. eBlCYblkxNsmRsbRKab;tU las;eTACarukC atif.I

emeronTI2
Gg;sEs<m Angiosperm
rukC atiGg;sEs<mmanenARKb;TkI EngelIEpndI. eTaHenAtMbn;RtCak; tMbn;RtUBci enAvalxSac;EdlKanCICati.
-etIrukCatiGg;sEs<mCaGVI?
Gg;sEs<mbrukCatimanpa nigRKab;mansMbkkarBar. Gg;sEs<mmanBIrfak;KWmU:NUkUTIeldUnnigDIkUTIeldUn
1-lkNBiessnGg;sEs<m
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GaharpgEdr.
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rvagbJsnigskw . edImxHmananTI eFVIrsIsMeyaKbegItsarFatusrIrag
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suIELmmannaTIdwknaMTwknigGMbilxniCBIbJseTAedIm swk
bE GmmannaTIdwknaMGaharBIswkeTAEpkepSgnrukCati
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manRsTab;ekasikaRbePTxusKaKW
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mankrU): aspkkrU:PIl.
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1>@ srIragbnBUC
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srIragePTrbs;rukCatiGg;sEs<mKW pa. papeLIgeday
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lMGgeTAelIsicma:tnpaEtmYy.
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panrukCatimYyepSgeTot. dMeNIrlMGgkat;RbRBwte LIgedaysar Twk
xl; stV mnusS.
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2>@ kMNfg;GMRby u:gnigkaEm:tjI

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2># karbgkMeNIt
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RKab;lG
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ehIyNVyU:TI2EckxntammItsU )anCaEs<m:atUsUGIut2EdlKanpaEsl.
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lMGgb:Hnwgfg;kN
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GMRby u:gmannaTIpk Gahar EdlmansMbkkarBar.
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karbgkMeNIt2dgkgeBlEtmYy ehAfa {karbgkeM NIteTV } EdlCalkNBiessrbs;rku CatiGg;sEs<m
2>$ vdCIvitrbs;rukCatimanpa
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3 eRbobeFobrukCatim:UNUkUTIeldUn nigDIkUTIeldUn
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labeQI pH nigBa)alCMgWpgEdr.
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emeronTI2
srIragviBaaN Sense organ
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srIragvijaNrbs;mnusSman 5 KW ckviBaaN esatvijaN XanvijaN CIvavijaN kayvijaN.
1-ckviBaaN
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EdlenACuMvijxn eyIg.
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nUvKMeXIjnvimaRtbIEbbsRmab;eFVkI arvinicyBIRbEvg TMhM nrUbPaB.
1>! TRmg;RKab;EPk
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mnusSmanPasbIRsTab;KW ekr:UTic kUrUG: Iut er:Tin nigeRsabedaymCdanfa.
k> PasRKab;EPk

-ekr:UTic Sclerotique CaRsTab;eRkAbgs; BNs Rkas; rwg sVit. EpkxagmuxEPkRsTab;eRkAeLIge):ag

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EkvEPkcgPab;nwgGgsuIlIEylsac;duMrlIgEdlsitenACMuvji EPkedaysrscMNg.
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nigekasikadMbg. pUevo CatMbn;rsY nwgBnWCageKelIRsTab;erTIn
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EPkekIteLIgBI Twk GMbil lIssU Um nigsmasFatusrIragepSgEdlplitecjBIPa sess.
lIsUsUm lysosome CaFatuekasikamanPasBTCMuvij EdlpkGg;sIumrMlay.
x>srIragclkr
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lladk,al.
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ehIyekasikanImYyrYseTAnwgCatiBNepSgKa dUcCa BNexov btg nigRkhm.
ekasikaragdMbg KWrsY nwgBnWexSayBnWRsGab;xaMg Etvaminpl;rUbPaBc,as;eT.

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bekasikadMbg vabMEbksm<nKImIrvagCatiBNnRsTab;erTInnigRbUetGIun begIt[manGaMgPcRbsaT dwknaMeTA
kan;xYrk,al tamsrsRbsaTGubTic ehIyxYrk,aleFVIkarbkRsayCaKMehIj.
srsRbsaTGubTicekItBIsrsRbsaTecjBIekasikaekan bekasikadMbg rYmKa.
mnusSxVak;man; bNalmkBIxVHvItamInGa EdlminGacemIleXIjkgBnWexSayeT.
1>$ KMehIj
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cMNgCYyEkvEPk edIm,IbegItrUbPaBc,as;l.
k>naTIrbs;EPk
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ekasikaRbsaT120lan.

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ray):ay ehIyBt;kaMrsTI aMgenaH[CYbCamYyKa KWcMNucRbsBVKanBnW.
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edIm,IemIlrUbPaBmYyc,as;l EkvEPkRtUvmankRmas;RtwmRtUv.
ebIcg;emIlvtCit GgsuIlIEykRnak;rYmtUc srscMNgERbCarlug naM[EkvEPkeLIgRkas;.
ebIcg;emIlvtqay GgsuIlIEybnr srscMNgeLIgtwgTajEkvEPk[esIg eFVI[emIleXIjrUbPaB
nvt) anc,as;.bMNni EbbenHeFVI[EkvEPkmankRmas;RtwmRtUv GacemIleXIjvtepSgsitkgcmay
xusKa. enHehAfa kMlaMgnsRmbtRmUv.
2-esatviBaaN
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mannaTI2y:agKW cab;yksUr nigtMEfrkSalMnwg.
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RtecokEckCa 3 EpkKWRtecokeRkA RtecokkNal
Rtecokkg.
k>RtecokeRkA
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>swkRtecokmanlkNCabnHEs,kragdUcLav RTRTg;edayqwgxI. vamannaTI RbmUlprlksUr.
>bMBg;esatvijaN ekIteLIgBIqgw xIEdlmanRbEvg #-$ s>m nigmaneramlitenAmat;RcknbMBg;esatvijaN
ehIyenAcugmagnbMBg;manPasesgI yWt ehAfa RkdasRtecok.
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2>3 tMEhrkSalMnwg
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3 CIvavijaN
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-PasesImelOgmannaTIEpkvijaN. PasenHminsUvsMbUrsrsQamnigRkeBjeT EtmanEpkcugbMputn
srsRbsaTXanvijaN.

-eBlmUe: lKulkinRCabcUltamrnRcmuH varlayFaturavEdlRKbeRsTab;eGBIEDmXanvijaN. sarFatuKImI

rlayenHeTAPab;CamYyFlneramjrrbs;NWrU:nXanviBaaN. eBlenaHGaMgPcRbsaTekIteLIg ehIyeFVI
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5 kayviBaaN
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kayviBaaN.
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-bgarkareRCotcUlnemeraK
-karBarsarBagkayBI\TiBlrUb-KImInmCdanxageRkA
-bgarkar)at;bg;CatiTwk
-CakEngsRmab;eFVIbNr]sn
-karBarBIkaMrssI VayGlu Rta
-beBajkaksMNl;emtabUlIs tamRkeBjejIs
-EfrkSapsarBagkay[esImCanic
-beBajCatixaj; nigRsUbyksarFatusfmYycMnYn
-TTYlrMejacepSgBIbERmbRmYlsItuNaPaB karb:HTgci CaedIm.
5>@ eGBIEDm nigEDm
-etIEs,kmanbu:nanRsTab;?GVIxH?
Es,kman2RsTab;KWeGBIEDm nigEDm
eGBIEDmCaRsTab;ekasikaeRkAbgsr; bs;sarBagkay mankRmas;RbEhl0/7 m>m vaKansrsQameT Et
vaTTYlsarFatuciBawmtam rybnSayEdlecjBIsrsQamkgRsTab;EDm. ekasikaemLaNUsuI

nRsTab;eGBIEDmplitemLanInEdlpl;BN[Es,k.
EDm CaRsTab;EdlekItBICalikasnansrsyWtnigkULaEsn collagen
sm,rsrsQamnigcugPIbRbsaT. RsTab;enHptp; g ;sarFatuciBawmdl;ekasika nigtRmUvsItuNP aBkg Es,k.
5># srIragbnab;bnSMrbs;Es,k
-etIEs,kmansrIragbnab;bnSMGVIxH?
Melanocyte

srIragbnbb; nSMrbs;Es,kman RkeBjenAkgEs,k eram Rkck. RkeBjman2EbbKW RkeBjesbUm nigRkeBj

ejIs.
5>$ kayviBaaN
-cUrerobrab;BlI kNrbs;kayviBaaN?
kgRsTab;EDmmanFl
viBaaNeRcInEbb sRmab;eqIytbnwgrMejacepSgKa eTAnwgRbtikmemkanicxusKaEdr.
eBlTTYl)anrMejac Fl viBaaNxHrYsnwgbMNHTgci exSay xHeTotrYsnwgbMNHTgci xaMg ehIyFl viBaaNdT
eTotmannaTITTYlkarQWcab; sItuNPaBRtCak; b ekA.
-etIRkeBjejIsmannaTIsx
M an;dUcemc?

emeronTI3
RbRBnGg;dURKInEndocrin system
-dUcemcehAfa efrlMnwg?
efrlMnwg KWtMEhrkSamCdansarBagkay[mantulPaBCamYymCdanxageRkA.
-enAkg sarBagkaymanRbBnCaeRcIn EtmanRbBn2EdlsMxan;CageK etICaRbBnGIVxH ?
KWRbBnR bsaT nigRbBnGg;dRU KIn.
I>RkeBj nigGrm:n
U
1>! RkeBj
-etIGVICaRkeBj? vamanbu:nanRbePT?GVIxH?
RkeBjCasrIragEdlekIteLIgBIekasikaeGBIetlm.
vamankeTskmkgkarbeBajsarFatu sMrab;sarBagkay. RkeBjman 2y:agKW
RkeBjGicsURKIn nigRkeBjGg;dRU KIn.
RkeBjGicsURKInbRkeBjbeBajeRkACaRkeBjmanbMBg;naM mannaTIbeBajrstam
bMBg;naM. RkeBjsURKInman RkeBjejIs RkeBjTwkmat; RkeBjrsrMlayGahar
RkeBjePT lMEBg.
RkeBjGg;dRU KInbRkeBjbeBajkg CaRkeBjEdlKanbMBg;naM mannaTIbeBajGrmU:n
eTAkgcrnQamedaypal;.
1>@ Grm:nU hormone
-dUcemcehAfaGrm:Un? GVCI aekasikaeKaledA?
Grm:UnCasarFatuKImIEdlman\TiBleTAelIemtabIlIsnekasikaeKaledA.

ekasikaeKaledACa ekasikaEdlPab;CamYyGrm:nU yfaRbePTmYy.

