1

[1 ]
(sentence) ,
(subject), (predicative verb), (object), (complement)
4(four elements) (modifiers)
.
, ,
, (five sentence
patterns) .

,
.
, (content words)
(function words)
.
[1. (Five Sentence Patterns)]
[A. 1 : +(S+V)]
, ,
(complement)
(, complete intransitive verb) .
: a. '~[, ]...'
1. Man cannot fly. .
2. The day breaks. .
3. The earth moves round the sun. .
4. An explosion occurred in the factory. .
5. The weather often changes in Britain. [] .
6. He ran home [upstairs, down- stairs]. [, ]
.
NOTE: cannot . Success changed him. .
-> .
He runs a supermarket. . changed runs
.
.
: make
.
1. The road make toward(s) the sea [through the wood].
[ ].
2. The stream make into the lake. .
3. She makes[made] as if she knew everything.
[].
* 1 , make move, proceed, extend,
lead, flow, pretend .
1. He[She] will make a fine doctor [a good wife]. [ ]
[] .
* make make oneself (5) .
2. Two and three make(s) five. 2 3 5().
3. Cold tea makes an excellent drink summer. .
* 2 become, be .

1. He is making rapid progress in his studies.

[] .
2. Nature[God] made man. [] .
3. We make bamboo into many things. ()
.
4. Make hay while the sun shines. . ->
.
* 3 make
1. I'll make you a new dress. .
* 4.
1. The game made the spectators excited. .
2. I made him repeat the story. .
* repeat made him .
3. They made their daughter a dentist. .
4. You have made me what I am today. [ ]
.
* 5.
: b.
1. He neither smokes nor drinks.
.
2. Where do we change? () () ?
3. He paid for the crime with his life. ()
( ).
: c. (active-passive,
)
1. His new novel is selling[being sold] well. .
2. This wine drinks very well. .
3. This play reads better than it acts.
.
4. This material does not wash well. [] .
5. This orange peels well. .
NOTE: ' ' .
This novel sold yesterday . well, easily
. bestseller ' '
. This novel is a good seller[the best seller]. (
[ ])( ).
: d. be (2)
. (Descartes) "I think,
therefore I an."( . . Latin -> Cogito ergo
sum) am exist() .
1. Can such things be? ?
2. When is your wedding to be? ( )?
* be have[had] been to .
3. I have never been to Moscow. .
4. I have just been to the railroad station to see my brother off.
[] .
: e. 'There be+...' 1.
' ' . there
be .
a, an, some, any, no, many, much the
.
1. There is a beautiful river in that village.
() .
2. There are many people in front of the railroad station.
( ).
* ' ...' '... '

. []
. .
. There are three students absent
today. absent students . Three students are absent today(
) .
3. There are some children swimming in the river. [Some children are
swimming in the river.]
[ ] .
4. There was no food left for me.
.
be come, live, stand, remark, grow seem (to be), appear(to
be), happen (to be) .
5. Once there lived a beautiful princess in this castle.
.
6. There came a knock at th door. []
.
7. There seemed to be nobody in the house. .
There Here 1. There
, There ''
Here '' '' .
8. Here is the fountain pen you are looking for. []
[].
9. Here comes the taxi! []!
[B.2 : ++(S+V+C)]
(, incomplete
intransitive verb) . be become
[] [] .
: a. '~ ...'
1. The singer in blind. [ ].
2. The love of money is the root of all evils.
.
3. My hobby is stamp collecting [collecting stamps].
.
NOTE: '=' .
. '' .
: b. '~ ... []'
1. He seems to be a great movie fan. [] .
2. This book seems (to by) very difficult. .
3. The rumor appears (to be) true. [] .
NOTE: appear, seem ' '
seem () []
.
4. Our teacher looks gentle, but he is very strict while teaching.
.
* while (he is) teaching. ' ' seem look .
5. His statement sounds true[false, reasonable]. [,
] .
: c. '~[] ... '
1. My (elder) brother became a doctor. .
2. We got tired. .
3. My sick friend got well. () .
4. The leaves (of trees) turn red in the fall. .
5. It is getting dark. Let's go home. . .
6. I am not seventeen yet. 17 .
7. She will make a good wife. [] .

8. His prediction came true. [].

9. The telephone went dead. .
10. The well ran dry. .
11. I often fall asleep while (I am) reading.
.
12. It is growing[getting, becoming] dark. .
: d. '(, , ) ...'
1. This flower smells sweet. .
2. This soup tastes sour. [ ].
3. The bell sounds cracked. .
4. The air outside (the house) feels. .
5. This paper feels smooth. [].
: a) She was kindness itself she smiles
. She was very
kind. She was smiling happily [She looked very happy].
[ ]. +itself=all+
=very+ .
b) . .
He died a millionaire. . She married young.
( ).
[C. 3 : ++(S+V+O)]
[ ] (complete
transitive verb; 3)
(incomplete transitive verb; 5),
(, , dative verb; 4) .
: a. '~ ... -'
1. She buys a new book every week. .
2. He made an excellent speech. .
3. I sometimes play the guitar piano]. [the [] .
4. We play baseball every Sunday. .
NOTE: '' '' the
. ...play tennis[basketball]. ...play a game,
...play a good[poor] game [ ] .
5. I watched a volleyball match yesterday. .
6. I watch television for about an hour after supper and then study my lessons
.
.
7. He left paris last week. .
: b. '~ ... -'
1. An elephant has a long trunk. [<-
].
2. He has three children. [ ].
3. I have a headache. .
4. We had much snow this year. [].
5. We have much rain in September. 9 .
6. We had great fun during the summer vacation.
.
* fun .
NOTE: 4, 5 we . (generic
person) we, they, people, you, one .
.
: c. : ()
(-self) .
1. He killed himself. = He committed suicide. [<-

].
2. She locked herself in her room. .
[<- ].
-self .
3. We enjoyed ourselves at the party. = We had a good time at the party.
.
4. I pride myself on[am proud of] this garden.
.
5. Behave yourself! !
6. He presented himself[was present] at the police station.
.
7. She absented herself[was absent] from school yesterday.
[ ].
NOTE: lock oneself(), present oneself(), kill
oneself() '+-self' .
: d.
1. He bowed his thanks. = He expressed his thanks by bowing.
.
2. They kissed good-night. .
3. She nodded her comprehension.
.
4. They shouted congratulations to one another.
.
: e. '~ ... []'
1. He robbed her of her savings. () ( )
.
2. Astonishment deprived him of his power of speech.
. [<- .]
3. The wind stripped the tree of all its leaves. .
[<- .]
4. We cleared the table of the dishes. .
NOTE: of ...rob her savings ...clear the table
, . cure
~of ...'~ ... ', rid ~ of ...'~ ... ', empty
~of... '~ ... ' .
: f. '~ ... '
1. They regarded him as a man of genius. .
2. Color-hate defined the place of black life as below that of white life.
[ ]
.
3. I hesitate to describe him as really clever.
.
4. He recognized Tom as his son and heir.
.
: g. '~ ... '
1. The rain prevented[kept] us from starting. .
2. Father dissuaded[discouraged] me from going there.
.
3. Laws prohibit employers from discriminating against union members.
= inhibit, debar.
.
* .
: h. '~ ... '
1. Nature has endowed us all with a peculiar system called conscience.
=supply ~ with, furnish ~ with.

 .
2. We presented him with a gold watch on his sixtieth birthday.
() .
3. She served them with beer and wine. =She served beer and wine to them.
.
4. His anger was fed with thoughts of revenge.
.
5. This book will provide you with necessary information.
.
6. Don't trust her with your typewriter.
().
entrust ~ with ... ~ ... .
* '' furnish, provide, supply with
. .
[D. 4 : +++(S+V+O+O')]
: a. '~ ... -'
1. The sun gives us light and heat. .
2. My father bought me a camera. .
3. She told the foreigner the way to the railroad station.
.
4. Tom showed her an album. .
5. He asked his teacher a question. .
6. I lent him a pair of scissors. .
* pair . a pair of scissors .
7. I taught her brother English. .
8. Bring me the book. = Bring the book to me. .
9. Will you please get me two tickets for the concert?
?
: to
for ( 3
). '' to, '~ ' for
. .
buy +for give +to
buy call give hand send
choose cook allow [ for] write
find get offer promise owe
leave make pay tell lend
order play sell pass show
reach save teach bring read
knit
* bring, write, leave, play to, for .
10. This machine will save you a lot of trouble.
[ ].
11. God will forgive you your sin [trespass].
.
12. I asked him a question. =I asked a question of him.
.
13. He envied me my trip around the world.
.
NOTE: 10, 11, 12, 13 . This machine
will save a lot of trouble for you . save forgive, envy
'' .
: 2 explain : give
tell
. Please explain to me the meaning of this sentence
Please explain me the meaning of... .

admit invest donate remark

confer propose express confess
explain bestow inquire entrust
impose mention suggest
admit+, propose+ '~++that' .
assure(), inform( ), remind(), convince(),
persuade(), warn() '+()+that' .
I persuaded him that the report was true, of .
I persuaded him of the truth of the report. ()
I persuaded him the truth of the report. ()
[E. 5 : +++(S+V+O+C)]
''
. 2 '' (subjective
complement) 5
' '(objective complement) .
* 4
, .
: a. '~ ... ' '~ ... '
1. The prince made her happy. .
2. Noise makes us nervous. .
3. Mr. John made her his secretary. .
4. The parents named their son Tom. .
5. What do you call this flower? ?
6. We declare the gentleman(to be) a liar.
.
7. She dyed the cloth red. .
NOTE: 1. She is happy, 2. We are nervous, 3. She is his secretary,
4. Their son is Tom ,
'+' , '. '
(nexus) . ' ' '
' .
: b. '~ ... '
1. They left the house vacant. .
2. Keep your room clean[tidy]. .
3. He left the door open. .
4. Don't leave the radio on. [] .
5. Let's keep this matter secret for a while.
.
NOTE: 1. The house was left vacant they
. 4. on ' ' .
() .
: c. a
.
1. He painted the wall green. .
2. Lightning struck him dead. .
[-> .]
3. He tore the letter open. =He tore open the letter.
.
4. She dyed her hair brown. .
: d. ' '( a,c)
.
1. They eat meat raw. .
2. I like my coffee strong. .

cf. raw meat[beef], raw fish.

: e. '~ ... '
1. I believe him (to be) honest. .
2. I thought him (to be) a policeman. () .
3. I consider it a good idea. () .
4. I thought her (to be) charming indeed. .
5. I supposed the rumor to be false. .
NOTE: think . '...think
that' . 'to be' , 2. He is a
policeman .
: f. '~ ... ' '~ ...'
1. I found the book (to be) easy. () .
2. I found it difficult to carry out the plan.
.
3. I found the letter(s) Greek. .
4. I found the box empty. .
[-> .]
NOTE: a) I found the book easily .
, .
b) it
() (2).
c) find ~ (to be) ... ' ( ) , '
'' look for research
'' ' ' ( ).
: g. '~ ... ' ()++
1. I saw her enter the room. .
2.He heard Mary sing a song. []
.
3. We all felt the floor shake.
.
4. Nobody noticed the man enter. .
NOTE: a) ' ' .
' ' .
->feel, hear, notice, observe, perceive, see, watch, listen to,
look at.
b) ( ) (to do)
to () (root-infinitive, bare-infinitive)).
to .
I heard him mutter some words under his breath.
->He was heard to mutter some words under his breath.
.
c) ' ' ' ' '
' '' .
I saw the man cross[crossing] the road.
[ ] .
.
: h. '~ ... ' ++
() '... '
, (
). . ->let,
make, have, bid.
1. He did not let Tom use his dictionary. =He let Tom not use his
dictionary. []
( ).
2. I made him write a letter of apology. .
3. His words made her feel uneasy. .

[-> .]
4. The teacher bade me stand up. .
5. Have Jim do the work. .
6. I love to have you tell me about it.
.
NOTE: a) have have ' '()
.
I had my shoes mended [My shoes was mended].
I had him mend my shoes.
b) to
'to ' . let have (
).
I'll have him do it at once(). ->He will be had to do it at once by me
().
I let the boy come here at once()->The boy was let to come...().
let allow ...be allowed[permitted] to (do)
. ( .)
c) get, cause to .
We could not get her to accept the offer.
.
help to , .
I help my father [to] water our crops.
[] .
: i. '~ , ' have[get]+()+
1. I had my hair cut yesterday. .
2. He had his watch repaired. [ .]
3. He had his shoes shined[polished]. ( ].
4. I had my car washed. [].
5. The students had their compositions corrected by their teacher.
.
6. In this book the English composition has its proper importance
assigned to it. .
7. We had our photograph taken by a stranger in the park a few days
ago. [ ].
8. I had this suit made by a good tailor [dressmaker].
[] .
9. She gad her birthday celebrated by her classmates yesterday.
.
10. She must have had her hair dyed. .
11. Do you think we will have our tickets examined on this train.
?
12. I must have my room cleaned by John. .
13. I had my hat blown off(by the wind). .
14. He had his house burnt down in the fire. .
15. Father had his pocket picked on a bus on his way home yesterday.
.
16. I had my wallet stolen in the bus. .
17. He got his right arm broken in the accident. .
18. I had him repair my watch. .
19. We had her prepare dinner for the party. .
20. The foreigner had a porter carry his baggage[=~had his baggage
carried by a porter.]
[ ]
* 18. 19. 20. have+()+.
: a)
.
I had my hair cut , A barber cut my hair.
My hair was cut by a barber .
I

 I . I had my hair [to be] cut by a barber

to be by a
barber I had my hair cut .
Father had his pocket picked . His pocket was
picked
. , She had her purse stolen Someone[A thief]
stole her purse from her, .
Her purse was stolen .
She was stolen ... [] .
have .
b) 'have+()+' '' .
He had his wife die. .
She had her father die. .
, wife, father
.
c) 11, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17 ()
(suffer, experience) (passive of
experience) ( (4) ).
[2. (Subject)]
.
1. An ambulance ran in the direction of the park at full speed.
.
2. You should not smoke so much.
.
3. To love and to be loved is the greatest happiness in the world.
.
4. Reading good books is important for young people.
.
5. a) Whether you will succeed in the attempt or not is very important.
=It is very important whether you will succeed in the attempt or not.
.
b) That the girl is kind to everybody is well known.
[] .
c) What is the true joy of life is not generally recognized.
.
d) What is learned in the cradle is carried to the grave[tomb].
. [->
.]
e) Whatever [Anything that] is worth doing is worth doing well.
[] .
f) Whoever comes early in the morning is welcome.
.
g) Whichever watch you choose will satisfy him.
.
* a), b) , c) , d), e), f)
. g)whichever .
6. the+ Even the great have their weaknesses. .
7. I waited and waited, but no bus came.
.
8. What brought you here?
? [-> ?]
9. It : , , , , .
a) It is cloudy today. It is snowing outside. It looks like rain.
b) It is four years since he died. It is about half past two by my watch.
c) It is two miles from here to the next town.
d) It is still dark af five in the morning.
e) It is very pleasant here. .
It's all over now. .

It is all over with poor Tom. .

f) It is very important to learn early to rely on ourselves.
[] .
[3. (Object)]
.
1. I want to learn English conversation this year.
2. I believe him (to be) the best doctor in town.
3. The boy promised not to tell a lie any more.
.
4. We should like perfecting ourselves better than making a reputation
for ourselves.
.
5. a) I don't know that he was so angry with me.
b) They asked me if I knew how to play chess.
c) I don't know whether he is guilty.
d) Nobody knows when and where the poet was born.
.
e) We must appreciate what he has done for the team.
.
f) I am sure that he will succeed in the attempt.
g) I am afraid that children would run into danger.
[].
h) Our teacher insisted that I (should) attend the class regularly.
6. (++]->5
a) I consider it important to choose good friends.
.
b) You must find it boring living here all the year round.
1 .
c) We have made it a rule never to lend nor to borrow books.
.
d) We owe it to you that our plan is quite perfect.
. (3)
7. ( 5) :
(..) .
'...' '..., ..., ...' . .
.
a) Everybody expects me to shoot the elephant.
=Everybody expects that I will shoot the elephant.
b) I felt the earth shake under my feet.
c) We saw some swallows flying to the south.
( ).
d) The mother told her children not to make a noise.(...)
[4. (Complement)]
A. :
1. She remained single [a bachelor woman] all her life.
() .
2. "Who is it?" "It's me." "?" "." ( )
* me .
3. I am sorry I am late.
4. To see her is to love her. .
5. My hobby is collecting foreign stamps.
6. He sat reading the report. .
7. He seemed satisfied with the result.
.
8. The dictionary is of no use. .
9. This is what I have learned from the book.

 .
B. : .
1. I named my son Henry after my grandfather.
.
2. We thought it her. .
3. My saying so made her angry. .
4. Most people supposed him to be honest.
5. We haven't heard him speak badly of others.
.
6. I saw him walking in the rain.
7. I had my watch repaired.
8. Please make yourself at home. .
9. You may call it what you like. .
C. :
1. He came back a rich merchant. =He was a rich merchant when he
came back. .
2. The poet died young. =The poet was young when he died.
.
3. The baby was born dead. =The baby was dead when he was born.
.
4. He fell down unconscious =He became unconscious and fell down.
.
* .
5. The girls wiped the plates dry. .
6. Just under the bridge they shot the boy dead.
.
* 3 , .
7. My grandmother worried herself sick.
.
8. Though she is young, she paints herself thick.
[] .
*
.
9. My sister always takes her tea sweet. =Her tea is always sweet when she
takes it. .
10. On that day the villagers ate pig roasted.
.
* .
: a) how why
.
This is how he escaped death. .
That is why he told a lie. .
b) The fact is that he has no appetite at all. []
.
The trouble is that most of the pupils hate tests.
[] .
c) what I am what it is - 'what++be'
.
The boy is not what he used to be [=what he was].
[ ].
Korea is not what she was ten years ago.
10 [10 ].
The law of evolution has made the world of life what it is now.
[ ]
.
what he has , . what he is , .

[2 ]
[1. ]
.
'have+' , ,
.
.
.
[A. (Present Perfect Tense):have[has]+]

'' '' '' '' ,
. have[has]
.
: a. '(, )~'() : just, already, yet .
1. I have written the letter. () [
]
2. I have just finished reading today's evening paper.
[ ].
3. My sister has just come home from shopping.
.
4. The bell has not rung yet. .
5. I have already finished today's work. .
NOTE: '' 'have[had] not++yet'.
. just now .
I have just now eaten lunch , I ate lunch just now .
yesterday, last year, last week, a few minutes ago(=just now),
when .
: b. '() ~ '() : before, often, sometimes, once,
ever, never .
1. I have read War and Peace before. ' '
.
2. The child has never eaten raw fish.
.
3. I have spoken to a foreigner once. ()
.
4. Have you ever made a cake? ?
5. I can sing the song, because I have often heard it before.
() .
NOTE: be 'have been to...' ' ' ''
'' '' .
I have been to Europe three times. [ ].
I have been 'o the airport to see him off. .
, 'have been in~'. I have been in France.
have gone to .
: c. '~ ( ...)'()
1. He has gone to Europe. [ ].
2. Spring has come. [ ].
3. They have gone to the neighboring town to escape the disaster.
.
NOTE: I [You] have gone to Paris . '' '' ' '
. '' '' ' ' ' '
. I have been to... I have gone to...
.
: d. '(...) ~ ( ~ )'() '~

 ... '
1. She has been ill in bed since Monday. .
2. It has been raining for a week. .
* .
'have been+...ing()' ( ) .
We have been waiting for him (for) three hours. 3
. since a week ago for a week.
3. Three years have passed since he died. 3 [].
4. Five years have passed since he went to England.
=It is five years since he went to England. =He has gone to England for five
years. 5 .
* A year [A week] have has passed, since
.
: e. be+ :
. go, come, arrive, rise, set, call, grow, shut have+p.p.
be+p.p. .
1. He is gone. Everybody in the neighborhood misses him. .
.
2. Everybody is determined to give up fighting.
.
NOTE: have[has] got have[has] .
got .
He has got a nice sports car. .
I have got to come back before sunset.
.
[B. (Past Perfect Tense) : had+]
,
.. ... .
: a.
1. By noon that day I had finished my work.
.
2. He had published over twenty books when he was twenty years of age.
20 20 .
3. School had already begun at that time. .
4. The thief had already run away when the police came.
[ ].
NOTE: 1. By noon that day, 2. when he was twenty years of age, 3. that
time, 4. when the police came ' ' .
: b.
1. I recognized him at once, for I had seen him several times.
. ()
.
2. I had visited London before then. .
3. Man had tried to fly in the air before 1903. 1903
.
: c. '( ) ... '
1. She could not pay her carfare, because she had lost her handbag.
.
: d. .
1. She had been ill for a month when she was sent to the hospital.
1 .
2. They had been married for twenty years before they moved here.
20 .
3. He had been studying English for five years before he went over to Britain.

 5
.
4. The river was swollen, for it had been raining for a week together.
1 .
* 'together' '' .
NOTE: 1. ' ' ,
1 . ' 1
'.
when, before . 2.
( ). 3. ' ' ' '
, 4. .
: a) ' ' ' '
, I got up, washed my face, and
ate breakfast . ' ' After I had
gotten home, I opened the box ( ) After I got home,
I opened the box .
b) Hardly had I hone out when it began to rain had
? had hardly
(+ )
. I had hardly hone out when it began to rain.
, As soon as I
went out[just as I went out], it began to rain
.
: e. : . .
() .
1. He said that he had met the girl in the train before.
.
2. Just a week ago he lost the camera which he had bought the day
before. 1 .
* ' ' ...
. ....
.
: f. hope, expect, want, desire, intend, think ' '
' ' .
1. We had hoped the war would come to an end much sooner.
.
2. I had intended to make peace between them.
.
3. We had hoped that we should be able to call on you.
.
NOTE: I intended to have made peace between them
.
[C. (future Perfect Tense): will[shall] have+]
will shall .
...
.
:
1. By the time she comes back, he will have finished all the homework.
.
2. If she goes to France again, she will have been there times.
.
3. By the time you are sixty, you will have seen much of the world.
60 .
4. Your father will have sold this house when you come back.
.
5. My brother caught cold last Friday. He will have been in bed

for a whole week tomorrow.

. 1 .
NOTE: 'by...'
. 1. , 2.3. , 4. ( ),
5. . , 2. If
she goes... 4. ...when you come back ''
'' '' will[shall] .
. Please wait till I have finished (writing)
my letter. . 'till...' '
' .
[2. (Subjunctive Mood)]
. ,
[ ] .
(mood) , ' (..) '
(indicative mood) , ,
, , (), , ,
([imperative
mood] ). (subjunctive present),
(subjunctive
future), (subjunctive past), (subjunctive past
perfect) 4 .
* ( would, should, might, could)

. .
[A. ]

If++ ~, +{would, should, could, might}+ [be were]
' ,
' . ( )
'' (be 1,2,3 were)' '
, .
were was (, he, she, it ) .
: a. '... ~ '
1. If I were not poor in health, I could travel abroad.
( ).
2. If I knew her address, I would write to her.
( ).
3. If I had a car, I would drive you home.
( ).
* 1. Since I am poor in health, I cannot travel
abroad( ).
'
' .
2. Since I don't know her address, I cannot write to her.
4. What would you do tonight if you did not have to study?
?
* do not have to -> '~ '=need not do. opp. must' '.
: b. If it were not for... =But for... =Without...
1. If it were not for water, we would [should] die.
.
2. If it were not for the light and heat, no living thing could exist
[live]. =But for the light and heat of the sun, no living thing could exist.
=Without the light and heat...
.

* . If Were it
not for... But for Without
.
: But for... . But for...
. '
' But for your advice, he will fail , But for your
advice, he would fail . Without Without your
advice, he would fail Without your advice, he will fail .
' '
( )
.
: c. : If-clause , ,
, .
1. I would help him in your place [if I were in your place].
.
2. With a little more capital[If we had a little more capital], we
would surely succeed in our enterprise.
.
3. A true friend would not do a thing like that.
.
4. Even a child could do that. .
5. To hear him speak English[If you heard him speak English], you would
take him for an American. ()
.
* take A for B -> A B , .
6. To look at he [If you looked at her], you would never think (that) she
was the mother of five children.
.
NOTE: () .
3. If he were a true friend, he..., 4. Even if he were a child, he....
: d. I wish [that]+ (be were)
1. I wish I were rich. =I am sorry the I am not rich.
( ).
2. I wish I could fly like a butterfly. =I am sorry that I cannot
fly like a butterfly. ( ).
3. If only the rain would stop. =I wish the rain would stop.
.
4. I would rather you stayed at home.
5. Would that [=I wish] I were young again! !
: e. as if [as though]+ :' ~ '( )
1. The child talks as if he were a grown-up.
( ) .
2. He looks as if he knew everything.
.
* as if [as would be the case if...] The child
talks as (he would talk) if he were a grown-up.
: f. It is time+ (),
1. It is time you went to bed. =It is time for you to go to bed.
. .
2. It is time we were leaving. .
3. It was time that the old man came. .
4. He is, as it were, a sleeping lion. .
[B. ]

 ' '
' ' .
[If++had+p.p., +{would, should+have, could, might}+p.p.]
,
.
: a. '() ~ ... '
1. If I had had much money, I would have bought the house.
( ).
* As I had not much money, I did not buy the house.
2. If he had left home a bit later, he might have met with the accident.
.
3. If I had taken the doctor's advice, I would not be ill now.
.
NOTE: ' '
, .

. ' '
' ' . If I had brains, I might have bought the
land( ). If I had had brains,
... .
: b. If it had not been for... [But for...=Without...]
1. If it had not been for your advice, I would have failed.
.
2. If it had not been for the money, I could not have come back home.
.
* If Had it not been for... .
3. But for [Without] his help, I would have died.
.
: c.
1. With a little more care, you would [could] have avoided the accident.
.
2. A hundred years ago nobody would have believed that the man would be
able to go to the moon.
.
3. A real criminal would have acted differently.
.
4. What would I give him not to have heard[if I had not heard] the news.
.
5. Born in better times[If he had been born in better times], he would
have been successful. .
* 1.2. 4.() 5.() , 3.
.
: or, otherwise, but, but that, only, only that
.
a) He must have been seriously ill, or [=if he had not been seriously ill]
he would not have been sent to hospital. [ ]
. .
b) He worked hard, otherwise [if he had not worked hard] he would have
failed. . .
c) I would go by ship but I am a poor sailor[if I were not a poor sailor].
.
d) We should have arrived earlier but that we met with an accident [it we
had not met with an accident].
.
* but '~ ' , .
She would have fallen but that he caught her.

 .
e) I would have gone, only I had an engagement [it I had had no engagement].
.
f) I would come, only that I am ill [if I were not ill].
.
* only, only that except that, but for the fact that ,
.
g) He might have been promoted unless he had been so lazy.
.
* ...if he had not been so lazy
.
: d. I wish+had+p.p.:
. '... ( )' .
1. I wish you had studied harder in the first term. 1
.
2. I wish I had bought the book. .
3. If only I had known! .
4. If only I had not spent so much money then!
.
NOTE: 1. I am sorry you did not study harder in the first term ,
2. I am sorry I did not buy the book .
: I wish, If only, I would rather, Only that,
But that . .
a) : God save the King! , ! Long live the
King! ! God bless you! !
b) May : May you have a long and happy life! ! I hope
he may succeed. .
c) : Well, have a good time! , !
: e. ad if [though]+() : as if
( ) .
1. He looks[looked] as if he had long been ill.
[].
2. The old lady looks as if she had been beautiful in her youth.
.
3. He speaks as if he had known about it. .
: a) as if
.
She cared for me as if I had been her son [as I were her son].
.
b) as if '~'
. .
He act as if he is in love with her. .
It looks as if it is going to rain. .
c) as if .
He moved his lips as if (he were going) to speak.
.
He ran as if (he did) for life. [] .
d) than if .
He will be better cared for there than (he would be cared for) if I were
to take charge of him.
.
e) (......) As if you didn't know! (
)!
[C. ]

.

: a. [If++should+, + +...]
[would] [, ]
. should( would)
' +'
.
1. If he should come, I will tell you. ,
.
2. If you should fail, what would you do? ,
?
3. If you would write a novel, you could. ,
.
NOTE: 3. would .
: b. [If++were to+, + +]
[would, should, could, might]
' ' ' '
, . were to
would, should (could, might) .
.
1. If the sun were to rise in the west. I would not change my mind.
, () .
2. If you were to die tomorrow, what would you do now?
, ?
NOTE: should were to . were to was to
. was to (had to, intended to)
(be to do , ).
: c.
1. If it should
2. If it should

[] .
rain tomorrow, don't come. ()
rain tomorrow, I have planned something else.
.

: d.
1. I don't feel as if I should ever see1. her again.
.
2. She cried as if her heart would break.=She cried as if her heart
were going to break. .
3. The old mill shook as if it might fall.
.
*: , as if .
a) as if( )
.
It seems as (would be the case) if he knew nothing about it.
It seemed as (would be the case) if he knew nothing about it.
b) as if as though ' ',
' ' .
She talks as if she were my teacher.
She looks as if she had seen a ghost.
c) She talked as if she were my teacher She talked as if she had been my
teacher ? as if be, know

.
[D. ]

. .
: a.

1. There is nothing I would not do for you (...if you wanted me to

do day- thing). , ( ).
2. He might at least write to me once a month (if he were so minded).
( ).
3. I could have attended the party (if I had wanted to attend the party).
() .
: b. ...
1. Could you tell me what this means? ?
2. Would you mind lending me your car? ?
3. Are you going already? You might stay a little longer. ?
?
4. Wouldn't you rather have a cup of coffee? ?
5. I would[should]like to have a glass of water. .
6. I would like to have seen him. .
7. "Is she over forth?" - "Oh yes, I should think so."
" 40 ?" ", ."
: c.
1. (What would be the result?) ( ?)
Don't! If anybody should come! ! !
2. If I could only do it! !
If only you would work harder! !
(How glad I should be!) ( ?)
: d. ( )
1. You had better [not] go at once. [ ] .
2. I had rather die than marry him. () .
3. I had as well sleep as go to such a place.
.
4. You had best consent. [ ].
[E. ]
' ~ ... '
. ,
. .
.
: a. If+[or], will...
1. If it be[is] rainy tomorrow, I will not go to church.
.
2. If the rumor be [is] true, we will be glad. .
* [ ] .
: b.
1. God save the King! !->!
2. God bless your family! !
NOTE: May++...!. May you be happy forever!
( !) saves, blesses
' ' ' '
.
: c. (that)
insist, ask, order, desire, suggest, wonder, request, require, propose, demand
...
should+(), should .
that .
1. The mayor ordered that the man (should) leave the city at once.
.

2. He suggested that the party(should) be put off.

.
3. It is desirable that he (should) do the work for himself.
.
NOTE: leave, be (, )
. 3.be+desirable .
' '
'... ' '... '
.
[F. If If ]
: a. If : If be, have,
if .
1. Were it not for air, all living things would die.=If it were not for
air,.... .
2. Had he worked harder, he might have succeeded.=If he had worked harder...
.
3. Had it not been for your support, he would have failed.=If it had not been
for your support,.... .
4. Should anyone call on me, tell him that I am ill=If anyone should call on
me,.... .
5. Were he to lose his position, what would he do?=If he were to lose his
position., .... ?
NOTE: 1. , 2.3. , 4.5. .
: b. If []
1. Unless he were[was] honest, I would not employ him. =If he were not
honest,.... .
2. Even though[=Even if] I were ill, I would go.
.
3. I would have forgiven him, provided (that) he had acknowledged his fault.
( ) .
4. Assuming he should know the secret, we would be ruined.
, .
5. In case it should rain, the plan would fail.
, .
6. Suppose he were to become President, his father would be much delighted.
, .
7. I would be pleased to receive your kind letter [=if I could receive your
kind letter]. .
8. It would be hard for him to live in Paris alone[=if he were to live in
paris alone]. .
9. The story would be more interesting, by cutting down the introductory
part[=if you cut down...]. .
NOTE: 1.2.7.9. , 3.10. , 4.5.6.8.
(, . ).
[3 ]
.
([], finite verb),
..,
.
[verbals non-finite verbs] .
(infinitive), (gerund), (participle) .
.
* (+++)


.

.
[1. (Infinitive)]
[A. ]
'to+ ' to (root infinitive) . to toinfinitive . to .
, '' .
8 ''
.
.
a) - You had better go. I heard her sing.
b) - To see is to believe. It is easy for him to speak English.
c) - I want somebody to help me. This is the way to solve it.
d) - I came to see you. This book is easy to understand.
[B. (Noun Use)]
.. .
: a. : '~ ...'
1. To tell a lie is wrong. .
2. To obey the laws if everybody's duty.
.
3. To learn English is difficult. .
NOTE: a)
[] it .
1. It is wrong to tell a lie. 2. It is everybody's duty to obey the
laws. 3. It is difficult to learn English .
b) .
To see is to believe=Seeing is believing.
.
. The door will not open. It is impossible to enter.
. . Entering is impossible
. . I would like
to get up early tomorrow morning. .
I like getting up early. .
,
.
c) It~to... be
. It requires a lot of money to build a fine house.
.
: b. : It is-for~to... '~ ... -'
. a.
(we, they, you, people)
.
1. It is natural (for parents) to love their own children. ()
.
2. It is impossible for me to lift the stone.
.
3. It is dangerous (for you) to climb a mountain in (the) winter.
.
4. It was not easy for her to find the building.
.

