WOMEN IN ANCIENT INDIA

The sub-continent of India is both diverse in its history and geography. It as not unti! the
Mauryan E"pire in the third century b.c.e. hen "ost of India as brought together under one
ru!ing dynasty. #efore the Mauryans there as the ancient era $non as the Indus %a!!ey or
&arappan civi!i'ation( and then the invasion and sett!e"ent of the Aryans a!ong the )anges *iver
p!ain. The )anges and Indus *ivers are $non as the "other and father of India. Other rivers
traverse the !and( hich has a !ot of desert regions( the "ighty &i"a!ayan Mountains( and the
torrid and hu"id south here spices !ured traders. +ear!y "onsoons interrupt the dry eather
ith its hot hu"idity. Today the countries of ,a$istan and #ang!adesh are separated fro" the state
of India( but in the past there ere an integra! part of the cu!ture. Many !anguages have served to
separate the Indians( but &induis" has been an uniting re!igious and cu!tura! force in additiona! to
the i"pact of #uddhis"( -anis"( and !ater Is!a". -ust recent!y India surpassed China as the "ost
popu!ated country in the or!d.
Ancient India spans a vast period ./00 b.c.e.-./0 b.c.e. Archaeo!ogy( ancient te1ts( and
artifacts are being used to reconstruct the !ives of o"en. 2The ear!iest "ateria!s found by
archaeo!ogica! e1cavations suggest the orship of goddesses. The ear!iest recorded re!igious te1ts
3ca. 4/00 b.c.e.5 ca!! on the !ife-giving poer of goddesses to give !ife and to nurture and sustain
it.6 p. 78 fro" %ivante. After the Aryan invasion and the deve!op"ent of &induis" and then
#uddhis"( India9s e1tant ritten te1ts add great!y to our $no!edge.
Centered on the Indus *iver va!!ey( the o!dest $non civi!i'ation in India ranged fro" ca.
./00-4/00 b.c.e. Today "ost of these cities of archaeo!ogica! interest are no in ,a$istan due to
Indian independence and partition in 4:;<( a!though the ancient city-state of =otha! is in the
Indian state of )u>arat. E1tensive re"ains at Mohen>o Daro( &arrapa( and =otha! sho a e!!
organi'ed( prosperous agricu!ture and co""ercia! society( that traded ith other civi!i'ations in
the Near East. The "ost fa"ous ancient artifact is that of a young s!ender gir! posing confident!y.
Nu"erous toys found convey a society that va!ued fa"i!y !ife. Whi!e their inscribed ancient sea!s
have not been deciphered to deter"ine the actua! "eanings( e1tensive fe"a!e i"ages have been
found that suggest goddesses p!ayed a centra! ro!e. 2Often ca!!ed ferti!ity goddesses( very fe
depict pregnant o"en( o"en giving birth or o"en nursing chi!dren. ?evera! of the sea!s
suggest a goddess associated ith vegetation and ferti!ity.6
Apparent!y this civi!i'ation succu"bed to "a>or natura! disasters that changed the course
of the Indus *iver. &itherto it as thought that the invading Aryans con@uered these indigenous
peop!e( but the Indus Civi!i'ation as a!ready in a state of dec!ine hen these no"ads ca"e in
fro" the &indu Aush. These Aryans ere !ight s$inned co"pared to the natives and over ti"e
ens!aved the"( resu!ting in the caste syste". Aryan9s high!y hierarchica! society as !ed by the
#rah"in priests( ho i"posed po!itica! and re!igious poer over the rest. The #rah"ins
co"posed sacred !iterature( the %edas( that postu!ated the be!iefs that continue to be revered
today by the &indus. The *ig %eda( o!dest of these te1ts( co"posed "ost!y by priests( but a fe
o"en too( give us the first ancient Indian riting ith decipherab!e infor"ation about their
various gods and goddesses. There is a creation story( here the goddess Aditi gives birth to the
earth( a!so personified as a goddess( ,rthivi. Mother Earth9s ro!e as to be tender to the dead and
Aditi as to be prayed to for re!ease fro" sin.
Much of the idea! ro!e of o"en can be ascertained fro" the i"ages of a "aiden and bride
in the *ig %eda. A daughter and "aiden ere praised for the characteristics of beauty( radiance(
appea!ing adorn"ent( seet odors( a"p!e hips( and broad thighs. This description suggests
interest in fe"inine sensua!ity( chi!d-bearing capacity of the young gir!. At festiva! gatherings(
young virgins "et e!igib!e "en( ith f!irtatious coup!ing after initiating a re!ationship. They then
turned to their parents for approva! and "arriage arrange"ents ere "ade. To be a virgin bride
as of para"ount i"portance. ,ractica! advice as given to the ne bride inc!udingB she to not
be angry or hosti!e to her husband( she as to be tender( a"iab!e( g!orious( and "other of sons.
