* bok * cj * tiff * gem * tin * public international law UPLAW 2009 B

On Zubiri !We all know w"# we ran for $enate% &o "e can "a'e a fling wit" (rillane&)*
A. States
Note: regarding previous cases (i.e. Nicaragua, Anglo-Norwegian Fisheries, El
Salvador v. Honduras, etc) which werent included here, i !ou want to get a cop! o
the digest, please tell "e#.
$his digest co#pilation wouldnt have %een possi%le without the help o Andi, Steve
and &arco.
2. UNCLOS (UN Convention on the Law of the Sea)
Browlie Chapter IX: Territorial Sea Conti!"o"s #ones an$ %&'l"sive %'ono(i'
#ones
A. $erritorial Sea
1. 'ntroductor!
WHAT A TERRITORIAL SEA IS. At the present time, all states claim to exercise
sovereignty, s!"ect to treaty o!ligations an# rles on general international la$, over a
!elt o% sea a#"acent to their coastlines. On its oter e#ge this !elt is !on#e# !y the
high seas, an# it is %on#e# on a !aseline, relate# to the lo$&$ater mar' an#, in certain
con#itions, to other phenomena, $hich serves to #ivi#e the territorial sea %rom the
interior or natral $aters comprise# in rivers, !ays, gl%s, har!ors, an# other $ater
lying on the lan#$ar# si#e o% the !aseline. The generally accepte# term, employe# in
the most recent (onventions, is )territorial sea*+ other terms incl#e the )maritime !elt,*
)marginal sea,* an# )territorial $aters.* The langage o% the (onvention on the
Territorial Sea an# the (ontigos ,one -entere# into %orce 1. Sept 1/012
1
3(TS4
seems to assme that every state necessarily has a territorial sea+ some "rists assert
a #octrine o% insepara!le an# natral apprtenance.
SO5EREI67T8. Art. I o% the (onv. on the Territorial Sea o% 1/9: expresses the
generally accepte# vie$, $hich is that states have rights amonting to sovereignty over
the territorial sea. Art. ; states that the sovereignty is exercise# )s!"ect to the
provisions o% these articles an# to other rles o% international la$.* Ths it is clear that
the limitations set ot in the (onv. are not exhastive. The sovereignty o% the coastal
state exten#s also to the sea!e# an# s!soil o% the territorial sea an# the airspace over
it. The La$ o% the Sea (onvention o% 1/:; 3(LOS4 contains essentially similar
provisions -Art. ;2.
A HISTORI(AL <ERS<E(TI5E= HOW TO >EAS?RE. In the 1:
th
centry, extravagant
claims to sovereignty over the seas $ere generally o!solete, or nearly so. @e%ore the
a!an#onment o% sch claims, an# in some cases as a conseAence o% sch
a!an#onment, a test o% apprtenance ha# to !e soght. The Btch "rist @yn'ershoe'
-1C.;2 propon#e# the #octrine that the po$er o% the territorial sovereign exten#e# to
vessels $ithin the range o% cannon monte# on the shore. Originally, this #octrine
1
This was adopted, along with three other Conventionson the High Seas, on Fishing and
Conservation of the Living Resources of the High Seas, and o the Continental Shelfat the 1
st
UN
Conference on the Law of the Sea in 1!"# $nl% the Convention on the High Seas is &generall%
declarative of esta'lished principles of international law( 'ut the Territorial Sea and Continental Shelf
Conventions provide evidence of the generall% accepted rules 'earing on their su')ect *atter#
seems to have reste# on the control o% the actal gns o% ports an# %ortresses over
a#"acent $aters+ it $as not at %irst a concept o% a maritime !elt o% ni%orm !rea#th.
Ho$ever, in the latter hal% o% the 1:
th
centry, several states lai# #o$n limits %or !elts %or
prposes o% cstoms or %ishery control, in legislation an# treaties. Banish practiceD
$hich a%ter 1C19 $as !ase# on a 1&mile !elt as the extent o% sovereigntyDha# some
impact on Eropean thin'ing here.