Grm:UnGacePacekasikaeKaledA eday begnI bbnyskmrbs;va. lkNEbb

enHGaRsyedaykarERbRbYlnGRtaRbtikmKImICIvNamYyenAkgekasikaeKaledA.
1># clnkarnGMeBIrbs;Grm:Un
-kgRbBnG g;dURKIn etIeKEckGrm:nU Cabun: anRkum?
eKEckGrm:n
U Ca2 RkumKW
-Grm:Unbubi TIt CaRbUetGInu FMEdlekItBIRcv:ak;nGasuItGamIen. vaminrlaykglIBIt
dUcenHvaminGacqgkat;Pasekasika)aneT.
-Grm:UnesrGU: Iut CalIBItEdlRtUv)anpliteLIgBIkUeLesru:l. vamanlTPaBqgkat;
Pasekasika .
k>Grm:UnbuibTIt
-etIGrm:Unbibu TItman\TBi lelIdMeNIrRbRBwtrbs;ekasikaeKaledAdUcemc?
Grm:UnbuibTItrYmmanGrm:Unrbs;RkeBjGuIbP
U: Is ):ar:aTIr:GU Iut GaMgsyu lIn nigKykakug
vaRtUv)ansMeyaKeRkamkardwknaMrbs;EsnkgekasikaRkeBjGg;dURKIn.
Gem:nU buibTItman\TiBlelIdMeNIrRbRBwtrbs;ekasikaeKaledA edayeFVI[Gg;suIm
GaednIlsuIkas EdlPab;elIpxagkgnPasekasikaeKaledAskmeLIg.
x>Grm:nU esrU:GtIu hormone strod
-etIGrm:Unman\TBi lelIdMeNIrRbRBwtrbs;ekasikaeKaledAdUcemc?

Grm:Unesr:UGIutmanGrm:UnEdlpliteLIgedayRkeBjelItRmg;enam GUEv BgsVas.

vaCaGrm:UnrlaykglIBIt dUcenHvaGacqgkat;Pasekasika)any:aggay.
Grm:nU esr:UGIut man\TiBlelIdI MeNIrrbs;ekasikaeKaledA KWePJacEsnkgekasikaeKaledA
[skmeLIg edIm,IsMeyaKRbUetGIunyfaRbePTmYy.
II>karRtYtBinitnRbBnGg;dURKIn
-etIskmPaBrbs;RkeBjGg;dURKIn RtUv)anRtYtBinitedayGVI?
RkeBjGg;dRU KInsMeyaKGrm:n
U enAeBlEdlsarBagkayRtUvkar ehIyRbsiTPaB
brimaNGrm:nU enAkg QamRtUvsit kg EdnkMNt;mYyc,as;las;.
skmPaBrbs;RkeBjGg;dURKInRtUv)anRtYtBiniteday cnlkartMNbRtLb;GviC
man. tamrytMNbRtLb;GviCman kMhab;rbs;sarFatumYycMnYnenAkgQam Benn
bbgak; karbeBajrbs;RkeBj cnkarRtLb;GviCman mannaTItMEhrkSalMnwgn
mCdanxagkg.

KykUscUlkg crnQam
ekasikaebtanlMEBgbeBajGaMgsuylIn
GaMgsyu lInePJacekasika[cab;ykKy kUs
daRkam tMNbRtLb;GviCman

bgak;karsMeyaKGaMgsyu lIn

briePaKGaharsm,rKykUs

>RbBnGg;dURKInmnusS
-cMeBaHmnusS etIRbBnGg;dRU KInekIteLIgBIGVI?cUr[]TarhN_bBaak;.
cMeBaHmnusS RbBnG
g;dRU KInekIteLIgBIRkeBjGg;dURKInepSgCaeRcIn dUcCa
III

GIub:tU aLamus RkeBj TIrUG: Iut RkeBj):ar:aTIr:UGIut RkeBjTImus RkeBjelItRmgenam lMEBg

RkeBjePTjI RkeBjeQal>>>.
3>! GIub:tU aLamus Hypothalamus
-etIGIbu U:taLamusekItBIGVI? vamannaTIGVI?
GIub:UtaLamusCaEpkmYynxYrk,al EdltRmUvmCdankgsarBagkay.
GIub:UtaLamus mannaTI RtYtBinitkarbeBajrbs;RkeBjGIbu :UPsI .
-etIGIub:UtaLamusplitGrm:Unbu:nany:ag?GVxI H?
GIub:UtaLamusplitGrm:Un2y:agKW ADH nig GuksIutUsuIn.
-Gg;TIDIGuyerTic ADH= Antidiuretique Hormone mannaTIePJactRmgenam [man
sRmbTwkeLIgvij.
-GuksIutUsIun Ocytocine mannaTIePJacs,n[kRnak; kgryeBlsRmalkUn.
3>@ RkeBjGIubUP: Is Hypophyse
-etIGIub:UPsI CaGVI? GIub:PU IsEckCabun: anEpk?GVxI H?
GIb
u U:PsI CaRkeBjtUcmYy manGgt;RbEhl 1s>m EdlsitenAxageRkam GIub:Uta
Lamus. GIub:UPsI EckCa 2EpkKW GIubP:U Ismux nig GIbu :PU IseRkay.
k> GIubP:U IseRkay

-etIGIub:UPsI eRkaymannaTIGVI?
GIubP
:U IseRkaymannaTI beBajGrm:Un Gg;TIDGI uyerTic nigGrm:UnGuksuItsU nIu .
x> GIubP:U Ismux
-etIGIub:UPsI muxplitGrm:nU )anbu:nanRbePT?GVIxH? GrmU:nnImYymanmuxgardUcemc?
GIubP
:U Ismux plitGrmU:n 6 RbePTxusKaKW
-GrmU:nlUtlas; GH= Growth Hormone mannaTICMrju karlUtlas;nsarBagkay.
-GrmU:nRbULak;TIn PRL= Prolactin Hormone mannaTICMrju karlUtlas;RkeBjTwkedaH
nigplitTwkedaH.

-GrmU:nemLaNUsIutsImuyLg; MSH= Melanocyte Stimulante Hormone ePJacekasika

emLaNUsuItnEs,k[plitemLanIn.
-GrmU:nTIer:GUsmI uylIn TSH= Thyreo Stimuline Hormone ePJacRkeBjTIrU:GIut [
plitTIru:ksIun.
-GrmU:nGaeRtNUkrTIkRU tUb ACTH= AdrenoCorticoTrope Hormone ePJackrticelI
tRmgenam[plit GrmU:nkrTIsUl.
-GrmU:nkUNadUsImuylIn FSH= Folliculo Stimuline Hormone=Gonadostimuline
hormone nigGrmU:n Luteinisante=LH mannaTIePJacsrIragePT [beBajGrmU:nePT
3># RkeBjTIrU:GItu Thyroide Grande
-etIRkeBjTIrU:GIutsitenAkEngNansarBagkay?vamanmuxgardUcemc?

RkeBjTIrU:GIutsitenARtg;k cMBIeRkaybMBg;sMelgnigenAxagmuxbMBg;xl;. vaman

naTIplitGrmU:nTIru:ksInu
ebIeBkbriePaKGaharKanCatiGIuy:YtbNal[ekItCMgWBkk edayRkeBjTIrU:GIutrIkFM
edIm,IbgarkuM[ekItCMgWBkk RtUvbriePaKGaharmanCatiGIuy:Ut dUcCaRtI nigGahar
smuRTepSg.
GrmUn: TIrus: unI kMNt;GRtaemtabUlIsenAkgsarBagkay. vabegInGRta emtabUlIs
RbUetGIun KykUsnig xaj;. kMeNInkRmitGrmU:nTIru:ksuIn bNal[mankMeNInGRta
degImekasika KwekasikaplitfamBleRcIn ehIykayCaskmxagM .
dUcenHRkeBjTIr:UGIut tRmUvGRtaemtabUlsI ekasika nigbnykRmitkal;sm enAkg
Qam.

3>$ RkeBj):ar:aTIrU:GItu Parathyroide Grande

-etIRkeBj):ar;aTIrU:GIutCaGVI? vamanmuxgardUcemc?
RkeBj):ar;aTIrG
U: IutCaRkeBjragBgRkeBItcU cMnYn4 Edlbgb;kgEpkxageRkayn
RkeBjTIrU:GIut. vamanmuxgarbeBajGrmU:n):ar:aTIrGU: IutPTHsRmab;tRmUvemtabUl: Is
kal;sm nigpUsVat.
-etICati Ca CYyGVIxHdl;sarBagkayeyIg?
CatiCa caM)ac;sRmab;karlUtlas;qwg eFj kMNkQam lMnaMRbsaT nigkarkRnak;
sac;du.M
CatipsU Vatmankgqwg nigCasmasFatusMxan;CaeRcInnsarBagkay rYmTaMg ATP
AND nig ARN .
-ebIkgVHGrmU:n):ar:aTIr:GU Iut? etIbNal[manGVIekIteLIg? cuHebIeRcInhYsvijvadUcemcEdr?
ebIkgVHGrm:Un):ar:aTIrUG
: Iut bNal[kRmit Ca kgQamTab naM[sac;dMCu ab;qwg
ERbCarYshYsehtu ehIykRnak;y;agxaMg KwCMgWettaNUs.
ebIkarbeBajGrmU:n):ar:aTIr:GU IuteRcInhYsvij bNal[mankardkyk Ca BIqgw
ehIyeFVI[qwgERbCagayRsYl)ak;.
GrmU:n):ar:aTIrUG: IutmannaTI
-beBaj PO$@- enAeBl Ca Pab;kgqwgmantic
siteRkamTRmg;CapUsVatRTIkal;suci .
-sRmUb Ca eLIgvij edIm,IbegInGRtaCatikal;sm.