NOTE: a) It-for~to... , (, ), ,
, hard, difficult, easy,
useful, dangerous, possible, impossible
.
delightful, pleasant, painful, interesting, important,
necessary, convenient, inconvenient . You are difficult to climb
this mountain.(*) ()
hard, difficult , ' '
. She is difficult to please.=It is hard [difficult]
to please her. [].
b) 1.3. ( ).
: c. It is-of~to... '~ ... -', '- ...'
1. It is kind of you to tell me the way to the railroad station.
.
2. It is careless of you to make such mistake.
.
3. It is foolish of him to waste time (in) doing such a thing.
.
NOTE: a) of .
, ()
of~ ,
'' .
It was silly of you to make such a mistake. (O)
You were silly to make such a mistake. (O)
kind, polite, nice, right,
sensible, bold, brave, careless, clever, crazy, cruel, decent, foolish,
good, honest, noble, rude, selfish, silly, stupid, thoughtful, wise,
wicked, wrong . It-for~to...
foolish, noble, polite, right, rude, strange, stupid, wicked, wise,
wrong.
b) It to
to ' '
'...' . You are silly [kind, etc.]to make...
( ). to
it [] .
c) it is .
How silly [it was] of you to make such a mistake!
* It++for+to [] .( ),
of+to .( ).
: d. : '~ ... ~'
1. He had learned to ride a bicycle. .
2. The patient attempted to rise but failed.
[]
3. He pretended not to see me. .
4. He promised to wake me up at six in the morning. 6
.
5. The story has ceased to be novel. .
6. He managed to be in time. .
7. She likes to play the piano. .
8. You want to see a doctor at once. .
9. My watch needs to be repaired [=~wants repairing].
[ ].
10. Take care not to wake the baby. .
NOTE: a) . decide
to, refuse to, intend to... .
- attempt, begin, cease, continue,
contrive, choose, consent, decide, determine, dislike, endeavor, expect,
fail, forget, hasten, hope, intend, learn, like, love, manage, mean, need,

neglect, offer, prefer, prepare, pretend, promise, propose, refuse,

regret, remember, resolve, swear, try, undertake, want, wish, seek,
desire. (
'' '' ) attempt,
cease, continue, hate, like, regret, remember, try .
b) 8.9. . 8. want to...=ought to .
c) 3.10. to not .
: e. : '... ~[]'
make, find, think
[] it [++it++to...] .
1. I make it a rule to get up at six in the morning.
6 [6 ].
2. I found it impossible to cross the river.
[ ].
3. I thought it useless to say anything further.
.
4. I thought it better to keep away from him.
.
5. Tom thought it was necessary to get up at six the next morning, so
he went to bed much earlier than usual. 6
, .
NOTE: a) 1. I always get up at six in the morning
always, usually, generally .
b) 3.4. think think+it++to do (5) think
(that)+it is [was]++to do... that .
' '
I think it necessary for everyone to do his best , I think (that) it
is necessary for everyone to do his best .
.
: f. how to : +
know, learn, explain, discover, find out, understand, wonder
how, when, what, where, whom, whether ~ or not
.
1. Do you know how to swim? 1. ?
2. I did not know what to say. .
3. Tell him what to do. .
4. I don't know whom to ask. .
5. I learned how to operate the machine. .
6. I was at a loss what to do. .
7. I don't know where to go or what to do. ,
.
8. Hearing the news, I didn't know whether to laugh or cry.
.
9. Will you advise me whether to accept the offer or not?

?
10. I understand how to drive. .
11. He was wondering how to do it.
.
12. I explained how to jump. .
13. Please ask her when to feed the bird.
.
NOTE: a) whom, what () ,
when, where, how . ' '
' ' ' ' .
b) 9. whether to do . .
The question was whether to go there or to stay (at) home.

 .
: g. () :
- show, tell, teach, advise, promise, ask, inform.
1. He taught her how to play tennis. cf. He taught her English.
.
2. She showed me how to solve the problem.
. cf. She showed me the way to the station.
3. He promised me to come at six[that he would come at six].
cf. He promised me a watch. 6 .
4. She asked me how to pronounce the word.
cf. She asked me a question. ()
NOTE: .
I promised him to be there at five to be him
I. He promised me to come at six to come me
He.
. He told me to come at six to come
me to come me (
). He told me that I should come at six .
: h. : be about to, but(to)

. cf.He insists on starting at once.() He insists on to start at
once.()
1. He is about to leave Seoul. .
2. The sun was about to set[sink] below the horizon. []
.
3. There was nothing for it but to give up. .
4. I had no choice but to accept his offer[proposal].
.
5. She did nothing but cry. .
6. I could not but laugh. .
7. I could not choose but speak the truth. .
8. Who could not help but be devoted to the country?
.
9. I have done nothing except send for the doctor.
.
10. What had she done for her husband save leave him at the first
opportunity? .
11. I hardly remember what I did be- sides drink a glass of wine.
.
NOTE: a) about ( ) . be about to be going
to ' ~ '(=be on the point of doing)
'~ '
.
b) but to . nothing but(=only),
all but(=almost) .
c) 9.10.11. but ( ).
: i. : 'be+to'
1. To see is to believe. .[ ,
]
2. To see her is to love her. [] .
3. The best way of making her feel at home was to treat her as
one of the family.
.
4. He seems to know something about it. = It seems that he knows something
about it. .
5. He appears to be suffering from a sore throat. =It appears that he is

suffering from a sore throat. .

6. I happened to be at home that day. =It happened that I was at home that
day. .
7. The news proved to be false. 7. .
8. He finally came to see the errors of his ways.
.
9. We got to understand each other better than before.
.
10. He is sure to pass the examination. =I am sure that he will pass ~.
.
NOTE: a) .
b) You are to blame ( , ), This house is to let [to be
let] ( ) to .
to blame=blamable, to let=lettable
[letable] .
c) 4.5.6. '++' 'It++that+...'
, He(seems to) love me seems to
(split subject) .
.. ,
.
d) 10. He is sure of passing the examination
. He is sure that he will pass the examination
.
j. : .
1. All the neighbors supposed her to be a widow. =All the neighbors supposed
that she was a widow. .
2. He ordered the room to be swept. =He ordered that the room should be swept.
.
3. I want him to come here at once. .
NOTE: a) (nexus ) .
b) 3. want that I want he should come here at
once . that
. hope I hope(that) it will be fine next Sunday
I hope it to be fine suggest He suggested to me that we
should go fishing He suggested me to go fishing .
hope suggest (
) .
[C. (Adjective Use)]
'to+' .
.
.
(1) : . .
: a. .
1. He was not a man to do [such a man as would do] anything by halves.
.
2. He is a poor old man soon to become [who must soon become] a burden to
his family. .
3. I want somebody to help [who will help] me.
.
4. The next thing to be considered [that should be considered] is the matter
of food. .
5. His composition leaves nothing to be desired [that can be desired].
[ ] .
6. There is no time to be lost. There is no time to lose. [


].
7. He is the last man to betray you. .
note: a) in days to come [that are to come](, ), for a year to come (
1 , ) .
b) 4. 5. 6. 6.
.
c) 7.=He is (the) most unlikely (man) to betray you. =He does not betray you a
t all.
: b. . ()
1. There was no water to drink [fit to be drunk]. .
2. He could think of nothing to say. .
3. That is the thing for you to do. .
* .
4. He has a handsome house to live in. .
cf. He lives in a handsome house.
5. Give him a chair to sit on. .
cf. He is sitting on a chair.
6. He had no one to talk to. .
cf. He talked to his neighbor.
7. Lend me a knife to sharpen my pencils with. .
cf. I sharpen my pencils with a knife.
8. I had no money to buy the ticket with. .
cf. I bought the ticket with my money.
* . .
9. He is an easy man to make fun of. .
10. It was not a thing to make a fuss about [which it was proper to make a
fuss about]. () .
11. You have nothing to be afraid of. .
12. There were a lot of children for her to take care of.

.
* [++, be++]
: c. .
1. Is this the way to do it [in which it should be done]?
?
2. It's time for you to start [that you start]. .
3. Another attempt to climb the mountain will be made next year.

.
cf. They will attempt to climb the mountain again next year.
4. She expressed a wish to earn her own living. .
cf. She wished to earn her own living.
5. You have no need to hurry. .
cf. You need not hurry=You don't need to hurry.
6. His refusal to help was a disappointment to me.
.
cf. To my disappointment, he refussed to help me.
note: 'to+one's+ ' ,
.
7. He has not only the ability to read English but (also) the ability to
write and
speak
it. .
note: 3. 4. .
(2) : ( be, seem, appear)
, , ( ) .

: a: 'be+to' . (will, intend to) . .

(must, should). (can) . () , .
1. He is to come on Sunday. .
2. I am to meet him at twelve. 12 .
3. He is due to come tomorrow. .
4. She is scheduled to attend the meeting. .
5. We are to be married [We have agreed to marry] next year.
.
6. What are we to do next? ?
7. Byron was never to come back home again.
[ ].
8. You are to clean your room every day. .
9. Not a man is to be seen. .
10. The traffic rule is to be [should be] observed by all drivers.
.
11. There was not a house to be seen except a little cottage.
.
12. This house is to let [to be let]. .
13. She is to blame. [ ].
14. We were to have paid the money. (But we did not pay it).
.
note: a) 3. 4. due, scheduled .
b) 9. can .
c) 12. 13. d .
. 14. .
: b. be seem, appear, happen, chance, prove, turn(out)
.
1. They seem to be seasick. = Seemingly they are seasick. 1.
.
2. She appeared to enjoy the concert. 2. .
[D. (Adverbial Use)]
, , ,
. * '' ' ' .
( . . ) .
(1)
: a. (purpose) : '... ()'
1. He works hard to support his family. .
2. Tom hurried to catch the bus. .
3. He went to his teacher to ask question. .
4. He stopped to get gasoline. [ ].
5. He works hard in order to keep his family in comfort.
.
6. I'll go on working late today so as to be free tomorrow.
.
7. He came in quietly so as not to wake the family.
.
note: a) to in order . in order not to .
b) so as to.... , so as to...

.
. .
He works hard in order [so] that he may [can] keep his family in comfort(
). He works hard in order [so] that his family may [can] live in comfort.
c) go come to and . Go

see what he's doing. . cf. Go to see me Go

and see me, .
: b. It takes+()++to... : '...[] ~'
It costs+()++to... : '...[] ~'
1. It takes at least a week to finish the work. 1 .
2. It takes about thirty minutes[half an hour] to go to the hospital.
30 .
3. It will take this letter at least a week to reach Hawaii.

1 .
4. It took him two years to write the novel. 2 .
5. It takes three hours for me to finish this homework. 3
.
6. It costs a hundred dollars a month to keep a car.
100 [].
7. It cost me twenty million won to build this house. 2
().
8. It will cost at least fifty thousand won to travel to Mokpo.
5 [] .
9. It will cost too much money to live in such a house.

.
10. How much does it cost to send this parcel by special delivery?
() ?
note: a) It ~to...(+) , It (
,
, , ) to (

take, cost ) take cost '(, , ) , , ,

' , , 4.7. him me
(sense subject) . 5. me
for .
b) It . 5. This homework
takes (me) three hours to finish This homework takes three hours (for me) to finish
.
c) It takes money to go to college . (a lot of)
money
( ) cost take .
: c. () : '... ~'
* .
1. I am very glad to see you. .
2. I was very [much] surprised to hear of his son's death.
.
3. I am sorry to hear that you could not get the ticket.
.
4. She was very happy to get the birthday present.
.
5. He was disappointed to know that our team had lost the game.
.
6. I rejoice to hear of your success. .
7. He wept to see his long-lost child.

.
note: a) ' +to' 6.7. +to
. (6.7.) (1.2.3.4.5.) (

).
b) I was surprised (to hear) that he was still alive to hear .

: d. () : '~ ... ' '~ ...'

1. He worked hard only to fail. =He worked hard, but failed.
.
2. Byron left England never to return. =Byron left England and nevered returne
d.

.
3. I awoke to find myself in the park. =I awoke and found that I was still lyi
ng in the
park. .
4. He lived to be eighty-five years old. =He lived till he was eighty-five y
ears old.

85 .
5. She grew up to be a lovely woman [a musician] like her mother.
[] .
6. They climbed the mountain to find a smll lake on the top.
.
7. He went there to find the house burnt down.
.
8. The police hurried to the house only to find that it was empty.
.
9. He returned home to learn that his mother had died the previous days.
() .
note: a) , ,

. only not never .

b) (awoke, grew up, lived...) (only to
fail,
to be, to find, to learn, to be told, to hear, to see...)

.
c) so as (not) to... so+()+as(not)to...
.
(2)
: a. ++to do
1. English is difficult to master in so short a time. =It is difficult
to master
English~.
.
2. He is hard to approach, to understand, to cook for and to get along wit
h. =It is
hard to
approach, to understand, to cook for and to get along with him.
.
3. The path was easy to find. =It was easy to find the path. .
4. This river is dangerous to swim in. =It is dangerous to swim in this river.

.

note: It is~to...

. 2. hard ' ... '

'... ' He . '
' He is difficult [hard] to read the book It is
difficult for him to read the book .
. hard, difficult possible, impossible...


. He She
.
: b. ++to do
1. He is sure to turn up. =I am sure he will turn up. .
2. They are certain to arrest you. =It is certain that they will arrest you.

.
3. She is not likely to marry him. =It is not likely that she will marry him
.

.
4. You are free to go or stay. .
: c. , :
1. I am sorry to give you trouble. .
2. I am surprised to hear the news. .
: d. , ,
1. He is slow to learn [at learning] English. .
2. She is quick to get angry. .
3. We were not long to discover [in discovering] the hidden treasure.
.
4. The water of this well is good to drink. .
5. He is unfit to do this work. .
6. You are welcome to use my car. .
7. The train is due to get in at 5:30 a.m. 5 .
8. I am ready to start at once. .
9. He is eager to read the poem. .
10. He is anxious to see her again. .
11. She was afraid to die. .
cf. She was afraid of dying. . ( )
(3) : too enough
: a. too+, +to=so+, +that+can[do, will] not~=so+,
as not to...
1. He was too honest to tell a lie.=He was so honest that he could not tell a
lie.
.
2. This bed is too short for me to sleep in.=This bed is so short that I can
not sleep
in it.
.
3. This box is too heavy for you to lift.=This box is so heavy that you cannot
lift it.
.
4. He ran too quickly for me to catch up with him.=He ran so quickly that I co
uld not
catch up with him. .
note: a) too~to... (2.3.), ''

it '' him .(4.)

so~that... .
b) too~to... ' ~... ' too~not...to

' ~ ...'[=so ~that...can] not too~to... '...

~ ' .

He is too wise not to think of it. [

].
He is not too old to work. .
: b. , +enough+to=so+, +that+can~=so+, +as
to...
1. Henry is old enough to support himself.=Henry is so old that he can support
himself.
() .
2. She was kind enough to help me.=She was so kind as to help me.
[ ].
3. You are not old enough to drink.=You are too young to drink.
.
(4)
: a. , , '..., '

.
1. He must be crazy to say such a thing.=~that he could say such a thing.
.
2. It is very kind of you to do such a thing for me.
.
3. What a luck fellow I am to love with my family again!=~that I should live w
ith my
family again! .
4. What have I done to offend you?=~that I sould offend you?
, ?
5. He was a wise man to solve the problem.
.
: b. , ,
1. I should be happy to be [if I could be] of service to you.

. * of service=useful=helpful
2. To look at him [If you were to look at him], you could hardly help laughing
.
.
3. To do your best [Even if you did your best], you would find it impossible
to catch
up
with him.
.
4. To be effective [If a person is to be effective], a poem must be beautiful
.

.
5. To be him sing [If you heard him sing], you might take him for a young girl
.
.

: c. (Absolute Infinitive) :
.
to make [cut] a long story short=to make short of a long story ,

to be brief=in brief, to put it briefly ,
to tell (you) the truth=truth to tell ,
to be frank with you ,
to do one justice=do justice to one [a person, thing] ~ ,
()

to change the subject

to come back to what we were saying (Now) to conclude

to speak strictly = strictly speaking = speaking strictly

strange to say[tell] = strangely enough ,
to make matters worse=(and) what is worse ,
to be sure=surely , , -> ()
To be sure she is not perfect, but... ...
to bigin with=in the first place, to start with ,
to say nothing of = not to speak of=not to mention ~
not to say ~
to say the least (of it) , ,
so to speak[say] = as one might say, as it were , ,
that is to say = that is, namely, in other words , , ,
to be precise[exact]
1. To tell the truth, I have never read Shakespeare's Hamlet in the original.

'' .
2. To be frank with you, I don't think your plan will work (out).
.
3. I am not going to college. To begin with, my family is not rich enough, an
d secondly
I
am not bright enough. .
.
4. To be sure he is dead, but his name will be remembered forever.
.
5. To make matters[things] worse, the island was struck [visited, hit] by a ty
phoon.
.
6. He is, so to speak, the brains of our organization.
[
].
7. He can speak Russian, not to mention English, German and French. , ,
.
8. Needless to say, he came late for the party. .
9. It is needless to say that health is above wealth.

.
10. Strange to say, I saw a stone move.
.
11. To do him justice, he is an able man. .
12. To do your best, you couldn't finish it in a week.
.
13. To do her utmost, she was not able to eat as usual.
.
: d.
1. To think that all his efforts to help her had gone for nothing!

( )!
2. Oh, to be in English now that April's there! 4,
!
[E. (Bare or Root Infinitive)]
(1)
: a.
1. I can swim. You can swim. He can swim. They can swim.

2. I will go. You will go. He will go. They will go.
note: a) , swim go .
b) ought, have, used 'to+'(to) .
: b.
1. You had better start at once. .
2. You had better not smoke. .
3. You had better have done it. .
4. He had best live by himself. .
note: a) had better had rather, had much best, had as good, had
liefer[would
liefer] , had should, would have, hold, find
,
You had better go You would find it better to go .
better , go had ++(it)++

it() . it I thought
[saw]
fit to leave him alone ( ).
b) had better , . had better+have+p.p
, .
5. I would rather say at home than go out today.
].
6. I would rather not go. ( ) .
7. I would rather never have been born than have seen this day of shame.
.
note: a) I would rather stay... = I wish to stay if I may stay rather than...
b) would rather have+p.p
.
had rather, would sooner I would just as soon stay at home as go out
.
8. I cannot but admire him.-I cannot help admiring him.
.
9. The little girl did nothing but cry. .
note: a) cannot but... '... ' I cannot (do anything) but (that I can)
admire
him ( )
. do nothing but... (... ) He does nothing but
(that
he does) cry ( ) . nothing
but do to .
(2) ,
make, have, let, bid see, hear, listen to, feel, look at,
watch,
perceive, notice, observe .
'to+' . , .
: a.
1. He did not let Betty use his dictionary.
.
cf. He did not allow Betty to use~.
2. He let her smoke. .
cf. He allowed her to smoke.
3. I made him write a letter of apology. .
4. The teacher bade me stand up. .
5. The stewardess helped me fasten my seat belt.
.
6. I will have someone carry this baggage to the railroad station.

 .
7. I had him carry the box. .
cf. I got him to carry the box.
8. The heavy rain made the river rise. .()
cf. The heavy rain caused the river to rise.()
9. I had him mend my shoes. = I had my shoes mended. .
note: a) '() ... ' 'have+()+'

get 'get+()+to' .

. 9. h.i. .
b) let, have 1. Betty was not allowed
to
use his dictionary .
c) 5. help .
Help me (to) pack my things.
d) get to . have '...' '... '

.
: b.
1. I saw him dance. =He danced and I saw him. .
cf. I saw him dancing. =When I saw him, he was dancing. .
*
2. I heard those girls sing a beautiful song. = Those girls sang a beautiful s
ong and I
heard them. .
3. Did you feel the earth shake? ?
4. Look at the boy run. .
5. I listened to the rain patter on the roof of my hut.

.
: a) see, feel '' be to to be . He
didn't see her to be foolish. . He
didn't see that she was foolish He didn't see her foolishness . Feeling
the
first attempt to be a failure, he tried again. ,

.
b) help . Will you come and help me develop some photos?
?
c) know see, hear . I have never
known him tell a lie. . know
( ). cf. I know the author to be him.
.
d) let . Let go my hand.
. He let fall words. . Don't let slip the good
chance.
. let side( ), let loose( ).
e) let, make, hear, help others, someone, people

. Live and let live.

.
Let's make believe that we're Arabs. . I have heard say that
bribery
is the best policy in the country.
.
They all helped lay the table for dinner. . make
believe make-believe=pretence(, , , )
hear say hearsay=rumor, gossip(, ) .

f) to .
I saw him fall. -> He was seen to fall by me. They made him work too hard. ->
He was
made to work too hard (by them).
[F. ]
, ,

[] to have+p.p .
''(perfect infinitive) .
seem .
1. He seems to be ill. =It seems that he is ill. .
2. He seemed to be ill. =It seemed that he was ill. .
3. He seems to have long been ill. =It seems that he has long been ill.
[ ] .
4. He seemed to have long been ill. =It seemed that he had long been ill.
[ ] .
note: 1. , 2. ,
. 3. '~ ' [

] . 4. seemed ( )
. , ''
.
I rejoice to see you here. .
I rejoice to have seen you there. .
5. I shall[will] be glad to see you again in the near future.
.
note:
.
: a. hope, except, intend, mean, want, be sure, be likely
'to+'
. to have+p.p .
1. He expects to succeed. =He expects that he will succeed.
[] .
2. He is sure to come. =I am sure he will come. .
3. I want to be a doctor. .
4. I expect to have finished this work by tomorrow evening. =I expect I shall
have
finished this work by tomorrow evening.
.
5. I hope to have read this book this day week. [ ]
.
: b. hoped, expected, intended, meant, wanted, was to, should like to

, , '(to) have+p.p'
. 'had hoped+to' .
1. I hoped to find something to eat. =I hoped I should[would] find something t
o eat.

( ).
2. I hoped to have found something to eat. =I hoped to find something to eat,
but I
couldn't. =I had hoped to find something to eat.
.
3. I intended to have rung him up last night. =I intended to ring him up la
st night,
but

I couldn't. =I had intended to ring him up last night.

.
4. He was to have denied with us yesterday.

.
: c. 'to+', 'to have+p.p'
.
1. It would have been wiser for you to leave it unsaid[to have left it uns
aid]. =It
would
have been wiser if you had left it unsaid.
.
2. What would I not have given to see him again[to have seen him again]?
[ ].
[G. (Sense Subject)]
: a. :
.
1. It is wrong to tell a lie. .
2. I expect to succeed. .
note: 1. to tell , 2. to succeed
I .
.
: b. +++
.
1. I expect him to come at once. =I expect that he will come at once.
.
2. I know him to be a man of importance. =I know that he is a man of importanc
e.
.
: c.
for
.
1. I rely upon you to keep your promise. .
2. He did not wait for her to turn up. .
3. I am not ashamed of myself to talk so.
.
4. Trust in me to do anything that lies in my power.
[ ].
: d.
~self .
1. I looked upon myself to be fully settled for life.
.
2. Aren't you ashamed of yourself to say such a thing?
?
: e. for : for++to do
1. For us to delay would be fatal to our plan.
.
2. It is important for us to be honest. .
3. It is not for me to dictate. .
* .
note: 2.3. It for . for

, for~to...


for , . It is
good for (the) health to get up early in the morning. for (the) health to get
up ~
. good . It to get
up . . It is of great
use to healthy women foe them to ride a bicycle.
[ ] .
4. All I want is for my son to work harder.
.
5. The hay is for the horse to eat. [].
6. That is for you to decide. .
* .
7. I couldn't bear for us not to be friends. =I could not bear our not being
friends.

.
* .
8. There was nothing now but for him to carry out the plan.
.
9. I see no way out of the difficulty except for her to tell the truth.

.
.
*
10. It is time for you to go to bed. =It is time you went to bed.
.
( f )
11. He gave immediate orders for all his family to be summoned around him. =He
gave
immediate orders that all his family should be summoned around him.
.
12. There is a strong public demand for him to resign. =There is a strong publ
ic demand
that he should resign. .
13. I am anxious for you and my sister to get married.

.
14. I should be glad for Mary to go with us. .
15. I was impatient for the door to be opened. .
16. Stone implements had to be produced in order for man to live.
.
17. The weather is too cold for us to go out without coats.

.
18. It was too late for there to be any taxis. .
19. She was standing near enough for our conversation to be overhead.
.
20. For a politician to be taken seriously by the public, it must first be m
ade clear
that he
takes himself seriously.
.

2
[H. ]

: a. not, never .
1. You had better not smoke. =It would be better for you not to smoke.
.
2. You don't expect a man never to remember.
.
3. He pretended not to see her. .
4. The teacher told his students not to come late.
.
5. The doctor told him not to smoke or drink.
.
: b. .
1. I wish the reader to understand the central principle clearly.
.
2. I began to study the general diseases indolently.
.
3. All you have to do is to faithfully copy. .
4. He prepared to silently accompany them. .
cf. He prepared silently to accompany them. .
5. He made up him mind to once more climb the mountain.
.
cf. He made up his mind once more to climb the mountain.
.
note: a) to ,
(split infinitive)
. to fully express( ), to entirely reform( ), to totally
understand( ), to strongly emphasize( ), to seriously
question( ).
b) 4.5. cf. .
[I. ]

May I go to the movies? Yes, you may. may go

to the movies . . Are you
really going to punish him? I ask you not (to punish him). ?
. He talks now much less than he used (to talk).
. to
. to (pro-infinitive) . I asked her if my wife had taken a bath.
She said she was just going to (take a bath).
. .
: 1. You could have got a job in England if you'd wanted to (get a job in England)
,
couldn't you? , ?
2. He taught me to fish, shoot, ride. , , .
3. I want you to put them on the job and let them find everything out.
.
4. I like wander about the antiquity shops, occasionally to buy but more often
to look.
.
.
note: 2.3. to .
4. to . 3. on
the job() , =hard at work, =alert.
[2. (Gerund)]
[A. ]
~ing

. ,
, , , , .
note: ~ing
of
.
Shooting song-birds is forbidden.() / The shooting of song-birds is forbidden.()
.
He formed his style by constantly reading good writers.() / He formed his style by
the constant reading of good writers.()
.
-public hearing . for the asking , , .
comings and goings . sayings and doings . a wedding-ring . sight-seeing
.

: a. :
.
1. Maintaining a large family is no easy task. .
2. Traveling broadens the mind. [] .
cf. To travel under a work-to-rule strike is far from pleasant. ()[,
.
: b. It .
1. It is no use crying over spilt milk. .
2. It has been jolly seeing you again. .
3. It is very inconvenient arriving in London on Sunday.
.
4. What a nuisance (it is) having to wait half an hour for the next bus!
?
: c. :
. .
1. Seeing is believing. cf. To see is to believe.
2. That will be giving you as much trouble.
.
: d. : .
* ' ' ' '
admit enjoy forbid risk
advise excuse mind stop
avoid fancy miss understand
consider escape practise (can't)stand
defend finish resist go on
give up have done[finish] (can't)help
keep(on) leave off[stop] put off[postpone]
1. We could not help laughing ay the sight. .
2. He always avoids giving a definite answer. .
3. I advise reading the letter carefully before answering it.
.
4. I cannot understand his deserting his wife.
.
5. Don't put off answering the letter. .
: e. ,
begin, continue, fear, forget, hate, like, omit , prefer, regret, remember, start,
1. He began to cry [or crying]. .
2. I continued to read [or reading] at home all day.
.
: f. , .
.

1. I hate telling a lie. () .

I hate to tell a lie. () () .
cf. I hate to study [studying]. .
2. I like smoking very much. () .
I'd like to smoke here. () .
3. I prefer staying indoors when the weather is cold.
.
I would prefer not to go this evening. .
4. I remember seeing him while I was in Paris. =I remember that I saw him whil
e I was
in Paris. .( )
Please remember to mail this letter. =Please don't forget to mail this letter.

.( )
5. I regret telling[=having told] her the truth. []
. I regret to say that Mr. Smith is too seriously ill to attend the meeting.
.
6. I shall never forget hearing the President's address. ( )
. Don't forget to hear the President's address this evening.
( ) .
7. I tried persuading him and succeeded. .
I tried to persuade him but in vain. .
note: a) regret I regret to say~()
I regret being unable to go( )
' ' 'having+p.p' .
b) try to do( , ), try doing( ). try ...ing
, try to... .
c) understand, see[understand], realize begin .
I began to understand why he left this village.
: g.
1. I don't care[wish] to run a risk. .
I don't mind [object to] running a risk. .
2. I cannot but admire him. .
I cannot help admiring him.
3. I helped him (to) do his home task. .
I assisted him in doing his home task.
4. They forbid us to smoke here. .
They prohibit us from smoking here.
5. I persuaded him to give up the plan. .
I dissuaded him from carrying out the plan.
6. I like swimming. .
I like to swim in the river. .
7. It means keeping his word. .
I mean to keep my word. .
8. He tried driving the car. .
He tried to drive the car. .
note: a) mind feel objection to ... '... '
. Do you mind my using your car? = Do you
mind if I use your car? ? I don't mind walking to
the station. . Would you mind oppening the
window? ? . opening
you, .
b) He stopped to smoke ' ' ' '
to smoke stop . '
.' He stopped smoking .
: h. allow, permit, advise, recommmend ,,
+ .
.

1. They don't allow us to speak Korean in this room.

. They don't allow speaking in this room.
2. Father permitted me to go abroad. .
Circumstances did not permit my going (did not permit me to go) there.
.
3. He advised me to work harder. .
He advised me not to be idle. .
I advise reading the letter carefully before answering it.
.
4. I recommended him to go by ship. .
What would you recommend for getting ink stains from my blouse?
?
: i. need, want , bear, require
.
1. My garden needs weeding(to be weeded) .
2. This cloth wants washing(being washed) .
3. His watch needs repairing = His watch needs to be repaired. ()
.
4. The story does not bear repeating .
5. The young seedling require looking after carefully(require to be looked aft
er carefully)
.
note: a) want .
b) 5. require need want .
c) He need studying '
' He need to study ' '
.
: j. : about but
.
1. He insists on marrying her. = He insists that he would marry her.
. * would .
2. I have no objection to going with you. = I don't object to going with you.
.
3. I'm looking forward to seeing you in the near future.
.
4. He is used [accustomed] to sitting up late at night.
.
5. He took to drinking and gambling. .
6. She devoted herself to studying physics. .
note: a) look forward to, be used to, take to ( )
to . to to
. . 'look
forward to ' .
b) 'be used to+' used to do . used to (do)

. He used not
to drink. He use(d)n't to drink. .
[B. ]

.
He is proud of his father being a famous artist.
. = He is proud that his father is a famous artist.
He was proud of his father being a famous artist. = He was proud that his father
was a
famous artist.

( , )
1. I remember hearing the song. = I remember that I heard the song.
.()
2. He admitted stealing the money.= He admitted that he had stolen the money.
.()
3. I am sure of his coming on time. = I am sure he will come on time.
.()
4. There is no hope of his being set free. = There is no hope that he will be
set free.
.()
having +p.p
.
5. He repents of having been idle in his youth. = He repents that he was idle
in his youth.
.
6. He prides himself on never having been beaten at chess. =He is proud that h
e has
never been beaten at chess. .
7. After having done with the work, I went out for a walk. = After I had done
with the
work, I went out for a walk. .
8. He denied having had anything with the matter. = He denied that he had had
anything
with the matter. .
note: a) never having been naver having never been .
not, never . I'm sure of his not coming.=I'm sure he will not come.
b) after ~ing on
. On seeing me, he exclaimed. = No sooner had he seen me
than he exclaimed. . I complimented him on passing the
examination. .
c) remember admit ...ing()
( ) deny
.
[C. (Voice)]
'being+' ...ing
. need, want, require, deserve, bear, stand
, worth, worthy of, past (
I ).
1. That needs no accounting for. [] .
2. The wounded deserve as much looking after as the sick.
.
3. It did not bear thinking about. .
4. What is worth doing at all is worth doing well.
[ ...].
5. He was past saving. . * past
[D. ]
: a. (, generic person)
...ing
.
1. Jimmy's having eaten the bananas was the cause of their quarrel.
.
note: '+' + (nexus)
. ' ' ' '.
2. Your being here won't help us much.
.
3. I remember Mr. John's talking aloud over a glass of whiskey.