The fa"ous state"entB 2May you be the "other of a hundred sons(6 as conceptua!i'ed.
A o"an9s ro!e as out!ined in &induis" at this ti"e as to be a good ife so that the
gods and goddesses ou!d respond to the coup!e9s re@uests and needs. An a!tar tended "ain!y by
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the fatherChusband( as overseen by the ifeC"other hen he as gone fro" the ho"e. &er >ob
as to $eep the sacred f!a"e burning .;C<. It as a!so the o"an9s responsibi!ity to recite and
sing hy"ns to the deities( a duty ascribed to o"en in "ost a!! other cu!tures. The hu"an "arried
Indian coup!e as the e1a"p!e e"p!oyed by the #rah"in priests hen they e1pounded on the
deities. Divine coup!es !i$e Indra and Indrania( and ?urya and ?o"a acted as "ode!s. )oddesses
ere genera!!y vieed positive!y( a!though occasiona! g!i"pses of their dar$er side surface. Other
ear!y goddesses ere the sisters Dan and Night.
In the ne1t seg"ent of ancient te1ts( the Dpanishads( ca. E00-800 b.c.e. riters began to
reinterpret ear!ier %edic !iterature. No a person as ab!e to reach the universa! sou! #rah"an
through se!f-$no!edge not >ust through ritua!istic $no!edge perfor"ed by the #rah"in priests.
There is evidence of to !earned o"en participating in theo!ogica! discussions. &o different
this is co"pared to the sa"e ti"e fra"e in the Near East here ,andora and Eve are doing evi!.
Wo"en in India are doing theo!ogica! in@uiry. Dnfortunate!y( current Indian scho!ars have
co""ented unfavorab!y about these to o"en.
The ne1t te1ts that spea$ about o"en in Ancient India are the =as of Manu ca. 4/0 c.e.
=i$e ear!ier !a codes in the Ancient Near East( e can gain insights into the !ega! status of
o"en( but not necessari!y hat as actua!!y practiced. =a codes are near!y a!ays prescriptive
not descriptive !iterature. As in other ancient societies( o"en ere under the guardianship of
"a!esB father( husband and son. When a o"an "arried( it as regarded as her second birth( ith
a ne na"e. In successfu! re!igious ritua!s( the ife as to be present to uti!i'e her ferti!ity
poers. Adu!tery as not punished as severe!y as in other ancient cu!tures. Divorce as possib!e
for the o"an too( but on!y if he as i"potent or insane. As true of ancient *o"e( a ife cou!d
be divorced if she dran$( as rebe!!ious or dishonest( as barren 3even if she had gir!s5( and as a
spendthrift. There is so"e evidence of the !evirate "arriage practice used by the ancient &ebres
and &ittites. &oever( the "a>ority of idos apparent!y did not re"arry.
Wo"en9s econo"ic contributions ere i"portant in ancient India. As India as an
agricu!tura! country( o"en ere needed to assist the "en fo!$ in the various seasona! activities.
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As today( in the past India as "ade up of thousands of vi!!ages. It as the fa"i!y not the
individua! that as the basic unit. Dsua!!y three generations of the fa"i!y !ived together in an
essentia!!y patriarcha! structure e1cept a!ong the Ma!abar coast in the southest( here
"atriarcha! socia! organi'ation prevai!ed. ,oetry ritten by Ta"i! o"en in the south spo$e of
their singing hi!e at or$ and ith their fa"i!y( and occasiona!!y inc!uding poe"s on the feats of
the aristocracy.
This patriarcha! syste" prevai!ed in the re!igious ritua!s. The Indians practiced a for" of
ancestor orship( hereby the o!dest "a!e as responsib!e for conducting the rites on a regu!ar
basis in the ho"e. It as the e!dest son9s responsibi!ity to !ite his parents9 funera! pyre. Wo"en
cou!d not serve as #rah"in priests or study the sacred %edas. ?o"e o"en cou!d be seers(
though.
Courtesans and prostitutes ere part of ancient Indian society. As in ancient )reece(
courtesans ere often !iterate( and s$i!!ed in "usic and dancing besides the usua! se1ua! services.