-beBajgGg;smIu edlFVI[CIvCati D skm edIm,IbegnI karRsUbykCa rbs;eBaH

evontUc.
3>% RkeBjelItRmgenam Surrenales Grande
-etIenAelItRmgenammnusSmanRkeBjbun: an?manTgn;b:unan?lkNBiessdUcemc?
elItRmgenammnusSmanRkeBj 2 EdlnImYymanTgnR; bEhl12Rkam nig
lkNBiessrbs;vasm,rsrsQam.
-etIeKEckRkeBjnImYyCabu:nnEpk?GVxI H?
RkeBjnImYyEckCa 2EpkKW
-EpkxageRkA ehAfaRkeBjkrticelItRmgenam
-Epkxagkg ehAfaRkeBjxYrelItRmgenam
k>RkeBjxYrelItRmgenam Medullo-Surrenale Grande
-etIRkeBjxYrelItRmgenammanmuxgarGVI?
manmuxgarbeBajeGBIeNRBInGaeRdNalIn
nigNUeGBIeNRBIn EdlnaMmknUvtMNbCamYyRbtikm
Tb;Tl;nigeKcecj.
GaeRdNalInmanmuxgarbegInGRtacgVak;ebHdUg
kMeNInkMhab;KykUsnigGRtakMNkQamkg
srsQam vakbNal[rnRbRsIEPkrIkFM nigbRgYmsrsQameRkamEs,kEdleFVI
[Es,k eLIgsaMg nigbNal[jr.

NUeGBIeNRBInmanmuxgar KWskmkg kardwknaMGaMgPc RbsaTeTAekasikaEk,rva

nigman\TiBleTAelIkar kRnak;rYmtUcnsrsEv:nEdr.
x>RkeBjkrticelItRmgenam Cortico -Surrenale Grande
-etIRkeBjkrticelItRmgenamplitGrmU:n)anbun: any:ag?GVIxH?
RkeBjkrticelItRmgenamplitGrmUn
: )an 2y:agKW krTIsUl nigGal;dUesrU:n.
zz krTIsUl Cortisol mannaTIePJacGIRu dUlsI
RbUetGIun[eTAGasIuGamIen bnab;mkbMEbgCa
KysuIt. krNIenHbegnI kRmitKykUskgQam.
Grm:UnkrTIsUlsiteRkamkarRtYtBinitrbs;
RkeBjGIbu U:PIsmux ACTH KW GuIbU:taLamusplit
GrmU:nbeBajCRH = Corticotropin Releasing
HormoneeTAePJacGIubUPIsmux[beBaj ACTH
EdlePJackrTIsUl.
Gal;deU srU:n AldosteroneeFVI[tRmgenam
RsUbyksUdm Na CafI nigbeBajbU:tasm
ecal K . Gal;dUesrU:nminsiteRkamkarRtYtBinitrbs;GIbu U:PIsmuxeT.
-etIerNaMgCaGVI?
CaGg;sm
uI Edlpas;RbUetGIun)asaGg;sIyu Utg;sIuNEU sn eTACaGg;syuI Utg;snuI I
Edlbnab;mkkayCaGg;sIyu UsnuI
+

enAkgsYt. plnRbBne rNaMgGg;sIuytU g;suIn Gal;dUesr:Un enHbegInsm<aFQamtamviFI

BIry:agKw TI1 Gg;suIyUtg;sIunbRgYmkUnGak;ETedaypal;.
II

TI2 Gal;dUesr:UnbNal[tRmgenamRsUbyksUdmCafI enAeBlkRmit

sUdmkgQamx<s; TwkRtUv)anRsYbeLIgvij enaHsm<aFQamrtUvrkSalMnwg.
3>^ lMEBg Pancreas
-etIlMEBgCaGVI?mannaTIdUcemc? ehtuGVI)anCalMEBgCa RkeBjGg;dURKInpg nig
CaRkeBjGicsURKInpg?
lMEBgCasrIragmYyEvg sNkTTwgkg
eBaHnigenABIelIeBaHevontUc. lMEBgman
naTIplitGrmU:n GaMgsuy lIn nigKykakug.
)anCaeKfalMEBgRkeBjGg;dRU KInpg nigCaRkeBjGicsURKInpg eRBaH
-RkeBjGasInu usbeBajrsrMlayGahareTAkgeBaHevontUctambMBg;lMEBg.
-beBajGrmUn: edaypal;eTAkg Qam.
k>GaMgsyu lIn Insulin
GIuLLg;esr:g; Ilots de LangerhansekItBI ekasika BIrRbePT
ekasikaTI1KWekasikaebta beBaj
GrmU:nGaMgsuylIn. GrmUn: GaMgsuylIn
mannaTI tRmUvGRtaCatisrenAkg Qam.
x>Kykakug Glucagon
ekasikaTI2 KWekasikaGal;hVa beBajGrmU:n

Kykakug eTAkg Qamedaypal;. vamannaTIbegnI kRmitCatisrenAkgQam.

K>CMgWTwkenamEpm
-etICMgWTwkenamEpmbNalmkBIGVI?
vaekIteLIgenAeBlEdl GIuLLg;esr:g;plitGaMgsuylInmin)anRKb;RKan; bNal
[brimaNKykUskg QamekIneLIg ehIytRmgenamminGacRsUbykKykUs TaMg
Gs;eLIgvij)an. dUcenHKykUselIsRtUv)anbeBajeTAkgTwkenam.
CMgWTwkenammaneraKsBaadUcCakarRsk;TRmg; kareRskTwky:agxaMg nigkarcuHexSay
kMlaMg. eKGacBa)alCMgWenH eday[GkCMgWmanrbbGaharRtwmRtUv elbfaM[)aneTog
Tat;nigcak; GaMgsyu lIn erogral;f.
3>& RkeBjePT Sex Grande
RkeBjePTmannaTI ePJackarlUtlas;Rbdab;bnBUC. GrmU:nEdlbeBajKW GrmU:nePT
k>GUEv Ovary
-etIGUEvplitGrm:UnGVIxH?
GUEvCaRkeBjGg;dRU KIn EdlplitGrmU:nGWRsEsn nigRbUesesrU:n.
GrmUn: GWRsEsn Estrogen Hormone plitecjBIekasikapUlIKulnGUEv eday
eqIytbnwgkarePJacrbs; FSH. GMeBIrbs;vaeFVI[RsTab;Pas;esIms,n eLIgRkas;
edaybegIncMENkmItUsnekasika. vakman\TiB leTAelI lkNePTbnab;rbs;
mnusSRsI Edr.

GrmUn: RbUesesrU:n Progesterone CakarePaJcrbs ;LH bNal[pUlKI ulpH Ebk

nigbeBajGUvulmkeRkA RBmTaMgbeBajGrmU:nRbUesesrU:n nigGWRsRsnpgEdr.
GrmU:nenH ePJacPasesIms,n[eLIgkRmas eRtomlkNsRmab;kac;sRmbuk rbs;
GMRby u:g.
RbUesesrU:n EfrkSaKPedaybNal[sac;dMsu ,nsRmak nigman\TiBl eTAelIkar
lUtlas;rbs;RkeBjTwk edaHpgedr. GgelOgbnkarplit RbUesesrU:nrhUtdl;
ExTI4nkarmanpeBaH ehIyExbnab;CanaTIrbs; sukRtUvbMeBjbn.

x>BgsVas Testes
-etIBgsVasmanmuxgardUcemc?
BgsVas beBajGrmU:nGg;RdUEsn. Gg;RdUEsnmannaTI sMxan;KWplitGrm:Un
etsesrU:n Testosterone. etse srU:n rYmCamYy LH nig FSH ePJackarplit
Es<m:atUsUGIut. Grm:UnetsesrU:neFVI[kan;EtRbesIreLIgnUv karlUtlas;lkNePT
bnab;rbs;mnusSRbus dUcCasMeLgRKlr duHBukmat;>>>.
3>* RkeBjTImus Thymus
-GVICaRkeBjTImus?etIRkeBjTImsu manlkNdUcemc?
CaRkeBjedlsitenAEpkxagelInRTUg Ek,rebHdUg. vamanTMhMFMkgvykumar
ehIyrYjtUceRkayeBlRKb;kar. RkeBjTImusplitGrmU:nTImUs: unI . GrmU:nTImU:suIn
ePJac plitLaMpUsuItfIenAkgRkeBjTwkrgnigkgsrIragdTeTot.
3>( RkBH nigeBaHevontUc
-etIRbdab;rlM ayGaharmanplitGrmUn: EdrbeT?
Rbdab;rMlayGaharkmanplitGrm:UnEdrKw
ekasikaPasRkBHbeBajGrmU:nkaRsIn Gastrine EdlePJac[manrMhUrnrsRkBH
ekasikaPaseBaHevontUc plitGrmU:neseRkTIn SecretineEdlePJac[manrMhUrn
rslMEBg.