 .
4. She insisted on my attending the party. =She insisted that I shoud attend t
he party.
.
5. Only think of its being three years since he left England.
3 .
: b.
. boy's boys' boys .
,
-s' .
. , it
, of one's own ...ing .
1. Illness prevented him going abroad. .
2. What is the use of me speaking? .
3. I can't understand a university professor behaving like this.
.
4. She is proud of her mother having been educated in England.
.
5. This is a picture of his own painting. = This is a picture he painted himse
lf.
.
note: a) (1.3.) (2.4.), of
one's own ~ing .
b) prevent Illness prevented him from going abroad.
Illness prevented his going abroad. .

: c.
all, both, this, those, any, oneself ,
.
1. I am sure of both making friends again. .
2. I don't know of any having seen the shark.
.
3. I often dream of Jane and myself floating in a small boat on the sea.
.
4. I am not surprised at young and old having a great interest in boxing.
.
note: a) young and old = the young and the old = young people and old people
b) No one would have thought of there being such a place.
. being such a place
there . No one would have thought that there
was such a place.

5. Mary could not help the tears filling her eyes. []
.
6. They arranged for a taxi waiting for him at the station.
.
7. He was proud of his wife's beauty being made so much of.
.

8. I was surprised at such a man of sense as he saying such a thing.
.
9. Have you heard of Smith the baker having married the widow?
?
( )
10. I think nothing of a boy smoking, but hate a girl smoking.
, .
11. Instead of me coming to you, you ought to be coming to me.
.
note: . .

They objected to me being sent to Europe and him [being sent] to Africa.
.
7. make A of B -> B(..) A() . B beauty.
[E. ]

1. There is no ...ing = It is impossible to... ' ... '

There is no climbing up such a steep cliff. = It is impossible to climb up ~.
.
There is no accounting for tastes. = It is impossible to account for tastes.
.
There is no denying the fact. .
2. No ...ing = There must be no ...ing; Don't...
No parking . No smoking .
3. There is no use ..ing = There is no use ...ing '... '
There is no use my going there. .
4. It is no use [good] ..ing = It is of no use to... '... '
It is no use crying over spilt milk. .
It is no good your waiting for him. .
It is no use our trying to persuade her of her folly.
.
5. cannot help ...ing = cannot but ...ing '... '
I cannot help thinking him foolish. = I cannot but think him foolish.
.
I could not help laughing at the photo. .
6. spend[waste] (time, hours, minutes, days, etc.) ...ing = spend ~in ...ing.
'... ~
'
I spent two years working on this dictionary. 2 .
I wasted thirty minutes waiting for him in vain. 30
.
note: spend, waste ~in ...ing in . in
. spend money on . He spends
a lot of money on books. ( ) .
7. of one's own ...ing = ...ed by oneself '~ ...'
These are trees of our own planting. =These are trees planted by ourselves. =The
se are trees
we planted (by) ourselves. .
8. feel like ...ing = feel inclined [disposed] to ... '... '
I felt like crying to hear the news. .
I feel like going on a picnic on such a lovely day.
.
9. (up)on ...ing =as soon as~, when~
On reading the letter, he turned pale. =As soon as he read the letter, he turn
ed pale.
.
On reaching the village, we asked for food. .
10. be busy ...ing = be busy in ...ing '... '
He is busy preparing for a journey. .
note: be busy ...ing in I'll be busy tomorrow
preparing for a trip. . , preparing
. 6. in
. Your leisure should be better employed (in) learning something.
. He was long (in) coming back.
.
11. be building =be being built ''
Our school is building. =Our school is being built. .
note: building The house is a-building.[=in building, in course of building]
. is being built .
12. go ...ing '... ' * go fishing, go shopping, go hunting .

My wife often goes shopping at the department store.

.
He went fishing in the river nearby. .
note: a) go ...ing go a- ...ing a- to, for . a-
go ...ing . go hunting, go skiing .
b) go shopping at~ shop at~( ) shopping at
, at to .
13. be worth ...ing = be worth one's while to... ' '
The book is worth reading at once. =It is worth your while to read the book. =It
is worth
while reading the book.
14. not [never] ~without ...ing '... ~ , ~ ...'
They cannot meet each other without quarreling. .
15. come near ...ing = nearly escape ...ing ' ... '
She came near being drowned. = She was nearly [almost] drowned.
.
16. It goes without saying (that) ~ = It is needless to say that~ '~ '
It goes without saying that man is mortal. ~.
17. be on the point of ...ing= on the brink of= on the eve of= on the verge of
.
The robber was on the point of rinning away. .
18. make a point of ...ing = make it a rule to... '... '
He makes a point of writing to her once a week. 1
.
[F. ]
: a. .
1. It will end in your simply being unhappy.
.
2. By always reading good books, you must improve your taste fot literature.
.
: b. . .
1. I rely upon your backing me up. .
2. He is used to getting up early. .
note: a) It's foolish of you to behave like that, b) It's foolish (your) behavin
g like that
. a) ' '
you , b) () .
your . b) It's foolish for you
to behave like that (foolish
) of you .
[3. (Participle)]
[A. ]

. (present participle) (past participle) .

. , ,
, .
...ing -ed
.
note: a) ...ing . lie->lying, die->dyimg,
occur->occurring, picnic->picnicking, handicap->handicapping( +
,
).
b) , .
() () . a dancing girl

dan-
a girl whose profession is dancing , dancing girl
girl a girl performing the act of dancing . a sleeping car
a car for sleeping in() (), a sleeping child a child who is
in the act of sleeping( ; ) .
a running car running .
[B. ]

(be+...ing) (be+-ed) ,
.
.
(1)
: a. : .
1. He sat reading a novel. .
2. The boy stood leaning against the wall. .
3. The city lies sleeping. [] .
4. My dog came running. .
5. She remained standing. .[ ]
6. I kept standing all the way. .
note: a) sit, stand, lie, come, remain, keep be
.
.
b) The house is building. [=is being built ]. He went fishing.
[] . He spends his spare time reading. .
She was busy cooking the dinner. . I beat him jumping.
. ...ing .
7. He sat surrounded by his children. .
8. He went out of the room unobserved. .
9. The treasure is said to remain buried somewhere. .
10. He went unpunished. -> .
11. He got stung by a bee. .
12. He got excited. .
13. He cannot get obeyed [get himself obeyed]. .
note: sat, stood, lie, is , came, went , kept,
remained , got, became .
: b. :
,
(5 5 ).
1. I saw a big whale blowing water. .
2. We have a visitor staying with us. .
3. He kept me waiting about thirty minutes. 30 .
4. We left her crying in the room. .
5. I saw him running. =He was running when I saw him. ( )
.
cf. I saw him run. = He ran and I saw him. ( )
6. You had better leave it unsaid. .
7. They left no means untried. .
8. He kept his eyes fixed on her face. .
9. They kept me informed of the situation. .
10. I would not have it spoken about. .
11. I want to have my car washed. .
cf. I want to have somebody wash my car.
12. I had my right wrist dislocated. .
13. I got a new suit made. .
14. I could not make myself understood in English.
. cf. I could not make them understand me in English.
15. I could not make myself heard. .
cf. I could not make them hear me.

16. I got my work done before noon. .

17. I had my manuscript written before he came for it. ()
. cf. I had written my manuscript before he came for it.
note: '~ ' '~'
16.17. '' . I have [had] done my work
.

(2)
: a. (,,)
. ,
, . (, )
1. The gentleman (who is) speaking to the mayor is my uncle.
.
2. What is the language (which is) spoken in Mexico?
? [ ?]
3. There is a large navigable river running[which runs] through the city.
.
4. I'm going to take the train leaving[that will leave] at eleven. 11[]
.
5. They are names (which are) well known in literature.
.
6. This is a new sect (that has) lately risen in Africa.
.
7. I was visited by a lady (who had) just come up to town.
.
8. It rained five hours running. 5 .
note: a) 3. ' '
. There are many students in the park There be ++
' ' ' ' . ,
be .
b) 7. come .
c) 8. running ', '(successive) . for five days
running , . for the time being .
: b. .

.
1. the exciting news = the news that excites people. .
2. the excited people = the people who are excited .
3. an interesting book = a book which interests reader .
4. an interested reader = a reader who is interested in the book .
5. a disappointing result = a result that will disappoint somebody .
6. a disappointed man = a man who is disappointed at something .
note: ' ()'
' ( , )'
. : married
people .
wounded soldiers . a burnt child .
a reserved seat . a broken chair .
all living things . the coming
election , , . her forbidding manner .
everlasting jokes . the following day[the day following] , .
a charming girl .
* .
7. a healthy-looking young man = a young man who looks healthy .
8. well-meaning people = people having good intentions .
9. a well-earned recompense .
10. a well-known painter .
11. an unheard-of scandal = a scandal which has not been heard of until now
.

12. a long-looked-for chance .

13. ready-made articles , home-made jam .
note: well-meaning [well-meant], well-known well- ,
well-cooked, well-done , , well-born , unheard-of [unprecedented],
ready-made[ready for immediate use], home-made[made at home]
.
: a) ' ' a man working hard , a
hard-working man ? '' a shark eating a man
? a hard-working man .
. '
' a good-looking boy, 'LP ' a long-playing record .
well-known( , ), long-looked-for(
) . -ed .
a middle-aged gentleman , a kind-hearted man age heart
-d, -ed . a dark-haired girl , a spectacled man
, blue-eyed girls , a wooded hillside . a shark
eating a man ' ' . '' a
man-eating shark. '+' ,
. a
heart-warming story( ) . a peace-loving nation = a nation
that loves peace , a law-abiding people .
b) : ( )
. a caught bird ' ' (a bird that has
[had, will have] been caught) . love, hate,
praise, admire, blame . a loved
one '' [one who is loved by somebody]
. a once-loved one ( ) .
c) :
. a retired officer () '
' (a man who has once an officer and has now retired from his office) .
, a deserted soldier , a full-blown rose . a fallen angel
, . the risen moon . aged people , a declared
lover . a professed Christian ( ).
d) :
. ,
.
I)
acting cheering flattering
lasting amazing comforting
fleeting loving amusing
confusing flourishing maddening
becoming convincing forgiving
blushing deafening misleading
captivating deserving ... grasping
obliging charming discouraging
grudging pleasing exciting
encouraging interesting pressing
provoking embarassing inviting
promising puzzling shocking
surprising thriving refreshing
stimulating tempting willing
satisfying striking terrifying
winning
ii)
agreed civilized determined excited guarded pleased uncovered agitated
devoted exhausted harassed puzzled undamaged altered complicated
disappointed experienced hurried qualified upset amazed confused discon
tented
faded interested reserved worried ashamed contented disgusted flattered
mysified terrified astonished crowded distinguished flushed neglected t

ired
bored decided embarrassed frightened noted unclassified celebrated deli
ghted
enlightened grieved offended uncooked depressed
[C. (Participial Construction)]
(1)
(, , , )
. (, , ,
) . When he arrived at the hospital, he found his
daughter was critically ill ( ) When
he arrived Arriving Arriving at the hospital, he found his daughter
was critically ill . Arriving at the hospital
. (
) (adverbial phrase) . , ,
.
(2)
: a. : 'when [while, after, as]++' ->
1. Walking along the street, I met a friend. = When I was walking along the st
reet, ~.
.
2. Left alone, she began to cry. = When she was left alone, ~.
.
3. Catching sight of a highway patrol, he drove his car at full speed. = When
he caught
sight of a highway ~. [] .
4. Reaching the railroad station, I found that there would be no train leaving
for an hour
and more. = When I reached the railroad station, ~.
.
note:
.

. (
) . ( )
5. While staying in London, he visited the famous cathedral. = While he stayed
in
London,~. .
note: while . Though not knowing
what to do, I went to see her. .
: b. : 'because[since, as]++' ->
1. Living in the country, I seldom have visitors. =Since I live in the country
, ~.
, .
2. Being tired, he went to bed early. =As he tired, ~. , .
3. Not knowing what to do, she applied to me for advice. =As she didn't know w
hat to do,
~. .
4. Tired out after a long walk, he went to bed earlier than usual. =As he was
tired out
after long walk, ~. , .
5. Having met the boy before, I could recognize him at once. =Since I had met
the boy
before, ~. , .
note: a) .
(5. ) ,
after , .

b) 3. not .
c) 4. . As he was tired out ->
Being tired
out ->(be ) tired out . Written hastily, the
article contained many inaccuracies. . Surrounded
by police, the kidnaper gave himself up.
: c. : 'If + + ' ->
1. Taking this train, you will arrive in London at six. =If you take this trai
n, ~.
6 .
2. Certain poisons, properly used [if they are used properly], prove beneficia
l.
.
3. Turning to the left, you will find the building. =If you turn to the left,
~.
.
4. Going straight on about eight miles, you will find the hotel in question on
the right.
=If you go straight on about eight miles, ~. 8 []
.
note: a) 1.3.4. will ,
. ' '
.
* straight ', ' .
b) 2. . '++'
.
: d. : 'though [although, even if] ++' ->

1. Living near his house, I have seldom seen him. =Though I live near his hous
e, ~.
, [] .
2. Admitting your plan to be right, I still think it very hard to carry it out
. =Though I
admit your plan to be right, ~. .
3. Granting what you say to be true, I must say that you have made a serious m
istake.
=Even if I grant what you say to be true, ~. ( )
.
: e. : ' ~ and [while, as] ' ->
,
. while and (
) . , .
1. Walking quietly, he approached the little window. =He walked quietly and (h
e)
approached the little window. .
2. She wrote him a friendly letter, thanking him for his help. = ~and (she) th
anked him for
his help. .
3. The train starts at five, arriving at Manchester just at seven. = The train
starts at five
and it arrives at Manchester just at seven. 5 7
.
4. So saying, he went out of the room. = He said so and he went out of the roo
m.
.
note: a) 3.
' ' .

 . 3. Starting at five, the train

arrives at Manchester just at seven .
5. The storm hit the city, causing [and it caused] great damage.
.
6. He ran to school as fast as possible, arriving[and he arrived] just in time
.
.
note: 5.6. ,
.

(3)
,
.
,
. (absolute participial construction) .
(absolute nominative) .
1. As the sky suddenly became cloudy, we hurried to the shore.
-> The sky suddenly becoming cloudy, we ~ .
, .
2. As it was Sunday, the toyshop was crowded with boys.
-> It being Sunday, the toyshop was crowded with boys.
.
3. He was absent, so I took his place. -> He being absent, so I took his place
.
.
4. The cold wind drove him indoors because he wore nothing but a light sweater
.
-> Wearing nothing but a light sweater, he was driven indoors by the cold wind.
.
5. The old man sat reading and his dog was sleeping beside him.
-> The old man sat reading, with his dog sleeping beside him.
, .
note: a)
, (it )
. 4. . the
cold wind he
he by the cold wind
.
b) 5. 'with' with 'with+
+( ) .
+(nexus)
. , . He talked on
with his pupils listening eagerly( ).
She advanced slowly with her eyes fixed on me(
). , () with .
He lay dead with his eyes open( ). What a lonely world it would
be with you away( !) He stood up, hat in hand[with his
hat in his hand]( ). with a book under one's arm
( ), (with a) pipe in (one's) mouth ( ) .
(4)
,
'having+' () .
1. As I had never seen him before, I didn't know who he was.
-> Never having seen him before, I didn't know who he was.
.
note: never Having never seen .
not .
2. As the moon had risen, we put out the light.
-> The moon having risen, we put out the light.

 .
'being+', 'having been+'.
being .
1. Seen from a distance, the stone looks like a human face.
= When it is seen from a distance, ~. .
2. Compared with what it was, it has improved greatly.
= When it is compared with what it was, ~. .
3. Certain poisons, used[if they are used] as medicines in small quantities, p
rove not only
innocuous, but beneficial.
, .
being .
done, over being .
1. School over, we went swimming in the pool. = After school was over, ~.
[ ] .
2. Tea over and the tray removed, she again summoned us to the fire.
= After tea was over and the tray had been removed, ~.
.
'having been+' having been
being .
1. Having been deceived so often, I am now on my guard. =Since I have been dec
eived so
often, ~. .
2. This done[This having been done= After this had been done], he went to bed.
.
3. My work completed, I went out for a walk. =My having been completed, ~.
.
being .
1. Tired and sleepy, I went to bed earlier than usual.
= Being tired and sleepy, ~. = As I was tired and sleepy, ~.
.
2. A man of social interests, he had a lot of acquaintances.
= Being a man of social interests, ~. = As he was a man of social interests, ~.
.
(5)
.
The boys saw the owner of the orchard and ran off ( )
.
a) The boys, seeing the owner of the orchard, ran off.
b) Seeing the owner of the orchard, the boys ran off. ,
b) . Seeing the owner of the orchard, they ran off.
they he, she .
.
.
My train starts at six and it will arrive in New York at ten ( 6
10 ) .
a) My train, starting at six, will arrive in New York at ten.
b) My train starts at six, arriving in New York at ten.

. b) 'and+'
.
.
1. I sat reading a book, my wife sewing by my side.
= I sat reading a book, while my wife was sewing by my side.
.
2. The piper went up the mountain, followed by the dancing children.
= The piper went up the mountain, while he was being followed by the dancing chi
ldren.
( ), .

 being
with[having] .
1. I waited, every nerve upon the stretch. = I waited, every nerve being upon
the stretch.
= I waited with every nerve upon the stretch. .
* stretch , , .
2. She stood silent, her eyes full of tears[with...].
.
3. He stood at the gate, gun in hand[with a gun in his hand].
.
(6)
.
: a.
1. Our ship sails tomorrow, weather permitting[if the weather permits].
.
2. Other things being equal[=If other things are equal], a married woman is a
more efficient
schoolteacher than an unmarried one.
.
3. All things considered[When all things are considered], his demand for highe
r wages is
reasonable. [ ].
4. Given earth, air and a due temperature, the plant must grow. = Earth, air a
nd a due
temperature being given, ~. = If earth, air and a due temperature are given, ~.
.
5. Granted that he told you a lie, he did so out of kindness. = That he told y
ou a lie being
granted, ~. = Though it is granted that he told you a lie, ~.
[] .
cf. granting that~ .

: b. ( )
1. Strictly speaking[If we speak strictly], his report is not true.
. cf. Speaking strictly .
2. Generally speaking[If we speak generally], man is physically stronger than
woman.
.
3. Frankly speaking{If we speak frankly], I don't like his his novels.
.
4. Judging from his statement[If we judge from~], he seems to be ignorant of t
he truth of
the matter. .
5. Seeing that he is a child, I will make allowances.
.
6. Supposing he were here, what would he say? ?
7. Any dress will do provided[providing] (that) it is black.
.
note: a) 5.6.7. (since if)
. granted[granting] (that)~ .
b) concerning(~ ), owing to(~ ), considering(~ ),
according to
(~ ), talking of(~ ) (
). He is strong considering[for] his age . Talking of the
films [While we are on the subject of the films = Now that you talk of the films
], do you
find "The jaws" interesting? , "" ?

: c. as it does as it is
1. Standing as it does on the hill, the hotel commands a fine view.
.
2. Written as it is in plain English, the book is fit for the beginners.
.
note: 1. as it does standing , does stands it the
hotel, as . Since[As] it stands so
high as it stands ( ). 2. as it is
written . Being written as it is written[As it is written as~] .
* command() =overlook, '()+command a fine view'... .
[4 ]
.
,
. '+' (relative
pronoun) '+' (relative adverb)
(whoever, whichever, whatever, whenever, wherever, however ) .
[1. ]
[A. ]
(
) who(whom), which(of which, whose), that, what, but, as, than
. , (), .
,
(antecedent)
, .
who(whom, whose), which(of which, whose), ,,
that,
the thing which, that which what
.
who, which, what that ,
what . what that which
.
1. I know who broke the window. .()
I know the boy who broke the window. .
2. Tell me which you choose. .()
Tell me the title of the book which you choose. [] .
3. Tell me what you want to know. .
Go and see whar he's doing. .()
This is what he told me. .
4. That is the house he lives in. .()
It is you that are wrong. .
We must pay attention to the fact that fire burns.
.( )
note: a) 1.2. , 3. , 4.
'+' , 3. what
.
b) 4. that It++that~
. that who It ~who .
[B. ]
(defining use)
(continuative use, non-defining, ) .
a) He has three daughters who [that] have not married yet.
.

b) He had three daughters, who have not married yet.

, .
note: a) who daughters ,
3 . b)
. He has gone to his wife who lives in Daegu
. ,
( comma ) . '
' ' ' He has
gone to his wife, who ~.
() .
1. There were very few passengers who[taht] escaped without serious injury.
.()
2. There were very few passengers, who escaped without serious injury.
, .
note: a) comma comma semi-colon,
dash(-) . 2. ',who'='and [so] they'.
b) 1. , 2.
.
3. That boy - who lives next door - often teases my sister. ,
.
: a) Comma
. My son, who is an archtect, lives in New York at present. ->
My son is an archtect. He lives in New York at present.
b) 'and[but, for, though]+' .
I met a foreigner, who[and he] asked me the way to the station.
, .
I will lend you this novel, which[for it] is very exciting. .
.
c) Comma .
He was not of the Ned Winter family, who were very respectable people in Winsbur
g.
.
comma . The boy took out some
cookies which he ate up very soon. .
[C. who ]
who who-whose-whom ,
, .
1. I don't like a man who speaks ill of others.
.( )
2. I don't like the man, who [for he] speaks ill of others. .
() .( )
3. The child whose parents are dead is called an orphan.
.(his parents , )
4. Each newspaper has a great many men whose business is to get news for it.
These men are called reporters. ()
. .
5. She had five children, two of whom[of whom two = but two of them] died in i
nfancy.
, 2 .
6. She is the girl (whom) I spoke of the other day.
. ( )
7. The son (whom) they love dearly is missing now.
. missing (=lost).
note: a) . She is the girl. I love her.
the girl her love her the girl
. '
' whom . She is the (whom) I love.
b) [] , .

[D. which ]
which , , .
of which whose .
.
1. This fountain pen which cost me ten dollars leaks badly. 10
.( )
2. This fountain pen, for which I paid 10 dollars, leaks badly. 10
.( , )
note:
. for which which I paid for .
3. The mountain the top of which [of which the top = whose top] is covered wit
h snow is
Mt. Halla. .()
4. This is the camera (which) I bought last month. .
, )
5. This dictionary, of which the few pages [the few pages of which] are missin
g, is of no
use. .( )
6. She remained silent, which made him angry. .(
)
7. He said he had seen me somewhere, which [but it] was a lie.
.( )
8. She beckoned him to come nearer, which he did not [but he did not come near
er].
.
9. He is rich, which I unfortunately am not.
.
,
who which [that] .
10. He is exactly the man which such an education is likely to form.
() .
which .
11. A classic is a work which gives pleasure to the minority which is intensel
y and
permanantly interersted in literature.
.
12. She kissed the child which was in its mother's arms.
.
note: a) whose of which the house of which
the roof is red the house with a red roof
.
b) the way in which I do it( ) the way in
which the way I do it . He watched the way the child drank the milk.
They will succeed the way others did. .
the way as . the way
in . in .
[E. that ]
that .
who, that .
people those who . that
.
: a. the only, the same, the very, all, any, no
who [which, what], everything
1. She is the prettiest girl (that) I have ever seen.
.

2. She is the only student in our class that can speak English.
.
3. Man is the only animal that uses language.
.
4. This is the same lighter that I lost yesterday.
.
NOTE: the same~that..., the same (type of) ~ as ...
This is the same book as yours. () .
5. This is the very film that I have wanted to see.
.
6. This is all the money (that) I have. .
7. I will give you all the books that I have. ()
.
8. Any boy that wants to succeed must study hard.
.
9. No words that I know can describle the scene. ()
.
10. Who that has common sense can say such a thing?
?
11. Who is the man that is speaking to Tom?
?
12. What, that is bad, is learnt in school? .
13. Everything that caught my eye amused me.
.
14. She answers every letter (that) she receives.
.
who which that
.
15. This is the very cause which they have rejected unconsciously as the motiv
e for
their private lives.
.
16. The only kind of freedom which is undesirable is that which diminishes the
freedom of others, for example, the freedom to make slaves.
, .
b.
1. People and houses that were devoured by the flood were counted by hundreds.
.
2. A big truck knocked down the boy and his dog that were just crossing the st
reet.
.
c. little, much, all ( a 6. 7.)
1. Judging from the little of his work that remains, he was a writer of rare a
bility.
.
2. I cannot but notice how much that vitally affected me has been due to the
circumstances.
.
3. All is not gold that glitters. .
d.
1. Like the scientist that he is, he makes careful and exact observation.
.
2. Fool that I am! !
e. when, where, how, why . that .
1. There were only a few houses the first time (that=when) I came here.
. * the first time in .

2. The day (that = when) I started was rainy. .

3. I don't know the reason (that = why) he got angry. .
4. Do it the way (that = how) I do. .
NOTE: a) the way in (4.).
b) that . +that . Politics is
perhaps the only profession for which no preparation is thought necessary(
) the only
that which .
[F. what ]
what the thing which, that which, all that
. who, which, that what
.
a. : , , .
1. We could not understand what he siad. .
2. Please tell me what you know about your town.
.
3. This is what [the thing which] I wanted to see. .
4. What is done cannot be undone. .
5. Choose what [= anything that] you think is to your taste.
.
6. He is not what he used to be. .
7. I respect him for what he is, not for what he has.
.
8. Reading is to the mind what food is to the body.
.
9. By what is called science is meant the systematic treatment of any object o
f study.
.
Note 4. , 3. 6. , 1. 2. 5. 7. 9. . 8.
A is to what C is to D 'A B c D ' .
what . what we [they, you] call = what one calls = what is[are] called
() ', , ' cf. as it were so to speak . what I am
, what she used to be , what he was , what he has
. 9. mean A by B () B A .
b. :
1. What was more, he was awarded the grand prize. cf. moreover, besides.
.
2. Be the matter what it may, always speak the truth.
.
3. His father suddenly passed away, and what was still worse, his mother was t
aken
ill. .
4. What with teaching, and (what with) writing, my time is fully taken up.
[ ].
note 2. . 4. what with A and what
with B 'A B ', . () =what
between A and B.
: c. : as much[many]~as... ( )
1. You may wear what clothes [any clothes that] you please.
[ ].
2. What clothes [All clothes that] she has are old-fashioned.
.
3. Let him have what (little) [all the little] pleasure he can.
() .

[G. ]
which, what, whichever, whatever
(relative adjective) .
1. He saves what little money he earns. = He saves all the little money (that)
he
earns. = He saves the small sum of money he earns.
.
2. he spoke to me in Italian, which language I could not understand at all. =
~, and
during this time he recovered his health. 2 ,
.
4. I was told to travel not by plane but by trin, which advice I followed. = ~
, and I
followed this advice.
.
5. You may read whatever book you like to. = You may read any book you like to
.
.
6. There is no doubt whatever [at all]. .
7. Choose whichever course you like. = Choose any course you like.
.
note: 1. '~' . what all the ~ that... , what little,
few what little money I have ( )
. 2. 4. 7. .
[H. as ]
a. such, as, the same .
1. It was such a big fish as he had never caught before.
.
2. He is as kind a man as ever lived. .
3. As many men as came were caught. .
4. This is the same color as yours (is). .
b. : as ( )
1. He is absent today, as is often the case. .
2. Everyone was more or less interested in the arts, as was only right and pro
per in
Florence. .
3. I helped lim with his homework, as was my duty.
.
4. He was not, as he knew well from experience, one of those persons who loved
danger for its own sake. ,
.
note: 1. 2. 3. as . which
which as , ,
'~ ' . 1. As is often the
case(with him), he is absent today .
[I. but ]
( )
but that ~not .
1. There is no rule but has (some) exceptions. = There is no rule that has no
exceptions. = cf. Every rule has its exceptions. .
2. There is no mother but loves her children. .
3. There is nothing in the world but teaches us some lesson.
.
4. Who is there but commits errors? = Who is there that does not commit errors

.
.
note: It never rains but it pours( ) but that~not
, . but .
[J. than ]
than , .
1. The writer uses no more words than are needed to express his thought and fe
eling
adequately.
. ()
2. He spends more money than he earns. .
()
note: as, but, than, .
.
[K. ]
, .
.
a. ( )
1. This is the house he used to live in. .
2. Who is the lady you were talking to? ?
3. The books I lentyou are out of print now.
.
4. The doctor I consulted advisedme to stop smoking.
.
5. We have nothing we may substitute for this curtain.
.
note: 1. in which he used to live[=that he used to live in]
. that that
. that . 2. to whom you were
talking, 3. which I lent you, 4. whom I consulted, 5. that we may...
. (contact-clause)
.
b. there is (was), it is (was), Here is (are), It is ~ that ,
who is(was) .
1. There was a man (who) called to see you this morning.
.
2. It's an ill wind (that) blows nobody good. .
3. It was Henry (that) told me the news. .
4. Here's Mr. Smith (who) begs the favor of a word.
.
5. Who was that (that) called me up yesterday?
?
note: 2.3. It~that . 2. ' ' .
5. =What was that who called... that .
c. () .
1. He is not the man (that) he once was. [] .
2. She is not the cheerful woman (that) she used to be.
.
d. there+be
1. This is the only one (that) there is. .
2. This is the oldest dictionary (that) there is in the library.
.

note: there [^12456^^26^] that [^12456^^26^t] (

) .
e. be -ible, able :
be .
1. The only person (who was) visible at the gate was a soldier.
.
2. I managed to get over the greatest difficulty (that was) imagible.
[] .
note: imaginable possible all, every, no
, every possible [imaginable] method ( )
.
f. be
.
1. The woman (who is) holding a baby in her arms is waiting to see the doctor.
.
2. The book (that was) ordered from England last month has not arrived yet.
.
[L. ]
a.
1. He said a lot of rude things with which I could not put up.
. cf. He said a lot of rude things I could not put up with.
.
2. These are things in which we take no interest.
. cf. These are things we take no interest in.
3. Her parents did not allow her to marry the man with whom she was in love.
.
b.
1. This is the house in which he lives. .
cf. This is the house which he lives in. * , .
2. Yhe hill on which they planned to build their city was near the river.
.
3. He had a daughter, with whom [and with her] I became good friends.
.
4. I read the letter twice, after wich [and after that = after I read the lett
er twice] I
sealed it up. .
5. The upper classes may continue to block reforms, in which case [and in that
case]
we must expect the use of violence. .
.
c. : besides, during, toward, beyond, as to(~
), opposite, except, considering, round, up, down, near .
of .
1. This is thw goal toward which we are striving.
.
2. He spent effectively the years during which he was in the army.
.
3. He was a young man of twenty eight, concerning whom you may have heard most
various opinions. 28 ,
.
4. She met several men, none of whom she recognized.
, .
5. He has hundreds of books, most of which he has read.
, .

6. I have three cameras, of which two are made in England.

, .
note: 4.5.6. of, 6. of []
.
d. : laugh at, be fond of '[]+'
.
1. The color which Elizabeth was fondof was blue.
.
2. Smith is the young man whom we have been looking for.
.
3. The first thing that he thought of was to visit the place again.
.
[M. ]

.
,
(double restriction) .
1. Originality in politics, as in every field of art, consists in the use and
application of
the ideas which we get or which are given to us.

.
2. Can you mention anyone (that) we know who is as talented as he?
?
note: 1. or . 2. that, who
anyone who 'anyone that know'.
3. There is nothing that can happen to us that has not happened again and agai
n,
that we have not read over a thousand times, closely, carefully, accurately reco
rded.
,
[
]. ()
[N. ]
'++that'
(concatenated relative clause) . . , [
] '+' .
1. There is Miss Helen who they say is the most beautiful girl in the village.

.
note: a)There is Miss Helen. b)They say she is the most
beautiful girl in the village.
a) she Miss Helen b) she->who who
they say is ~ . who is they say
. They believe her to be the most beautiful girl in the
village Thereis Miss Helen whom they believe to be the most...
.
2. We feed children we think are hungry.
.
3. I argued against everything he believed had happened.
.
4. In a previous story I have related what I thought the reader should know ab
out
Ned Preston.

 .
note: 2.3. . 4. what .
[O. ]
.
1. At that time I had no house in which I could live. -> At that time I had no
house
in which to live. -> At that time I had no house to live in. .
2. I have even no money to buy a loaf of bread with. .
3. Find me a chair to sit on. .
4. I want a knife to sharpen a pencil with. .
5. The truly rich society is not the one that goes on piling up economic wealt
h as an
end itself, but the one that uses its wealth as the foundation on which to build
a rich
and many-sided culture. ,
,
.
note: a) 2.3.4. with which to..., on which to...
5. '++to...'
.
b) 2. to buy , with I have no money to buy the book
, to buy it with to buy
with .
[P. ]
who, which, what -ever (compound relative
pronoun) . no matter who, no matter which, no matter what
, any...who[that]~
.
a.
1. whoever[Nomatter who] may object, I will do what I think is right.
. * what .
2. I am ready, whatever[no matter what] may happen.
.
3. Whichever[No matter which] he may take, he will not be satisfied with it.
.
b.
1. Whoever[Anyone who] has to deal with young children soon learns that too mu

ch
sympathy is a mistake.
.
2. You may dance with whomever[anyone whom] you like to.
.
3. he will be sure to succeed in whatever[anything that] he undertakes.
.
4. Please take whichever[anything that] suits you best.