; BE(ISI5E BE5ELO<>E7TS in the last Aarter o% the 1:
th
centry= 3A4 the concept
o% a hypothetical cannon&shot rle, a %elt over $hich cannon col# range i% they $ere
place# along the $hole sea!oar#. 3@4 As )cannon shot* $as !y no means a #e%inite
criterion, there $ere sggestions %or setting p a convenient stan#ar# eAivalent or
s!stitte. 1C:;= Italian $riter 6aliani propose# E miles, or 1 marine leage, an# the
#iplomatic !irth o% the E&mile limit appears to !e the ?S 7ote to @ritain an# France o% :
7ov 1C/E, in $hich the limit $as employe# %or prposes o% netrality. Bring an# a%ter
the 7apoleonic $ars 3ca. 1:..&1:194, @ritish an# American priGe corts translate# the
cannon&shot rle into the E&mile rle.
H?RISBI(TIO7 TIES I7TO SO5EREI67T8. A signi%icant aspect o% the #evelopment
o% the la$ is the intimate relation !et$een claims to "ris#iction %or particlar prposes
over the high seas, an# extension o% sovereignty to a maritime !elt. Some claims, e.g.
those o% Benmar' an# S$e#en, thogh commencing as prononcements %or netrality
prposes, %airly soon #evelope# into assertions o% sovereignty, esp. $hen associate#
$ith exclsive %ishery limits. In other cases, it remaine# ncertain $hether a claim $as
only to certain types o% "ris#iction, or $as a general limit o% sovereignty. What is
certain is that claims to "ris#iction have al$ays ten#e# to har#en into claims to
sovereignty. This process $as, ho$ever, arreste# to some extent !y general
recognition o% the !asic legal #istinction !et$een territorial sea as an extension o%
sovereignty an# special "ris#ictional Gones -later calle# )contigos Gones*2 over the
high seas.
;. (aseline or &easure#ent o the $erritorial Sea
The normal !aseline %rom $hich the !rea#th o% the territorial sea is measre# is the
lo$&$ater line along the coast. This %ollo$s %rom the concepts o% maritime !elt an#
apprtenance, an# correspon#s $ith state practice. There is no ni%orm stan#ar# !y
$hich states in practice #etermine this line+ Art. 9 (LOS #e%ines the line )as mar'e# on
large&scale charts o%%icially recogniGe# !y coastal states.* In the case o% ti#eless seas,
the !aseline may !e place# at the average $aterline on the coast.
S<E(IAL FO(?S= THE AN")*-N*+,E"'AN F'SHE+'ES (ASE. @ritish %ishermen
have %ishe# o%% the 7or$egian coast since a!ot 1/.0, an# at varios times, inci#ents
le# to #iplomatic correspon#ence a!ot 7or$ayIs %ishery limits. The 7or$egian limit o%
1 miles ha# !een esta!lishe# !y royal #ecree in 1:1; an# $as not #ispte# in the
case. Ho$ever, later #ecrees -1:0/, 1::1, 1::/2 an# o%%icial explanations thereo%
contine# the measre o% 1:1; in terms o% a system o% straight lines #ra$n %rom
certain otermost points o% the s-.aergaard, or rampart o% roc's an# islan#s $hich
%ringes mch o% the 7or$egian coast. @y a #ecree o% 1; Hl 1/E9, 7or$ay applie# the
system in a more #etaile# $ay than !e%ore+ the vali#ity o% the ne$ limits $as
challenge# !y the ?J. The ?J too' the case !e%ore the International (ort, as'ing %or
#amages %or inter%erences $ith @ritish %ishing vessels. The (ort hel# that the system
Alwa#& will B
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o% straight !aselines %ollo$ing the general #irection o% the coast ha# !een consistently
applie# !y 7or$ay an# ha# ths encontere# no opposition %rom other states. The ?J
ma#e no %ormal an# #e%inite protest ntil 1/EE. (learly the vali#ity o% the 1/E9 #ecree
col# have !een phel# on the !asis o% acAiescence+ in#ee# H#ge Hac'$orth gave
the existence o% historic title on the part o% 7or$ay to the areas in Aestion as a
separate reason %or concrring. Ho$ever, $hile it is tre that the (ort re%ers to the
a!sence o% protest %rom other states an# also to the consoli#ation o% the metho# !y a
)constant an# s%%iciently long practice,* the H#gment as a $hole hol#s that the
7or$egian system o% !aselines $as, as a matter o% principle, in accor#ance $ith
international la$.