CMBUkTI4 naTIrbs;RbUetGIunksarBagkay
emeronTI 1
GasuIGamIen Amino Acid
-etIRbUetGIunCaGVI? ehIyvamannaTIbu:nany:agenAkgsarBagkay?
RbUetGIUnCasmasFatuKImInCIvitRKb;Pavrs;. RbUetGIunmannaTIksarBagkay 6
y:agKwCa -RbUetGIuTRmg; vabegItCaTRmgekasika
-Gg;suIm CakatalIkrKImICIvEdlCmrujel,nRbtikmKImIkgekasika.
-Gg;TIkrmannaTIkarBarsarBagkayTb;ngw Pak;garbgeraK.
-GrmU:n r:ab;rgkgbNrrUbFatu.
-eGm:Ukbn manaTIdwknaMGuksuEI snkg degIm.
-GkeFVIclna RbUetGInu cUlrYmRKb;clnarbs;ekasika.
1-TRmg;GasItu GamIeN
-etIskmPaBTaMgGs;rbs;sarBagkayrs;RtUvRbUetGIunEdrbeT?
RKb;skmPaBTaMgGs;rbs;sarBagkayRtUvkarRbUetGIunCacaM)ac; eRBaHvaCasmas
FatuRKwHnCIvit. RbUetGuInCasarFatusrIragsaMjaEM dlpk kabUnC GIuRdUEsnH
GuksuEI snO nigGasUtN CYnkalmanpUsVatP nigs<an;FrS pgEdr.RKb;
mU:elKulRbUetGIunrtUv)anbegIteLIgBIsarFatugayKw GasuItGamIen.
GasuItGamIennImYyekIteLIgBIbNMkabuksulI -COOHbNMGamIn-NH nigr:aDI
kal;R. rUbmnTUeTArbs;GasuItGamIenKW
2

-etIenAkg ekasikastV nigmnusSmanGasItu GamIenbun: anRbePT?

enAkg
ekasikastV nigmnusSmanGasIutGamIen 20RbePT.
enAkRmit pH=7 bNMkabuksulI bMEbkeTATRmg;)as-COO- ehIybNMGamIn
bMEbkCaTRmg;GasIut-NH+ . dUcenHGasIutGamIennImYyGacmanGasIutbCa)as.
enAkgTRmg;TI1 rbs;RbUetGIun GasuItGamIenmYycMnYnbkmayrbs;vamannaTICa
GknaMsar. ]TarhN_ KIsuIn GasuItKyTInic EdlkaymkBIKktam:at esrU:tUnInkay
mkBIRTIbtUhVan TaMgGs;enHsuTE tCaGkBanBtmanRbsaT eRBaHvaCasarFatuEdl
beBajedayekasikaRbsaT ehIyman\TiBleTAelInaTirbs;ekasikaeKaledA b
ekasikasac;du.M
-etIGrmU:nNaxHEdlmannaTIsRmbtRmUvnaTIekasika?
GrmU:nTIru:ksIun CaGrmU:nbeBajedayRkeBjTIrG
U: Iut nigGrmU:nGasIutGaesTicGuk
suInCaGrmU:nrukCatiEdlman\TiBlelIkarlUtEvgrbs;ekasika.
GasIutGamIenmYycMnYnEdledIrtYCaGkdwknaMemtabUlIsman GasunI In suIRTuylIn
nigGrTInIn suTE tCasmasPaBnvdGuyer:.
2-RbePTepSgnGasItu GamIen
-eK)aneFVIGRIu dUlsI mU:elKulRbUetGIun edayTTYl)anmUN
: UEmrCaGasuItGamIeny:ag
eRcIn. GasuItGamIenEdleKrkeXIjkgmU:elKulRbUetGIun ehAfaGasIutGamIensg;da
GasuItGamIenKansg;daKWCaGasIutGamIenmansMNl; KWvaGacERbRbYlFatuKImI enA
eBlPab;KaCabU:lbI bui TItenAkg sarBagkay. bu:EnminEmnenAkgRbUetGIuneT.
3

xageRkamCarUbmnrbs;GasIutGamIenTaMg 20RbePT.

sMKal; kg PaBCasUluysgTwk GasIutGamIenmanTRmg; 3EbbKW

xageRkameQaHkat;rbs;GasuItGamIenTaMg 20 RbePT

eRBaHGasuItGamIenCamU:elKultUc ehIygay varlaykgTwk ehIyGacRCabtam

Pasekasika)an nigRCabcUleTAkgekasikansarBagkay)any:aggay. enAeBl
cUleTAsarBagkay GasIutGamIen Pab;KaeLIgvij edim,IbegIt)anCaRbUetGInu .
-dUcemcehAfa bubi TIt?GVICacMNgbubi TIt?
CabU:lIEmnGasut
I GamIen bGasIutGamIenBIrbeRcInEdlPab;Ka.
CacMNgEdlekIteLIgBIkarPab;rvagGasIutGamIenBIrKwbNkM abuksulI nGasIutGamIen
mYy Pab;CamYybNGM amInnGasIutGamIenmYyeTot edaypac;)an 1mU:elKulTwk.

GasIutGamIen2Pab;Ka ehAfaDIbuibTIt. eBlGasIutGamIenkan;EteRcIn Rcv:ak;kan;Et

Evg karehAfabubi TItRtUvpas;brtamcMnYnGasuItGamIendUcCaRTIbbui TItmanGasIutGamI
en 3Pab;Ka >>>. ]TarhN_ etRtabubi TIt

3-bibu TIt
-ehtuG)VI anCaeKfaGasuItGamIenCasarFatucMNUlTwk?

-ehtuG)VI anCaeKfatMNlMdab;GasIutGamIen kMNt;TRmg;nignaTIrbs;RbUetGIun?

eRBaHGasuItGamIenPab;KaeRcInbegIt)anCabU:lbI uibTIt ehIyebIRcv:ak;bU:lbI ubi TItbt;

EbnCaeRcInptb; egIt)anCa TRmg;TI2 TRmg;T3I nigTRmg;TI4nRbUetGInu .

emeronTI 2
RbUetGIn Protein
-etIGaharRbePTNaEdleFVI[sarBagkaylUtlas;?etIGaharNaxHsm,rRbUetGIun?
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
-etIRbUetGIunbgeLIgBIGVI?etIGasutI GamIennImYyxusKaedaysarGVI?
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
1-rUbprbs;RbUetGInu
RbUetGIunCam:aRkUmU:elKulsaMja M. vaCabU:lEI mnGasIutGamIenyfaRbePTxusKa.
RbUetGIunEdlmanGasIutGamIenticCag 50 ehAfabuibTIt. mannyfa RbUetGIunman
Rcv:ak;bubi TItmYybeRcIn ehIyekItBIGasuItGamIencab;BI50eLIgeTA.
-etIeKEckRbUetGInu Cabun: anTRmg;? etITRmg;niImYymanlkNdUcemc?
edayEpkelITRmg; nigsmasFaturbs;RbUetGIn
u eKEckRbUetGIunCa 4 TRmg; KW
1>! TRmg;TI1 ekItBItMNlMdab;GasIutGamIensuT.
1>@ TRmg;TI2 Rcv:ak;bU:lIbbui TItbt;

EbnCaExSexA EdlEckCa 2RbePTKW

Rsb Rcv:ak;bU:lbI bui TItteRmobeTA
tamTwsedAEtmYy.
minRsbRcv:ak;bU:lIbiubTItteRmob
kg TwsedApyKa manTRmg;saMjaM ehIykan;maM.
1># TRmg;TI3 KWsMedAeTAelITRmg;Edlman 3sNan. vamanlkN
bUl: Ibbui TIt mYycMnnY EdlmanGasIutGamIenenAXatBIKa eRkayeBlbt;EbnCaeRcIn
pt; GasIutGamIenkenACab;Ka.
bnab;BIbt;EbneRcInpt; RbUetGIunkkayCaRbUetGIun
RKab; EdlmanRKab;tUc ehIyPaKeRcInRbUetGInu min
[TwkRCabcUl.
cMENkRbUetGIunRKab;manTMhMFM EtgEtpkRKab;tcU ehAfadUemn.
dUemnCaEpkmYyrbs;RbUetGuInEdlmanTRmg;TI3manragmUl. dUcenHvaCaGgt;
EdlmanTrmg;Cak;lak; ehIymannaTIyfaRbePT.
1>$ TRmg;TI4 CaRbUetGuInEdlmanTRmg;FM suTEt
bgeLIgedayRcv;ak;blU: Ibbui TIt 3b 4 EdleFVI[kan;
EtmanPansaMjaM.
2-naTIrbs;RbUetGInu
-etIRbUetGIunmannaTIbu:nany:ag? GVIxH?

RbUetGIunmannaTI 6y:agKW
!> katalIkrbegnI el,nRbtikmKImI. ]TarhN_rIbuyLbp UsVat CasmasFatukg
dMeNIrrsIsMeyaK. nIRtUEsNas; CaRbUetGIunmannaTIPab;GasUt.
@>RbUetGInu TRmg; mannaTICaGkkarBarnigRTRTg;. ]TarhN_ kULaEsnsrs
RbUetGIunkgCalikasnanCasmasFatucMbgkgPab;Calika[rwgmaM.
eGLasnI manenAkg srsywtkgCalikansarBagkay dUcCa srsQam
Es,k eFV[I CalikakgsarBagkaymanPaByWt.
#>GkeFVcI lnacUlrYmRKb;clnarbs;ekasika. ]TarhN_Gak;TInmIRkUPILam:g;
TuybuylInkUnbMBg;tUc>>>. sMNuMRbUetGIunTaMgenHenAkg eRKagqgw ekasika man
skmPaBkgkareFIVcMEnkekasika.
$>GkkarBarRbqaMgnwgemeraKkuM[eRCotcUlkg sarBagkay)an.
]TarhN_Es,k karBarkareRCotcUlnemeraKeBlrbYs. PIRbNUEsnnigRtubM n Ca
RbUetGIuneFV[I Qamkk eBldac;srsQam. Gg;TIkr RbqaMgnwgkareRCotcUlrbs;
emeraK.
%>GktRmUvGrmUn: plitecjBIRkeBjGg;dURKIn.
]TarhN_GaMsuylIn nigKy kakug tRmUvkRmitKykUskgQam. rIGrm:UnlUtlas;
ePJacekasika[eFVcI MENk.
^>GkdwknaM Na , K dwknaMmeU: lKulGIuyu:gsarFatuepSgqgkat;ekasika.
eGmU:kb n dwknaMGuksuEI snBIsYteTAkan;ekasika.