5. You may give this to whomever[anyone whom] you like.
.
[2. (Relative Adverb)]
[A. ]
'+' , '+' .

 when, where, why, how

when where , . why
how . when,
where, why, how . '+which'
.
a) This is the village. + He was born in the village. *
.
b) This is the village and there he was born.
c) This is the village where[in which] he was born. .
[B. ]
a.
1. I stayed at the hotel where[at which] you had stayed two years before.
2 .
2. The place where[at which] the treasure is buried is not very far.
.
3. The month when[in which] school begins is September.
9.
4. Let me know the exact time when[at which] you will be back.
.
5. There is every reason why[for which] I should not tell you my story.
.
6. The reason why[for which] he got angry was not told.
.
note: a) why the reason(), This is why he went to
Washington( ) the reason
, the reason why . The reason (why) he
was fired is obscure. .
7. The reason why[for which] he failed (in) his collage entrance examinations
for
three years in succession was his laziness. 3
.
8. This is how[the way in which] we learn English.
[ ].
9. He showed us how[the way in which] the machine worked.
[ ] .
note: how the way how... '+'
. 'the way...' '~how...' the way ,
how .
10. I don't like the way he speaks[or talks] to me.
.
11. I am ashamed of the way I talked to you.
.
note: 10.11. how . the way=as . I
fixed things the way he wanted. .
12. There was a big fire on the day that we departed.
.
13. The last time (that) I saw him, he was in good health.
.
14. The moment (that) he read the letter, he turned pale.
[] .
15. These things occur anywhere that people crowd.
.
note: that when the time, the year, the day .
. that ()
(13.14.). that where, why, how (15.).
b. : how a.
.

1. This is where[the place where] I met her for the first time.
.
2. That's just where[the point in which] you are wrong.
.
3. Now is when[the time when] they need me most.
.
4. That was why[the reason why] he left the country.
.
5. That was how[the way in which] he used to do.
.
6. Read down to where we stopped last time. .
7. I can see it from where I am standing.
.
note: 6.7. . .
c. : where
1. We must camp where[at a place where] we can get water to drink.
[ ] .
in case, if(~ , ~)
.
2. Leave the book where[in the place where] you found it.
.
3. I looked in at his office when I was passing.
.
4. Where there's a will, there's a way. . cf. Nothing is
impossible to a willing mind. .
5. Come here when your name is called. .
note: 5. when .
d. : where, when '(and, but, for...)+'
. comma .
1. He took me to the museum, where[and there] we enjoyed ourselves.
. .
2. She went into the store, where[for there] they sold sugar.
. ( ).
3. He began to read a book, when[and then] the bell rang. ,
() .
e. : wherever, whenevere, however
.
1. He gets lost wherever he goes. .
2. She is impatient whenever she is kept waiting.
.
3. However[No matter how] hungry you are, you must eat slowly. ()
.
4. Wherever[No matter where] you go, you will not find it.
.
5. Wherever you may live, you will not find an ideal statesman.
.
6. Tell me the signs whereby he shall be known.
.
7. Do you know the room wherein they slept? ?
note: a)3.4. . 5. may . where,
when will, can, may, like
. Go where you may[Whenever you may go], you will not find it. b) 6.7.
whereat, wherefore, wherefrom .
f. : whither, whence ,
1. He is in heaven, whither[to the place where] I hope to follow.
. .

2. Whence did you come? ?

3. No one knows whence she comes. .
4. Return whence[to the place from which] you came. .
note: whence from... , 4. to... .
<> here there where <to > hither
thither whither <from > hence thence
whence []
[5 ]
[1. ]
,
5 . 5

,
.
[A. ]

(1)
'..., ..., ..., ..., ... ' , , ,
.
a. : , , , ,
1. . The building is now under construction.
2. . Boston is in the east of the United States.
3. . Our class is in charge of Mr. Smith.
4. . Copper is the most useful metal second
to iron.
5. . Health is the foundation of life.

b. : ,
1. . We must prepare earnestly for the
examination.
2. () . One had better
choose one's occupation taking one's own disposition into consideration.
note: a) one one's . b) take ... into
consideration... ... []. = take ... into account = take account of... = conside
c. : to + Root() It() + to...
1. . To do one's duty gives one an honor.
= It gives one an honor to do one's duty.
2. . It is wrong to tell a lie.
3. . It is hard for a Korean to
master English.
4. . To have learned
French was of great use to me afterwards.
5. . What to do first was not decided.
6. . When and how to do it is the qeustion.
d. : that, whether, who, what, how . It ~ that...
1. . That we shall succeeed is certain. = It is certain
that we shall succeed.
2. . It is certain that the moon is
uninhabited. * uninhabited , = deserted, empty.
3. . It is doubtful whether he is honest or not.
4. [=
.] Who discovered America is well-known to everybody. = It

is well-known to everybody who discovered America.

5. . How fond of books the boy is
astonishes us. = It is astonishes us how fond of books the boy is.
* 450km . Pusan
lies four hundred and fifty kilometers (to the) south of Seoul, and has a warm a
nd
healthy climate. to the south of Seoul ( <- ) in the south of Seoul
( <- ) on the south of Seoul ( <- )
(2)
a. , ,
1. . = . I feel a little unwell
today.
2. . = . We shall have an
examination in world history the day after tomorrow.
3. . . It is already spring, but it
is still pretty cold here in Seoul.
4. . It is the first
thing in commerce to make money, but we must not make it by a dishonest way.
b. '..., ~, '
1. ? What lesson do you like best? = What lesson
are you most interested in?
2. . This hill commands a fine view.
c. '..., ~' .
1. . She has a sweet voice.
2. . He is tall.
3. . This child has a poor memory.
4. . He has many children. = He has a lot of child. = He has a
large family.
(3)
a. , , , it.
1. . It[The weather] was fine this morning.
2. . It[The wind] is blowing hard.
3. . It is raining today. = We are having rain today.
4. . It gets light at five in the morning.
5. ? 9. What time is it? It is nine(o'clock) now.
6. [ ] . It[The day] is dawning.
7. . It[The season] is summer now.
8. 7 4. It[The day] is July 4 today. * Independence
Day the Fourth of July .
9. ? 3. How far is it[the distance] to the
next station? It is about three kilometers.
b. :
we, you, they, one, a man
.
1. . = ... We[You, One] should not
tell a lie.
2. . One[We, You] cannot succeed without
perseverance.
3. . We[One, You] should make
ourselves[oneself, yourselves] strong and healthy while we[one, you] are young.
4. . They say that Mars looks very much like
the earth.
c. .
1. . In this shool they teach German

as well as English.
2. . They speak English in Australia.
3. . They have little snow in Pusan. = They
seldom have snow in Pusan. = It seldom snows in Pusan.
4. . In that shop they sell good shoes.
note: 3. they we .
you.

(4) It: , ,
1. . It is interesting to study English.
2. . It is no use seeing him.
3. . It is natural for her to think so.
4. [ ]. It is kind of you to see me off.
note: 4. to see It .
of kind, brave, foolish, wise ( )
( ).
5. . = . It is certain that he
will succeed. = Ceratinly he will succeed.
note: It is + + that + + = + +
certain(certainly), clear(clearly), natural(naturally),
true(truly), plain(plainly).
6. () . It is not clear who wrote the letter.
It
7. 10 . It takes ten minutes to walk to the station.
8. 10 . ( ) It is cost ten
cents to mail the letter.
9. . It is said that he is in England. = They say that he is
in England. = I her that he is in England. = He is said to be in England.
note: They[People] say that he... say Thathe is in
England is said by them , It is said (by
them) that he is in England . that he
He is said to be in England.
10. . It seems that she knows the fact. = She
seems to know the fact. * that .
11. () . It happened that I had no money
with me. = I happened to have no money with me.
12. . It does not matter whether he comes or not. *
....
13. . It does not matter where you go. cf. It is
no matter ( ).
(5) ,
1. . It rains much this year. We have a lot of rain this year.
2. . They speak English in Canada. English is spoken in
Canada.
3. . We can reeach Daejeon by bus in about
two hours. Daejeon can be reached by bus in about two hours.
4. . All the factories are sending up black smoke.
Black smoke is rising up from all the factories.
5. 3 . ( ) The schoolhouse
now under construction will have been completed by the end of March. By the end
of
March, they will have completed the schoolhouse which they are now building.
6. . We[You] cannot master English in a short time.
It is impossible to master English in a short time. English cannot be mastered i
n a
short time.
7. . It
is the chief aim of newspapers to report daily events as quickly as possible. Th
e chief

object of newspapers is to report daily events as...

Newspapers have it for their chief object to report daily events as...
(6) ()
,
, '++' .

,
. ,
, , , ()
( )
. ()
.
a. , : '... ~'
1. Illness prevented me from attending the meeting. = I could not attend the m
eeting
because of illness. .
2. The heavy snow stopped all the trains. = All the trains stopped on account
of the
heavy snow. .
3. A simple kindness to a stranger gained for me years afterwards a valued fri
end. =
I gained a valued friend years afterwards because I did a simple kindness to a s
tranger.
.
note: a) 1. ' '
' ' . 'A prevent B from ...ing' 'B
cannot++because of A' 'B A ...
'
.
b) 2. stopped , .
c) 3. for me years afterwards .
b. : '... ~ '
1. This medicine will make you feel better. -> If you take this medicine, you
will feel
better. .
2. This bus will take you to the station in ten minutes. -> If you take this b
us, you
can get to the station in ten minutes. () 10
.
3. A glance at the city map will show you the way to White House. -> If you ta
ke
a glance at the city map, you will find the way to...
.
note: 1. ' '
2. ' 10 '
. 3. '
' . 4
.
c. : ' ...~"
1. No amount of experience seems to improve the politician in speaking in publ
ic. ->
Though the politician has had some experience in speaking in public, he does not
seem
to improve.
.
2. Another little drink won't kill you. -> Though[If] you have[take] another l

ittle
drink, you won't[will not] die. .
d. [, ]
1. 1980 saw only about two hundred thousand domestic cars sold. -> They sold o
nly
about two hundred thousand domestic cars in1980. -> Only about two hundred
thousand domestic cars were sold in 1980. 1980 20
.
2. The next morning found us on top of the mountain, enjoying pure air, and
watching the sun rise in the east. -> When the next morning came, we were on top
of
the mountain...
.
note: 1.2. '1980 20 ' '
... .'
.
e. what : '[] ... ~ '
1. ? What makes you think so?
2. ? What made him so angry?
3. ? What brought you here?
note: 1.3. ' ?' '
?'.
', '
. 1. Why do you think so? 2.
Why did he get so angry? 3. Why did you come here?
f.
1. This picture reminds me of your mother. = When I see this picture, I think
of your
mother. [] .
2. A few minutes' walk brought me to the park. = After I walked a few minutes,
I
came to the park. 2,3 .
3. Three years have passed since he died. = He has been dead for three years.
= He
died three years ago. 3 . 3. *
.
4. The fall from his horse hurt him.[=He fell from his horse and got hurt.
. <- .
5. The loss of the baseball game disappointed him. = He was disappointed at th
e loss
of the baseball game. . <-
.
note: be disappointed at, be astonished at, be surprosed at, be amazed at, be
appalled
at(), be pleased with, be contented with, be amused with, be satisfied with(
) (, , ),

.
6. "Where does this vase go?" "It goes on the table over there." ,
"Where shall I put this vase?" "Put it on the table over there." "
?" " " <- " ?" "
."
7. This money must last till next payday. .
8. First prize went to Mary. .
9. All of her salary goes on clothes. .
10. Two goes into twelve six times. 12 2 6. <- 2 12 6
.

11. "Do you have the time?" "My watch says five-thirty." "?" "
."
12. The sign says "No Parking." () .
13. The weather forcast says there will be rain tonight. ()
.
14. Her letter says her mother is sick.
.
15. This handbook tells you how to use the camera.
.
16. Her face shows how happy she is.
.
17. Will this road take me to the railroad station? ?
18. This coat will keep you warm. .
* say, tell, show, go .
19. Chance played a part in his success. .
20. My sense of duty compels me to do this.
.
21. Airplanes enable people to travel through the air.
.
22. His story moved everybody to tears.
.
23. Anxiety nearly drove her mad. .
24. The book won him a reputation. .
25. Open windows increase the circulation of air in a room. = The circulation
of air in
a room increase if windows are kept open. .
26. The teacher's praise encouraged the boy to stuudy.
.
27. Does your dictionary give the etymologies of words?
?
28. The poverty of his family made it impossible for him to go to college.
.
29. The situation allows of no delay. .
note: a) 28. He could not go to college because his family was poor
. .
b)
. . allow, bring,
cause, compel, demand, deprive, drive, enable, fail, give, go, help, keep, make,
prevent,
prove, remind, require, result, say, show, take, tell.
(7) There+be+ : '' . '... '
a. There be +[]+, : '~ ... '
1. . There is a book[There are books] on the table.
2. 8 31[]. There are 31 days in August.
3. . There has been no rain for a month.
4. " ?" ", ." "Is there a stationer's in this
neighborhood?" "Yes, thereis."
5. ? How many colleges are there in Seoul?
6. . There is no rule without an exception.
b. There++be+
1. ( ). There will be no examination tomorrow.
2. () . There must be Tom in the room.
: a) There is[^12456^^26^riz] There's[^12456^^26^rz] . there
will[^12456^^26^w^26^l] There be .
There (introductory adverb)
. , a, some, no
, , , .

There's the book on the table.() There was the sound of a helicopter taking off.
( ) sound of
the . the . There
are the eggs all broken.
b) There . Be+there...? God
said, Let there be light: and there was light. ' '
. (tag question), There's a bed, a table, and four chairs in this
room. On his desk there was an inkstand, a desk lamp, a dictionary, and several
English books. There comes an old woman and her three daughters.
c. There+be++=+be+( )
1. . There was an east wind blowing. = An east wind was
blowing.
2. . There is a chandelier hanging from the
middle of the ceiling. = A chandelier is hanging...
3. . There are some birds chirping in
the trees. = Some birds are chirping...
4. . There was no name written on the book. = No
name was written on the book.
d. be : There+live, stand, come, run, fall, rise, result,
reach, arrive, remain .
1. . Once (upon a time) there lived an
old man and an old woman.
2. . There was heard a rumbling noise.
3. . There reached their ears from the
outer air the sound of a tolling bell.
4 . There came a knock at the door.
5. . There came a bus.
6. . There rose a thick smoke from the vocano.
note: There comes the bus. .
. There is a car in front of the gate( ). The car
is in front of the gate( ). There are some books on the desk(). The
books are on the desk().
e. There be ,
1. . There seems[appears] to be no
doubt about it.
2. . There happened to be a convenient
train.
3. . There used to be a bridge here.
4. . There must have been a big earthquake
somewhere.
5. . There ought to be a university in this city.
6. . There seems to have been a fire
near our house.
(8)
'~' '~' ,

. , not(never),
no(Nobody came), no(I have no sisters), no, not(He is no
fool He is not a fool ) .
a. no..., nothing, no one, none
1. . No news is good news.
2. . I waited for two hours, but no bus
came.
3. . Nobody[No one] can read this
book in a day.

4. . Nothing he says is true.

5. . No words can express her sorrow.
6. . None of my friends are here yet.
7. . No two people[person, minds] think
exactly alike.
8. . No one man could have done this.
9. [] . Nothing is more important than health.
10. . No animal is more dangerous than a
wounded tiger.
11. .
Nothing is more valuable[precious] than time, but nothing is less valued.
12. . Not many people write with their left
hand.
13. . Not all people write with
their right hand.
14. . .
Not all Canadians speak English. Some of them speak French.
15. . Not much has been said about the book.
16. . Not all of us want to go to
college.
note: . I could see nothing . I like
none of those books. . He has no brother(s).
b. few(), little()
1. . Few of us have read the book.
2. . Little is known about his life.
3. 90 . Few people live to be ninety.
4. . Little sugar is found in the pot.
5. . Not a few people say so.
6. . There is not a little danger.
note: 1.2. few, little . 3.4.
few+. little+(little ).
a few, a little [] ' ' , few, little ' ' .
3
[B. ]
(1) 'by+[]'

.
(active voice) .
. (passive
voice) .
The tiger killed the man. The man was killed by the tiger.
(agent) by... .
to, at, in, with
.
. .
a. S+V+O
1. John broke my window. My window was broken by John.
. -> .
2. Did the noise frighten you? Were you frightened by the noise? ()
[]?
b. S+V+O+O'
1. A friend lent me this book. This book was lent to me by a friend. I was len
t this

book by a friend. .
2. He told the children a story. The children were told a story by him. A stor
y was
told (to) the children by him. . ->
.
* 2 , ,
. .
.
3. He bought her a new hat.
She was bought......()
A new hat was bought (for) her by him. .
-> .
4. Mother made Mary a new dress.
Mary was made......()
A new dress was made (for) Mary by mother.
5. He sold me his car for almost nothing.
I was sold ......()
His car was sold (to) me for) ...... .
afford, carry, ensure, get, hand, intend, make, mean, pass,
reach, read, sell, write, yield .
, strike, envy, ask, forgive
2 , forgive .
6. I was spared the agony of being laughed at. ()
. cf. It spared me the agony of being......
7. I was saved the trouble to do it. . cf. He
saved me the trouble to do it.
8. I struck him a heavy blow. He was struck a heavy blow.
.
9. I envy her good luck. She is envied her good luck.
.
10. He asked me this question. I was asked this question.
.
11. They forgave him his impudence. He was forgiven his impudence. His impuden
ce
was forgive him. .
c. S+V+O+C
1. You made me very unhappy. I was made very unhappy by you.
.
2. The governor set the prisoners free. The prisoners were set free (by...).
.
3. I saw the thief running away. The thief was seen running away.
.
d. S+V+O+to
They warned me not to be late. I was warned not to be late.
. We are expected to tidy our own room.
. * .
e. , ++
1. I saw the train come. The train was seen to come by me. .
2. They noticed her smile. She was noticed to smile. ()
.
* , to .
watch . She watched me pack. -> I was watched to pack by her.
() .
3. They let us go. We were let go. . * let
. to .
4. They won't let us go. We won't be allowed to go.
.

5. I'll let you know the whole story. You'll be told the whole story.
. * let allowed
to .
f.
1. You must write the answers in ink. The answers must be written in ink.
.
2. I don't think anyone can do it. I don't think it can be done.
.[ ]
3. They are going to open the store next month.
The store is going to be opened next month. .
4. Ladies used to wear their dresses very long. Dresses used to be worn very l
ong.
.
5. It will be done in a minute. [ ] . *
.
g. : be+being+p.p.[-ed]
They are repairing the bridge. The bridge is being repaired. .
h. : have[has]+been+p.p.
They have offered Tom a very good job. Tom has been offered a very good job. A
very good job has been offered to Tom. []. *
to . I have been called cynical.
. * They[People] have called me
cynical.
i. : had been+p.p.
Somebody had cleaned my shoes and brushed my suit. My shoes had been cleaned
and my suit (had been) brushed. .
The sculpture had been removed from its stand for cleaning.
. * they, somebody .
j. : will have been+p.p.
1. That book will have been finished by Friday.
.
2. Three hundred new houses will have been built by the end of next year.
300 . *
by .
k.
1. Who wrote it? Who was it written by? ?
* by whom Whom was...
Who .
2. Who(m) does Tom like?
Who is liked by Tom? ?
3. What made the girl unhappy?
By what was the girl made unhappy? ?
* by .
l. : Let++be+p.p. or Be+p.p., Don't let++be+p.p.
1. Sign the paper.
Let the paper be signed. .
2. Don't waste your time. Don't let your time be wasted. .
3. Be advised by me. .
4. Be liked and you will never want. .
.
Let me[him]... let by me[him]
.
5. Let him play the piano.

Let the piano be played by him. .

* Let be+p.p.[-ed]
() . the piano played
. Let
.
m.
1. We mustn't speak about the topic.
The topic mustn't be spoken about. .
2. No one slept in Tom's bed last night.
Tom's bed was not slept in last night. .
3. They did not arrived at any conclusion.
No conclusion was arrived at. .
* +. . 'any~+not'
'no...+V' . any~ .
4. People speak well of him.
He is well spoken of. .
5. No one will speak badly of me.
I will never be spoken badly of. .
6. I cannot put up with all this noise.
All this noise cannot be put up with. .
7. The death penalty has been done away with in many European countries.
. * speak well of well
.
* ++
8. Fog held up the trains.
The trains were held up by fog. () .
9. The Black Plague took off milions. Millions were taken off by the Black Pla
gue.
. * +
10. The youngsters made fun of their teacher. Their teacher was made fun of by
the
youngsters. [] .
11. The keenness of the young apprentice was taken note of by his employer.
.
12. She pays no attention to what you say.
No attention is paid by her to what you say.
.
13. He took proper care of your furniture. Proper care was taken of your furni
ture (by
him). () .
* '++' .
Your furniture was proper care of by him . care
.
(2) 'by+'
a. , []
.
.
1. We heat the room by electricity. The room is heated by electricity.
.
2. The parents brought up the children according to the family traition. The c
hildren
were brought up according to the family tradition.
.
3. No one could possibly have known the secret. The secret could not possibly
have
been known. .
4. The child was punished for his crime. .
* (generic person) we, you, they, people, one, someone, no one, nobody, the

parents . by us, by the parents, by anyone

.
b. They[People] say that ...
1. They say that he knows the thief. It is said that he knows the thief. He is
said to
know the thief.
2. People think that he is honest. It is thought that he is honest. He is thuo
ght to be
honest.
3. They know (that) he is an expert. It is kown that he is an expert. He is kn
own to
be an expert. understand, suspect, suppose, expect, report
.
4. They admitted that the gate had been left unlocked. It was admitted that th
e
gate...... The gate was admitted to......()
: be supposed to do ,
. a) = be expected[obliged] to (do something etc.) '...
, '
You are supposed to clean the table. .
b) = have the reputation of (being etc.) ' '
He's supposed to be the best doctor in the town.
.
This machine is supposed to wash all the dishes in five minutes. 5
.
(3) By
know, absorb
.
a. At
1. He is astonished at the sight. .
2. I was frightened at this idea. .
3. I was disapointed at not finding him. .
4. She was surprosed at the news. .
be scared at . be annoyed at(, ) . be delighted at . be
alarmed at . be amazed at . be abashed at . be disgusted at
. be shocked at . * by .
at+, '~ , , , ...' .
b. In : ', '
1. He was so interested in the conversation that he paid little attention to w
ht he was
eating. .
*The audience was[were] obviously interested by your story of the lion. by
.
2. She is absorbed in her grief. [].
3. He was immersed in work so as to stop thinking about her.
. immerse [].
be involved in , . be occupied in []. be clothed in
(black) () . be engrossed in . be caught in a shower, (a
trap) () . () , . be dressed in (black silk) . be
engaged in , .
c. To
1. He is known to you[everyone]. [] [
]. cf. A man is known by the company he keeps.
.
2. He is unkown to us. .

3. He felt sure of being elected to parliament. .

* to .
be accustomed to [] . be inured to (danger) . be
allied to , . be adjusted to []. be married to .
be adapted to . cf. They were married by a priest.
. be devoted to , . be limited to []. be assigned to
. (be) exposed to , . be subjected to (, ) = undergo,
experiece * oneself
. subject oneself to insult . devote oneself [be devoted] to studying
. adapt oneself to .
d. With
1. He was delighted with the result of our work.
.
2. They were amused with the tricks. . cf. They were
amused at[by] his jokes.
be pleased with []. be annoyed with () . be crowned with
() . be covered with . be packed with (...) . be
laden with . be scented with (...) , . be crowded with
, . be associated with [] . cf. associate oneself with
[].
(4)
A(, , ) B(, ) C() A, B
, C . , His house was burnt down in
the fire
. suffer, experience(, ) have He had
his house burnt down...... . 'have++'
(passive of experience) . (5 i ).
. He had a
strange matter happen to him. .
I have some friends of mine visit on Sundays.
.
note: a) ' ' ,
' ' .
b) have . have
have .
He had his watch repaired. () [<-].
He had his watch stolen. ().
''
.
(5)
(by~)
(
).
'~, ' '~, '
.
a.
1. They were delighted to hear the good news.
[].
2. I was annoyed because I missed the bus. .
3. I was astounded to hear of his imprisonment.
. * .
b.
1. They were drowned when the ship sank. .
2. They were killed in warfare[the war]. . ( )

3. He was hurt by a falling brick. .

was seriously injured . was derailed () . was wounded
() . was so badly damaged []. was burned . was
wrecked () []. were all delayed () .
c.
1. She was employed in watering the garden.
.
2. He is engaged in writing a novel. .
3. She is devoted to her children. .
was occupied with () . was absorbed in . were very much
involved in .
d.
1. I am conviced of his honesty. .
2. He was determined to go abroad. . * be
determined to do .
3. I am inclined to believe that he is really opposed to the plan.
.
be ashamed of . be worried (over, by) . be relieved (to hear)
. be acquainted with () . be irritated by[with] [] . be
troubled by []. be bored with () . be satisfied with[that] ()
.
e.
1. He has been promoted to a director. .
2. His theories were based on experiments. [] be
attached to () () . be mistaken , . be bathed in
(, ) , . be possessed of , . be graduated from
. be burdened with () , () , . be united
. be crowned (). be saturated with , , . be
advanced () , . be associated with [] . be
concerned with[about] [], .
* , oneself
.
(6) (Active), (Passive)
* (active-passive) 1 c.
.
:
1. Butter cuts easily. .
2. Good leather will wear for tears. ( ) [].
() , () .
3. This cloth feels soft. .
4. My hat blew into the river. .
5. The cake will bake in about half an hour. .
6. I am to blame for his lateness. [ ].
7. This apartment rents cheaply. [ ].
8. Newspapers tear[t^345^^26^r] easily. [ ].
9. This pale writing dosen't copy very well. .
10. Those shoes want[need] mending. [] . want, need
.
11. Muscles, nerves, mind, reason all develpo under play. , , ,
[ ] .
[2. (Modified)]
, , ,
. , ,
,

. ,
, ( ) [] , ,
[] .
* , ,
(phrase) , a) (, ), b)(,
, ), c) (, ), d) () ,
, , .
[A. (Adjective Phrase)]
[]

. (1) , (2) , (3)
3 .
(1) : (Participle Phrase)
( )
. a sleeping baby( )
used stamp( ) ,
.
.
a. ( )
1. The woman (who is) washing dishes is my elder sister. [ ]
.
2. The man (who is) addressing the audience now is a famous scientist.
.
3. The parents sat beside the baby (who was) sleeping in the cradle.
.
4. We were delayed by heavy trucks (which were) being loaded onto the ship.
.
5. The tooth (that is) being extracted by the dentist has been hurting me for
some
time. [ ].
6. The only car being repaired by that mechanic now is mine. The only car that
is
now being repaired by that mechanic is mine.
.
7. The street leading to the school is very wide. The street that leads to the
school is
very wide. [] () .
8. Anyone having talked to him once will be convinced of his innocence. Anyone
who
has talked to him once will be convinced of his innocence.
.
note: a) washing addressing , sleeping in the cradle
. '..., ' (
) , .
b) +be+[+] .
b.
1. A letter (which is) sent by airmail should arrive sooner than one (which is
) sent
by regular mail.
.
2. The fish (which was) caught by the boy was underweight.
.
3. The boy (who has been) rewarded by the police swims everyday.
.

(2) : (Infinitive Phrase)

'to+' , ,
, . '~
, ' . ( )
:
1. This is a point to bear in mind. This is a point which we should bear in mi
nd.
.
2. On our farm there are many animals for us to feed. On our farm there are ma
ny
animals which we need to feed. .
3. Strange to say, there are neither a chair nor a sofa to sit on in the room.
......, there was neither a chair nor a sofa that we can sit on in the room.
.
4. The next thing to be considered is our decision itself. The next thing whic
h must
be considered is our decision itself.
[ ].
5. I have so many things to do and such a short time to do them in. I have
so many things that I must do and such a short time that I can do them in.
.[ ].
6. The people on the island have scarcely anything to be proud of. The people
on the
island have scarcely anything that they are proud of.
.
7. Then you will understand the necessity which confronted us to provide every
one
with peace of mind. Then you will understand the necessity which confronted us f
rom
[by] which we should provide everyone with peace of mind.
, . ()
note: a) 2. to . 3. to sit on ++
on a chair a sofa. . 6.
. be proud of anything . 5., do so many
things ' ' do them in such a short time '
' . in such a short time have
in to .
b) 7. to provide the necessity
.
c) 4. .
consider (the next)
thing. consider the next thing .
(3) : (Prepositional Phrase)
:
1. He gave me a book with a torn cover. He gave me a book whose cover was torn

.
.
2. She doesn't want to marry a man without money. She doesn't want to marry wh
o
doesn't have money. .
3. What is your reason for going to London? What is the reason why you are goi
ng
to London? ?( ?)
4. The girl in a white uniform took my temperature. The girl who was in a whit
e
uniform took my temperature. .
5. He lives in the house opposite mine. He lives in the house that is opposite
mine.
.

6. The handle on this door is broken. The handle that is on this door is broke
n.
.
7. We are going to act some scenes from Twelfth Night. We are going to act som
e
scenes that are taken from Twelfth Night. ''
. ( ) Shakespeare .
8. You had better give up the way you have of speaking while someone is still
talking. ...... the way which[that] you have that you always speak while ......
.
9. The influence of drugs upon the masses is great in this country.
.
note: a) 1.2.3.4.5.6.7. .
b) 8. 2 ' ... '
you have .
c) 9. of drug upon the masses the influence .
[B. (Adverb Phrase)]
, , (1) ,
(2) , (3) , (4) .
(1)
() .
, a)(~), b)() (~), c)(~ ), d)
(~ ...), e) (~), f) (~ ) , ,
, .
:
1. He decided to learn to swim (in order) to overcome his fear of water. He de
cided
to learn to swim in order that he might overcome his fear of water.
.()
2. We have to leave quietly not to disturb other people.() We have to leave so
that we shouldn't disturb other people.
.
3. I took a taxi in order not to be late.() I took a taxi because I didn't want to
be late. .
4. We were pleased to see how well the work was done.() We were pleased
because we saw how well the work was done.
[] [].
5. She blushed to hear herself praised by the teacher.() She blushed because she
heard herself praised by the teacher.
.
6. What a fool I was to be frightened at nothing!( ) What a fool I was! I
was so frightenedat nothing! ()
!
7. He must be a fool to do such a thing. He must be a fool, for he does[did] s
uch a
thing. ( ) .
8. He was so curious as to open the letter. He was so curious that he opened t
he
letter. . (, )
9. To hear him talk, people might think he was the master.(, ) If people were
to hear him talk, they might think he was the master.
.
10. There were too many people there for us to see a thing.() There were so
many people there that we could not see a thing.
.
11. He left home never to return. . After he
had left home, he never returned. ()

12. The water of this river is good to drink.( )

13. You are old enough to understand it. .(
)
note: a) 1.2.3. 4.5.6.7.
. 8.10. , 9.11. .
b)6. .
6.7. must( ), cannot(~
) (what, how...!) .
(2)
, ( )
( ).
:
1. Walking along the street, I met a friend whom I had not seen for a long tim
e.
While I was walking along the street, I met a friend whom I......
.
2. Hearing a cry for help, she rushed outside. When she heard a cry for help,
she
rushed outside. .
3. Having finished all her housework, she sat down to watch television. After
she had
finished all her housework, she sat down to watch television.
.
4. Having worked hard all his life, he decided to take a long vacation. Becaus
e he had
worked hard all his life, he......
.
5. Not knowing that her husband had already contributed, she gave a large sum
of
money to the Red Cross. Because she did not know that..., she....
.
6. Other things being equal, the simplest explanation is the best. If other th
ings
are equal, ...... .
7. These hills, seen from a distance, look larger than they really are. If the
se hills
are from a distance, they look larger than they really are.
.
8. Having heard it all before. She didn't want to hear the story again.
She didn't want to hear the story again. She had heard it all before.
.
note: 7.
. 8.
.
(3)
'+[]' .
a.
1. After hearing the conditions I decided not to enter for the competition. Af
ter I
heard the conditions I decided not to enter for the competition. ,
.
2. On seeing me approaching, he ran towards me. When he saw me approaching, he
ran towards me. , .
* +...ing() . ,
, , . toward s .
3. On being asked to leave the meeting, he got very angry. When he was asked t
o

leave the meeting, he got very angry. .