?7IK?E TO<O6RA<H8. In the case, the (ort #escri!es the topography o% the
mainlan# coast ths= )... it constantly opens ot into in#entations o%ten penetrating %or
great #istances inlan#... The coast o% the mainlan# #oes not constitte ... a clear
#ivi#ing line !et$een lan# an# sea. ...$hat really constittes the 7or$egian coastline is
the oter line o% the s-.aergaard.* The pro!lem concerns the !aseline %rom $hich the
!rea#th o% the territorial sea is to !e measre#+ $hile the parties agree that the criterion
is the lo$&$ater mar', they #i%%er as to its application. ?ltimately it is hel# that the
relevant lo$&$ater mar' is the oter line o% the s-.aergaard, sch soltion !eing
)#ictate# !y geographical realities.*
>ETHOB TO ?SE. What metho#, then, to se to #ra$ the !aselineL $rac/ parall0le,
i.e. #ra$ing a line that is the exact image o% the coastline, assme# !y the (ort to !e
the normal metho# o% applying the lo$&$ater mar' rle, #i# not apply to the type o%
coast in Aestion+ in this case, the !aseline col# only !e #etermine# !y means o% a
geometric constrction. )The principle that the !elt o% territorial $aters mst %ollo$ the
general #irection o% the coast ma'es it possi!le to %ix certain criteria vali# %or any
#elimitation o% the territorial sea... 3I4n or#er to apply this principle, several States have
#eeme# it necessary to %ollo$ the straight !aselines metho#... they have not
encontere# o!"ections o% principle !y other States. This metho# consists o% selecting
appropriate points on the lo$&$ater mar' an# #ra$ing straight lines !et$een them.
This has !een #one not only %or $ell&#e%ine# !ays, !t also in cases o% minor
crvatres o% the coastline $here it $as solely a Aestion o% giving a simpler %orm to
the !elt o% territorial $aters.* The (ort #isconts the @ritish contention that straight
lines can !e #ra$n only across !ays. An argment that, in any case, the length o%
straight lines mst not excee# ten miles $as criticiGe#= )3T4he practice o% States #oes
not "sti%y the %ormlation o% any general rle o% la$... Frthermore... it may !e that
several lines can !e envisage#. In sch cases, the coastal State $ol# seem to !e in
the !est position to appraise the local con#itions #ictating the selection. (onseAently
the (ort is na!le to share the vie$... that 7or$ay, in the matter o% !aselines, no$
claims recognition o% an exceptional system... 3Rather, there is4 the application o%
general international la$ to a speci%ic case.*
(RITERIA FOR 5ALIBIT8 OF S?66ESTEB BELI> S8STE>S M certain !asic
consi#erations as to the natre o% the territorial sea. -12 @ecase o% the close
#epen#ence o% the territorial sea pon the lan# #omain, the #ra$ing o% !aselines mst
not #epart, to any apprecia!le extent, %rom the general #irection o% the coast. -;2 A
close geographical relationship !et$een sea areas an# lan# %ormation is a
%n#amental consi#eration in #eci#ing $hether certain sea areas lying $ithin the
!aselines are s%%iciently closely lin'e# to the lan# #omain to !e s!"ect to the regime
o% internal $aters. -E2 The other consi#eration is that o% certain economic interests
pecliar to a region, the reality an# importance o% $hich are evi#ence# !y long sage.
(O7(L?SIO7. The metho# o% straight lines $as impose# !y the pecliar geography
o% the 7or$egian coast, an# ha# !een consoli#ate# !y a constant an# s%%iciently long
practice.