-etIeKEbgEckRbUetGIunCabu:nanRkumbEnmeTot?GVxI H?
tamTRmg;rbs;RbUetGIuneKEbgEckvaCa2RkumKW
RbUetGIunsrsCamUe: lKulEvgminrlaykgTwk ehIysVit. vamanenAkgEs,k sk;
Rkck mannaTICaGkkarBar.
RbUetGIunRKab;CamU:lKulragmUltUcrlaykgTwk. vamannaTICaclkr Gg;TIkr
eGmU:kbn Gal;buymIn CaGkdwknaMGasIutxaj;kg Qam.
-etIeKEcksmasFatuRbUetGIunCabu:nany:ag?GVIxH?
eKEckRbUetGIunCa2y:agKW
RbUetGIungayekItBIGasIutGamIensuT.]TarhN_esrUm: Gal;buymIn ekr:aTIn
RbUetGIUnsaMjaMekItBIGasIutGamIen nigsarFatuminEmnCaRbUetGIunRkumRbUesric.
-etIRbUetGIunmankar)at;bg;KuNPaBeRkamlkxNGVIxH?
RbUetGIunmankar)at;bg;KuNPaBeRkamlkxNdUcteTA
GasuItb)asxaMgbNal[sm<nGIuRdUEsnRtUv)anbgak;
Pak;garepSgbgak;sm<nGIuRdUEsnnigkareRCotcUlnTwk
GgFaturMlaybgak;karRCabcUlrbs;Tkw
sabUbgak;PaBbt;Ebnrbs;RbUetGIun nig[rlaRcv:ak;buibTIt
kMhab;GMbilbegnI smasFaturlaykg Twk
elahFatuFn; )artHgman\TiBlelITRmg;RbUetGIun nignaTIrbs;va.

bERmbRmYlsItuNP aBskmPaBrbs;mUe: lKulRbUetGIunkan;EtekIneLIg eBlsItN

u
PaB kan;Etx<s;. ebIsItuNPaBfycuH karcgsm<n GIRu dUEsnkgmU:elKulRbUetGInu RtUv
)anbgak;.
clnaemkanicbgak;kmaMgEdlbegInTRmg;RbUetGIun.
]TarhN_ssutnwgGs;KuNPaB kayCaBBuHeBleKkUrva.

emeronTI 3
Gg;suIm Enzyme
1-GVIeTAGg;smuI ?
Gg;sum
I Ca sarFatuRbUetGIunEdlmannaTICakatalIkrCIv CYyCMrujel,nRbtikm
KImIepSg.
-RbsinebIKanGg;suImeT etIsarBagkayGacRbRBwteTA)anbeT?
RbsinebIKanGg;sm
uI eT skmPaBepSgkgsarBagkayminGacRbRBwte TA)aneT
-etIGg;suImmanlkNsm,tidUcemc?
KWCakatalIkrKImICIvEdlmanRbtikm
yfaRbePTkRmitx<s; ehIyskmPaBn
RbtikmKImCIvKWeTogTat; nigCak;lak;.

]TahrN_

kMedAxagM
bU:tasmkr:at m:g;kaENsGuksutI
KClO2

KCl + O2

kardutkMedAxaMg bbEnm MnO

-ebIdut KClO exSay vaRKan;Etrlay K EtminbeBaj O eT.
-EtebIbEnm MnO bnci kg KClO Edlrlay enaHRbtikmbegnI el,n ehIy O
)anbeBajy:agrhs.
kgbnb;BiesaFn_ edIm,IbMEbkKysutI xaj; RbUetGIIun RtUvmankatalIkr sItN
u PaB
nigktaepSg edIm,ICMrujRbtikmRbRBwte TA)anl.
kgsarBagkayrs; minGaceRbIkeM dAb kMhab;Rbtikm)aneT manEtRbtikmKImICa
eRcIn KW } Gg;suIm}.
]TarhN_ GaharEdleyIgbriePaK minGacrlaykgTwk bsay)an.GaharTaMgenH
CamU:elKulFM CaehtuminGacqgkat;pPa sekasika)an KWvaRtUvEtpas;breTACa
-sarFatugay tUcEdlGacrlaykgTwk.
-mU:elKulrbs;vaGacRCabtamPasekasika)an.
2-cMENkfak;Gg;sumI
-etIeKeFVIcMENkfak;Gg;smuI tamrebobdUcemc?
eKeFVIcEM Nkfak;Gg;sm
uI edayEpkelInaTIrbs;
vaKWeQaHrbs;Gg;suIm EdlbBab;edayBak{ Gas }bEnmelIeQaHsbu Rtat.
-etIeKeFVIcMENkfak;Gg;smuI Cabu:nanRkum?GVxI H?
2

eKeFVIcEM Nkfak;Gg;smuI Ca 6RkumKW

GuksuIdUerdukas Oxydoreductases CaGg;smuI cUlrYmRbtikmGuksuIdUerdukmRbtikr
fak;rgRkumenHmanerductas/GuksuIdas/GuksuIEsnNas/EBGuksuIdas/GIRu dUsLuI as
GIRu dULas Hydrolases CaGg;sumI EdlcUlrYmkgRbtikmpac;sm<nKImI edayPab;
GIuyug: OH nig GIuyug: H Edl)anmkBImUe: lKulTwkRbtikmGRIu dUlsI .
GIuRdULasmankabUGIRu das/RbUetGas/lI):as/eGEsr:as/ pUsVatas/bubi TIdas.
Rtg;esVr:as Transferases CaGg;smuI EdlcUlrYmkg RbtikmKImI yfaRbePT
edayeprmU:elKulBIbNMmYyeTAbNMm YyeTAeTot. ]>Rtg;kabuksuILas
GIRu dULas Hydrolases CaGg;suImEdlcUlrYmkgRbtikmpac;sm<nKImI edayPab;
GIuyug: OH nig GIuyug: H Edl)anmkBImUe: lKulTiwkRbtikmGiRu dUlsI .
GIuRdULasmankabUnGIuRdasGamILas EsluyLasRbUetGas lI):as eGEsr:as>>
lIy:as Lyases CaGg;sIumEdlbMEbkTwk kabUnDIGuksuIt nigGamU:j:ak; kgenaHrYm
man edGIuRdatas EDmINalItas.
GIsu Uemr;as CaGg;suImEdlCUyCmrujRbtikmmUe: lKul edIm,IerobcMmU:elKulCafI
]>eGBIemr;as muytas
lIhas CaGg;suImEdlcUlrYmkgRbtikm begItsm<nKImIrvagmU:elKulsubRsat@
vaCa saMgettas kabuksuILas.
3-lkNrbs;Gg;smuI
-etIlkNrbs;Gg;suImmanGVxI H?

Gg;sumI CaRbUetGIunmanskmPaBxagM kabMput. ]>kataLas! m:UelKulGacbMEbk

GIuRdUEsnEBGuksutI rab;lanEt1 naTI. Gg;sumI manlkNsm,tidUcCa
Gg;suImmYycMnYntUcGacbegnI Rbtikm)anmYycMnYnFM.
Gg;suImGacbegnI el,nRbtikmKImIEdlekItmankg ekasika.
Gg;suImmYymanGMeBIeTAelIEtsubRsatmYyKWCayfaRbePTrbs;va.
sarFatuEdlGg;smuI manGMeBIGaRsyeTAelIsbu Rsat
sub Rsat
Gg;sumI
sub Rsat
Gg;sumI
lIBIt
lI)a: s
Guyer
GuyerGas
m:al;tsU
m:al;tas
Lak;tUs
Lak;tas
sakar:sU
sak;kar:as
RbUetGIun
RbUetGas
GamIdug
GamILas
buibTIt
biubTIdas
GasuItribInuyekGciu GasuItnuyekGas
k>\TiBlnsItuNP aBeTAelIskmPaBGg;suIm
-Gg;suImmandMeNIrRbesIrbMputenAsItuNPaBx<s;KWcenaH$0 eTA $% .
-Gg;suImRtUv)at;bg;KuNPaBenAsItuNP aBx<s;
eBkelIsBI$% nigTabeBk0 rW sarFatu
KImIepSgdUcCa GasuIt Gal;kaLaMg.
x>\TiB l pH eTAelIGg;sumI
-etIman pH \TiBleTAelIGg;sumI dUcemc?

0C

0C

0C

0C

dUcCaGasuItxagM rW)asxagM . pH 7 =Acide & pH 7=bas

]>GamILas pH 7 BI 74 rW 5, pH 7 7 BI 9 skmGg;suImfycuH.
ebI pH = 4 or 9 GamILas)at;bg;KuNPaB
K>\TiB lsub RsatnigkMhab;Gg;smuI eTAelIRbtikm
-cUrbgajBI\TiBlsubRsatnigkMhab;Gg;suIm?
kalNakMhab;Gg;sumI kan;Etxab; el,nRbtikm
KImIkan;EtekIneLIg. EteBldl;cMnuc kMBUlmYy
el,nRbtikmKImIefr.
K>Gg;sImu RtUvkarkUGg;smuI edIm,IeFVsI kmPaB
Gg;sumI kRtUvkarkUGg;smuI edIm,ICYykgRbtikmKImIEdr.
X>Gg;sumI CakatalIkrEdlmanRbtikmbRBaas
-ehtuG)VI anCaeKfaGg;suImCakatalIkrEdlmanRbtikmbRBaas?

eRBaHvaGacbMEbgeTACasarFatufI ehIysarFatufeI naH kGacERbRbYlmkCasaFatuedImvij.

CBUkTI5
BtesenTicnigkarsMEdgnEsn
emeronTI1
ADNCaBtmanesenTic
ehtuGVI)anCaeKfa ADNCaTMrBt_manesenTic?
-eRBaHpktMNlMdab;nuyekGUTIt KWnuyekGUTItenHehIyCaGkpkBt_manesenTic Ca
bg;ksaglkNRbUTIt.
kgkarbnBCU edayePTktfIekItBIsIukUt)anmkBIkarrlaycUlKarvag kaEm:tjInig
kaEm:teQal. suIkUtmanBt_manesenTicsMrablkarksaglkN rbs;Pars;.
1-smasFatuKImInsMParesenTic
1>1 kaeBiesaFrbs;elakRKIPIt Griffith 1928
-etIPmI UP: UkCa)ak;etrIbgCMgWGVI?- Ca)ak;etrIEdlbgCMgW[manCMgWrlaksYt. vaman
rUbrag2 Ebb KW rag S nig rag R .
-etIrbU rag SmanlkNdUcemc?- KWrbU ragmaneRsamEdleFVIGMBIKysIut. vaman
lkNrhskg karbg[manCMgW.
-etIrbU rag RmanlkNdUcemc?- KWragKRKatKaneRsam nigminbg[manCMgWeT.
tamkarRsavRCavrbs;elakRKIPtI )ansnidanfa )ak;etrI R KaneRsam EbgCa
)ak;etrI S maneRsamEdlGacbgCMgW nigbBaneTAsnaneRkay.
1>2 karBiesaFrbs;elakGavIrI
-karRsavRCavrbs;elak GavIrI nigGkviTasaRsepSgeTot bgajfa mU:elKul
ADN CaTMrBt_manesenTic.