*egu!ar prostitutes engaged in their trade in busy p!aces. =ater on prostitutes i!! co"e fro" a
certain caste. *epentant courtesans and prostitutes so"eti"es ent into #uddhist nunneries.
As &induis" deve!oped( certain facets beca"e do"inantB the caste syste"( $ar"a(
dhar"a( and reincarnation. There ere origina!!y four "ain castes( and o"en ere represented
in a!! of the". Caste deter"ined ho" you associated ith( ho you cou!d "arry( and your diet.
In certain cases a "an as a!!oed to "arry a o"an of a !oer caste( but a o"an cou!d not
ithout disgracing her fa"i!y and defi!ing herse!f. #ecause of the re!ative !oer status of o"en
in India( if you did not do your proper duty or dhar"a( then you did not accrue good enough
$ar"a to be reincarnated in a higher caste or !ife for"( inc!uding being reborn as a o"an( ho
as inferior to a "an.
&indus ca"e to thin$ the various deities ere "anifestations or avatars of the #rah"a( the
or!d sou!. Each god has had "any rebirths. )oddesses of specia! reverence ere Aa!i(
?arasati( ,arvati( =a$sh"i( Durga( and Devi.
?arasati as the consort to #rah"a( ho set the or!d in "otion( but !ost i"portance
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ith the e"ergence of the gods ?hiva and %ishnu. ?arasati as the goddess of !earning( riting(
$no!edge( "athe"atics( the arts( "usic( "agic( and e!o@uence. ?he created the first a!phabet.
Many consider her the "other of a!! !ife since it as her divine energy that united ith the
aareness of #rah"a( ho as born fro" the go!den egg fro" sea. Thus the to created a!!
$no!edge and a!! creatures of the or!d. ?arasati as a!so a river goddess( and her na"e
trans!ates as the f!oing one. ?he is usua!!y shon seated on a !otus b!osso" throne acco"panied
by a hite san. ?he has four ar"s( shoing that her poer e1tends in a!! directions. To of her
ar"s ho!d boo$s and beads 3shoing her spiritua! $no!edge5( ith the other to ar"s and hands
she is p!aying the vina( an Indian !ute.
,arvati as ?hiva9s ife. ?he is often seen ith hi" in statues and paintings. They !oo$
!i$e the "ode! !oving coup!e. In so"e of her avatars or reincarnations she is a!so Durga( the ten
ar"ed goddess of batt!e( Aa!i( or D"a( the beautifu! one ho rides on a tiger. ,arvati "eans
"ountain gir! and she is considered the daughter of the &i"a!aya Mountains.
=a$sh"i as the ife of %ishnu the preserver. ?he is often shon seated on a !otus as she
as born fro" an ocean of "i!$ standing on a !otus f!oer. ?he is the goddess of good fortune(
prosperity( ea!th( and beauty. *epresenting a!! that is fe"inine( hi!e her consort %ishnu
represents a!! that is "ascu!ine. Many paintings sho the" riding on the bac$ of )aruda( the
eag!e( the giant $ing of birds( as they f!y across the !and. =a$sh"i chose %ishnu. They had a son(
Aa"a( ho as the god of ro"antic !ove( and in "any paintings he !oo$s si"i!ar to the cupids on
va!entine cards. &er attendants are hite e!ephants. =a$sh"i is a!so orshiped as ?ita( the
reincarnation of the perfect ife to *a"a in the Indian epic( the *a"ayana. Once a year on the
night of the ne "oon in Nove"ber Indian o"en c!ean their ho"es and hang tiny !anterns
outside that !oo$ !i$e stars. Wo"en hope that =a$sh"i i!! be attracted to their ho"es( b!essing
the" ith good fortune and prosperity for the co"ing year. =a$sh"i !ives in the s$y ith the "ost
beautifu! >ee!s of a!!( the stars.
Durga( the arrior goddess( is one of the avatars of Devi. ?he is invincib!e in batt!e( and
as created by the gods to destroy the buffa!o "onster that as threatening their poer. Ta$ing a
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eapon in each of her ten hands( she $i!!ed the beast.
The goddess Devi as the essence of being( and in this she as the ?ha$ti( !ess
anthropo"orphic than the conceptiona!. ?he as the one great "other goddess( and she as
responsib!e for fire( ater( earth( and air. Devi is un$noab!e( o"nipotent( and the "yth of Devi
as Aa!i dates bac$ to goddess orship in the ear!y Indus %a!!ey cu!tures.