E. Straight (aselines: +ecent 1evelop#ents
F'SHE+'ES (ASE AS <RE(EBE7T. Even i% one regar#s the case as an instance o%
"#icial legislation, an# not an application o% pre&existing principles to the special %acts,
its signi%icance cannot !e n#erestimate#. The prononcements on the straight lines
metho# are inten#e# to have general application to coasts o% that type.
(O75E7TIO7 <RO5ISIO7S. Art. 1 par. 1, (TS= Accont may !e ta'en o% economic
interests in #etermining in#ivi#al !aselines i% the geographical criteria "sti%ying
straight lines are satis%ie#. S!stantially the provision con%irms the place o% the
principles o% Fisheries in the la$. >any states employ straight !aselines $hich apply
the 7or$egian system or at least compati!le $ith it, leaving asi#e certain extensive
closing lines %or !ays an# lines enclosing archipelagos. Art. C (LOS a%%irms the
existing principles governing straight !aselines+ par. ; #eals $ith the pro!lem o% #eltas
an# other nsta!le coastlines.
1. (readth o $erritorial Sea
@ORI76 FA(TS. 1C
th
centry= Several %orms o% limit are 'no$n, e.g. the range o%
vision on a %air #ay+ the range o% cannons on shore. Last Aarter o% the 1:
th
centry=
(annon&shot rle o!tains in some o% Erope, !t other claims rest simply on a !elt $ith
a state# !rea#th. 1C/E= (annon&shot rle is %irst given a stan#ar# vale -1 marine
leage, or E miles2. 1:0;, pro!a!ly earlier= (annon&shot rle an# E&mile limit
generally regar#e# as synonymos+ original cannon&shot rle has !ecome o!solete.
THE THREE&>ILE LI>IT. ?ntil the late 1/:.s 3see !elo$4, the ?S an# the ?J
spporte# the E&mile limit an# proteste# claims to a $i#er territorial sea. @ritish
a#herence to the E&mile limit $as rein%orce# in the late 1/
th
centry !y the
a!an#onment o% a special cstoms an# excise "ris#iction over Gones !eyon# E miles
an# the em!o#iment o% the limit in legislation. The E&mile limit gaine# consi#era!le
crrency in the 1/
th
centry, !t the practice $as %ar %rom ni%orm. Some states -e.g.
France, @elgim2 #i# not #i%%erentiate clearly in their practice !et$een territorial sea
an# "ris#ictional Gones, claiming Gones %or particlar prposes. >any states
spporting a E&mile limit claime# contigos Gones exten#ing !eyon# E miles.
It $as not ntil 1/;. that claims to special "ris#ictional Gones $ere generally seen to
!e #istinct %rom %ll claims to territorial sea. Ths the reslts o% the Hage (o#i%ication
(on%erence o% 1/E. evi#ence the role o% the (on%erence an# its preliminaries in
crystalliGing govt attit#es= Althogh most states %avore# a E&mile limit, some also
claime# contigos Gones. Throgh the corse o% the procee#ings, the secon#
committee sai# it pre%erre# not to express an opinion on $hat oght to !e regar#e# as
the existing la$+ the IntIl La$ (ommission later in#icate# that most mem!ers #i# not
regar# the E&mile rle as part o% positive la$.
7OW, A TWEL5E&>ILE R?LE. In 1/C. the ?S a#opte# an Oceans <olicy, one
component o% $hich $as an e%%ort to o!tain international agreement on a maximm o%
1; miles. Art. E, (LOS= )Every state has the right to esta!lish the !rea#th o% its
Alwa#& will B
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territorial sea p to a limit not excee#ing 1; natical miles.* The great prepon#erance
o% states has a 1;&mile limit+ this has !een a#opte# !y legislation in the ?J an# ?S in
1/:C an# 1/:: respectively. (laims apparently in excess o% 1; miles call %or care%l
assessment+ some o% these are %ishing conservation Gones $hich have !een $rongly
characteriGe#.