-elakv:at;sun nigRKinrkeXIjTMrg;mU:elKulADN. KMrAU DN mU:elKulenHekIteLIg

BIRcv:ak;BIrExSEdlrMuCaregVlelIKa.
1>3 karBiesaFrbs;hWsunI igqas
-hWsu)I anerobcMvIrsu 2Rkum edayvIrusmYyRkumcg
Pab;s<an;FrviTskm#% ehIymYyRkumeTot cg
Pab;pUsVrviTskm#@.
-rYcKat;ykvIrsu TaMgBIrRkum dak;elI)ak;etrIehIy
rg;caM[vIrsu bnBCU kg )ak;etrI. tamkarBiesaF
bgajfa s<an;FrviTskm#% enAsl; pUsrV
viTskm#@ KanenAsl;eT. Kat;eFVkI arsndi an
fa vIrsu bBan DNA eTAkg )ak;etrI bnab;mk
DNA sVytMeLIgeTVnigsMeyaKRbUetGIn
u Edlbg
CavIrusfICaeRcIn. dUcenH DNA CaBtm anesenTic.
2- TMrg;mUe: lKul ADN
2>1 FatubgmUe: lKul ADN
-mU:elKulADNbgeLIgBIRcv:ak;nuyekGUTIt2ExS. nuyekGUTItnImYy manFatubgKW
GasutI pUsvrci mYymU:elKul sregGuksuIrIbUsmYymUe: lKul)asnIRTicmYymUe: lKul
-)asnIRTicmanbYnEbb GaednIn TImIn suItUsnuI hanIn. GaednInCaKU)asbMeBjKa
ehIysuItUsuInnighanInCaKU)asbMeBjKaEdr.

H3PO4
H3PO4
H3PO4
H3PO4

sredGuksuIrIbUs A
sredGuksuIrIbUs T
sredGuksuIrIbUs C
sredGuksuIrIbUs G

2>2 lkN)asGasUt
tamratagbrimaN)asGasUtn ADN kg ekasikaepSgbgajfa
RbePTPavrs;

)asBYvic
A

sVa
RdUsPU lI
pSitNWrsU: ,:r:a

)asBIrmI IDIn
T

31.0 18.4 31.5 19.1

27.3 22.5 27.6 22.5
23.0 26.1 23.3 27.1

dUcenH
brimaNTImIn nig GaednInesIKa
brimaNsuItsU unI nig kanInesIKa

)ak;etrIGWklU I
mnusS efmI

24.6 25.6 24.3 25.5

30.3 19.5 30.3 19.8

2>3 KMrUme:U lKul ADN

elakv:at;sun nigelakRKikrkeXIjTRmg;mUe: lKul ADN. mU:elKul ADN
enH ekItBIRcv:ak;BIrExS EdlruMCaregVlelIKa. m:UelKul AND ekItBIRcv:ak;nuyekGUTtI
2ExS. Rcv:ak;mU:elKulADN TaMgBIrPab;KaeTAvijeTAmkedaysm<nGiuRdUEsnexSay
tameKalkarN_bMeBj)asnIRTicKW A Pab; T edaysm<nGIuRdUEsn @ Can; A = T
C Pab; G edaysm<nGIuRdUEsn # Can; C G
GasuItpUsVricnnuyekGUlTItmYyPab;eTAnwgsredGuksuInnuyekGUlTItmYyeTot
eday sm<nkUv:aLg;.
RbsinebIeKBnatRcv:ak;TMag2Edl
rMuCaregVldak;[rabesIenaH mU:el
Kul ADN mansPaBCaCeNIr
y:agEvg EdlmanTTwg 2nm nig
beNayeRcInmIlEI m:teTAeRcInEm:t
emCeNIrekItBIGasuItpUsVric nigsr
edGuksuIrIbUs kaMCeNIrekItBI)as
nIRTic.
eday !CMhan=!regVl=!0RbeLaH=#/$ nm

ehIyBInuyekGUlTIt 1 eTAnuyekGUlTIt1 esI 0.34 nm.

mU:elKul ADN nImYymancMnYnnuyekGUTIteRcIn. m:UelKul ADN epSgxusKa
edaycMnYn RbePT nigTItaMg rbs;nuyekGUTIt. tMNlMdab;nuyekGUTItTaMgbYnEbb
mansarsMxan; sMrab;sMKal; m:UelKul ADN nImYy.
]> m:UelKul ADN EdlmanRbEvg 1 mmmannuyekGUTtI 30lanKU.
sMKal; 1 =10-10 m
1 = 10-4
1 =10-1 nm 1 = 10-7 mm
1 nm =10-3
1 =10-3 mm
3-sVy tMelIgu eTV ADN
3>1 brimaN ADN kg ekasika
ADN manlkNBiessdUcteTA
-ktkgRbePTEtmYymanbrimaN ADN efrcMeBaHRKb;ekasikalUtlas; Et
ekasikabnBUCmanbrimaN ADN fycuHmkBak;kNal.
-brimaNADNERbRbYlBIRbePTmYyeTARbePTmYyeToteRBaHcMnYnRkUm:UsUmERbRbYl
3>2 sVy tMelIgu eTV ADN
-etIFatubgKImInRkUmUs: UmKWGVIxH? ADN nigRbUetGIun
-etIRkUmU:sUmbgeLIgBIGVI? bgeLIgBInuyekGUPILam:g;rges<km.
-etInuyekGUPLI am:g;bgeLIgBIGVI? m:eU lKul ADN ruMelIRKab;RbUetGInu GIusn.
-etIRkabenHtagGVI?cUrbkRsay.

RkabenHtagBIkarvivtnbrimaN ADN kgmYyvdekasika.

brimaN ADN ErbRbYldUcteTA
O
8 brimaN ADN efr
8
14 brimaN ADN ekIneLIgsVydMeLIgeTV
14
19 brimaN ADN = efr
19
20 brimaN ADN = Fak;cuHeFVm
I ItsU
k>dMeNIrkarsVydMeLIgeTV ADN
-etIclnkarsVydMeLIgeTV ADN RbRBwte TA
y:agdUcemc?
mU:elKul ADN manlkNGacsVytMelIugeTV. muncMENk ekasikanImYy Rcv:ak;
nuyekGUlTItTaMg2nmUe: lKul ADN empac;ecjBIKa. Rcv:ak;magrbs; ADN
embMerICa Bum< sMrab;sMeyaKRcv:ak;fIbMeBjbEnm. mU:elKul
ADN kUnTaMg2dUcebHbiTnwgmU:elKul ADN em. enAeBj
cMENkekasika ekasikakUnnImYy) anTTYlmU:elKul ADN
kUnmYykgcMeNam ADN kUnTaMg2. dUcenHekasikakUnTTYl
)anBtmanesenTicTaMgRsugBiekasikaem.
clnkarsVytMelIgu eTV ADN mansarsMxan;
-rkSacMnYnRkUmUs: Um[enAdEdleBlekasikaEck.
-enAcMENkmItsU ekasikakUnnigekasikaemman

dUcKa. dUcenH clnkarsVytMelIgu eTV ADN Fana[mankarbBanBtman

esenTic TmagRsugBIekasikaem eTAekasikakUn.
-clnkarsVytMelIugeTV ADN RbRBwte TAenAvK S ncenaH vK.
-EpksVytMelIugeT CatMbn;nmUe: lKul ADN EdleFVIkarsVytMelIugeTV enA
cenaHtMbn;minTan;mankarsVytMelIugeTV.
- ADN bU:leI mras CaGg;sumI yfaRbePT.
x>dMeLIgeTV ADN kg RbUkarIyUt:
-)ak;etrImanRkUmU:elKulEtmYy. ADN rbs;vamanragCargVg;EdlRtUvdMeLIgeTVmun
cMENkekasika. dMeLIgeTVRbRBwteTAedayecjBIcMNucEtmYy rYcEjkecjeTAtam
TisedABIrpyKa. )ak;etrIGacdMeLIgeTVkgel,nRbEhl106 KU)as kg mYynaTI
ehIyRbEhl 40 naTI.
K>dMeLIgeTV ADN kg GWkarIyUt:
kgekasikaGWkarIyU:t sVydMeLIgeTV ADN RbRBwte TAkgel,nRbEhl%00eTA
%000KU)asnaTI nigenAelIcMNucCaeRcIn.
3>3 naTIsyV dMeLIgeTV
sVydMeLIgeTV ADN mannaTI r:ab;rgkardMeLIgeTVnRkUmU:smU .
r:ab;rgcMnYnnigrUbragRkUmUs: Um [enAdEdleRkaycMENkekasika.
rkSaBtm anesenTic[enAefrdEdlqgkat;CMnan;
ADN

KnHw edaHRsaylMhat;
-rkRbEvgrbs;Esn ADN bRbEvgrbs;mU:elKul ADN
M
l
0.34nm eday l CaRbEvgEsn ADN bRbEvgmU:elKul ADN
2
M

M
C
2
M
C G
A
2

edIm,Irk M ebIeKR)ab;cnM YnA nigsmamaRtPaKryA M A 100

A
A
ebI M nigsmamaRtPaKryA cMnYnnuyekGUTIt A M100
edIm,Irk M ebIeKR)ab;cnM YnT nigsmamaRtPaKryT M T 100
T
T
ebI M nigsmamaRtPaKryT cMnYnnuyekGUTIt T M100
0