Aa!i is the "ost terrib!e aspect of Devi. ?ent to earth to destroy the race of de"ons( Aa!i
caused such devastation that "any died. To bring an end to the s!aughter her husband( ?hiva(
thre hi"se!f upon the dead bodies. On!y hen Aa!i rea!i'ed she as tra"p!ing on ?hiva9s corpse
did she co"e to her senses. ?he has four ar"s and hands. One ho!ds a sord and the other a
severed head( both sy"bo!s of death. With the other to hands she ho!ds a ho!y boo$ and prayer
beads( both sy"bo!s of !ife. ?o"eti"es Aa!i is depicted as a b!ac$ goddess( signifying the essence
of a!! perishab!e things( ith her dar$ s$in ref!ecting the dar$ soi! of earth. &er teeth are b!ood-
stained fangs( and rivers of b!ood f!o fro" her. In India today b!oody sacrifices sti!! are "ade to
her at her Aa!ighat Te"p!e in Ca!cutta( the city na"ed for her.
?hiva( as the destroyer and giver of !ife( and %aruna( as the =ord of Dniversa! order or
dhar"a ere the to "ost popu!ar "a!e gods. %aruna a!so appears as %ishnu( ho as reborn as
the great hero Arishna.
In the to fa"ous epics of India( the Mahabharata( and *a"ayana( o"en are shon as
having "ore freedo" and co"petency than in the re!igious and !ega! !iterature. In the
Mahabharata( there is evidence of both po!yandry and po!yga"y. Events in these stories
de"onstrate o"en9s "anaging and prob!e"-so!ving s$i!!s. In the *a"ayana( the heroine( ?ita( is
the e1a"p!e of the good ife( ho sti!! shos deter"ination to "anage her !ife. When ?ita is
accused of se1ua! "isconduct( she has to prove her se1ua! purity. ,ub!ic opinion sti!! negates her
innocence( forcing her to go into e1i!e( here she goes bac$ to her "other( Earth. This ritua!
suicide then beco"es the prototype for sati( the se!f-sacrifice of a ife on her husband9s funera!
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pyre( hich occurs !ater in Indian history. -ust as in the "edieva! est( ives and daughters cou!d
beco"e ascetics if their present !ife as untenab!e.
During the 8th and <th centuries( to ne re!igions deve!oped in India( #uddhis" and
-ainis"( that i!! have an enor"ous i"pact on not on!y in India( but in other regions of Asia.
#uddha gre up as ?iddhartha )auta"a( a prince in a poerfu! tribe in the foothi!!s of the
&i"a!ayas( hat is no Nepa!. Aept purposefu!!y ignorant by his parents of the o"nipresent
poverty( hen ?iddhartha beca"e aare of this( he renounced his triba! ea!th and prestige( and
ent in search of the causes of this. Turning first to the brah"in sages( he then tried e1tre"e
ascetic "editation. Arriving at a bo tree( hich is no in ?arnath on the outs$irts of %erinasi( he
e1perienced a f!ash of understanding( and at this point beca"e the #uddha( the en!ightened one.
&is goa! as to e!i"inate suffering in this or!d( and over ti"e his Four Nob!e Truths and eight-
fo!d path attracted adherents and fo!!oers. #uddha regarded hi"se!f as a phi!osopher and
teacher( rather than a founder of a re!igion. &e did not attac$ the &indu gods or ritua!s. For
#uddha he anted the e!i"ination of the caste syste"( ritua! sacrifices and fu!fi!!ing one9s dhar"a
according to the #rah"in regu!ations. #uddha did fee! that our actions in !ife affect others(
thereby "aintaining the &indu idea of $ar"a. Nirvana as possib!e for everyone to achieve.
Teaching for forty-five years unti! his death around ;E7 b.c.e.( #uddhis" deve!oped "onasticis"
!i$e the est i!! do near!y a thousand years !ater( but #uddha discouraged o"en beco"ing
nuns. Dsua!!y it as the idos( abandoned ives( and courtesans ho did beco"e nuns(
trave!!ing to various areas( giving pub!ic ta!$s and visiting individua! ho"es. A!ays( though( nuns
ere to be under the supervision of "on$s. ?urviving sources fro" the ear!iest #uddhist te1ts
suggest "on$s and #uddha vieed o"en9s se1ua!ity as a threat to spiritua! groth of "en and
"on$s( >ust as in !ater "edieva! Christian Europe. #uddhis" stressed that the proper re!ationship
in India as beteen a "arried coup!e. Wives shou!d be encouraged to provide the ho"e
at"osphere conducive to the "aintenance of society.
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