9. (aselines: Further 2ro%le#s
@A8S= the closing line $hich leaves internal $aters on its lan#$ar# si#e an# provi#es
a !aseline %or #elimiting the territorial sea. The #ra$ing o% a closing line is possi!le
only $here the coast o% the !ay !elongs to a single state. To "sti%y assimilation to the
lan# #omain there mst !e a certain #egree o% penetration. Art. C par. ;, (TS o% 1/9:
N Art. 1. par. ; (LOS provi#e a semicircle, or rigi# geometrical, test o% sch
assimilation.
;
Ho$ever, many say that this criterion is a necessary, !t not s%%icient, con#ition %or the
legal existence o% a !ay. There mst !e a )$ell&mar'e# in#entation $ith i#enti%ia!le
hea#lan#s,* !t this )geographical test* itsel% !egs the Aestion. 6l%s, %"or#s, an#
straits, or parts thereo%, are not excl#e# %rom the legal concept o% a !ay. The straight
closing line applica!le to !as is Aite #istinct %rom the system o% !aselines applica!le in
special circmstances. The a%oresai# provisions concerning !ays are not inten#e# to
intro#ce the system o% straight lines to coasts $hose con%igration #oes not "sti%y
this.
It $as asserte# %ormerly that the closing line $as limite# to 1. miles, !t practice $as
%ar %rom ni%orm. Fisheries case= )The 1.&mile rle has not acAire# the athority o% a
general rle o% international la$.* Art. C par. 1 (onvention on the Territorial Sea o%
1/9: N Art. 1. par. 1 (LOS prescri!e ;1 mile. (oastal states may #erive title to !ays
as a conseAence o% the system o% straight lines approve# in Fisheries $here this is
applica!le. A consi#era!le nm!er o% large claims relate# to )!ays* are !ase# on
historic title.
@A8S @O?7BEB @8 THE TERRITOR8 OF ;O STATES+ an# STRAITS. Althogh the
isse has not !een ncontroversial, Art. 19 (LOS -see also Art. 1; par. 1 (TS o% 1/9:2
pro!a!ly represents the la$ as it has !een generally n#erstoo#.
E
O((ASIO7AL ISLA7BS. A %ormation, regar#less o% siGe or poplation, is an islan# i% ;
con#itions are satis%ie#= -12 The %ormation is natral, not an arti%icial installation+ an#
-;2 is al$ays a!ove sea level. Formations visi!le only at lo$ ti#e -)lo$&ti#e elevations*2
+
,rt# 1- par# +, CL$S. &For the purposes of this Convention, a 'a% is a well/*ar0ed indentation
whose penetration is in such proportion to the width of its *outh as to contain land/loc0ed waters and
constitute *ore than a *ere curvature of the coast# ,n indentation shall not, however, 'e regarded as
a 'a% unless its area is as large as, or larger than, that of the se*i/circle whose dia*eter is a line
drawn across the *outh of that indentation#(
1
Delimitation of the territorial sea between states with opposite or adjacent coasts. 2here the coasts
of two States are opposite or ad)acent to each other, neither of the two States is entitled, failing
agree*ent 'etween the* to the contrar%, to e3tend its territorial sea 'e%ond the *edian line ever%
point of which is e4uidistant fro* the nearest points on the 'aselines fro* which the 'readth of the
territorial seas of each of the two States is *easured# The a'ove provision does not appl%, however,
where it is necessar% '% reason of historic title or other special circu*stances to deli*it the territorial
seas of the two States in a wa% which is at variance therewith#
an# permanently s!merge# !an's an# ree%s #o not in general pro#ce a territorial
sea as islan#s #o. Ho$ever, Art. 1;1 par. E, (LOS
1
#oes not represent cstomary la$
an# has no retrospective e%%ect.
LOW&TIBE ELE5ATIO7S. In ; cases these %ormations are permitte# to a%%ect the limit
o% the territorial sea= -A2 Straight !aselines shall not !e #ra$n to or %rom lo$&ti#e
elevations, nless lighthoses or similar installations $hich are permanently a!ove sea
level have !een !ilt on them.
9
-@2 The lo$&$ater line on an elevation sitate# at a
#istance not excee#ing the !rea#th o% the territorial sea %rom the mainlan# or an islan#
may !e se# as the !aseline. Elevations not $ithin the territorial sea have no territorial
sea o% their o$n.