4. Her hair became grey with the passing of the years. Her hair became grey as
the
tears passed. .
5. With all his roughness, he has a heard of gold. Though he is rough, he has
a
heard of gold. .
6. Without money, one cannot live. . If one does not
have money, one cannot live. * without .
b.
1. from among ~ 'from+(, ), '
The chairman will be chosen from among the members. ()
[ ].
A man came out from among the crowd. .
2. from behind ~
The moon came out from behind the cloud. .
The sound of laughter came from behind the curtain.
.
3. from under ~
Her hair came out from under her hat. .
A tall stranger came from under the trees.
.
4. from+[]
We could hear loud voices from across the hall. ( )
.
I met a man from across the street. .
The bridal party had just come inside the church.
() .
A voice was heard from above the house. .
He looks from above his spectacles. .
That dates from before the war. .
Rain falls from above. [] .
* above . (
) .
A man emerged from beneath the lorry[=truck]. .
Most of the children came from near the school.
.
5. in between ~
There were flowers in between the trees. .
The apartment has two rooms with a hall in between.
. ( )
Do you see that school and that factory? Our house lies in between.
? .()
: a) among , between
between .
The treaty was signed between the four nations. 4 .
There are no quarrels between gentlemen. .
This will serve to maintain and strenthen the happy relations existing between
them.
[
].
b)between and to or . he seems to be between forty to
fifty(). between forty and fifty from forty to fifty . ( 40
50 .)
c) between betbween you and I
.
6. over against , = face to face with, facing, opposite
We live over against the church. .
* over '' . She lives in that house over the street.

Let us jump over this ditch. . Take this over to the post office.
. () Try it over. .()
7. till after ~
We didn't see Joe till after the meeting. .
* not A till B 'B A ' ( ).
He lived at home until soon after his father's death.
.
8. except for ~ , ~ , = besides, were it not for, but for
Your speech was very good except for a few errors in pronunciation.
.
* except .
Except for John, they all arrived punctually.
[ } .
c.
1. He acted according to his promise. .
The work has been carried out according to your instructions.
.
According to my watch, it is 9 o'clock. 9.
According to the weather forecast, we shall have rain tomorrow.
.
According to John, the bank closes at 4:30 p.m. [], ()
4 .
2. The business done this year amounts to $2,000 as against last year.
[] 2,000 .
Parents are no longer sure of their rights as against their children; children
no longer
feel that they owe respect to their parents.
[ ] ,
.
* owe A to B 'B A(, , ) ' 'B A ,
'
3. As for politics, I am indifferent. .
As for vacations, I prefer the beach to the country.
.
As for you, I never want to see you here again. ( )
.
4. as from[](, ) (, ) = [] as of () ,
As from tomorrow, I'll start work half an hour earlier. 30
.
These allowance will be payable as from the 1st January. 1 1
. = from as onward
5. at to () = as for () = about, with respect to
As to your second question, I am afraid I ca give you no information at the
moment, as
the moment, as the matter is still under consideration.
, .
They were quarreling as to which was the stronger.
* Nobody could decide (as to) which to do as to which [what, where, when,
how, whether, etc] as to . as for .
6. They were at the mercy of [wholly in the power of] their captors.
.
The damaged ship was at the mercy of the storm. .
They're at our mercy now. .
The prisoners knew that they were at the king's mercy, so they knelt down and
begged
him not to kill them.
.
7. at the fisk of (one's life) = at the peril of (one's life) ()
He was determined to get there even at the risk of his life. []

 .
At the risk of offending you, I must tell you that I disapprove of your behavi
our.
[
].
Car may be parked here at their owner's risk. [ ]
.
* at the mercy of A (, ) = at A's mercy. at the risk [peril] of A (,
) = at A's risk. at A's (own) risk .
8. Because of his bad leg, he couldn't walk so fast as the others. [
] .
I went back not because of the rain, but because I was tired.
.
9. by means of = through, with the help of, by the use of
cf. by no means = certainly not, not at all, on no account ... .
The water may be carried by means of a pipe. .
This train goes by means of electricity. .
Thoughts are expressed by means of words. .
They succeeded by means of patience and sacrifice. .
10. by[in] virtue of ~ = through the force of ~ = by means[reason]of
= because of, in virtue of = on the ground of ~
He was promoted in virtue of his abilities. [] .
By virtue of your long service to this company. we have decided to give you th
is gold
watch as an expression of our thanks. ,
.
He held the post merely in virtue of seniority. []
.
11. by way of ~ , = via, by the route of
We went to Bangkok by way of Hong Kong. []
.
He did it by way of helping me. .
I only said it by way of a joke. .
by way of + [ . ] '... '
He is by way of being an authority on the subject. []
[] .
cf. by way of , = while journeying, during journey.
12. for the purpose of = with a view to = with the view of (doing) ~ , ,
cf. on purpose , = purposely, intentionally.
I entered college for the purpose of becoming an engineer.
[] .
13. for the sake of = for one's sake = on account of, because of = in order to
cf. for God's[heaven's, goodness] sake ,
He argues for the sake of arguing. .
At last I gave her what she wanted for the sake of peace and quiet.
.
14. in accordance with = in agreement with ~ , ~
He did not act in accordance with orders that were given him.
.
15. in addition to = as well as , ~
He rides well, in addition to being a fine marksman.
.
cf. in addition = besides , , = as well ()
He has two cars and in addition a motorboat. ()
.
16. in case of = in the event of ~
cf. in that case = if that is so , in any case , , in no case =
by no means ~ [].
In case of rain, we'll go to the movies instead of playing baseball. ,

 .
17. in front of = before (the face of)
opp. at the back[rear] of cf. in the front of []
He took a seat in front of me. () .
I always prefer to travel in the front of the car.
[] .
Would you like to sit in front [in the front seat of the car]? ?
18. in spite of = spite of , = notwithstanding, in regard [defiance]
of. *spite = ill-will
We went out in spite of the rain [=although it was raining].
.
They persisted in doing it, in spite of my warning. []
.
19. instead of = in place of , ~
He stayed at home all day instead of going out.
.
If I hadn't got a cold I'd be working instead of lying here in bed.
.
20. on account of = by reason of, because of, for the sake of ,
He could not work in tropical countries on account of his poor health.
[ ] .
21. on the part of = on one's part ~ , ~, ~ ( )
He expressed appreciation on the part of himself and his colleagues.
.
It's quite all right on our part. .
22. owing to = on account of, because of ..., ... = due to
Owing to the rain, the football has been cancelled. []
.
The accident was owing to careless driving. .
23. thanks to = owing to, on account of , ( )
Thanks to your generous donation, we can rebuild our laboratory.
() .
Thanks to the bad weather, our journey was very uncomfortable.
.
24. with a view to + [] = with the [a] view of doing, for the purpose of, with
hope of, with an eye to~ ~ , ~
He worked hard after school with a view to earning money for a new bicycle.
.
25. with [in] reference to = regarding, about ~ ,
cf. without reference to = irrespective of ~ ,
With reference to your request for information, I regret to inform you that I
am unable to
help you. .
: d.
1. concerning = in regard to, about, regarding
Concerning your absence, you are requested to bring a medical certificate.
.
2. considering ~ = in view of ~ = taking into account, making allowance
for
Considering the bad weather, the match was a great success.
.
3. during [prep] (<- dure [vi] = last, [vt] = endure)
* during for
. during my absence , during the week
, for two hours , for a week 1, for a long time
We couldn't get cigarettes during the war. .
4. notwithstanding ~ = in spite of, adv. = in spite of it, nevertheless, conj.
although (He went notwithstanding he was ordered not to.
.)
I bought it notwithstanding the high price. .

5. pending = during (pending the investigation ), until (pending his return), adj. =
undecided, hanging ,
He was held in prison pending trial. .
We postponed our picnic pending a change in the weather.
.
6. regarding = with regard to, concerning about
He knew nothing regarding the lost money. .
(4) [ ]
' + ' . .
. . .
.
:
1. We are going to leave for America the day after tomorrow.
.
2. He dragged himself a hundred miles to the seashore. 1
.
3. The carpet stretched the whole length of the hall. She loved it a great dea
l.
. .
4. We will never treat you that way again.
.
5. The girl sat there on the sofa, her hands on her knees.
.
6. Father came in, pipe in the mouth and parcel in hand.
.
7. He worked hard day and night, body and soul in those days. ,
.
8. The boy and girl were walking along hand in hand.
.
9. Time after time, in country after country, the organized working-class move
ments
have been crushed by open, illegal violence, and their comrades abroad, linked t
o them
in theoretical solidarity, have simply looked on and done nothing. (G. Orwell, L
ooking
Back on the Spanish War)

[ ] .
note: a) 1. the day after tomorrow leave . yesterday morning (
), last night, the day before yesterday (), next week, this morning, this day
week ( , ), these ten days ( [] ), (for) a little
while (), (for) five hours, (at) any moment (), (for) ten years (
) .
b) 4. that way (~, ) in . (in) this way ( ).
c) 3. . () . a few [few], quite a few,
not a little, quite a little.
d) 5.6. with . with her hands on~. with a pipe in his
mouth, with a parcel in his hand. 7.8.9. in, with, on
.
.
[3. (Conjunction & Clauses)]
. . . (. )

. . . ,
, (coordinate
conjunction) (subordinate conjunction) .

 (coordinate conjunction)
(main clause), (subordinate clause)
. (compound sentence),
(complex sentence), .
(simple sentence) .

(noun clause) .
(adjective clause) .
(adverb clause) .
. ,
.
[A. ]
a.
1. That he is keeping something from us is certain. [
] .
2. That growing population, dwindling natural resources, and environmental pol
lution are the
three major problems confronting the world today cannot be denied. .
, .
3. Whether he will come or not does not matter. [
].
4. How he succeeded in the attempt remains a mystery.
.
5. What I would like to know is why you want to go to Africa, of all places.
.
* Gothic .
note: a) that 3.4. (), 5.
. 5. why () .
b) It
. .

b. [] It :
It that . It is strange [natural,
a pity, no wonder,] that + should .... ( should)
1. It is quite strange that the swallows should come at this time of the year.

.
2. It is a great pity that we should have to give up our studies.
.
3. It is natural that she should have burst into tears at the news.
.
4. It is no wonder that he should have objected to the plan.
.
5. It is a miracle that you were not killed in the accident.
.
6. It is doubtful whether he will be reelected to the Presidency.
.
7. It is not clear why he committed suicide [or why he killed himself].
.
: a) '. . ' it is + [] that...
should . should
.
It is ~ for... to do... .
It is natural that parents (should) love their children. or It is natural for
parents to love
their children.
astonishing curious good interesting desirable
fortunate lucky important natural necessary proper

 pleasant rational reasonable right regrettable

strange surprising terrible wrong
b) It is ~ that... It is ~ for... to do
.
It is true that he is angry with her.() It is true for him to be angry with
her ()
apparent certain clear evident
likely obvious plain probable true
'It is + + that + ' that (
certain-> certainly, obvious -> obviously) '++'
. that . It is certain that he will com
.
Certainly he will come. = . = . He is certain to
come.
c) '. '
It is ~ for... to do It is ~ that... .
dangerous easy hard difficult impossible possible
useful
It is difficult for you to master French in a year () It is difficult that you m
aster French
in a year ()
* '... ' , 'that ' .
: c. It seems that... / It is said that...
* It seems that... It it, . . it that
, It that
. .
1. It seems that they are quite ignorant of the rules of the game.
.
* that They seem to be quite ignorant of... .
2. It seems that he stayed up late last night. = He seems to have stayed up la
te last night.
.
3. It is said [They say] that the professor never goes to bed before two o'clo
ck in the
morning. 2 . ( (2) b )

d. that : The question is that...

1. The trouble is that she still hates all men.
.
2. The question is whether [that] we count on his help.
[] .
3. The truth [The fact] is that I cannot manage to find time.
.
4. The chances are [The probability is] most (of the) college students will co
me out into
the world, ignorant of everything but their speciality.
.
cf. There is no chance that he will be here in time.
.
The chances are against it. . * that . The trouble is
she still....
e. that
1. You ought to know that Descartes laid the foundation of modern philosophy.
()
.
2. I am afraid that somebody will call on me during my absence.
[].
*'' ', ' .
3. I believe (that) he will be set free immediately. .

4. I hope you will be able to come to the dance tomorrow night.

.
: that .
a) It is ... that~ : It is unbelievable (that) he is a great scholar.
.
b) : comma . The fact is, I can't agree with
you. The difficulty is we have to supports.
c) think, believe, wish, hope, suppose . wish
hope that . learn, suggest, state that
. I think you are right [=You are right, I think]. I wish I could go with
you. I hope it will clear up tomorrow.
d) that . He says
(that) it is raining hard, but that he must go out.

f. it
1. We took (it) for granted that he would win the race.
.
2. She made it clear why she did not want to marry him.
.
3. When you are going to do anything, turn it in your mind whether it is to yo
ur
advantage or not.
.
4. I owe it to him that I am still alive. .
5. I think it is possible that he committed suicide.
.
6. I think it is probable that he looked up at the stars at night and wondered
whether
they were worlds like our own.
.
note: a) 1. it . 'take for granted (that)' . 2.3.
it ~that... .
b) 5.6. think+it()+ I think (that) it
is possible [impossible] be .
c) possible, probable .
g. + that : the news that... , the fact that... that
, that .
1. The news that he is dead is not true. .
2. I knew nothing of the fact [the truth] that our school burned down.
.
3. We came to the conclusion that we should fight to the last.
.
4. He came to see me in the hope that I would help him.
.
5. In a press interview yesterday, she denied the rumor that she intended to t
urn
professional. .
6. Have you any proof that you weren't there at 9 o'clock last night?
9 ?
7. I have an impression that we have taken the wrong read.
.
8. The idea that one should know one's immediate neighbors has died out in lar
ge
centres of population, but still lingers in small towns and in the country (B. R
ussell,
Fear of Public Option).
.
9. There is a comfortable doctrine that genius will always make its way, and o

n the
strength of this doctrine many people consider that the persecution of youthful
talent
cannot do much harm. ( )
,
.
10. The difference lies in this, that he works harder than you. .
.
note: a) claim that , fear that , feeling that , generalization that
, knowledge that , proposal that , belief that , . '.
' . 'the [a] news that' .
b) 10. this that , that is () .
h. + : have an [no] idea (of) what [who, why, which, where,
how] '... . . '
1. Do you have any idea (of) [know] what a teaching machine is like?
?
2. She had no idea [did not know] who the kind old man was.
.
3. The war was over and my mother and I were in a little town in East Germany.
We had
no idea where my father was. .
.
4. Young people cannot have the slightest idea how lonesome old people are.
.
5. The truth is that I am in doubt whether I should accept the invitation (or
not).
.
* whether to accept... .
6. I had no idea (that) he was there. = I did not know (that) he was there.
.
* idea notion (), conception () .
i. : + that [what, whether]
1. Men differ from brutes in that they can think and speak. []
.
2. I don't doubt (but) that she still loves me.
. [ ].
3. The house is very good except that it is too small.
.
4. I am well save that I have a cold. .
* save .
5. He was worried about whether he passed the French examination.
.
6. I do not have a clear conception in what state the society of England will
be in the
future. [ ]
[ ].
note: that in, except, but, save ()
. it that it
.
We'll see (to it) that she gets home safely.
.
Can you swear (to it) that the accused man was at your house that evening?
?
You may depend upon it that the newspaper accounts are based on good authority
.
.
on good authority [], depend on it () ,
She will come back to you, depend upon it. .

 j. .
1. How you can work [solve] mathematics so fast is a puzzle to me.
() [].
2. Whether his house escaped the fire is not certain.
.
* escape from
, . escape from (a)
prison . escape prison .
3. Two men can carry what one alone cannot lift.
.
4. I cannot for the life of me remember when and where I met her.
.
for the life of one () [<- ] (
.)
5. Do you know who lived in the villa? ?
6. It is doubtful whether this fine weather will hold until weekend.
.
* whether It . 1. It is a puzzle to me how
you... .
[B. ]
,
[] ' ', ' '
. . . . . .

, .

(1)
a. '~ , ' when, as, while
1. . His father died when he was five.
2. . He turned up as I was going out.
3. . She sang as she walked.
4. . As he grew older, he became wiser.
* as when . '... '
5. . While the mother was
knitting, the baby fell asleep.
6. . (=) When I arrived at the station,
I found the train going out. = Arriving the station, I found ...
: b. '...' '...' ago, before, after, later, in~, form now
1. . I met him two days ago.
2. . I called on him but he had
started two days before.
* ago ' ~', before ' ~'
. '' before ago
. before . . .
3. . He came home after two days. = He came home two
after [later].
cf. He entered politics in after years. . ( )
4. 2 . This work will be finished in two weeks [two
weeks from now].
* 3. ' ...' 4. ' ...'
c. '~ ...' not... till [until]~, It is not until ~that...
1. [ ] . We do not know [realize] the value
of the health until we lose it [become ill].
2. . It was not until [till] evening that
I hot the news.
3. . Not until his life was over

did the seed which he had sown bear fruit.

* 1. 2.3. () 'until not '
'~ ... ' had + p.p () + before
4. . I had waited an hour before the bus came.
'~ ...' had + not + p.p () + before [when]
5. [] . I had not waited an hour [long] before
he came.
*4.5. .
d. '...' as soon as + , + , the moment, the instant, directly,
immediately, instantly
* , the moment = the minute.
1. . As soon as she arrived, she fell sick.
2. . Please write to me as soon as you get to London.
3. . = Directly the bell rang, I got up. The moment the bell
rang, I got up. = As soon as the bell rang, I got up.
' () ()' No sooner + had + + + than + =
Hardly [Scarcely]~ when [before] +
4. . = As soon as he saw me, he ... No sooner had he seen me
than he ran away. = He had no sooner seen me than...
5. . = As soon as I got home, it... Hardly
[Scarcely] had I got home when [before] it began to rain. = I had scarcely [hard
ly] got
home before [when] it began to rain.
6. . On arriving at the station, he called up
his mother. = As soon as he arrived at~, he...
note a) 4.5. than when[before] , . No sooner
hardly , [] .
b) as soon as, the moment... . .
. , .
c) 6. +
c. ' [, ] ~' It will not be long before~
1. [ ] . It will not be long before we meet
again. = We shall meet again before long.
* soon . before , '.
' . It will not be long before we shall meet again. ()
' [] ~' It was not long before ~
2. . It was not long before he got well.
3. . It will be some time before he arrives.
4. 5 . It will be five years before we meet again. cf. We
shall not
meet again until five years form now.
'' before one knows
5. . The sun had set before I knew it.
* ' ' , before one is aware [is conscious], unnoticed, unawares,
without one's knowledge, without one's knowing [realizing] it .
f. '~ ... ' It is ... since~
1. 2 . It is two years since they got married.
*since .
(' ) ' + have passed since ~
2. 3 . Three years have passed since I entered this school.
= It is three years since I entered this school.
* . have passed . one year has
passed...
3. 5 . My father has been dead these [for] five years.
= It is five years since my father died. = Five years have passed since my fathe
r died.
* +

4. ? How long has he been in America? = How long is it

since he came to America? = How many years have passed since he came to America?
g. '... ~' whenever, every time..., each time...
1. . Whenever I see this picture, I
think of my dead mother. = Every time I see..., I...
* when..., always .
'... ~ ' cannot [never]... without ~ing
2. . They never meet without quarreling. = They cannot meet
without quarreling. = They quarrel whenever they meet.
3. . It never rains but (that) it pours.
4. . They scarcely meet but they quarrel.
* 3. but that .
h. '' after a long...
1. . I went home after a long absence.
2. . I played tennis after a long interval.
3. . I heard from him after a long silence.
'~ ()' after~ years' [months']~ = for the first time in ~ years [months]
4. 3 . He came home from England after three years'
absence. = He came home from England for the first time in three years.
i. '[] ' about this time last [next] year
1. . I came here about this time last year.
2. () . He will be in New York about this time
tomorrow.
3. . I am to meet him this day [today] week.
4. . My mother got ill this day [today] week.
j. '~, ~' every~
1. 6 . Take this medicine every six hours [sixth hour].
2. . He was stopped every
dozen yards by friends who wanted to congratulate him.
3. [, ] [] . I go there every other day [every
three days, every few days][every third day].
4. ? 1 . How often do you go to the
swimming club? Three times a week.
* every second day = every other day [ ]. every third day =
every three days [ ]
k. ', , ' already, yet, still
1. [] ? Has he left yet?
2. , . Yes, he has already left.
3. , . No, he has not left yet.
4. ? Is he still in bed?
5. , . Yes, he is still in bed.

note : '[] already, yet, '' yet,

still. still '' ' ' . alread
. Have you finished lunch already? ?
(2)
a. '~ , ~ ' to~, in order to~, so as to~, for +
1. . I came here to spend the holidays. = I came here
in order to spend...
2. . Come early so as to have a lot of time.
* in order to to . so as to ' '
.
3. ? What do you work for?
so that~ may, that~ may, in order that~ may

4. [] . He worked hard
so that his family might be happy. = He worked hard in order that his family mig
ht be
happy.
5. . Please speak a little louder so that we
can hear you.
* may can will, shall . that~ may ,
in order that~ may .
with the view [object] of, with a view to ... ing, for the purpose of
6. . She went to Italy for the purpose of
studying music. = She went to Italy in order to study music.
7. . He saved the money with the view
of making
a trip to Venice. = He saved the money in order that he might make a trip a Veni
ce.
* of to view . in++of : in pursuit of
= in quest of, in search of. in favor of , , in support of
.
b. '~ , ' not to..., so as not to..., in order not to...
1. . You'd better go to bed early so as not to
catch cold.
2. . He hurried in order not to be late for school.
so that~ may not..., that~ may not...
3. . She walked softly so that
she might
not wake the baby. = She walked softly so as not to wake the baby.
lest~ should..., for fear (that)~ should..., in case~ should... = so as [in ord
er] not to... =
for fear of ...ing = so that~ may not...
4. . I hurried to the station lest I should
miss the train.
5. . We hid behind some
bushes for fear that passers-by should see us.
6. . I took a map with me in case I
should lose my way.
* lose one's way .
for fear of...
7. [ ] . I did not call on him for fear
of disturbing him. = I did not call on him for fear I should disturb him. = I di
d not call
on him so that I might not disturb him.
(3)
a. '~ ...[]' to... ( )
1. . The boy grew up to be a great musician. =
The boy grew up and became a great musician.
2. . He tried several times only to fail. =
He tried several times but he failed.
'~ ... ' '... ~' + enough to~ = so + + as to~ = have
the + + to
3. . He was kind enough to take me there. =
He was so kind as to take me there. = He had the kindness to take me there.
* have the kindness to~ ' ~' .
4. () . Her skirt is long enough to reach the
floor. = Her skirt is so long as to reach the floor.
5. [] . He had the fortune to pass the examination.
= He was fortunate enough to ...
b. ' ~ ...' so + (, ) +that... = such + () + (...)

+ + that = very + (, ) + (and) so...

1. . He was so young that he looked like a child.
= He was so young as to look like a child.
2. . She spoke in such a low
voice that I could not hear her.
3. . He studied very hard, so
he passed the examination.
~ ... . so [such] ~that + can [do, will] not... ... ~
too + + to...
4. . She was too excited to sleep. = She was
so excited that she could not sleep.
5. . This book is too difficult for me to read. =
This book is so difficult that I cannot read it.
'... ~ ' not too + + to = not so ~that + cannot... '
~ ...' too + + not to = so ~that...
6. . He is not too old to walk such a
distance. = He is not so old that cannot walk...
7. . He is too wise not to know it. = He is so
wise that he knows it.
c.
1. . His attempt ended in failure.
2. . All the efforts resulted in nothing.
3. [ ] . As the result of his hard
practice, he won the first prize.
4. . He didn't show up after all.
5. . To my surprise, he failed in the examination.
6. . Many
a father [Many fathers] has learned to his sorrow what it is to have his boy [ch
ild] idle.
* 'to one's + ' one .
. '... , '
(4)
'(), (), ()' where = in [to, from] what place
1. . = Accidents are apt to occur where two
reads cross [at the crossroads].
2. . Cross the street (at the place) where white
lines are marked.
3. .
Where there is no respect for the opinion of others, there can be no democracy i
n the true
sense of the word.
4. . You may go wherever you feel
inclined to.
5. . You can [may] park your car wherever you want to.
6. [ ] .
Wherever we went in the country, we saw nothing but poverty, hunger and misery.
7. ? Where [To what place] are you going?
8. ? Where [From what place] did you get your information?
9. ? [ ] Where is the sense in
doing that? = There is no sense in doing that.
note 2. Cross the street at the crosswalk . 4.5. , 9.
= .
(5)
a. '... ' though, although
1. () . Though he is big, he is a coward. = He is big, but he
is a coward.
* although .

. . + as + +
2. () . Woman as [though] she was, she was brave. =
Although she was a woman, she was brave.
* (as ) .
3. . Rich as [though] he is, he is not happy. = Although
he is rich, he....

4. . Admitting what you say,
I still cannot forgive you. = Although I admit what you say, I....

b. ' [] ~' It is sure that ~but... = Indeed ~but...

* indeed really, certainly, truly, no doubt, It seems certain that, to be sure, I a
dmit
but yet .
1. . It is sure that he is diligent, but he is selfis
= He is diligent, it is true, but...
2. . It is true he is young, but he is prudent
for his age.
3. . Indeed
your idea is wonderful, but to my regret it is almost impossible to carry it out
.
4. . It is a nice watch, to be sure, but it is too
expensive.
5. []
? It seems certain that Nehru will be remembered as an historic figure, but what
is the future picture of his going to be?
*his , what is + + going to be.
c. ' ~' however, whatever, whichever, whoever, wherever, whenever
: + ever no matter how, no matter what, no matter which... + (may)
1. . However careful you may [you are],
accidents will happen. = No matter how careful...
*will. . '... '
2. . However hard you (may)
study, you cannot master English in a month or two.
* however . may .
3. . Whatever intelligence
a person may have, he cannot always make wise choices.
4. . However intelligent a
person may be, he cannot always make wise choices.
5. . Wherever he may go [he goes], he will be welcomed.
= No matter where he...
6. . No matter how fast you
(may) run, you will not be able to catch up with him. = However fast....
7. . Whenever you may call on him,
you will find him at his desk. = No matter when you...
* + ever no matter + .
d. ' [, ] ~' if, even if, though, even though
1. . He will come if it rains. = He will come even if it
rains.
2. . Though I am busy, I will go. = Even though I
am busy, I will go.
e. '~ , ~ ' whether ~ or not, whether or
1. . I will go whether he opposes
2. . Whether he comes
will be the same. = Whether or not he comes, the result will be the
*whether whether or not .
'AB' whether A or B = A or B

not ~
or not.
or not, the result
same.

3. . Whether you are rich or poor,

we all have to die. = Rich or poor, we all...
4. [ ] . Rain or shine, the game
will be played.
5. . I don't know whether or no(t) she
loves you. = ...whether she loves you or not.
6. () () . He must do the work whether
or no he likes it. = ..., whether he likes it or not.

f. '~ ' in spite of = despite = notwithstanding. for all = with all +

'~ '
1. () . In spite of the heavy rain, the game
went on. = Though it rained heavily, the game...
* a light rain, a drizzling rain, a fine rain, a driving
[pelting, pouring] rain, a sprinkling rain, , in the rain,
rainy weather.
2. ( ) [ ]. For all his faults, I like hi
= With all his faults, ... = In spite of his faults, ... = Though he has faults,
I ...
3. [ ]. I will go regardless of weather.
4. [] () . Everybody is welcomed regardless of sex.
* '... ' = irrespective of, without reference to. welcome [] You are welcome
to borrow my bicycle. . You are welcome to the use of my
car. .

(6)
a. ' ~ ...[] ' : If + ~, + will [shall, may, must, can] +
[ ]
* .
1. () . If it is fine tomorrow, we shall
go on a picnic.
* go on a picnic .
2. . I'll be happy if you will help me.
* [] .
If you will~ .
3. . () Turning to the right, you will see the
station. = If you turn to the right, you will...
4. . In case [If] I forget, please remind me
of my promise.
' ~ ' unless = if ~not
5. . Unless you work hard, you'll fail. = If you don't
work hard, you'll fail.
'~ , ~ ' so long as, if only
6. . You can go out so long as you
are back by supper.
7. . Anything will do if only it is cheap.
8. ! If only he arrives in time!
note : if only . If only
she had known about it (but she did not know!) !
If you could only [If only you could] have seen it.
9. [] . So [As] long as you're a
student of this school, you must wear your uniform.
* Stay here as long as you want to. while . You may go out so long as you
come home before sunset. if only . .
10. . As [so] far as you're I'm concerned, we can
leave at any time.
'. ~' once = if ~once
11 . Once you hear the song, you will
never forget it.
* once 1 (), 1. twice 2 (), 2. three times 3(), 3. four times 4(4

4. many times [], . once more = once again . once in a while

. once (and) for all , []. Stop calling me once for all.
.
b. '~. [ ] ... ' + and [or]
1. , , , , ,
. Ask, and it shall be given you [you will receive]; seek, and ye shall
find; knock, and it shall be opened unto you. (Matt 7:7, Luke 11:9)
2. [] . . Sleep well, or you will not recover. =
Unless you sleep well, you will not recover.
* and '' = if, or ' ' = if ~not = unless.
3. [] [] . Go straight on, and you'll
find the store on your right. = If you go straight on, you'll...
4. . Keep your promises, or
you won't be trusted by your friends. = If you don't [Unless you] keep your prom
ises, you...
+ and [or]...
5. . One step more, and you will be a dead man. =
Move one step more, and you will be a dead man. = If you move one step more, you
will be a dead man.
c. ' ~ ...[] ' .
.
* [. . ] .
'~ , ~ ' I wish~, If only~! = Would that~! O that~!
* . . .
1. ! I wish I would buy a car.
2. ! ( ) O that he had passed the
examination!
3. . If only a traveler would come his
way, this time to help him!
4. ! Would that I very young again!
(7) .
a. '~ , ~' as~, like~ []
1. . Do it as I do it.
2. . Do as you are told.
3. . Don't talk like that.
4. . [ ] He drinks like a fish.
5. ( ) . It fits him like a glove.
' ~ ' as if~, as though ~
6. . He speaks English as if [though] he were an
American.
7. . He talks as though he had seen the scene.
note : as if as though .
. 6. , 7.
.
8 . Please leave the desks in the room as they are.
b. '~' as far as~, so far as~
1. . As far a I know, he is a good doctor.
* as far as so far as .
'~ ' as [so] far as + + be concerned
2. . So [As] far as I am concerned, I have no objection
to the plan.
3. . As [So] long as I live, I will help you.
(8) .
a. ' ~' How + .
1. () ? () How long will you stay here?

2. ? () How soon can you be ready?

3. ? How far is it from here?
4. ? How many books do you have?
5. ? How much sugar shall I put into the tea?
6. () ? How much did it cost you?
7. ? How deep is the snow?
8. ? () How large is this room?
9. ? How deep is this pond?
10. ? How high is that tower?
11. ? How wide is this street?
12. ? How thick is this book?
13. ?How fast can you run?
14. ? How old are you?
15. ? How large population does the country have?
* [] have a large [small] population.
b. ' ~' no more than~ = only, '~' not more than = at most,
'~, ' no less than~ = as many [much] as, ' ' not less than = at least
1. 50 . I have no more than 50 books.
2. 50 ( ). I have not more than
50 books. = I have 50 books at most.
3. 1,000 . He spent no less than 1,000 won
4. 1,000 . He spent no less than 1,000 won.
5. [] . He is twenty at (the) most.
6. . He is at (the) best a second-rate poet.
7. [] 3 . It will take three days at the longest.
8. . He wrote to me at least once a month.
9. . He will come home at the end of next
month at (the) latest.
10. [] . This work will be completed
about this time next month at the earliest.
note : 1. as few as, as little as . = only, but. 5.6.7.8.9.10. .
, . 3. as much as ().
as many as '..., ... '

11. () . Not a few students were present at the

meeting. = Quite a few students...
12. . She was not a little surprised... = She was quite a little
surprised...
* 11.12. .
13. . He is no better than a fool.
14. . It is no larger than your little finger

c. '~' more than~

1. 10 . I have lived here more than ten years.
2. . More than one mistake was found in
his composition.
* more than one + .
3. 1 . I will finish it in less than a week. = ...
within [inside of] a week.
4. 2,3 . My house is within a few miles of London.
note : within '...' from of . ' 2
within two miles of the station. The hotel is situated within ten minutes' drive
from the station. 10 .
d. ' ...' as ~as one can, as ~as possible
1. . He ran as fast as he could.
2. . Come as early as possible. = Come as early as you can.
'~ ' go so far as to do
3. . He went so far as to call me a fool.

4. . He went as far as New York by plane.