L 2 A 3C 2 A 3G 2T 3G 2T 3C

AT

M= 2A+2C = 2T+2G=2A+2G=2T+2C

cMnYnnuyekGUTItTaMgGs;enAelIRcv:ak;nuyekGUTItTaMg2
-rkcMnYnCMhann mU:elKul ADN bEsn
eday 3.4 nmRtUvnwg!CMhan

cMnYnCMhan= 3.l4
M
eday!0KUnuyekGUTIt RtUvnwg!CMhan cMnYnCMhan= 20
-rkcMnYnnuyekGUTItTaMgGs;rbs;mU:elKul ADN bEsnM
tameKalkarN_bMeBj)asnIRTic A-T , C-G

edIm,Irk M ebIeKR)ab;cnM YnC nigsmamaRtPaKryC M C 100

C
C
ebI M nigsmamaRtPaKryC cMnYnnuyekGUTIt C M100
edIm,Irk M ebIeKR)ab;cnM YnD nigsmamaRtPaKryD M D 100
D
D
ebI M nigsmamaRtPaKryD cMnYnnuyekGUTIt D M 100
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edaysm<nGIuRdUEsn3
edIm,IrkcMnYnsm<nG IuRdUesnsrub

-edIm,IrkcMnYnnuyekGUTItesrI
ebImU:elKul ADN eFVIsVytMelIgu eTV 1dg M = M
ebImU:elKul ADN eFVIsVytMelIgu eTV ndg M = M 2n-1
ecjBIrbU mnxagelIenH eKGacrk
>TesrI = AesrI = A 2n-1 rW TesrI = AesrI = T 2n-1
>CesrI = GesrI = C 2n-1 rW CesrI = GesrI = G 2n-1
-edIm,IrkcMnYnnuyekGITItesrIsrubtageday m
ebIeKR)ab;cMnYnA nig A m A A 100
ADN

ADN

ADN

ADN

ARNm

ebI m nigA
ebIeKR)ab;cMnYnU

ADNm

ARNm

ARNm

nig U

ARNm

ARNm

m 0 0 A ARNm
100
100
U
m ARNm
0 U
0
ARNm

cMnYnnuyekGUTIt A ARNm

ARNm

ebI m nigU
ebIeKR)ab;cMnYnC

ebI m nigC
ebIeKR)ab;cMnYnG

m 0 0 U ARNm
100
100
C
CARNm m ARNm
0 C
0
ARNm
m 0 0 C ARNm
C ARNm
100
100
G
GARNm m ARNm
0 G
0
ARNm
m 0 0 G ARNm
G ARNm
100

cMnYnnuyekGUTIt U ARNm

ADNm

nig

ARNm

cMnYnnuyekGUTIt

ADNm

nig

ARNm

ebI m nigG cMnYnnuyekGUTIt

-eday ADN mannuyekGUTIt 4y:ag KW A T C G = 100
2A 2C = !00
A C = %0 A = 50- C/ C = 50- A
100
A = T =
C
2
100
C = G =
A
2
-edayEsnCaRcva:k; 2ExS A Esn = T Esn = A! A@ enaH A! = A Esn - A@
A Esn = T Esn = T! T@ enaH T! = T Esn - T@
C Esn = G Esn = C! C@ enaH C! = C Esn - C@
C Esn = G Esn = G! G@ enaH G! =G Esn - G@
ADNm

-KNnanuyekGUTtI nImYyrbs;Esn rW ADN

A T C G
Esn
T A G C
ARNm U A G C
AEsn = A 2 A U 2A
AEsn= TEsn=
U A
T T
TEsn = 2
2
CEsn = C 2 C C 2G C G
Esn= Esn=
C G
G G
GEsn = 2
2
lMhat;Gnuvtn_
1mUe: lKUl ADN mYymannuyekGUTIt RbePT A=120000 EdlmansmamaRt @0
ncMnYnnuyekGUTItTaMgGs;.
k>KNnacMnYnnuyekGUTItRbePtnImYyrbs;meU: lKulADN
x>rkRbEvg mU:elKulADN Ca mIRkUEm:tm
K>rkcMnYnChanrbs;mU:elKulADN
2mU:elKUl ADN mYymanRbEvg 0/102 mm.
k>KNnacMnYnnuyekGUTItRbePTnImYyrbs;mUe: lKulADN.ebInuyekGUTIt
T=18nnuy>TaMgGs;.
0

ARNm

ARNm

ARNm

ARNm

x>rkcMnYnnuyekGUTItesrI eBl ADN sVytMelIugeTV

K>rkcMnYnsm<nGuIRdUEsnsrub?
3mUe: lKul ADN mYymannuyekGUTIt RbePT A=15 nnuyekGUTItsrub. nuyek
GUTItRbePT C eRcInCag A cMnYn4400 nuy>.
k>KNnacMnYnnuyekGUTItRbePTnImYyrbs;mUe: lKul ADN
x>KNnaRbEvgrbs;mU:elKul ADN Ca mIRkUEm:t?
K>ebImUe: lKulADN sVytMelIgu eTV4dg etIRtUvkarnuyekGUTItesrIcMnYnbu:nan?
4mUe: lKul ADN mYymanplbUknuyekGUTItRbePTA nigT esI30nnuyekGUTtI
TaMgGs; nigmancMnnY sm<n GIRu dUEsnsrub 29700.
k>rkcMnYnnuyekGUTItRbePTnImYyrbs;mUe: lKul ADN
x>rkRbEvgmU:elKul ADN Ca mm
K>rkm:asrbs;mU:elKul ADN ebInuyekGUTItmYymanm:as300xatkabUn.
5mU:elKul ADN mYymancMnYnsm<nGIuRdUEsnrvagA nigT esIcMnYnsm<nGIuRdUEsn C
nig G esI 3>104 .
k>KNnacMnYnnuyekGUTItRbePTnImYyrbs; mU:elKul ADN
x>rkRbEvg mU:elKul ADN Camm ?

emeronTI2
karsMEdgecjnEsn
-etIGVICa ADN? CasmaresenTicEdlpkBt_manesenTic.
-etIlkNrbs;Pavrs;epNUTIbRtUv)ankMNt;edayGV?I ehIysitenANa?
RtUv)ankMNt;edayBtmanesenTic EdlsitenAkgNVyU:nekasika.
-etIBtm anesenTicRtUv)anbBan BIekasikaemeTAekasikakUntamryGVI?
tamrysVydMeLIgeTV ADN nigr)ayesIn ADN kgvKGaNapasnmItUs.
!> skmPaBnEsn
!>1>BiesaFn_rbs;bd l Beadle nigtaTum Tatum
- etIelakbdlnigTumeFVIkarBiesaFn_dUcemc?
BYkKat;bBaagM kaMrsI X eTAelIs,:rbs;pSitprRkhm NWrU:s,:r:aRkassa ehIy
yks,:enaHeTAciBawmenAkgemtabUlItBIrxusKa KW
mCdansm,rsarFatuciBawm
mCdanxSt;sarFatuciBawm edaymCdanmYylayemtabUlIt C nig
mCdanmYyeTotlayemtabulIt D . tamkarBiesaFn_bgajfa manGg;suIm2
RbePTRtUv)ansMeyaKeday
mIeslm edIm,IRTRTg;karlUt
las;enAkg mCdan C nig D.
Kat;ehAsmtikmenHfa EsnmYy
dwknaMsMeyaK Gg;suImmYy.

emtabUlIt CasarFatuEdlcUlrYmemtabUlsI .
-etIpSitprRkhmeQaHNWr:Us,:r:aRkassa manlkNBiessdUcemc?
KWmanlkNGaclUtlas;kugmCdanxSt;sarFatuciBawm ehIybnBCU tamrys,:
GabGuIt.
-GVICaEsn? EsnCaGgt;tUcmYyrbs; ADN EdlmanpkBtm anesenTic sRmab;
sMeyaK RbUetGIunyfaRbePTmYy ehIyRbetGInu CaGkkMNt;lkNrbs;kt.
-etIGksnidandUcemcrvagEsn nigRbUetGIun?
EsnCaGgt;mYyrbs; ADN Edlpk BtmanesenTic sRmab;kMNt;karsMeyaK
RbUet GIunmYy. RbUetGIunenHeFVI[elcecjnUglkNmYyrbepNUTIbmYy.
!>2>PaBRtUvKan ADN nigRbUetGInu
-etIRTwsIxagelIEdlfa : EsnmYydwknaMsMeyaKGg;suImmYy : RtUvbr CaGVI?
{ EsnmYydwknaMsMeyaKRbUetGIunmYy :
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cMncu dUcKa -Cam:aRkUmUe: lKul
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cMnucxusKa
ADN
RbUetGIun
>ekItBIRcv:ak;nuyeklGUTItBIrbMeBjKa >ekIteLIgBIRcv:ak;GasutI GamIenmYyExS

>nuyekGUTIt#kMNt;GasuItGamIen!.
>GasutI GamIen!kMNt;edaynuyekGUTIt#
>manRbEvgEvgCagRbuetGIunrab;sibeTArab;ry >manRbEvgxCI ag AND rab;sib
> ADN nImYymannuyekGUTtI 4RbePT Edl eTArab;rydg.
teRmobCatMNlMdab;nuyekGUTItCak;lak;. >manGasuItGamIen 20RbePTEdl
teRmobKatamtMNlMdab;Cak;lak;
)anCaRcv:ak;bUlbI uibTIt.
@> karcmgBtmanesenTic
-etIBtm anesenTicEdlCabg;sagsg;RbUetGInu manTItaMgenANa?
KWenAelIGgt; AND kgNVy:U eRkamTRmg;CatMNlMdab;nuyekGUTIt.
-etIeragCagsMNg;RbUetGIunCaGV?I ehIymanTItaMgenANa?
KWCarIbUsUm ehIysitenAkgsuIt)U as.
@>1 rUbp ARN naMsar ARN
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sMeyaKRbUetGIunedaypal; ? KW ARN
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Cam:eU lKulEdlcmgBtmanesenTic
BI ADN ehIybBaneTArIbUsUm edIm,I
sMeyaKRbUetGIun.
m

-etImU:elKul ADN nigmUe: lKul ARN manlkNxusKay:agdUcemc?