7ORWE6IA7 ISLA7BS P RO(J FI76ERS may !e incl#e# in the Fisheries system
o% straight lines.
ISLA7B FRI76ES TREATEB AS 7AT?RAL A<<E7BA6ES OF THE (OAST. Apart
%rom coasts to $hich a s!ste# o% straight lines may properly apply, consi#era!le State
practice spports the principle that, n#er certain con#itions, coastal islan#s may !e
treate# as part o% the mainlan#. The principle rests on consi#erations o% geographical
association an# apprtenance, an# a %e$ claims are spporte# !y historic title an#
acAiescence. A !aselineDnot necessarily a straight lineDis #ra$n in sch cases
%rom the lo$&$ater line on the sea$ar# shore o% the islan# chain. Sch an approach
col# !e "sti%ie# as an application o% the principles in the Fisheries "#gment -in $hich
the (ort regar#e# the oter line o% the s-.aegaard as constitting a )$hole $ith the
mainlan#*2.
6RO?<S OF ISLA7BS+ AR(HI<ELA6OS. (laims to a !aseline #ra$n along the
oter %ringe o% grops o% islan#s in close association $ith the mainlan# may !e "sti%ie#
on gron#s consi#ere# in the previos paragraph. The IL( thoght the straight
!aselines system might !e applica!le, !t %aile# to #ra%t an article on the Aestion.
Ho$ever, neither this system nor $hat has !een sai# a!ove provi#es a soltion to the
pro!lem o% !aselines associate# $ith large islan# systems nconnecte# $ith any
mainlan#. In#onesia an# the <hilippines employ straight !aselines to enclose sch
islan#s systems, an# it may !e that a polygonal system is the only %easi!le one in sch
special cases. It is arga!le that this is only a %rther application to special %acts o%
principles o% nity an# inter#epen#ence inherent in the Fisheries case+ the #i%%iclty is
to allo$ %or sch special cases $ithot giving a general prescription $hich, !eing
nrelate# to any clear concept o% mainlan#, $ill permit o% a!se.
At the E
r#
?7 (on%erence on the La$ o% the Sea, the archipelagic states as a grop
ha# some sccess in promoting straight archipelagic !aselines+ conseAently (LOS
incl#es a set o% articles concerning archipelagic states -Arts. 10&912, $hich are
#e%ine# as )a state constitte# $holly !y one or more archipelagos an# may incl#e
other islan#s.* For no very son# reason this #e%inition excl#es states li'e (ana#a
$hich consist in part o% one or more archipelagos. Accor#ing to the (onvention,
archipelagic straight !aselines may !e employe# s!"ect to certain con#itions, e.g.
sch !aselines )shall not #epart to any apprecia!le extent %rom the general
con%igration o% the archipelago.* The archipelagic state has sovereignty over the
5
&Roc0s which cannot sustain hu*an ha'itation or econo*ic life of their own shall have no
e3clusive econo*ic 6one or continental shelf#(
!
,rt# 5 par# 1 Territorial Sea Convention7 ,rt# 8 par# 5 CL$S#
Alwa#& will B
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$aters enclose# !y the !aselines s!"ect to certain limitations create# !y the (LOS,
consisting o% the right o% innocent passage %or ships o% all states an#, nless the
archipelagic state #esignates sea lanes an# air rotes a!ove, )the right o% archipelagic
sea lanes passages... thogh the rotes normally se# %or international navigation.*
REEF&@O?7B (OASTLI7ES. The !aseline is the sea$ar# lo$&$ater line o% the ree%.
This %lo$s %rom principle, !t is a%%irme# !y Art. 0, (LOS.