* as far as
'~ ' know better than to do
5. . [=
.] I know better than to quarrel with him. = I am not quite so foolish as to quarrel
with him. = I am so wise that I won't quarrel with him.
note : '~ ' .
e. ' ~ ' not + + than one can help
1. . Don't tell him more than you can help.
2. [] . Don't be longer than you can help.
3. . Don't spend more than you can help.
note : than not . than you cannot help [avoid] ' ' than
you cannot help telling him ( ,
) . ' '
, ' ' .
(9) .
a. '... ~' as ~as... ( )
1. . Sports are as important as studies.
2. . He can run as fast as I.
* as ~as .
as + + a [an] + + as
3. . You are as good a boy as he.
4. . He has as many books as I.
5. . He drank as much wine as I.
note a) as many + + as, as much
+ + as. b) so [as, too, how] + + a + -> a a
very beautiful girl + . very
. 4 .(3)
quite a, such a , what a .
6. [ ] . She is as wise as (she is) fair.
* .
b. '~ ...' the same... as [or that]~
1. . This is the same camera as I have.
2. . He is the same boy that I met yesterday.
note : , as, , that .
that , as .
3. . I go to the same school that he does. = I go to
the same school as he.
c. '~ () ...' not so [as] ... as ( )
1. [] . He is not so young as he looks.
* not so + +a [an] + + as .
2. . [ ] He is less happy than Tom. = He
is not so happy as Tom.
note : ( be ) (as) dead [deaf] as
a doornail - [ ]. (as) cool as a cucumber -
, = calm and self-possessed. (as) like as two peas - ,
. (as) poor as a church mouse - , .

d. '~ ...' + than~ ()

1. []. He is five years older than she. = He is older than
she by five years.
* than , than (). by A B .
.
2. (). She speaks English better than he.
' .. ~' the + + of the two
3. . He is the taller of the two boys.

* the ( ) the .
4. () () . The population of Seoul is larger than that
of Daegu.
*'A B C( B)' B .
. that of, those of .
superior, inferior, junior, prior than to
5. . This dictionary is superior to [better than] that one.
6. . He is five years senior to me = He is five years my senior.
= He is my senior by five years. = He is five years older than I. = He is older
than I by
five years.
7. . The will was made two months prior to
[before] his death.
8. () []. The propeller-driven plane is
inferior to [lower than] the jet plane in speed.
9. . He is superior to me in physics.
'B A ' prefer A to B
10. . I prefer autumn to spring. = I like autumn better than
spring.
'~ ...' more than ~can~
11. . He has more book than he can
read.

e. '~ [ ] ... ' Nothing is so... as~, Nothing is + + than~

1. [] . Nothing is so precious as love. = Nothing is more
precious than love.
2. [] . Nothing is more pleasant than traveling. = Nothing is
so pleasant as traveling.
3. . No one is more beautiful than she. = No one is so beautiful
as she.
4. . No other boy in the class speaks English
so well as he.
* be .
note 1.2. , not so... as, nothing more... than
3. nothing nobody, none, no one, no (other) + () .

f. '...' the +
1. . Mt. Everst is the highest in the world. = Mt. Everst
is the highest of all the mountains in the world. = Mt. Everst is higher than an
y other
mountain in the world. = No other mountain in the world is so high as Mt. Everst
.
note: a) the + of in .
b) , , ,
, , the most of all (), more than any other + , no (other)... so .. as +
, , () ''.
2. . He is the tallest of the three boys.
3. . He is the tallest in the class.
4. . The lake is deepest at this point.
5. . He runs fastest of us.
6. ' ' . A Farewell to Arms is perhaps
Hemingway's greatest novel.
7. . You are my best friend.
8. . I am busiest between two and four.
9. . This mountain is most beautiful in fall.
10. . Most girls are interested in dresses.
11. . I read a most interesting novel yesterday.
12. . We went on a picnic last Sunday.
note: a) 4. ~11 the . 4.8.9. ()
5. . 6.7. . , 10. '' .

11. a most = very

the . 12. ', ...' the
. opp. next. b) -> . higher education
( ) the lower animals . the younger
generation , . a better class hotel . the lower classes
the upper classes the poorer parts of the city . the weaker sex.
the softer sex .the strong sex. the sterner sex the upper course of a river.
, the lower...
g. '~ ...' ... times as - (as~), times ~er (than~)
1. 3 .( = many) He has three times as books as I.
2. 3 . ( = much) The alternative plan
would cost three times this amount [three times as much as this].
3. . I have half as many books as you.
4. . They want at least double their
salaries [twice as much as they now earn].
* double ( ) , of . ''
5. . This bridge is one and half times as long as
that.
note: 'A B 3 ' a) A is about three times as large as B. b)
A is about three times the size of B. c) A is three times larger than B. a)b)
c) . This is three times [threefold] larger than
that.
h.
1. . He is foolish rather than honest.
* .
2. . He is not so much scholar as a poet. = He is a
poet rather than a scholar. = He is not a scholar so much as a poet.
* 'A B' .
3. . He did not so much as ask us to sit down.
4. . He left without so much as saying "Thank you."
5. . He is more thrifty than stingy.
6. . She is more shy than gentle. = She is shy rather
than gentle.
* ()
more .
7.
. You may as well [have as good reason to] call a cat a small tiger as call a tiger
a big cat.
8. . One might as well throw
money into the sea as lend it to him.
* may as well ...as . 8.
.
9. . The more you know him, the better
you will like him.
* better well
10. . l like him all the better for his honesty.
(10)
a. ' [] ~'
1. . She was not surprised at all. = She was not surprised in
the least.
2. . He has not the slightest knowledge of French. = He does
not know French at all.
3. . He has not a bit of common sense.
4. . There was not a shadow of hope.
5. . He know nothing of the fact.
6. . He never eats between meals.
* eat between meals . make a (hearty) meal of ~ ~ .

7. . He is by no means a fool. = He is in no way a fool. =

He is not at all a fool.
8. . He is anything but honest. = He is far from [never] honest.
* , .
9. . He is the last man to tell a ie. = He never tell a lie
10. . He is the last man I want to see.
* 9. to () .
11. () . Far from [Instead of] admiring his
paintings, I dislike them intensely.
12. . Few people are free from [without] cares.
13. . Why he did it is beyond my
comprehension.
14. . His conduct is above suspicion.
15. . This is more than I can tell.
16. . The worse is yet to come.

b. ' [] ~ '
1. . The strong are not always right. = The strong are
not necessarily right.
2. . Not all birds can fly. () = All birds cannot fly
3. . Everybody cannot be a scholar.
4. . Such things do not happen every day.
5. . I haven't read both of his novels.
6. . Your work is not altogether satisfactory.
7. . You are not quite right.
8. . I am not wholly convinced that you
are right.
9. [] . He is not very tall, but
he's very strong.
10. . All histories cannot entirely dispense
with the fictional element.
11. . He was never quite free.
c. '~ '
1. . I never even hear his name.
2. . He cannot so much as read the textbook.
d. ' [ ] ~' ' ~'
1. . I can forgive him no longer. = I cannot forgive him any
longer.
2. . She is no more ill. = She is no longer ill.
3. . He will come to Korea no more. = He will
not come to Korea any more.
e. '~ ... '
1. . I have neither time nor money.
* neither A nor B . Neither you nor I
am wrong. .
2. . He cannot read or speak English. = He cannot read
nor speak English. = He cannot read English, nor can he speak it. [= he cannot s
peak it,
either]
note: a) '' too [also] ,
'' (not~) either . not +
either = neither nor nor nor + + . If
he goes, I'll go, too. If he does not go, I'll not either. = If he does not go,
neither [nor]
will I. b) .
not always, not necessary -> never, not every, not all -> not any, no, none. not
altogether

-> not at all. not both -> not either, neither.

' ~ ' cannot~ too...
1. . You cannot be too careful about your
health. = We can't be too cautious...
2. [ ] I cannot thank you too
much for your kindness. = I cannot thank you enough for your kindness.
3. . We
cannot exaggerate the value of literature as a medium by which to cultivate our
minds.
note: a) can hardly [scarcely] ~ too, cannot~ enough [sufficient] too
over~ (), emphasize , It is impossible to over~ () .
b) You cannot study too hard ( )
[4. ]
[A. ]
(1) '~ ...' It is [was] + + that [who, which, where, when]~
, , [] . that
,
( It) ( who, which, in which, when... ) It
'It ... that ' . It that
.
1. [] . It was the ambassador that met us.
2. . It was this (theater) thicket that George
gave me.
3. () . It was on Saturday that he gave me
this ticket.
note: 1.2.3. that who, which, when . It be
that .
(2) ' , ' very + , such a +
1. . At the moment the bell rang.
2. . I met the very man.
3. . There is every prospect of success.
4. . We have every
reason to believe that she will get better.
5. . She is such a fool.
6. ! That's absolute nonsense!
(3) Do : .
1. . If you do fight, fight it out.
2. ? She does talk a lot, doesn't she?
3. ! Do be quiet, please!
(4) '... ~' What... is~
1. . What we need is more time.
2. . What you need most is a good rest. = A good
rest is what you need most. = It's a good rest that you need most.
3. . What we
doubt is not your loyalty to us but your experience.
(5) .
1. . His story was greatly exaggerated.
2. . I wasn't much surprised at the news.
3. . He is not very tall but he is very strong.
(6) ' ...' much [even, by far, any, no, far] + []
1. . This is much [very much, far] better.

2. . I'm feeling much [a great deal, a lot] more healthy than

I was.
3. . You are even more beautiful than before.
4. ? Is he doing any better in his class?
5. . I can expect no more effort from him.
6. . He is by far the best
pianist I have ever heard.
(7) ' ~'
1. . She didn't speak to us at all.
2. . He wasn't a bit apologetic.
3. . This book is not in the least interesting to me. =
in the slightest
4. . Galileo was by no means the
first person to use a telescope.
5. . You have no excuse whatever.
(8) '...'
1. ? How ever did you escape?
2. ? Why on earth didn't you tell me?
3. ? What in the world does he mean?
4. ? Who the devil is he?
5. ? What did you do that for, for heaven's
sake?
6. ? What in heaven's name does he think he is doing?
(9) ' ...' no other than... , ... oneself
1. . It was no other than the mayor.
2. . The gentleman was no other than his father.
3. . If you want to know, ask John himself.
note: oneself .
[B. ]

(1)
a. Neither, Nor, So
1. He is not writing. I'm not either. = Neither am I. = Nor am I.
. . [ .]
2. She hasn't much time and neither have I. . .
[ ]
3. They won't help him, but neither [nor] will they harm him.
.
.
4. He is ready. I'm ready as well. = I am too. = I am also. = So am I.
5. Bill likes tennis and Tom likes tennis too. -> Bill likes tennis and so doe
s Tom.
6. She has a lot of money and so has her husband.
7. She will be there and so shall I. [] . .
note: neither, nor '...'
not + either . so
'' too, as well, also
[] . '
+ ' ' + ' .
have, be
, do . do .
7. will, shall (I shall, you will, he will) . : "John likes
peaches." - "And I like peaches, too." . () .
"They work hard." - "So they do." . . so + +
' ' so + +
'' .

 b. ( )
1. Were I in your place, I wouldn't take such a risk. = If I were...
.
2. Had I known what was going to happen, I would never have left he alone. = I
f I had
known... .
3. Rich as he is, I don't envy him. .
4. Strange as it may seem, nobody was injured in the fire.
.
5. Try as you may, you will never succeed.
.
6. Say what you will, I shall trust to my own judgement.
.
note: 3.4. 5.6. .
(2) : ( )
+ .

a. ()
1. Never have I seen him so angry! .
2. Never again should such a situation be allowed to arise.
.
3. Not a word did he say. .
4. In no other way can the matter be explained.
.
5. At no time was the President aware of what was happening.
.
6. Not until I visited him did I realize how ill he was.
.
7. Little does she realize the danger she is in.
.
8. Rarely [Seldom] have I heard such beautiful singing.
[] .
9. Not only have defeated the enemy, (but) we have captured all his supplies.
.
10. Hardly [Scarcely] had he arrived when [before] she started complaining. =
No sooner
had he arrived than she started complaining. .
note: So do I do
.
b.
1. Away went the car like a whirlwind. .
2. Vainly did Newman condemn the utilitarian attitude in education.
.
3. Only after a long argument did he agree to our plan.
.
4. To such an extent had the situation deteriorated that troops had to be call
ed in.
[ ] .
note 4. such a + + that .
c.
1. Improbable as it seems, it's true. .
2. Blessed are the pure in heart. .
3. So old was the document that it was barely decipherable.
.
4. Peculiar to America are certain customs by which a man shows respect to a w
oman.

 [] .

d.
1. This subject we have examined in an earlier chapter, and need not reconside
r.
.
2. His face I'm not fond of. .
3. That John has failed, I can't believe. .
4. Very changeable weather we're having of late. .
5. This I will now try to explain. .
note: 1. examine, 2. believe, 3. believe, 4. have, 5. explain (
+ .
4
[6 ]
.
,

.
(,,), , , ,
,
, alphabet

.
[A]
abandoned A to B A() B() .
We abandoned him to his fate.
He abandoned himself to pleasure. .
accord A, B = accord B to A() A B , .
They accorded the settlers privileges. = They accorded privileges to the settl
ers.
.
account for = explain.
There is no accounting for tastes. ( ,
).
cf. Many men, many minds. Tastes differ. Every man is to his taste.
accuse A of B() A() B . .
They accused the official of taking bribes. .
She accused him of murder. .
accustom A to B() A() B .
You can accustom the child to almost any kind of food.
.
accustom oneself to .... .
The new boys soon accustomed themselves to the school. .....
accustomed() be accustomed to ,...ing( to )
She was accustomed to use her left hand.
.
He is accustomed to getting up early. .
(to , .
to = be used to (doing).
acquaint A with B() A() B . .
He acquainted me with the facts. .
He informed me of the facts.
act on(upon) .... ,.... .
This drug does not act on the nerves. .
I will act on my own principle. .
adapt A to B A B .

He could not adapt himself to the new situation.

add to A A . =increase
Your presence at the party will add to our pleasure.
add A to B A B .
The teacher added another example to his explanation.
advise A to do A() ~ , .
I advise you to see a doctor. .
advise A of B A B .
I advised me of the danger.
allow++ ... ~ .
I allow him ten dollars a week.
allow++to do ... ~ .
He allowed me to go out. .
announce A() to B() B A .
We announced her death only to some friends.
.
announce to++that ... ~ .
Please announce to your class that there will be an examination in English.
answer+ ... =reply
He answered frankly all my questions.
You must answer for the consequences. () .
A piece of paper answered for a table-cloth.( ) () .
appeal to ... , .
They have decided never to appeal to arms. .
The poem strongly appealed to apply my heart. .
( ...)
Apply
This rule does not apply to children. .
About eighty persons applied for the position. 80 .
He applied himself to the study of English(to his new task). ( )
.
( apply oneself to .)
arrive at(in) ... .
We arrived in Paris(Africa). at , in .
cf. He arrived in London. He reached London.
(reach , to )
We arrived at this conclusion. .
ask A() B() =ask B() of A() A B . A B .
I asked him several questions = I asked several questions of him.
.
I've come to ask a favor of you = I've come to ask you a favor.
.
ask A for B() A() B = ask for A's B.
She asked me for some money. .
He asked for my help. .
ask++to do , ... ~ .
I asked him to stay behind. .
I asked her to come to lunch. .
(ask him a question . ask a question of him )
ask A to B A() B .
I asked her to the party. .
I called up the station to ask about the extra trains.
.
ask after () .
Tomorrow I'll ask after my friend in (the) hospital = inquire after.
.
He asked after her. .
assign++ ... ~ .
They assigned him the work. .

assign++to+ ... ~ .
She was assigned to the library. .
The teacher assigned us to clean the blackboard.
().
associate with ... ().
How have you come to be associated with him?
?
associate A with B A(,,) B(,,) .
I associated this music with my young days. ....
assure+ ... .
This assures his failure. .
assure A of B() A() B , , .
He assured me of her honesty. .
I assure you that this dictionary will help.
.
cf. insure (,) , assure
. (life insurance , life assurance ). .
assured() I am assured that we will succeed.
. ( be assured that ).
cf. I am sure of his living(sure that he will live) to eighty.
().
He is sure to succeed. .
(be sure of , be sure to do
() .)
be sure of ...=be sure that ... ... ( ).
be sure to do ... ( ).
I am sure of his success.
= I am sure that he will succeed.
.
=He is sure to succeed.
() .
( , He is sure of his success.)
He is sure to win. .
=I am sure that he will win.
=He will surely win.
=It is certain that he will win.
(It is sure that ... .)
attend . .
He regularly attends the class meeting.
.
( . , attendance, attendant.)
If you don't attend, you won't understand. .
He attended to his business. .
cf. attention.
Pay attention to what he says.
.
Why don't you attend to my warning?
?
The nurse kindly attended on every patient.
.
[B]
base A on(upon) B A(,) , B(,) .
He based his argument on facts. () .
The arguments are based on misunderstanding. .
( .)
() The runner was off his base. .
() Kidnapping is a base crime. .
be

He is above telling lies. .

All the members were against the bill. .
I am for your plan. ... .
What is the matter with you? ? =What's wrong with you?
( what, the matter .)
There is nothing the matter(wrong) with the car. .
This task is beyond my powers. ( )
I'm away for the weekend. ( ).
She will be back in half an hour. 30 .
(in , after.)
He is behind the other boys in his schoolwork. ()
.
The steam heating is off now. .
He is now better off. . cf. well off.
Mother is out now. ... .
The fire is out. .
When will you be through with your work. ?
Put down your pencils. The time is up now. , ( ). .
He is not up to the job. . =be equal to ,
.
What have you been up to? ?
It's up to you to decide what to do. .
... , , .
cf. It is incumbent on you(It is your duty) to do so. .
cf. It's your turn(the turn of you) to row. .
What are you from? .
bear(bore, born, borne) bare .
I can't bear this pain. .
This tree bears no fruit. .
( borne, born,
be born ''
by ... borne .)
He was born in England in 1924.
She has borne five children.
All the children borne by her are well.
.
He was borne by an English woman.
.
The boat was borne backward by the wind.
.
I cannot bear you to treat him like that.
.
bear++(++) ... ~ .
He bears me no grudge(hatred). () .
beat about the bush = delay coming to the point( )
, , , . () .
Don't beat about the bush; tell us what happened. .
become
This dress becomes her very well. ().
What has become of his son? ? ( What
).
become - '... '
grow - '... '
get - '.. '
begin(++).
( from )
School begins at eight.(-8)
~on Monday.(-)
~in September(-9)

~on September 1st(-9 1)

I began my study(to study, studying) at seven.( ,,)
He began on a new book. (,)
The concert began with a piano solo. () .
In England spring really begins with the first of May.
5 1 .
To begin with, you should ask for his help.
.
believe
I believe you(what you say).
.
I believe that he is(him to be) reliable. .
believe in (),, .
He believes in God. .
I believe in him. .
I believe in this method. .
make believe ... , ... . = pretend.
He made believe not to hear me. .
The boys made believe that they were explorers in the South Pole.
.
bet A on B B() A() , ,.
I have bet 20 dollars on the horse. 20 .
You can bet your bottom dollar (on that). ()
.
I'll bet you my bottom dollar that she won't come.
().
I bet.() ~ .
You bet.() , .
I bet it will rain tonight. .
Are you going to the seaside? You bet(I am)! ?
-
make a be(on, that ...) .
He made a bet that he would reach the top of the hill before any of the
others. .
blame A for B B() A(,,) , B A
.
The truck driver blamed the bus driver for the accident.
bow[bau] [bou].
They bowed their heads in prayer. .
Time flies like an arrow from a bow. () ()
.
The boy had a bow of red ribbon. .
break[breik] brake
A robber broke into his house. () = enter by
force.
He broke into tears(laughter). () . = burst into tears
(laughter).
My car broke down and I was quite at a loss. .
break one's word(promise) = fail to do what one said or promised to do.
, .
Susan broke her promise when she failed to return the book.
.
break one's heart = cause great sorrow, disappoint one. .
Tom broke her heart when he left her.
.
break the ice .
His joke broke the ice and we all laughed.
break the news = deliver startling news tactfully.

He broke the news of Ann's death to her mother.

.
Last night a fire broke out in my neighborhood. .
bring (+++) ()
What has brought you here? ? What.
His story brought back many memories of my childhood.
.
Overproduction brought down the price of steel. .
=decrease, lower.
Please bring the matter forward at the next meeting.
.
His efforts brought forth good results. ().
His investigation brought out a surprising fact.
().
She brought up six children. .
I was brought up in the country. . = raise or rear a family.
They brought the matter up for discussion. .
=introduce a subject.
buy A B() = buy A B = buy B for A
He bought me this camera.
=he bought this camera for me.
I bought the book cheap. .
I bought it from him(at the store). () .
[C]
call
His friends call him Bob.(++)
He was called Henry after his uncle. .
Call a taxi for me = Call me a taxi.
Please call me(up) at seven tomorrow morning. , .
I'll call on him at his office tomorrow. .
cf. call at his office().
The teacher called me down for being unprepared.
.
He called for a glass of water. () .=demand.
I called in to see him on my way back from school.
.
We were going to give a dance, but called it off.
. = cancel.
I'll call you (up) this evening. = telephone. .
We wish to call attention to this fact. .
He called out my name. . = shout, raise one's
voice.
He is what is called a genius. () = so-called.
cf. We heard a call for help. .
I've just had a call form Tom. .
care about
You don't have to care about money.
care for , .
She does not care for her dress.
carry
Don't make a promise which you are not ready to carry out.
= perform, complete.
The discussion was carried on for two hours. 2 .
=continue
catch
I caught his arm = I caught him by the arm. .

I was caught in a shower on my way to school.

.
I caught sight of her near the terminal yesterday.
.
opp. lose sight of
Run fast, or you won't catch up with him. ,
.
cease[si:s]
They ceased talking(to talk). .
Their help ceased to be necessary. .
cf. cease talking cease to talk stop talking( )
+ . stop to talk( ) + .
[] without cease . cessation of arms. .
change
Heat changes water into steam = Water is changed into steam by heat.
.
Let's change seats. .
I changed places with my brother. .
He changed trains at Daejeon for Busan. .
( .)
Can you change my money into dollars?
?
The matter has changed for the better(worse). ().
() Please give me the change for a 10,000 bill. 1
.
I have no small change about me. .
choose + = choose for . .
Father chose me a nice present.
= Father chose a nice present for me.
.
You can choose between the two(A and B). (A B)
.
cannot choose but do() ... . = cannot help doing
=cannot do otherwise than = be compelled to do.
He cannot choose but go. .
I would choose death before dishonor.
.
(choose A before B B A )
cling to , .
The child clung to its mother's skirt.
They cling to their old custom.
come
I will come to the party. I'm coming. , .
Mary! !
I'm coming Mother. , .
(, . . go
party . I'm going )
I came across her in London. .
=discover, encounter, fall in with.
A good idea came across my mind. = occurred to me
.
I came across(found by chance) a curious book at that store.
.
(find by chance )
How did it come about? = happen, occur ?

What changes have come about since the end of the war?
?
My birthday comes around next Monday = be here again = come round.
() . .
Won't you come around and see me sometime? ? = visit
informally. .
Come after(Follow) me. ().
How did you come by such a lot of money? .
( )? = acquire, obtain, gain.
There is no possibility that prices will come down. = fall
.
His words often came back to me. .
Where do you come from? ?
I come from the Jeju Island. .
She comes of a good(poor) family. ( ) .
A button has come off my coat. .
A good idea came into my mind. .
(come into one's mind )
come on! The train is leaving in a few minutes = hurry, move more rapidly.
! !
When will his new book come out? = be published, be issued.
?
TIME magazine comes out weekly. .
All the pictures he took came out very well. = appear, develop.
.
The cherry blossoms will come out next week around here.
.
Come over when you are free. .
How did you manage to come through without even a scratch?
?
Let us now come to the point in hand. , .
opp. beat about(around) the bush. ( ) ,
, .
I wanted to talk about our marriage, but she tried to beat about the bush.
At last the attempt came to a good end. .
(come to and end )
Those efforts have come to nothing. = have no success.
.
The brothers came to blows after a violent quarrel. = fight
.
When it comes to making a decision, they seldom agree.
.
After a while she came to her senses. ,
. = regain one's ability to act logically.
Our hotel bill came to fifty dollars. = reach, amount to, total
50 ()
The girl who fainted has just come to. = recover, revive.
.
After arguing for a long time, we finally came to terms = reach an agreement.
() .
At last his dream has come true = actually happen or occur
.
A few days ago I came upon him in a train = come across, chance upon.
().
Fear came upon him ( ).
His new novel did not come up to his former novels.
. = reach, be equal to ... , .
command me to go at once(that I should go).
The captain commanded his men to march. .
The king commanded that the slave (should) be set.

.
( should ()
.)
The hill(The window) commands a fine view. () .
command () = overlook
[] () = mastery.
He has a good command of English. .
(give a command . withdraw a ... )
A colonel is an officer who is in command of a regiment.
.
She lost command of her temper. .
complain of(about) ... .
They complained of high prices.
congratulation A on B A() B() .
We congratulated him on his success.
concern
a) ... , ( ) = be connected with, have a
relation to, be involved in.
He is not concerned with the crime. .
b) = cause to feel uneasy.
Your father is concerned about(for) your welfare.
.
You must not concern yourself about me. .
consider++(), ++to do, +that , +who , +to do, +doing.
, , regard as .
We consider Shakespeare a great poet. as .
as .
We will consider 'Hamlet' as an example of a Shakespearian tragedy.
.
consist in ... , .
Happiness consists in contentment.
consist of ... .
This drama consists of five acts. 5 .
convince++of+ ...() , = cause to feel
certain, convince oneself of ... .
I convinced him of her honesty = I convinced him that she was honest.
. (honesty honest
.
.)
I am convinced of his mistake = I am convinced that he is mistaken.
. (convince persuade
convince . convince persuade
)
.
I convinced him to study().
I persuaded him to study().
cook one's goose = ruin one's opportunity. (,,) .
He cooked his goose when he insulted his foreman.
.
cure of .
No medicine can cure a man of discontent. .
cut++, cut++for+ ... .
Cut me a slice of bread. = Cut a slice of bread for me.
.
Let's cut down expenses this time. .
It is reported that they will cut off the supply of oil to Europe = stop, disc
ontinue

 .
[D]
deprive A of B A B . A B . = rob A of B
They deprived him of his rights = He was deprived of his rights
.
He was deprived(was robbed) of his money. .
derive from A A . A .
This word derives from Greek. .

deserve+ ... .
He(The composition) deserves praise. ( ) .
deserve+to do ... .
He deserves to win. .
He deserves to be praised. , .
determine = settle, decide, cause to come to a decision. , .
She determined to marry John. ().
Her letter determined him to start at once.
.
determined() , . = resolute, decided.
I am determined to become an engineer. ()
( ).
devote A to B A(,) B() .
He devoted his life to the study of the classics. ....
die -> dying, dye() -> dyeing
All living things must die. .
( be killed)
He was killed in an accident. . of
from .
die of cancer(hunger, old age) (, ) .
die from a wound ,, .
die a happy death. .
die a unnatural death. ().
die a glorious death. .
She is dying for a piano. .(
)
I nearly died of laughing. .
I'm dying to learn the secret. .
He was dying for a drink. .
The storm died down. .
The buds on this plant are dying off. .
The religions of Greece and Rome died out. .
Whom the gods love die young. .
cf. Beauty and luck seldom go hand in hand. .
(die young young die
)
differ from ... .
My opinion differs from yours.
discourage++from+...ing
The doctor's advice discouraged him from smoking.
.
opp. encourage, hearten++to do ... .
dispose of A A() .
You should dispose of the problem at once.
distinguish A from B A B ,
Can't you distinguish right from wrong? ?
do
Do in Rome as the Romans do. = When (you are) at(in) Rome, do as

the Romans do = Do as they do at Rome.

.
( - , -
.
If you go to Rome, you should do as the Romans do.(St. Augustine
St. Ambrose . When I am here[at M
Saturday when at Rome,
I do fast on Saturday .)
Thank you, that will do. . ()
do+
I will do my best for you. .
(do one's best )
What does he do for a living? ?(
?)
do++=do++to+ ... ( , ) .
He did me a good turn. = He did a good turn to me.
.
The medicine will do you good. ( ) .
Will you do me a favor(a kindness)? .
( do 3 .)
Well begun is half done. ( ).
cf. A good beginning is half the battle. the battle - ,
Youth is half the battle. .
What is done cannot be undone. ( ?
.)
Do your hair before you go out. = make tidy .
do one's hair , ,
Does your father do the dishes at your home? = wash.
?
I did Europe in three weeks. = see the sights of 3
()
He did Homer into English. . = translate, put into.
These books will do great harm to little children.
.
The new novel did credit to the writer. .
(do good , . do harm , good harm
. , , ,)
do++justice .
This picture doesn't do her justice. . -
.
Tom is doing well at school. .
He is doing very well in his business. .
Any book will do so far as it is interesting. .
This log will do for a seat. () .=act for
It doesn't do to work too hard. .
do away with , =get rid of, . =kill
This law should be done away with at once. =be abolished. .
do with A A =deal with.
One does not know what to do with a fellow like you.
.
Can you do with mutton for dinner? ?(?)
=be content with.
( a contented look[smile]= [])
In his business he can't do without a car. = manage without, dispense with.
, . .
The store hasn't any; so you will have to do without.
.
( without .)
I like fish well done[or well-done]. () .
What can I do for you?=May I help you? ( ) ?

 ? .
( do He did a mistake He made a
mistake .)
doubt+, doubt of+ ...
I doubt the truth of his words. .
He doubts of the success of your enterprise. ()
.
whenever if , that
.)
I doubted whether(if) the story was true. .
I don't doubt that he will help me. .
doubt - , , I doubt him. (
) . .
suspect- , ... . I suspect him.
. .
( doubt [] suspect
, , .
I doubt that he loves me. =I do not think that he loves me.
I suspect that he loves me = It seems that he loves me.
[] I have no doubt that he will come. =I have no doubt of his coming.
.
It is beyond doubt that he will come. . =certainly=no doubt
I make no doubt I can get you out of the danger.
.
Make no doubt that the safe door is locked. .
dwell on A A , .
I dwelled on my future then.
He dwelled on the foreign affairs. .
[E]
enable A to do A ... .
The scholarship enabled her to go to school. .
encourage+ , . =hearten, inspirit, put courage into.
He always encouraged me. . .
encourage++to do ... ~ .
She encouraged him to carry out the plan. .
engage
I will not engage in the game of tennis. =take part in.
.
She engaged to be here at six. =pledge, promise. 6 .
Can you engage that she is honest? =assert the truth of.
?
They engaged a cook =employ. .
He engaged our attention =attract. .
He engaged us to work =occupy .
He became engaged to a childhood sweetheart. =betrothed.
.
(sweetheart , [ ])
an engaged couple[pair] .
enter into A A(, ) .
The two countries entered into negotiations.
enter on =start.
They entered on the second test flight. .
expect A of B B A .
He expects too much of his son.
[F]
fail(+in+) ... .
I tried but failed.
He failed in the examination. .

opp. succeed in
fail to do ... , =miss, neglect.
He often fails to keep his promise. .
Never fail to drop in when you come this way. .
(drop in .)
The wind failed and we could not go on sailing. ()
.
()
The examiner failed two-thirds of the candidates. 3 2 .
He failed mathematics[his examination]. . ( )
He failed in mathematics.
fall [fell, fallen]
cf. fell .
Almost all the leaves have fallen from the tree. .
An apple fell to the ground. .
He fell flat on his back. .
opp. fall flat on one's face. .
Be careful on the ice or you will fall. .
As soon as he arrived in America, he fell ill. =become
. .
I fell asleep soon. = drop off. .
He fell in love with her at first sight. =become enamored or infatuated.
.
Christmas Day falls on Sunday this year. [ ].
Next Sunday falls on my father's birthday. .
He could fall back on his uncle. .
He fell behind in the race. .
The boy fell into a deep sleep. .
The wolf fell upon[on] the hunter. .
(on upon .)
[] The fall semester begins in September. = autumn. 9
.
The man went over the falls in a barrel. .
The falls are forty feet high. 40.
There was a sudden fall in prices. .
( )
feed on ... , ....
The tiger feeds on meat.
He feeds his horse on corn and beans. ()
fell A+do A ... .
She felt her heart beat violently. .
The doctor felt my pulse. .
The surface of this desk feels rough. [
]
I don't feel at home in this room. .
I feel like taking a walk. = wish to do. [... ]
We all feel for you in this crisis =sympathize with.
.
feel (it) in one's bones = have a feeling that something is about to happen.
I felt it in my bones that she would not survive.
[].
I felt in my pocket for the key. .
cf. look for
feel one's way . .
He felt his way in the dark. .
find+, find++ = find ++for+
He found me a job. =He found a job for me. .
find++to do() ... ~ .
They found him(to be) guilty. .( )
I found this book interesting =I found that this book was interesting.