mU:elKul ADN
mUe: lKul ARN
CaRcv:ak;edGuksuIrIbUnuyekGUTIt@ExS
CaRcv:ak;rIbUnuyekGUTIt ! ExS.
EdlPab;Kaedaysm<n GRIu dUEsn.
EvgCagm:UelKul ARN y:agxaMg.
xCI agmUe: lKul ADN y:agxagM .
cMnYnnuyekGUTIteRcInrab;mWun-rab;lan
cMnYnnuyekGUTItticrab;sib-Ban;
m:asmU:elKulERbRbYlBIrab;laneTArab;ekadi ma:smU:elKulERbRbYlBI @%000
eTA%00 000.
srRbePTedGuksuItbI Us C H O
srRbePTrIbUsC H O
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)asRbePTGuyr:asulI U
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ARN naMsar ARN CaGkcmgRkmBI ADN.
ARN dwknaM ARN CaGkdwknaMGasuItGamIeneTAdak;elIkUdugnmU:elKul ARN .
ARN rIbUsUm ARN CakEngsMeyaKRbUetGIun.
@>2 clnkarcmgRkm
-ehtuGcVI aM)ac;mankarsMeyaK ARN ?
eRBaHBtm anesenTic ADN sitenACanickg NVy:U karsMeyaKRbUetGIuneFVIenA
kgsuIt)U as ehIyRtUvmanmU:elKuleTAcmgRkmKW ARN .
5

10

10

-etIclnkarsMeyaK ARN eFVIenANa ? eFVIenAkgNVyU:

-etI ADN sMeyaK)an ARN bu:nan?
ADN sMeyaKsMeyaK)an ARN eRcIn eRBaH ARN ekItBIGgt;mYyrbs; AND
ehAfaEsn.
-etIkarsMeyaK ARN eFVIeLIgedayGnraKmn_BGI VI?
karsMeyaK ARN eFVIeLIgedayGnraKmn_BI Gg;suIm ARN bU:leI mr:as.
-etIGg;suIm ARN bU:lIemr:asmannaTIGVIxH?
TTYlsal;sBaaNesenTic enAelImU:elKul ADN EdlGaccab;epImnigbBab;
sMeyaK ARN Rtg;kEngCak;lak;.
ebIkmU:elKul ADN edaykarpac;sm<n GIRu dUEsnexSay.
eFVI[manbUl: IEmkmnrIbUnuyekGUTIt KWrbI UnuyekGUTIt
esrI eTAbMeBjCamYynuyekGUTItRcv:ak;magrbs; ADN
tameKalkarN_bMeBj)as A-U , C-G .
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KWCakarcmgtMNlMdab;nuyekGUTItelIGgtm; Yy
rbs;ADN[eTACatMNlMdab;rbI UnuyekGUTItrbs; ARN
#> RkmesenTic
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m

CaRbBn nPaBRtUvKa rvagtMNlMdab;nuyekGUTIt eTAnwgtMNlMdab;GasuItGamIen

kgRbetGInu .
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)an y:agdUcemc?
KWmansmtikmbI
nuyekGUTIt1kMNt;GasuItGamIen1$!=$ enaHsl;GasuItGamIen16 vaminRKb;.
nuyekGUTIt2kMNt;GasuItGamIen1$@=!^ enaHsl;GasuItGamIen4 vaminRKb;.
nuyekGUTIt3kMNt;GasuItGamIen1 $#=^$RKb;RKan;sRmab;kMNt;GasuItGamIen.
naM[eKGacsnidan)anfa nuyekGUTIt # mYyRtIFatukMNt;GasIutGamIenmYy .
GasuIt GamIen mYyTTYlRkmBIRtIFatumYyrWeRcInBI ADN.
#>2 taragRkmesenTic

nuyekGUTIt3=RtIFatu1=1kUdug=1Gg;TIkUdug=1GasuItGamIen
edayARN CaGksMeyaKRbUetGIunedaypal; dUcenHeKGac[niymny Rkmesen
Tic CaRbBnRtUvKantMNlMdab;rIbUnuyekGUTItrbs; ARN nigtMNlMdab;GasuItGa
mIen.
naM[ $#=^$ kUdug-# kUdugsb =^! kUdug RtUvnwgGasuItGamIen @0RbePT.
-tamtaragRkmesenTic etIkUdugNaminkMNt;GasuItGamIen?
mankUdug UAA UAG UGA minkMNt;GasuItGamIen eRBaHvaCakUdugsRmab;
bBab;karsMeyaKRbUetGIun EdlehAfakUdugsb.
-etIRkmesenTicmanlkNdUcemc?
manlkNCaskl eRBaHPavrs;TaMgGs;mannuyekGUTIt 4RbePT sRmab;kMNt;
GasuItGamIen 20 RbePT ehIyRtIFatumYykMNt;GasuItGamIenmYy.
$> karbkERbRkm
$>1 rIbUsUm
-etIFatusMxan;GVxI HEdlcUlrYmkgkarsMeyaKbU:lIbiubTIt?
FatusMxan;bIEdlcUlrYmkgkarsMeyaKbU:lIbiubTItKW ARN rIbUsUm ARN .
-etIrbI UsUmCaGVI? ehIymannaTIdUcemc?
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mannaTICaeragCagsagsg;RbUetGIun.
rIbUsUmman2EpkKW ktargFM nigktargtUc
m

ehIymankMBs; 30nm nigTTwg 20nm.

>ktargFM = ARN #m:UelKulRbUetGInu $%
>ktargtUc= ARN !m:UelKulRbUetGInu ##
-etIGVICabUl: IsUm?
CasMNMru IbUsUm EdltPab;KaedaymUe: lKulARN
$>2 ARN dwknaM ARN
-etI ARN manTRmg;dUcemc?
vaCaRcv:ak;nuyekGUTIt1ExSragCaduM EdlmankEng
Biess2KW TTYlsal;kUdgu )as3tPab;Karbs; ARN
edaysarGg;TkI Udug.
Pab;GasuItGamIenyfaRbePTmYy.
-kgkarsMeyaKRbUetGIun ehtuGVIcaM)ac;RtUvman ARN ?
etI ARN mannaTIdUcemc?
kgkarsMeyaKRbUetGIun ARN manbg;EdlkMNt;TItaMgGasuItGamIen kg mU:elKul
RbUetGIun. EtGasuItGamIennImYyminGacrkbg;kMNt;rbs;xnelI ARN )aneT man
nyfa GasIutGamIenmYyminsal;kUdugrbs;xnelIARN )an dUcenH ARN CaGk
tRmUvGasuItGamIeneTAnwgkUdug Kwmannyfa ARN CaGkdwknaMGasuItGamIen eTAdak;
elIkUdugn ARN edaymanGnraKmn_BGI g;smuI yfaRbePTmYyKW Gg;sumI GamINU
GasulI ARN saMgettas nigfamBl ATP .
r

$>3 clnkarbkERbRkm
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KWRbRBwteTAenAkgsuItU)as elIrbI UsUm. karsMEdgecjnEsnman clnkar 2bn
bnab;KW
clnkarcmgRkm CaclnkarTI1 nig
clnkarbkERbRkmkarsMeyaKRcv:k;bUl: Ibubi TIt CaclnkarTI2
-etIclnkarbkERbRkmRbRBwteTAdUcemc?
clnkarbkERbRkmRbRBwteTA bclnkarsMeyaKRbUetGIun man 3 dMNak;KW
dMNak;epmI dMNak;lUtEvg nigdMNak;bBab;.

ktaTaMg 2nrIbUsUmPab;Ka ehIyPab;xn eTAnwgkUdugepmI AUG n ARNm.

EdlmanGg;TIkdU ug UAC tRmUvCamYykUdgu AUG dwknaM emtnIn

Tmak;kgft P n rIbUsUm ehIycakecjBIrIbUsUm.
x>dMNak;lUtEvg
-etI ARN EdlTmak;GasIuGamIenrYcehIy sitenArhUtkgrIbUsUmrWeT?
Kwvacakecj edIm,I[ft A TMenrsRmab;TTYl ARN fI .
-etirbI UsUm manskmPaBdUcemc kg dMNak;lUtEvg?
rIbUsUm pas;TItambeNay ARN edayelatCaCMhan ehIymYyCMhanesI !
kUdug. eBlrIbUsUmelatmYy CMhan KWRtUvman ARN dwknaMGasuItGamIenmYycUl
eTATmak;kg rIbUsUmCanic eRkayeBlkUdugnigGg;TIkUdugbMeBjKakEng A . enA
kgft P GasIut GamIen Pab;KaBImYyeTAmYyedaycMNgbubi TIt ehIykan;EtlUt Evg
eTA.
-etibMlas;TinrIbUsUm eRcInelI ARN manGtRbeyaCn_dUcemc?
sRmab;karsMeyaKmU:elKulbUl: Ibubi TIt)anCaeRcIn.
K>dMNak;bBab;
-ehtuG)VI anCa eBlrIbUsUmpas;TI dl;kUdugsb UUA UAG UGA karsMeyaK
RbUetGIunRtUvbBab;?
BIR; BaHkUdugsbCakUdugEdlbBab;karsMeyaKRbUetGIun ehIyktargTaMg 2 rbs;
;rIbUsUmbMEbkecjBIKa ARN ARN nigRcv:ak;bU:lIbuibTItkbMEbkecjBIKaEdr .
ARNt

k>dMNak;dMbUg
-etIkUdugepImelImU:elKul ARN KWGVI? etIkUdugenHRtUvnwgGasuItGamIeneQaHGVI?
kUdgu epmI AUG RtUvnwgGasuItGamIeneQaH emtnIn.
-etIrbI UsUmmankEngBiessbu:nan?
rIbUsUm mankEngBiess 2 KWft P sRmab;emtnInnigsRmab;bU:lbI uibTIt nigft
A sRmab;TTYlGasuItGamIen.
-etIdMNak;dMbUg cab;epImedaymanRBwtikarN_GVI?
m

-etImanRBwtikarN_GeVI kIteLIg enAkgRcv:ak;bU:lbI uibTIt eBlsMeyaKRbUetGIuncb;?

KwemtnnI RtUvpac;ecjBIcMNgbuibTIt bnab;mkRbUetGIunEdl)ansMeyaKehIy
RtUvdwkCBan eTAkEngNaEdlRtUvkar.

% tRmUvkarnkarsMEdgepNUTIb
-etIRKb;ekasikakgsarBagEtmYy manEsndUcKarWeT?

RKb;ekasikakg sarBagEtmYymanEsndUcKa

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