 .
(+ + -This book is interesting.)
I found him working at his desk. ( ) .
How do you find this city? ?
I found it impossible to see her. .
Can you find time to read? ?
You always find fault with others. =complain, criticize.
.[ ]
I have no fault to find with him =He has no fault to find with. []
.
Could you find your way last night? ( )
?
Columbus found a warm supporter in the Queen.
.[ ]
I found a good friend in him. .
cf. He awoke to be in a strange room. ( )
Let's find out what time the next train leaves. .
(find - , []
find out .
discover - , .
detect - , , .)
fill A with B A(,) B(,) .
She filled the suitcase with her new dresses.
free A from B A(,) B(,) .
Only you can free him form his cares.
.
furnish A with B A B .
We should furnish the sufferers with food. .
[G]
gain
Nothing can be gained without an effort. .
Does your watch gain or lose? ?
She gained a pound in weight. 1 .
get(+to+) (...) =arrive, ~+ ... =become
I got back home. .
(home, back .)
She has got quite well. .
get to do ... , ... = manage
You will soon get to like it. .
get+doing ... =begin
When they get (to) talking, they go on for hours.
.
I got him a job =I got a job for him. .
get
get - , , . I got an idea. .
obtain - . He obtained the position. .
acquire - . He acquired fame. .
attain - . She attained success. . .
gain - ( ) . They gained wealth. .
procure - (, ) . I procured a nice position.
.
secure - . We have secured good seats. . .
earn - . He earns a lot of money. .
get++to do = have++do
Get a porter to carry your luggage. () () .
(get to-infinitive)
get++=have++(get )
I must get my hair cut. .
Get your luggage carried by a porter.

Take good care not to get a cold. = catch cold .

The sick boy got well. .
(sick - - ,
. )
I was sick in bed with a cold.()
=I was ill in bed with a cold.()
. ill. ill health()
ill . the ill boy()
All of us got angry at the news. .
I hope you will get used to it as soon as possible.
.
How did you get to know that I was here? = come to.
.
Why don't you get someone to help you? ?
Where did you get your watch repaired? ?
I want to get my work finished by noon. .
The rumor soon got about. .
It was difficult (for me) to get across the river in a boat. = by (a) boat.
. .
I found it difficult to get my jokes across to the audience.
.
John is getting ahead of Tom in school. .
How are you getting along with your French?
?
He gets along well with his new friend. =live sociably with.
() .
We can't get along without money (without her). () () .
Her childish behavior gets in my hair. =annoy, irritate.
.
Get in touch with me as soon as you arrive there. =communicate with.
.
I hope that she will get in with her classmates = become familiar with.
.
Take care what you say, or you will get into trouble.
.
get into trouble. , , , , ,
.
*..., or ~ ->If...+not, ~ ..., ~ = ... ~ .
..., and~ -> If..., ~ ..., = ... ~ .
He got back from his vacation yesterday. = return.
He got into conversation with a stranger. = begin.
.
I got off immediately after breakfast. .
You should get off(the bus) at the next stop. =descend from or leave vehicle.
() .
As soon as she got her children off to school, she got down to her work. =send
,
tackle. .
get down to () .
She can't get the ring off. .
The speeding motorist got off with a small fine.
.
The bus was overcrowded, but we managed to get on.
. =board, go into.
Get on your coat and leave immediately =clothe. .
Let us get on with the lesson. =continue, proceed. .
get on one's nerves =give a person the nerves ... , ...
.
Turn off the radio. It's getting on my nerves. =annoy. ,
.

The man got out(of his car) and walked to the entrance.
.
If this news got out, there'll be trouble. =become known.
.
Don't get out of your duties, however unpleasant they are.
.
He will soon get over his illness. =recover from. .
.
What is the matter with Joseph? Did he get out on the right(wrong) side of the
bed? =arise in the morning with a good(bad) temper? ?
() ?
The girl got over the handicap of being blind. =overcome.
.
I'll be glad to get the examination over. =finish .
.
The teacher got the meaning across to the class. =explain, make clear.
.
Did she get the better of you in the argument? =gain an advantage of, defeat.
?
Our competitors tried to get the upper hand and force us out of business. =gai
n
control. .
We hope to get to Baltimore by seven o'clock. =arrive at a certain place.
7 .
He failed but his friend got through the exam. =pass. ,
.
As soon as I got through(with) my work, I'll join you.
. =complete, finish
We all try to get together at least once a year. 1
.
get(catch, lay, seize, take) hold of ... , .
This morning I managed to get hold of him. .
I can't get hold of this bad headache. .
=dispose of, give way.
have got =have
I have got no money with me. .
have got to do ... .
You have got to leave right away. .
( you must..., you have to...)
give++=give++to+/~+
I gave him a book. =I gave a book to him.
This television set will not give you satisfaction. =satisfy.
He gave no answer. .
The hen gives six eggs a week. =lay an egg. 6
.
Our teacher gave us a listening test in English. =test out.
.
I gave my parents much trouble when young. =make trouble to. .
( ) ( ).
You've given me your cold. .
We are going to give a party for the new member. =have a party.
.
Professor Kim gave a lecture on air(water) pollution. =deliver a lecture, lect
ure
() ().
Father gave me a week to make up my mind.
1 () .
He gave me a lift in this car. () .
Let's give (up) our seats to old people. .
Please give my best regard to your family.

.
I'll give you a ring at five. 5 .
Mrs. Jones gave birth to a seven-pound girl. 7 .
Our town gave birth to many great men. =bear, produce, bring forth young.
. .
You always give in to your big brother, don't you? =submit.
?
After a long fight, the enemy finally gave in. =surrender, yield.
The flowers gave off a fragrant odor. =emit, send out. .
give one's hand in marriage =marry.
Mr. Ross agreed to give him daughter's hand in marriage.
.
Paul gave his word that he would take care of her. =promise
.
give oneself up =surrender.
The kidnapper gave himself up to the authorities. .
The increase in population gave rise to a shortage of houses. =cause, produce.
, , .
give one a wide berth =give a wide berth to one =keep a wide berth of one ...
, .
We gave the drunken driver a wide berth. =avoid, stay away form.
After the scandal, his neighbors gave him the cold shoulder. =ignore,
treat in an unfriendly manner. .
The fence gave way and the animal escaped. =collapse, break .
The crowd gave way as the police advanced. =retreat, withdraw
The party went on trying and never gave up hope. =abandon, leave.
.
Father always says, "I wish I could give up smoking." =stop
" " .
The doctor gave him up for dead. (
) .
He is given up to gambling. =be devoted to =give oneself up to.
.
*I gave it (to) him. to . I gave the boy it
( ). I gave him it
.
go
The clouds have gone and the sun has come out. .
This machine goes by electricity. .
Everything went better than I(had) expected. =go one better( ,
, ). .
U.S. dollar bills go almost anywhere in the world.
.
They are good students, as students go nowadays.
.
He's young as statesmen go nowadays. () .
* go .
I went to bed early, but I could not sleep until midnight.
.
The other say I went fishing in the river. .
Mother has gone out shopping. () ( ).
I've learned that the composer went blind at the age of twenty-five.
25 .
Fish soon goes bad in hot weather. .
What he says is true as(so) far as it goes =to a limited extent.
.
He says, "It goes against my principle to send my daughter to college." =oppos
e.
" " .

Many years have gone by since we first met. =pass by.

.
That's a good rule to go by. =be guided by. .
All his work went for nothing. .
Last Sunday I went in for the trial examination. =take, sit for.
.
Soon after he left school, he went into business.
.
The time bomb went of exactly on time. =explode, be fired.
.
His interview went off very well(badly). =proceed well. ()
.
I asked him to stop talking, but he still went on. =continue.
.
There is nothing going on here at present. =happen.
.
When we were having supper, all the lights went out. =be extinguished.
().
The fashion for miniskirts will go out soon.
.
I went over the car, but found nothing wrong. =examine, look at carefully.
.
Let's go over this lesson again. =study or review carefully, do again, repeat.

.
The designer hoped that the style would go over. =succeed.
.
He went through many hardships in his youth. =undergo, experience, spend.
(). in his youth =when he was young.
The committee went through every paper on the problem. = examine with care, lo
ok
into in detail. .
The student decided to go through with her schooling. =complete, continue to t
he finish.
.
I want a hat to go with this dress. =match, harmonize, accompany.
.
The poor boy often had to go without supper. =endure the lack of.
.
It goes without saying that health is above wealth. =needless to say, easily u
nderstood,
obvious. .
Something must have gone wrong; the train was due an hour ago. =occur unexpect
edly,
cause delay or failure. .
due =scheduled to arrive.
*He has been to the station() ( )
I have been to the station. .()
I have been to Paris before. .()
I have been to ,
. .
[H]
have+/have++
I have a book. I had a bath.
cf. have a bath[a talk, a walk] (, ).
I want to have my room clean. .
have++to do ... ~ .
He had a family to support. .
* .

cf. He has to support a family.

have++ ..., , .
I had my hair cut.
I had my purse stolen. .
have++do ..., ,
I had him go instead of me. . ()
He had his wife die. .
He had his father(son) die. ( ).
have++doing ... ~ .
I won't have you saying such things.
. =allow you to say
This boy has a good memory. .
have an eye for ... .
He has an eye for the picturesque. .
Have you (got) any idea where he lives? ?
What did you have for supper? =eat ?
Will you have another cup of tea? =drink ?
We have certainly had a good time at the party. =be happy, enjoy oneself.
, .
We had a whale of a time at the party. =be very happy, enjoy oneself very much
.
.
(a whale of , , =no end of a...)
We had much difficulty in persuading him. =experience.
.
I have a great liking for English. ( )
She will be absent, because she has a bad cold. .
cf. catch(take) a cold . have a cold .
Let me have(take, give) a look at it. .
I didn't have a good sleep last night. .
We always have this room ready for use. .
I won't have you smoking at your age. =allow you to smoke.
.
have one's own way () .
You can't have everything your own way. =You cannot have your own way in
everything. .
That stubborn child wants to have his own way. ...
He had nothing on at that moment. =be wearing, have on the body.
() ( ).
I have nothing on tomorrow evening. =be free. .
have something (a great deal, much, little, nothing) to do with ( , ,
, ) ( ).
We have nothing to do with your success. .
You have only to sit here. .
I'll have him come right away. .
I won't have you answer me back. .
I had many friends visit me when I was busy. .
cf. have++do.
I think you had better have your eyes examined.
.
cf. have++-ed.
He had his car stolen last night. .
( 5, i )
She can't be trusted with a secret because she has a big mouth. =talk too much
.
.
George, I have a bone to pick with you. =discuss a complaint. , ()
.
have a chip on one's shoulder ().
We dislike him because he always has a chip on his shoulder. =be quarrelsome.

 .
She has had a crush on Lally for a long time. =admire, be infatuated with.
.
John has two days off each week. =be free from work for the day.
. .
The man who was promoted has a lot on the ball. =be capable.
() .
(on the ball , =alert, , , a lot=much )
He was chosen for the post and now has the ball at his feet.
.
Mr. Greene wishes to have a word with you. =discuss something with.
( ) .
cf. have a word to say. .
have words with ... , .
He had (the) charge of all the treasure. () .
cf. He was in charge of the house. () .
Richard wouldn't dare answer; he has cold feet. =be afraid, get cold feet.
. ( ).
(cold feet , )
Fred claims that he have (a) drag with the officials. =have personal influence
.
() ( ) .
have a drag with one's employer. . =have pull.
have it in for() ... . .
I had it in for John because he lied to me. =hold a grudge against.
.
* it it . situation it, it(indefinite
it) , (It)
.
"Who is it?" "It's me"
"?" ""
Depend upon it, he made mistakes. () .
How is it in the market? ( ) ?
Whose turn is it next? ?
strike it rich , .
Courage and hope are kept up by the expectation of striking it rich.
.
How is it with him? ?
It is all over with us. .
We have to fight it out. .
That's (just) it. , .
The dentist said, "I'll have it out soon." =extract, remove. "
" .
She decided to have it out with her friends. =discuss something frankly.
.
( it )
She had her hands full taking care of the children. =be very busy.
.
(have one's hands full )
have(bring) one's heart in one's mouth ( ) (),
( )
I had my heart in my mouth as I waited for his reply. =be very frightened.
.
I have not the heart to say this. .
Edith had her heart set on going to Washington. =desire very much.
.
have++over a barrel =have+ at one's mercy ... ,
. =have an advantage over.
He had me over a barrel when I violated the rules.
.

have something on one's mind =be worried. Don't bother Dick; he has something
on his
mind. , .
Don't annoy Joyce; she has the blues today. ,
.
* the blues[blu:z] , =despondency, dumps, be in the blues .
have(get) the blues()=be depressed or said.
hear sound, voice , .
The deaf do not hear.
I heard voices. .
She often heard him say so. .
I hear her laughing. ( )
I often heard him called Tom.
He heard that his son had failed.
I hear that the meeting will be put off. .
hear about ... ( ) .
hear from ... =get news from.
hear of (... ,) , (won't, wouldn't )
I've heard about you from Tom. .()
I have heard nothing from him for nearly half a year.
.()
I'm very glad to hear of your success.
.()
Don't make any decision yet; please hear me out. .
.
He likes hearing music. =listen().
help
Heaven helps those who help themselves. .
I could not help feeling sorry for him =avoid.
.
I'll help you(to) make the box. .
* to to
help A with B A() B() , A B .
I helped him with his homework. .
She offered to help with the homework.
I helped him on with his coat. .
Please help me out with his problem. .
His money helped us over the difficulty.
.
help oneself (to) ... (, )
Help yourself, please. .
I will help (to) wash the dishes. ( ).
hold
This weather will not hold long() .
The weather held warm. (hold+).
hold+, Hold on a moment, please. =Hold the line a second. ()
.
He held my collar =He held me by the collar.( )
We held the meeting yesterday. .
A reception will be held for the new students tomorrow. .
hold++ ... ~ , ... ~ .
Hold the door open. .
Please hold your head straight a second. .
They hold him to be a fool. =They hold that he is a fool.
. =think, believe.
The police held back the crowd. =check, control .
The accused man held back important information. =conceal. refuse to reveal, h
ide, keep secret.

 .
We hoped that Tom would hold down the new job. =keep, retain.
.
The speaker held forth for almost an hour. () .
My offer holds good(true) for twenty-four hours. =remain in effect. 24
.
We held off(out) the enemy until reinforcements arrived. =keep at a distance.
resist.
. .
Hold on, I will call him to the telephone. =wait. , .
The child held on tightly as we crossed the street. =grasp.
().
hold one's horses , .
He told us to hold our horses and wait a few more days. =be calm or patient.
.
The injured man knew that he could not hold out much longer. =remain alive, su
rvive.
.
The elections were held over until the next meeting. =postpone.
.
Hold still, the photographer is taking a picture. =be motionless (
), .
He was held up in the park last night. =rob. (
The train was held up by the snowstorm. . =delay, stop
.
hold water =be sound or valid () , , .
His arguments do not hold water. ( ).

[I]
indulge in()
He always indulges in fantastic dreams. .
He seldom indulged himself in such idle thoughts.
.()
inform A of B A() B() .
I informed him of our difficult situation. .
[K]
keep++
Keep the door closed. .
Keep your hands clean. .
You may keep this book for a few weeks. 2, 3 .
He has a large family to keep. =support. () .
I've heard he has kept a diary for ten years. 10 (
keep(carry, have) a stiff upper lip =be brave, be courageous. ( )
.
He kept a stiff upper lip throughout the ordeal. .
* .
I tried to keep a straight face when she told us what had happened. =remain se
rious, keep
one's face straight. , ,
.
Doctors should keep abreast of all latest developments in medicine. =be inform
ed of current
matters. ( ).
He always keeps his promise. .
keep one's promise .
opp. , break one's word.
We all kept standing all the way. .
*all the way , standing , keep
My uncle keeps a camera shop. .
cf. keep shop ( ).

This fish will keep till tomorrow. ( ) .

I'm sorry I have(I'm sorry to have kept you waiting. .
~++(doing)
I got tried of keeping at one and the same thing. =work at
.
Keep the children away from the fire. .
Keep the aspirin(the matches) away from the children. ()
.
You should keep an eye on the matter. =watch over closely, guard, watch. ()
. =have an eye on ().
I will keep back nothing from you. =hold back, conceal, check, control.
.
keep body and soul together =keep the wolf from the door ,
In these days of rising prices it is difficult for us to keep body and soul to
gether.
() .
*rising (), prices .
The poor woman earned barely enough to keep the wolf from the door. =have just
enough to eat.
.
Peter has been keeping company with Olga for a year. =be(go) with. 1
.
He kept(himself) cool during the entire discussion. =remain calm.
.
This watch keeps good time =run accurately .
opp. keep bad time. .
It is good for the health(a good habit) to keep early hours. =keep regular hou
rs, keep good
hours. ( ). =early to bed and early to
rise, early habits .
opp. keep bad(late) hours.
After her mother's death, Ann kept house for the family. =manage or maintain a
home.
( ).
The mob was kept in hand by the police. =control (
).
Keep in mind =bear(have) ... in mind =remember
Keep in mind the directions I gave you. .
You must keep this matter in mind.
It is good for the health to keep in touch with nature once in a while =be in
communication with
=get in touch with. () .
*once in a while =now and then , , =every once in a while
He kept on telling the same story over and over. .
=go on, continue.
Don't walk where a sign says, "Keep off the grass." " "
. =refrain from, bold off
The umbrella is used to keep off the rain. =repel (,),
You may keep your overcoat on because it is very cold.
.
Sickness kept me from attending the party. =prevent ~ from ...ing
. =I could not attend the party because of sickness.
He always keeps his idea to himself. =refuse to share.
.
keep to the right(left) while you are driving. () .
keep one's distance =discourage any familiarity or intimacy. ,
That proud woman always keeps her distance.
keep one's head =keep cool .
keep one's shirt on =do not get excited. ( ) , .
Keep your shirt on! There is no cause for alarm. ! .

cf. lose one's shirt , .

keep one's temper =remain calm
keep one's word =keep one's promise. .
opp. break one's promise. Your raincoat will keep out the rain. =prevent from
entering, remain
outside. , .
keep the ball rolling =maintain interest, keep up the ball () ,
.
He kept the ball rolling at the conference by asking questions frequently.
.
It is difficult to keep on good terms with them all.
.
keep track of =maintain records of. ... , , ... , ()
.
opp. lose track of
The noise made it difficult to keep track of what was going on.
.
The teacher told me to keep up the good work. =continue.
.
Can you keep up with your class? =keep abreast of. ?
We must study to keep up with the times.
.
cf. catch up with =overtake , ,
keep talking - = go on talking, continue talking
keep on talking - , keep talking .
on .

kick
I was kicked in the stomach .
We all kicked in for the New Year's party =contribute.
Mr. Kane's son was kicked out of the university. =expel. .

kill
I killed time on the train trip by reading magazines. =occupy one's time while
waiting, waste time.
.
We can kill two birds with one stone by studying in a foreign university and h
aving a vacation
at the same time. =accomplish two things with a single action.
, .
kill oneself =commit suicide.
He killed himself in despair. () .
* be killed, , die of, die from
kill -
murder - , .
slay - , .
slaughter - , , .
knock off =cease working, stop
It was so hot that we knocked off an hour earlier.
.
Let's knock off for the day. .
He knocked off his work. .
knock out(KO) =knock down, render unconscious.
Jim was KO'd in the 6th round of the fight. 6 .
*K.O.'d, K.O.'ing, . U.S.->US, M.P.->MP,K.O.'d->KO'd
know -> =distinguish.
I know the poem by heart. =learn by heart. .
I know better than to lend money to such a man. =not to be so foolish(as).
.

*than to do . .
I wouldn't know her in a crowd. .
They are twins and we can hardly know one from the other. =distinguish, tell.
.
It is said that many young men can't know good from evil.
.
A man is known by the company he keeps. ()
.
A tree is known by its fruits. .
cf. I can tell her by her voice. .
* by . know
by He is known to everybody ...
by everybody .
Do you know (anything) about the accident on the highway? ()
() ?
I know of an excellent restaurant near here. ()
( ).
*know about(have information about) , , k
of , .
This company has the know-how required to manufacture such items. =special abi
lity and skill
.
If you know on which side your bread is buttered, you'll agree with your boss.
=know what action
is to one's advantage =know what is one's economic interest.
( ) .
For this job we'll need a man who knows the ropes. =be experienced.
. the ropes() , =knack.
[L]
lay-laid-laid; laying() lie-lay-lain; lying() .
lay aside(by) A for(toward) B->B(, ) A() , .
He laid aside a large amount of money for his son's education.
() . =save for future use.
She laid aside her work to answer the telephone. =discontinue.
() .
I expect he has some money laid by for his old age.
.
lay A on(upon) B->A(,, ) B(,,) , B , .
I lay the blame for the rumor on her gossiping.
.
Government laid a heavy taxes on tobacco and wine. .
lay A with B
They laid the floor with a carpet. .
cf. supply(provide) A with B
lay down one's life =sacrifice one's life , .
Many patriots laid down their lives for their country.
.
lay down the law =reprimand, speak with authority (), .
His mother laid down the law when he came home late.
lay eyes on =see, view
Gertrude is one of the prettiest girls that I have ever laid eyes on.
( ).
* one of the ...est .
Mt. Everest is the highest mountain in the world. He is the tallest of all my
friends.
. , .
Copper is one of the most useful metals.
Korea is one of the oldest countries in the world.
one of .

lay off =discharge, dismiss. , =stand off.

The factory laid off several workers recently. 6, 7
lay out A for B->B() A() , .
He laid out a large amount of money for the car. =spend, provide. ( )
.
lay stress on =emphasize.
The teacher laid stress on the need for attending classes regularly.
( ) .
* lay A on B .
You must lay up some of your income.
() .
=amass, store up, put aside from use.
learn
I am learning French, He is learning (how) to drive a car.
learn- .
study- .
work-. .
We learn that the writer had died.=know, become informed.
.
I have learned the poem by heart.
.
cf. know...by heart . catch (a) cole
have a cold .
leave
leave London()
leave Paris()
leave from London()
leave to Paris()
He left his gloves in hotel. .
*leave a club () ..leave one's job .
leave school . .
leave- .
forget- .
I've left my umbrella in the train.
I've forgotten the driver's license. () .
leave(++) .
They left by sex o'clock.
6 .
leace + ..
Did he leave a message? ?
leave+ + = leave++to+ .
He left his son 500 pounds. =He left 500 pounds to his son. 500
.
leave one cold() . .
He is saying all dirts of beastly things about me, but it leavens cold.
.
leave + + ... ~ .
You have left the door open. .
Somebody has left the water running.
.
I left her to do as she liked. .
I left the fence broken. .
We are leaving (Seoul) for London next month. =start(from).
( ) .
cf. He started for London yesterday.
He started his journey from London.
*go, come, start, arrive, leave ,

 .
School begins on March 5.
3 5 .( )
He is coming back from America before long. .
They are dining with us this evening. .(
.)
leave + .
Have you left anything for me to eat? ?
There was no money left in my pocket.
() ( .)
Don't touch my things; just leave them as they are. .
.
It is better to leave it unsaid. .
leave A to B (,) . (,).
leave A with B , .
I'll leave the decision to you. .
There are many things in life which are left to our free choice.
.
The children, many of them only infants, were left with nothing to eat.
.
*leave ++with+.
Leave your hats and coat with the attendant.
.
leave ++with+
He left the money with his wife so that she could live comfortably while he wa
s abroad.
.( .)
leave++with+
The husband and wife go out together, leaving the children with a baby sitter.

.
We cannot leave out his name on this list. =omit, neglect to do dr say.
() .
I still had some money left over from my allowance. .

have++p.p
leave a person in the lurch =leave a person stranded, abandon someone in troubl
e.
... .
When his wife became ill. he left her in the lurch.
.
leave no stone unturned =leave(have) nothing(no means) untried, make a thoroug
h
investigation or search. . .
They will leave no stone unturned to find the thief.
.
*unturned , untried .
She left word that she would return in an hour. =leave a message.
() He was absent from school without leave. =permission. .
The British Ambassador has gone home on leave. .
let (++) .
The room lets for 50,000 won a month. 5.
()..=rent
This is house is to let (to be let, for rent.) .
House to let. ().

let + . () .
I let him into my garden.
let + + ... ~ .
Don't let the dog loose.
.
let + +do ... ~()
Let him go if he wants to. ()
( )
*to .
First of all, let me introduce myself.
.
Please let me know when you can come.
.
Let's go at once, shall we? ( ?)
*Let's Let us '' us
, '- .' .
Let's not (Don't let's, Let's don't)
talk about it. .
Let the dog(come) in (the house). .
Never let go (of) the rope. = release
one's hold. .
The policeman let her go after warning her not to drive
recklessly. = allow to depart.
.
Let me see. =Let's see. , , (, )
Well, let me see, she is rather beautiful. , , .
You can learn to swim, let us say, in a week.
1 .
Although Jim promised to help me, he let me down. =betray, fail, disappoint.
.
let off A with B A B .
The judge let her off with only a warning. = allow to go free,
excuse. .
Don't let on that we are going to the dance. =disclose. till.
.
let on to A ... .
let one's hair down = behave informally, converse intimately.
After a few cocktails, the guests let their hair down and enjoyed
themselves.
.
let oneself go =do what one desires to do. The stout girl let herself go and a
te the pie.
.
let A out of B A B =release.
He was let out military service when the war ended.
.
let someone in on = share a secret with.
If you won't tell anyone I'll let you in on it.
.
Let the cat out of the bag = reveal a secret unintentionally.
No one knew that we were married until she let the cat out
of the bag.
.
let up = blow over, cease, stop , .
The rain is letting up. .
let(leave) well(enough) alone. ?(
) .
let alone , , ()... ,... = not to mention,

much more(less),
Helen, let that cat alone. =do not disturb. .
He cannot speak French, let alone write it.
.
He speaks Russian, let alone English. =to say nothing of.
, .
I cannot afford the tine, let alone the expenses. .
.
let A to B = let B.A - A B .
He lets his extra rooms to students.
let up on A( ) A , .
I wish John would let up on his teasing me.
.
let out at A() .
That mule has a habit of letting out at people.
.
like + =be fond of, opp. dislike, hate.
Do you like English?
*like much, more, most well, better, best
very much, better, best . very .
I like this very much.
I like this better(than that).
I like these best(of all).
like ,
,
.
I would like to see him. .
I like playing in the sun. .
like + + doing ... - .
I don't like you going out alone. .
like + +
I like my coffee strong. .
like + +
I like my eggs boiled. .
like +(for)A+to do A - .
I would like you to call a taxi. .
live
live in(at) A- A .
Are you living in an apartment?
He lives in London.
I live at 6310 East Haward Street, Staten Island.
6310 .
His great words live in our heart.
.
live off A A , .
He's at least twenty years older than she and doesn't have a
penny to his name and lives off her. 20
.
live on A A . A , A .
The Chinese live largely on rice. ... .
Vegetarians live on vegetables, fruit and nuts. ...
.
You cannot live on candy and ice cream alone, I can't live on my
present salary. He lives on his father.
.
They were forced to live on a tight budget.
.
I live on Claremount Avenue. .
Never having lived on a farm, he does not understand animals.

 .
We live on the third floor. 3 .
live to A A .
She live to a ripe old age, notwithstanding the fact that she had a
weak heart.
.
* live to be A, He lived to be 90. 90
.
live up to A A , ... .
Father, I will try to live up to your expectations. = reach a certain standard
.
look after = attend to, take care of . He hired a nurse to look after his
sick wife.
Look alive!= Come on! = move more rapidly. hurry.
Tell him to look alive or he will be late for school.
He looked down upon his less fortunate neighbors. =despise,
scorn. . opp. look up to.
Children should look up to their parents. =honor, respect.
.
They are looking for the man who robbed the bank.=search for, seek
look for a needle in a haystack =search for a small object in a large area
, . haystack .
Searching for the missing coin on the beach is like looking for a needle in
a haystack.
.
I am looking forward to your visit with us = anticipate with pleasure.
.
* visit with A ... , .
look forward to , .
() I'm looking forward to the party
() I'm looking forward to see you.
The lawyer promised to look into the matter. =examine, investigate.
.
He looked me in the face. .
*the .
I often look back on the day of my youth. =recall.
.
look out! The ladder is falling. =be careful, beware. ! .
The windows of our apartment look out upon the park. =face.
.
Please look out for the baby while I am away shopping.
.
You look like your father. .
Why don't you play baseball without just looking on?
.
*-
. .
look on(upon) A as B - A B . . .
We all look on him as an authority on the subject.
.
cf. look upon... as - ... - . describe... as - ... - . think of ...
... - . refer to ...as - ... - . recognize ... as - ... -
define ...as- ... - . regard ... as- ... - .
*A,B .
Look over your papers before you hand them in. =examine, go over,
look at carefully. .
You should look through your notes before the examination.
.
Look to it that this does not happen again. =take care.
.

Look to your tools. .

*look to - , that it . that
in, but, except, save to
it that .
If you don't know the meaning of a word, look it up in the dictionary.= ascert
ain, search for
She looked up her niece when she visited Dallas. = visit.
.
look to A for B, A B . .
I look to him for help. .
The wise look to the wiser for advice. .
look toward A, A . .
Hearing a noise, he looked toward the door. .
The house looks toward the river. .
Conditions look toward war. .
lose +(+) .
The company lost heavily. .
lose + I lose the dictionary.
We lost the match by a score of five to three. 5:3 .
He lost no time in answering the call. .
This clock loses one minute a day. 1 .
lose + + , - ... .
The mistake lost him his job. .
lose oneself .
She lost herself in the wood. .
Whether (he is) right or wrong, Bob always loses in an argument. =fail in.
.
lose oneself in A(, )
The boy lost himself in the crowd. .
The boy loses himself in his books. . .
be lost on(upon) A () A .
All my advice was lost on him. .
be lost to A .
He is lost to any sense of honor. .
be lost to A .
His career is lost to history after that date.
.
lose (one's)face .
Neither nation in the dispute wished to lose face. =be humiliated, opp, save
(one's). face . .
lose one's mind =become insane. .
He lose his mind when he heard of his son's death.
.
lose one's shirt =lose all one's money. . .
He lost his shirt in the last depression. .
lose one's temper - the opposite of keep one's temper.
He loses his temper very easily. =get out of temper. .

*temper
cf. get into a temper .
* temper ,,.
At last I have lost sight of her in the crowd.
opp, catch sight of = get sight of.
I once lost my way in the wood. .
(M)
make .
He made me drink it. .
He lit me drink it. .
make let .

make (take, strike) a beeline for = take the shortest route. ... .
. in a beeline , beeline , .
As it was late, I made a beeline for home. .
make a clean breast = confess.
He made a clean breast of the crime to the police. .
breast ( .)
make a gook salary . .
He made a gook living(made good money) after he joined the union.
.()
make a hit =become very popular, please.
Perl's cooking made a hit with everyone. .
make a killing =gain a large amount of money.
He made a killing speculating in stocks. .
make a living = earn enough to live.
He has a good job and is making a living.
.
make a mountain out of a molehill =exaggerate.
Don't make a mountain out of a molehill. It wasn't that difficult. .
. that difficult
make (kick up) a racket = cause a disturbance. .
Tell the noisy children to stop making a racket.
make one's(a) train =catch one's(a) train.
He has just made the train. .
opp. miss(lose) one's train .
I missed my train by two minutes. 2 .
The townsfolk made after the remnants of the defeated army.
.
Father is going to make a trip to the United States next month.
.
make one's(a) bow .
The pianist made his bow to the audience. .
make a mistake ..
We all make mistakes something. .
make (deliver) a speech(on, about, to) .
I made a little speech to them. .
make haste=hasten hurry. . .
Come on, make haste. , .
I made haste to get away. .
make (give) a promise .
He made a promise to come here tomorrow.
cf. keep one's promise .
break one's promise .
A promise is a promise. ( .)
Mother used to make the(my)bed for me.
.
Shall I make coffee for you? ?
She will make (him) a good wife. .
Cold tea makes an excellent drink in summer. .
Two and two make four. 2 2 4.
We all made him captain of the team. .
*captain , ,
. In 1860, Lincoln was(became, was elected) president.
You have made me what I am today. ( )
.
A good purpose makes hard work a pleasure.
( ).
The deep snow made it impossible for us to go any farther.
.
The news made me disappointed. .(5)
I can make myself understood in English. .(

make allowance for =take into consideration. .

Don't judge him too harshly. You must make allowance for his inexperience.
. .
make away with =steal, squander, murder, destroy.
The robbers make away with the bank's money. .
He made away with all his fortune. .
The unhappy woman tried to make away with herself. .
make believe(that+,+to do) = pretend(+that+,+to do) ... , .
The child made believe that she was asleep. .
The boys made believe that they were explorers in the South Pole.
.
He made believe not to hear me. .
make both(two)ends meet =meet one's financial obligations, make ends meet
.
With rising costs, it is difficult for him to make both ends meet.
.
Unless you economize, we can't make (both) ends meet any more.
( ) .(
.)
make certain(of, that) =make sure, ascertain . .
I think the train leaves at 8, but you make certain (make, sure). 8
.
Make certain that the door is locked. .
make eyes at =flirt, look longingly at. , .
Do you know that boy who is making eyes at you?
?
make (pull) a face (faces)= smile in a funny manner, twist the face. .
The clown made faces at the children. .
make for =proceed towards, approach ... .
The ship made for port because of the storm. .
make friends =become(be) friendly, gain friends, keep friends with . .
You had better made friends with everybody. .
She will make friends easily at school, .
* . shake hands, on equal(bad, good, speaking,
visiting) terms with. ... (,, , ). exchange
places with .
One swallow does not make a summer,
( .)
The medicine will make you feel better. () .
make fun of =laugh at, ridicule, poke fun at ,.
You are making fun of me.
You make a fuss about nothing(trifles), don't you? ,
?
make good =do well, succeed, make recompense, supply, pay.
He made good the loss. .
He made good his escapes. .
I am sure he will make good in that job.
.
make good time =travel quickly.
We made good time driving to the seashore.
.
opp. make bad time. .
Make hay while the sun shines. =Strike while the iron is not. .
You are in England to learn English, so make hay while the sun shines.
. .
make it =be successful, arrive in time () , .
() .
The last bus leaves at 9:20; cam you made it? 9 20
?
We can't make it over into Mexico without being caught up.()

 .
make it snappy =hurry, come on. , .
You had better make it snappy, if you want to catch that train.
.
make it good upon (a person) ( ) .
I will make it good upon you that it is wrong.
.
*(3) it .
make money =make a good profit.
Is he making money in his new business?
?
make no bones about(of, to do)=speak without any fear of the consequences
, .
She made no bones about quitting at the end of the month.
() . =not make nay bones of(about).
make no secret of =reveal, state openly.
Diana made no secret of her love for Leon.
.
make a secret of , .
He made a (no) secret of the matter. ( .)
Everybody is making a fool of you. .
make off with =make away with .
The girl made off with her employer's money. .
make one's blood boil =make one very angry ... .
His behavior at Alice's party made my blood boil.
.( ).
make one's hair stand on end =frighten, terrify.
These ghost stories make my hair stand on end.
.
make one's mouth water =be very desirable or attractive.
The beautiful picture made his mouth water. .
( .)
* water . ' , ,
.' (make + +bare infinitive) spit, spittle, water.
The food on the table make my mouth water. .
make oneself scarce () , . =go or stay away, leave
immediately.
Make yourself scarce; the foreman is coming. , .
make a(no) difference ( ) ,( .),
( )(between)
It makes a great difference which way you go.
.
She makes a difference between her own children her stepchildren.
.
Success or failure makes little difference to me.
.
We don't make a difference between men and women in our firm.
.
make it a rule to do ... .
I made it a rule to read for an hour before going to bed. =I always read
for am hour...(=My rule is to read for am hour...) (
) ( .)
He made it a rule to go to a pond about two miles east of his home
when(he was) tired with study. =He used to go to...
2 .
Not a few people make too much of money.
. not a few .
opp. make little of =make light of ... , .
How about sitting here with us? I'll make room for you.
? .

make out a)write, fill out (,), . b) understand, decipher

,, c) prove, demonstrate.
He made out a check for the goods purchased. .
Can you make out what these words are? ?
He made out that he was a friend of mine. .
He makes himself out to be richer than he really is.
.
Please make yourself at home. , .
This committee is made up of nine members. =consist of.
9 .
make A from B =A is made from B
Wine is made from grapes. ( . .)
make A (out) of B B A .
He want to make a doctor of his son. .
You must make up for the damage you caused.
.
cf. You must compensate him for his loss. ()
.
We worked hard to make up for lost time. =regain. (
) .
I will make the best of this allowance. .
You must make the most of your time.
.
Make good use of your spare time. =put to use, employ, utilize. .
make up a) compose, put together . b) arrange, set up .
c) imagine, invent , . d) become friendly again after a quarrel.
e)apply cosmetics ().
The pharmacist made up the prescribed medicine. .
Did they make up a schedule for the trip? ?
The story the child made up was untrue. .
The husband and wife made up after the quarrel. .
She has gone to he dressing room to make up
.
make the grade =made good. . , .
If you make the grade, you will be a college professor.
.
These goods will make the grade. .
make up one's mind =decide.
On New Year's Day I made up my mind to keep a diary.
.
There was a man who made his way through the crowd.
.
mistake A for B A B . =take A for B.
They mistook him for a spy. .
(O)
occur to A() () A (.)
An ominous idea occurred to me. .
order A from B A B .
You can order this medicine from any chemist's shop.
.
* drugstore .
I ordered the book from London. .
order A for B()
The doctor ordered rest for his patient. .
(P)
pay(+for+) . . . .
The poor artist could not pay for a model.
.

The car was paid for in installments. .

pay for A with B A( ,) B .
He paid for the crime with his life.
( .)
War does not pay. .
pay +
He decided to pay his employees well.
.
pay + + ... - . .
I'll pay you the money tomorrow.
We paid him a visit. = We paid a visit to him. .
pay A to(for) B
I paid 5,000won to the bookseller.
I paid a dime for the ice cream. 10 .
pay attention to = observe and listen carefully .
The gook student pays attention to his teacher.
He doesn't pay any attention to my advice.
.
pay back = repay, return a loan ( ) , .
We paid back the $100 we owed Mr. Brown. 100
.
pay one's respects to = fulfill a social obligation by calling or visiting
, .
I will pay my respects to Mr. Kane tomorrow. .
pay through the nose = be charged an exorbitant price.
If you eat in that restaurant, you will pay through the nose.
.
pay up = pay back, pay off, pay in full .
put paid to , = finish, , .
That has put paid to his scheme. ( .)
The new currency restrictions have put paid to our hopes of a Continental holi
day
this year. () ()
() .
pick a quarrel with = start a quarrel deliberately, seek a quarrel with .
She tried to peck a quarrel with her neighbor. .
pick - me - up = alcoholic stimulant, tonic () , (),
The tired man asked for a pick-me-up before dinner.
.
pick off = shoot with care , .
The hunter picked off the birds as they flew by.
.
pick on a)select or choose someone, b)annoy, tease.
We picked on Mr. king to be our speaker. .
Why do you pick on your little brother? ?
pick one's teeth = use a toothpick to clean one's teeth. .
Don't pick your teeth in public. .
pick out = choose, select.
Pick out the magazine you wish to borrow. .
pick up a)lift, take up, b)acquire, obtain, c)become acquainted without forma
l
introduction, d)learn easily, e)increase in speed, travel faster, f)improve.
She picked up the pencil from the floor. .
Pick up the newspaper on your way home.
( ).
Arnold picked her up at the dance. .
He picked up the English language in a few months. .
The train picked up speed quickly. .
Bob has been very sick but he is picking up now.
.( .)

pipe down = be quiet, reduce the noise.

Pipe down! You are disturbing the neighbors. ! .
play (++) , .
They are playing at cards. .
The band played on the stage. .
play + ... , .
He plays tennis every afternoon.
She plays the violin.
*, , the. play ball
trump table game . play skiing(), play judo
(), practice judo, go skiing, skate, box,
wrestle, bowl, go bowling.
play + + =play +()+for+
- , .
He played me a trick. .
She played us a waltz. .
Won't you please play some Chopin for me? ?
He has played an important part(role) in the field of sports.
.
He always plays a practical joke on me. .
*practical -( ) .
play around (with) =amuse oneself .
Roy likes to play around with model planes. .
play away =lose in gambling, waste.
He promised to help if I would play ball with him.
.
play down =fail to stress, give little attention to.
They played down the news of their defeat. .
play hookey(hooky) =remain away from school.
He decided to play hookey and went fishing instead.
. =play truant.
play into the hands of =act to benefit someone else ... .
By being careless, he played into the hands of his opponents.
.
play off A against B -A() B , .
She played one boy-friend off against the other.
.
The king managed to keep his throne by playing off the barons against the comm
on people.
.
play on(over) A (,,)A() , , .
The moonlight played on the water. .
play on(at) A () .
Johnson had been playing softly at the piano. ... .
play A on(over) B A(,) B(,) .
She played a hose on a lawn. .
The guards played the searchlight over the courtyard. .
play A on B B() A .
She played over several songs on the piano, singing them softly.
5,6 .
play upon(on) A A(,) .
He played upon her fear of a scandal to persuade her to give up her lover.
.
play up to A() =try to get into favor with ..
She thinks she can pass by playing up to the teacher.
.
Mary is playing up to her employer.
play with fire =engage in a dangerous act () .
Don't do it! You are playing with fire.
played out =all in, exhausted. very tired , .

He was played out(all in)after playing tennis for five hours.

persist in ().
He persisted in joining the army. .
prefer A to B B A .
I prefer jass to classical music.
prevent A from B A B .
The heavy fain prevented me from going out. .
pull a boner =make a stupid mistake.
You pulled a boner when you failed to send her an invitation.
.
*boner .
pull a fast one =cheat, deceive.
Mr. Smith pulled a fast one when he sold us that car.
.
*fast , .
pull down =a)demolish, destroy , b) earn, c) lower.
They pulled down the old houses and built modern dwellings.
Skilled engineers pull down good salaries.
.
Pull down the shades before leaving the house.
.
pull in =a)arrive, b)tighten, c)arrest, capture.
The train from Miami will pull in shortly.
.
The hungry men pulled in their belts and continued working.
.
The police pulled in the boys who were gambling.
.
pull off =a)remove, b)commit, do something wrong.
I pulled off my sweater and placed it on the table. .
The police learned that the gang intended to pull off another robbery.
.
* the police, the nobility, the peasantry .
a policeman, a nobleman, a peasant.
pull one's leg =flatter or praise insincerely , .
He praised my cooking, but I knew that he was pulling my leg.
.
pull oneself together =regain control of one's emotions .
Don't be hysterical: pull yourself together. .
pull out () . The train was ready to pull out.
. opp. pull in.
pull over =move mear or close.
The policeman shouted, "pull the car over the curb." " "
.
pull (the)strings =use personal influence.
His father pulled strings to get Jack the position.
.
pull (draw) the wool over one's eyes =deceive, mislead .
He tried to pull the wool over his wife's eyes, but she knew that he was lying
.
.
pull through =recover from a serious illness or catastrophe .
We prayed that she would pull through the operation.
.
pull to pieces =destroy, ruin.
The cat pulled the cushions to pieces. .
pull together =cooperate .
We can be successful only if we all pull together.
.
pull up =a)remove completely, uproot, b)bring closer or nearer, c)stop.

I was told to pull up the plant by the roots.

.
I pulled up a chair and sat with her.
.
The car pulled up and the driver stepped out. .
pull up short =stop abruptly.
The driver pull up short when the child ran on the street.
.
pull up stakes =change one's residence or place of business.
They decided to pull up stakes and move to California. ()
.
*stake , .
put aside =save .
She has put aside a good deal of money. .
put aside(by)A for B
You'd better put some money aside for emergencies. ( )
.
The mother told her children to put the toys away. =store or put in a proper
place. .
put back =replace, return.
When you've finished, put the reference book back on the shelf.
.
put down =a) release, set down, b)suppress, c)note, record, write down.
He put down the book and answered the telephone. .
The police(The troops) put down the riot(the rebellion.) () .
Put down the things you need on this pad. .
put one's heads together =consult, discuss together.
Let us put our heads together and find a answer. ( )
.
He put his theory into practice. = carry out. .
put off = delay, postpone.
The meeting was put off until the following day. .
You had better put your overcoat on; it's cold outside. .
.
put on(an act) =pretend.
Sid isn't wealthy; he is merely putting on an act. .
.
He often puts on an air of innocence. =pretend to have. .
She has put on weight since she left the hospital.= gain weight.
.
put one's cards on the table =be frank.
He put his cards on the table and told us all about his past.
.
put one's foot down =object strongly, take firm action.
I put my foot down when he asked for another loan.
.
put one's foot in it= pull a boner.
Whenever she opens her mouth, she puts her foot in it.
. * it.
cf. put one's foot in the(one's) mouth .
put(set) one's shoulder to the wheel =help, cooperate .
If you put your shoulder to the wheel, we will finish sooners.
( ) .
Will you put to the light before going to bed? = extinguish.
? ( .)
The firemen arrived and put out the fire.
The tenant was put out for not paying the rent. =eject, threw out. ()
.
Helen is put out because she was not invited. =annoyed, perturbed.
.

Put the following sentence into English. =translate. .

Put the things on your desk in order. .
put the cart before the horse =reverse the proper order .
Eating one's dessert before the entree is like putting the cart before the hor
se.
.
*entree
It's easier to take a machine to pieces than to put it together. =
.
The captured spy was put to death at sunrise. =execute, kill.
.
The building was put up in less than a year. =construct, erect. 1
.
My aunt in the country put us up for the night. =provide lodging.
.
I can't put up with this toothache any longer. =endure, tolerate.
.
put on . Put on your hat. .
wear, have on . She was wearing a new dress. =She had a
new dress on.
[R]
refer to A ... .=mention, make reference, = apply to, . =quote.
The speaker referred to his past experiences. .
This natural law refers to everything. .
The speaker often referred to my book. .
regard A as B A B =look on A as B
We regard him as one of the best players.
.
result from A A . A . (A )
Great damage resulted from the earthquake. .
result in A A , A .(A )
The research resulted in the discovery of a new medicine.
run
Does the machine run well? =revolve. ?
The sing runs: "keep your hands off." =be written. " "
.
Do you know how to run the machine? =set- in action.
?
My uncle runs a chinese restaurant downtown. =manage.
.
How long will the musical(comedy) run? () ?
I ran across my old friend on(in) the street yesterday. =meet unexpectedly.
.
The little children are always running after their mother. =chase, pursue.
.
The police ran after the thief and finally caught him. .
run around in circles =be confused , , .
He was running around in circles be cause he hadn't received proper directions
.
.
The boy tried to run away but in vain. =escape. .
Tears ran down her cheeks. .
The clock has run down. .
He was run down by a car. =A car ran down him. =ride over, drive over.
.
The police ran down the thief at last. () .
He is run down from overwork. =sick in poor health. .
run into =a) run across, meet by chance, b)collide with.
The two cars ram into each other. .

He is going to run for the National Assembly again.

.
run off =a) run away, b) print, publish.
The boy ran off when he saw us coming. .
The printer ran off 200 copies of the notice. 200 .(.)
Time ran out before I could answer all the questions.
.
We ran out of milk during the milk strike.
.( .)
I have run out of sugar. =run short of . run over =run down.
He was run over by a truck.
He ran over his notes before starting his lecture. =run through.
() .
I usually run through the newspaper during breakfast.
Our food supplies ran short in the middle of our mountain climbing.
.(.)
We have run short of sugar. . =+be +finished.
I don't want to run the risk. ( ) .
run up
His wife run up a large bill in the beauty parlor(shop, salon).
In course of time he was to run up against difficulties. =encounter.
.

[S]
say
They say that he is rich.() = It is said that he is rich.()= He is said to
be rich.()
The newspaper says(It says in the newspaper) that there was an accident on the
Kyoungbu Line. ... .
The newspaper says that there was a flood in the south(ern) part of Egypt.
*says
It is warm, not to say hot. .
"She is a pretty girl," said the boy to himself. "" . *'
.' .
that is to say =that is , .
His whole family, that is to say, four persons were staying there. ,
.
to say nothing of ... .
He can speak French, to say nothing of English.
What do you say to his plan? ?
What do you say to a game of cards? ? ( ?)
*What do you say to ,
What do you say to go for a walk What do you say to going for a
walk .
The Bible says, "Love your neighbor." " " .
It is needless to say that country life is healthier than town life.
.
say A() to B()
He said nothing to me.
say A() to B()
What will your father say to your plans? ?
see
Blind people don't see. .
see ++do
I saw him playing baseball. ....( )
see + + ... .
I saw the boy knocked down by the car. .
see +that
He didn't see that she was foolish.=() He didn't see her to be foolish. =He
didn't see her foolishness. .

see +who,
Go and see who he is. () .
May I see Mr. Johnson? =give an interview to. .
I have to go and see the doctor this afternoon. =consult.
.
He saw at once that he had made a mistake. =notice.
.
We will see about it. ( ) =consider, think about.
I'll see about it. .
see after =look after .
see into =look into, investigate , .
At first, we didn't see eye to eye on the matter. =agree.
.
No one went to the station to see him of a trip. .
see red =become very angry.
He saw red when he heard her insulting remarks.
.(.)
see stars =become dizzy by a head blow. ( ) ,
.
I saw stars when I hit my head against the door.
.
She was wise enough to see through his selfishness.=penetrate, detect.
.
He said that whatever happened he would see the struggles through.
.
see to =attend to , , , .
This machine is out of order. Will you see to it? .
?
see (to it) that . ....
I will see to it that the parcel will reach him by the end of this month.
.
*see to it that that , see that
.
See (to it) that you are punctually here tomorrow.
.
seem+to do() ... .
He seems to think it true. .
seem +(to be+) ()
He seemed to be deaf.
.
It seems that () ....
It seems that they were late for the last train. .
look ... .
seem ... . It seems inoperable.
.
appear .
*
a) He seems to be ill.=It seems that he is ill.
b)He seemed to be ill. =It seemed that he was ill.
c) He seems to have been ill. =It seems that he was(has been) ill.
d) He seemed to have been ill. =It seemed that he gad been ill.
a) He seems to... - It seems that he +
b) He seemed to ... - It seemed that he +
c) He seems to have +p,p. - It seemed that he +
that clause , to...( ) seem(ed)
to have + p,p( ) seem(ed) .
There seems to be no need to go now. () .
He seemed as if he were out of his mind. .(
)
Things are not what they seem. .

What seems simple to you seems complicated to me.

.
send
Send that dog away(off). .
He was sent away without a short notice. .
send A for B B A . Send the boy for the mail.
.
You had better send for the doctor at once. .
A large crowd came to the airport to send him off.
.
Please send the letters on to my new lodging house.
.
The flower sends forth fragrance. .
set
The sun sets in the west.()
set+ ... .()
She set the baby in tie chair.
set++ ...- .
The leader set them a noble example. .
set ++ ... - .
He set the prisoners free. .
She set the room in order. .
set ++doing .
He set the machine going. .
set ++to do -.
He set the men to work. .
She set some flowers in the vase. .
He set his watch by the time signal on the radio.
.
cf. She has set the hands of the clock to the correct time.
.
He set the television to channel eight. 8 .
Let's set the time and date for our next meeting. ()
.
Mother went out to get her hair set. ( ) .
* set , get++p,p
Lincoln set the slaves free in 1863. =liberate, release. 1863
.()
He did his best to set her mind at ease. ()
.
After breakfast Mother set about washing. =begin.
.
Every month Father set aside part of his salary for his old age.
. =save.
When does the rainy season set in in Korea?=begin, start.
?
She will never set foot in my house. =enter.
.
They have set off on a journey round the world. =start, set out.
.( .)
*...on a journey .
The bomb was set off by a fuse.=ignite. () .
This gold frame sets off your oil painting very well. =intensify or improve by
contrast.
.
He set his dog on the bear. =attack. .
After breakfast, they set out for the next town.
. =depart, leave.
*for ...(... ) .
Soon after his father's death, he set to work in good earnest. =begin actively

.
.
*to , work .
The carpenters set to and worked without stopping. =start in earnest.
, .
*to , set to .
Let's set up the tent first, and build the fire later. .
He and his friends decided to set up an English conversation school.
.
The ship set sail for Hawaii early in June. 6 .
You should set a good example to your juniors. .
set ++ - set + +to+ ,
He set fire to his own house. .
speak
Actions speaks louder than words. .
He is, so to speak, a walking dictionary.=as it were, so to say, as one might
say.
.
I've just been speaking to your teacher about your future.
.
I am speaking for my neighbors who are not here. =plead for.
.
cf. This fact speaks for itself.=is self evident. .
He spoke on air pollution last week. .
Don't speaks well of you .( .)
Hello, this is Smith speaking. , .
This is the bicycle (that) he spoke of yesterday. =mention.
.
*speak about speak of -about
.
His new novel is nothing to speak of. () .
She can read Spanish, not to speak of French. =to say nothing of, as well as.
.
speak to + ... . ... .
I'll speak to him about the matter.=talk. .
I was spoken to by an American in the train yesterday.
.
speak to A A .
Miss Austen will speak to the motion that 'women have greater intelligence tha
n men.'
' '
.
I spoke with them for an hour. .
speak to - .
speak with- .
speak to(with) A about(of, on, concerning)B B A .
I spoke to him yesterday about this matter.
Speak up! I can't hear you. =speak louder. ! .
speak up for =defend, support.
He asked me to speak up for him.
.
stand a chance(a show) =have any possibility () .
He doesn't stand a chance of winning the prize. .
cf. stand no show . stand fair(a good) show ,
- carry off(gain, take, win) a prize.
Stand aside and let these people pass.= move out of the way.
.
It is said that Sir. Charles will stand against him.
.
Behind the farm the stone mountains stood against the sky.

 .
The policeman shouted, "Stand back, please."=go back, withdraw. " "
.
stand by =a)help, support, b)wait, c)look on .
We promised to stand by him in case of trouble.
.
The men were standing by for the signal. .
I can't stand by and see them illtreated.
.
stand for =a)represent, signify, b)allow, tolerate.
"B.C." stand for "Before Christ." B.C. Before Christ ( ).
Each star of the flag of the United States stands for a state of the nation.
.().
The olive branch stands for peace. .
I can't stand for his rude behavior. .
cf. I can't stand this pain in the knee. .
Mr. White has stood for Parliament. .
stand on one's own feet =shift for oneself =take care of oneself. ,
.
Poverty had taught him to stand on his own feet.
.( .)
stand on(assert) one's rights =insist on one's legal rights. .
I will stand on my rights as a citizen. .
stand one's ground=refuse to change one's opinion or decision =hold one's groun
d =keep
(maintain) one's ground. .
We will stand our ground against the enemy.
.
stand in(for) . .
cf. stand - in , = substitute.
She got her chance when she stood in for a film star.
.
stand out =be noticeable or prominent, be conspicuous. .
The tail man stood out in the crowd. .
stand to reason (that) =be clearly logical , .
It stands to reason that he got angry. .
It stands to reason that the better students will receive higher mards.
.
stand up for =defend, support
The lawyer stood up for his clients. .
stand up to =oppose ().
This car will stand up to all kinds of strain. .
* strain (), .
Why don't you stand up to him when you know he is wrong. =confront fearlessly.

?
[T]
take + . .
I took him by the hand. =I took his hand. .
* , , .
She caught me by the arm. .
He struck the man on the ear. .
I patted him on the shoulder. .
Look a person in the face when talking with him.
.
He looked me straight in the eye. .
He became very red in the face. .
take + + =take + + to + ... - .
I took her a bunch of flowers. .

take + +(to be+) ... - .

I took him to be diligent. .
It takes + +to do/It takes + ++to do
It takes five minutes to walk there.
It took me five hours to do my homework. 5 .
He took the first prize in the speech contest. =win, get receive.
.
Will you take this as a present from me? = receive. .
He took my advice and gave up driving. =follow.
.
My father takes the 7:30 train every morning. =go on board. 7
At school we usually take lunch at around twelve thirty. =eat, have.
12 .
* a) .
have (take) breakfast(lunch, dinner, tea, supper, food, soup,), after breakfas
t,()share
a supper with, a light supper, a late supper.
breakfast - dinner - tea - dinner , ,
breakfast -lunch-tea- dinner , .
b)drink medicine(), take medicine(), drink soup(), eat(take) soup().
Last night I took the medicine and went to bed early. ()
.
cf. I administered the medicine to my boy. (.)
What newspaper do you take (in)? = subscribe to. ()
? () take in .
She took(have) a good look at it. .
Take a seat, please. . =be seated, seat oneself.
cf. take a bath(nap, rest, shower, trip, walk, break) ( , ,
,, , ).
* 'take a +' .
Will you please take this parcel to the post office?
?
Father is out now, Shall I take(give) your massage to him?
( ). ?
It takes three eggs to make this cake. =require. 3
.
It took longer than we expected. .
It takes patience and industry to learn a language.
.
It takes two to make a quarrel. .( ,
)
* It takes + + to do.
cf. The box takes little room. .
He took the bad news very calmly. =receive. .
You should take things as they are. =accept.
.
I took him to be an honest man. .
take A for B A B .
I took him for an American. () .
take a turn for the better =improve in condition or health (, )
.
After the crisis, he took a turn for the better. .
opp. -for the worse .
be taken ill =become(fall, get) sick.
He was taken seriously ill. .
He takes after his father in everything. =resemble.
.
The children take after their parents. .
You need not take account of what he said. =consider.
.

opp. take no account of , .

He took advantage of my weakness. .
*'' make use of, use, utilize, put to use ' '
take advantage of .
take apart =disassemble, take to pieces ().
He took the clock apart but he couldn't assemble it.
.
Take away those books. ().
take away one's breath =astonish or surprise one .
The gift was unexpected and took away my breath.
( .)
take back =a) return, b) retract, withdraw.
will you take this books back to the library? .(
?)
He took back what he had said previously. .
The nurse took care of the children. =care for, watch, have the care of.
.
take (have) charge of =take over (), , .
We took charge of(took over)the business. ()
(.)
He took charge of the will. .
We will take charge of this mountain villa. .
take down =a) lower, pull down, b)record, write down, put down.
Please, take that picture down from the wall. .
She took down all that was said at the meeting.
.
take down a peg =humble .
The boss' reprimand took her down a peg. .
* reprimand , ,
take for granted =assume to be true.
He took it for granted that she was happy.
.
It is taken for granted that students should study as hard as possible.
.
take in = a) attend, visit , . b) deceive . c) receive,
admit, give welcome to , .
While in New York, did you take in all the shows? ()
?
You can't take me in with your stories. .
cf. We were nicely taken in by his story. .
In order to support her family she is taking in lodgers.
( , .)
She took in the washing when it began to rain. =carry inside.
.
She took in washing only for amusement. .
I have to take in the waist of my skirt. .
=make smaller, reduce the size of.
He seemed unable to take in what I was saying. =understand.
.
She takes a great interest in chemistry. =feel (an) interest in A.
.
take ...into account =take ...into consideration, take account of, consider.
We must take his youth into consideration (account).
.
Take it easy! =relax, take things easy . , !
After working all week, we took it easy on Sunday.
.
take off =a) begin to fly, rise from the ground, b) remove. c)deduct .
The airplane took off at 8 a.m. from Kimpo. =leave the ground.
8 .

The shopkeeper took 20 percent off(the list price). 2 .

He took off his hat and made a polite bow. .
opp. put on.
He suddenly got up and took his leave. =say good-bye.
.
take on =a) employ, hire, engage, b)undertake, assume responsibility for, c)be
tinges with,
carry the character of ... .
They are taking on many new workers at that factory.
.
You should never take on more than you can do.
.
Helen took the blame upon(on) herself. .
The deep, mysterious eyes took on a deeper charm.
.
take one all one's time .
This work has take me all my time. .
take one's (own) time .
Mary took her time drying the dishes. .
Don't rush to a conclusion. Take your time.
.
take out =a) accompany, escort, b)extract, remove.
He sometimes takes his wife out to dinner. .
She has taken the dog out for a walk. .
I went to the dentist to have my bad tooth taken out. .
have ++p.p
When Mr.Scott retired, his son took over the business.
.
He took me over to the island in his laynch. =carry.
.
take pains=be very careful .
The maid took pains not to soil the rug. .
Every parent takes great pains in educating his children.
.
He did mot take part in the race. =participate in, share in. .
His name has taken its place in the history of his school.
.
The Norman Conquest took place in 1066. 1066 .
The graduation ceremony will take place next Wednesday.
. = happen, be held, occur.
The accident took place on the highway. .
Television has almost taken the place of movies now. =take one's place, act as
a substitute for .
take sick =become ill.
He took sick last Tuesday while at work. .
take one's part =stand up for, take up for, side with, take part with A.
He took my part in a quarrel. .
take + , + up with + =discuss something with someone.
Sir, may I take this problem up with you now? , .
take the floor =rise to speak at a meeting () .
The chairman gave me permission to take the floor. .
( .)
take the law into one's own hands =punish someone without court action(
) , .
The angry mob tried to take the law into its own hands.
( ) .
take the words out of one's mouth =say something that someone else was about
to say. .
You took the words out of my mouth when you called him a liar.
.

take time off =absent oneself from work.

He took time off to attend his son's graduation.
.
take time out =stop working for several minutes, take a short rest.
We took time out for a cup of coffee. .
take to =a) , , b) .
He took to gardening(writing novels, study, drink, books) after he retired las
t year.
=devote or addict oneself to. ( , , ,
) .
The doctor was so kind that everyone took to him at once. =form a liking for.
.
take turns =act in rotation, alternate.
The children took turns jumping rope in the yard.
.( )
This table takes up too much space. =occupy.
.
Sponges take up water.=absorb. .
He has taken up gardening as a hobby. =begin. .
take up A with B A B .
He took the matter up with the director. .
take up with A (, )A .
That dog has taken up with you. you ought to keep it.
, .
think
I think him(to be) honest.
I think (that) he is honest.
*'... ' ' .'
I don't think he will come.(). I think he will not come. ()
think, believe, appear, imagine, seem, suppose
I don't think- .
.
. be afraid(), fear (), hope, wish
.
I don't hope it will rain tomorrow.()
I hope it will not rain tomorrow. ()
think better of =reconsider. , .
He wanted to resign but thought better of it.
.
It's a foolish idea; I hope you'll think better of it. .
.
Few women think little of fashion. .
I didn't think much of her. .
The directors think highly(well) of Smith. .
He thinks lightly(meanly) of wealth. .
think well(ill, badly) of ... () .
He is thought well of. .
I hope you won't think badly of me because I did so.
.
think out =complete a thought, figure out. .
They took a long tine thinking out the problem.
.
He will think it over and will let us know his decision. =consider.
.
I believe she is thinking up another poem.
. =invent.
He seems to think nothing of giving me trouble.
.
I think nothing of running ten miles. 10 .
He thinks nothing of the advice. .

* '... ' .
I hope it will not rain tomorrow. .()
I'm afraid it will rain tomorrow. .()
I wondered why he had refused. .()
I'm going to be a doctor. .()
', , , '
.
turn
All his supporters suddenly turned against him.
.( .) ' .'
She turned (her eyes) away from that horrible sight.
.
Hundreds of people were turned away from the concert.
.
Because of the deep snow we had to turn back.=return.
.
He turned down my request for a salary increase. =reject.
.
The radio is too loud : turn it down a little. = reduce the volume.
.
I was so tired that I turned in early. =go to bed. .
Please turn your homework in on Monday morning. =hand in, give in, submit.
.
All library books must be turned in today. =return.
.
turn off the light (the water, the radio, the gas) =turn out (,, )
, , , .
opp, turn on.
She turned on the television and sat down. .
The mad dog turn on its owner and bit him in the leg. ()
() . (- .)
Your promotion turns on the result of your interview.=depend on.
.
Everyone turned out to see the parade.=appear, come out.
.
He was turned out because he was unable to pay his rent. =expel.
.
The factory turns out twenty cars each day. =produce. 20
.
Turn out the gas now; we have finished cooking. =extinguish. .
.
It was cloudy this morning, but it turned out fine. =result.
.
The stranger turned out to be an old friend of my father's. =prove to be.
( ) .( .)
He has turned over his business to his son. =hand over, transfer.
.
Just then a big wave turned the boat over. =upset. =overturn, reverse position
.
.
Let me turn the matter over in my mind for a few days. =think over.
.
turn one's back on =ignore .
She turned her back on him when he asked for help.
.
turn one's stomach =cause one to become nauseous .
The sight of the rotten food turned my stomach. .
turn over a new leaf =change for the better. .
He promised to turn over a mew leaf and be more punctual.
() .

He turned to me for help. =go to for assistance. .

When water freezes, it turns to ice. .
The road turns to the north here. .
turn up =a) appear, arrive, b) increase the volume.
Sidney promised to cone, but hasn't turned up yet.
.
Turn up the radio: I can't hear the news. . .
turn up one's nose at =show contempt for, sneer at ... , .
Mr. Young turned up his nose at our suggestion.
.( .)
[U]
use up =consume completely.
The supply of soda was used up during the party.
.( )
used -used to do
, would
.
used
He used to smoke. ,() Did he used to smoke? Used he to smoke?
,() He did not use to smoke. He usedn't to smoke. , He used not
to smoke.
used 3
1. Nyllon is used to make stockings. .()
2. He was not used to air travel. .
* used , be used to+,
3. He used to drink a lot. . used to + .