HI6HL8 ?7STA@LE (OASTLI7ES. Art. C par. ; (LOS= )Where !ecase o% the
presence o% a #elta an# other natral con#itions the coastline is highly nsta!le, the
appropriate points may !e selecte# along the %rthest sea$ar# extent o% the lo$&$ater
line an#, not$ithstan#ing s!seAent regression o% the lo$&$ater line, the straight
!aselines shall remain e%%ective ntil change# !y the coastal State in accor#ance $ith
this (onvention.*
3. )egal +egi#e o the $erritorial Sea
In practical terms, the coastal state has rights an# #ties inherent in sovereignty,
althogh %oreign vessels have privileges, associate# particlarly $ith the right o%
innocent passage, $hich have no conterparts in respect o% the lan# #omain apart
%rom special agreement or local cstomary rights. The coastal state may reserve
%isheries %or its o$n nationals, an# in#ee# the %irst exercise o% this po$er has o%ten
!een the %irst evi#ence o% a claim to a maritime !elt. It may also excl#e %oreign
vessels %rom navigation an# tra#e along its coast -ca%otage2. O!viosly, there is a
general po$er o% police in matters o% secrity, cstoms, %iscal reglation, an# sanitary
an# health controls. There are particlar limitations on this sovereignty to !e %on# in
general international la$.
I77O(E7T <ASSA6E. (stomary la$ recogniGes the right o% peace%l or innocent
passage throgh the territorial sea. Historically the right is relate# to a state o% a%%airs
in $hich special Gones o% "ris#iction $ere not clearly #istingishe# %rom %ll&!loo#e#
claims, an# in principle the maritime !elt $as high seas, !t $ith restrictions in %avor o%
the coastal state. As a Aestion o% policy, innocent passage is a sensi!le %orm o%
accommo#ation !et$een the necessities o% sea commnication an# the interests o% the
coastal state.
Be%inition o% innocent passage is #i%%iclt not "st in terms o% precision in stating the
con#itions o% innocence, !t also $ith regar# to the Aestion o% a presmption, in case
o% #o!t, in %avor either o% the visitor or o% the coastal state. The starting point mst !e
Art. 11, (onvention on the Territorial Sea=
4. Su%.ect to the provisions o these articles, ships o all States, whether coastal or not,
shall en.o! the right o innocent passage through the territorial sea.
5. 2assage #eans navigation through the territorial sea or the purpose either o
traversing that sea without entering internal waters, or o proceeding to internal waters,
or o #a-ing or the high seas ro# internal waters.
6. 2assage includes stopping and anchoring, %ut onl! in so ar as the sa#e are
incidental to ordinar! navigation or are rendered necessar! %! orce #a.eure or %!
distress.
7. 2assage is innocent so long as it is not pre.udicial to the peace, good order or
securit! o the coastal State. Such passage shall ta-e place in conor#it! with these
articles and with other rules o international law.
8. 2assage o oreign ishing vessels shall not %e considered innocent i the! do not
o%serve such laws and regulations as the coastal State #a! #a-e and pu%lish in order
to prevent these vessels ro# ishing in the territorial sea.
3. Su%#arines are re9uired to navigate on the surace and to show their lag.
The article correspon#s s!stantially to cstomary la$ !t is more speci%ic in some
respects. 5essels engage# in coastal tra#e are excl#e# !y the #e%inition o% passage.
Fishing vessels are incl#e#, thogh !y an ill&#ra%te# provision that ma'es compliance
$ith local la$s an# reglations relating to the prevention o% %ishing a criterion o%
innocence, $hich approach contra#icts par. 1. Apparently the text $as inten#e# to
emphasiGe the manner in $hich the passage $as carrie# ot rather than on sch
%actors as the o!"ect o% the passage, the cargo carrie#, ltimate #estination, etc.
Ho$ever, some say the text exten#s to the o!"ect o% the "orney.
At the E
r#
?7 (on%erence on the La$ o% the Sea -1/CE&1/C/2, the right o% innocent
passage $as a matter o% particlar interest. The maritime states, %ace# $ith expan#ing
claims to territorial seas a%%ecting many sea$ays, $ante# %irmer otlines %or the right.
(onseAently, the #e%inition o% )innocent passage* in Art. 1/, (LOS=
&eaning o innocent passage. 4. 2assage is innocent so long as it is not pre.udicial to
the peace, good order or securit! o the coastal State. Such passage shall ta-e place
in conor#it! with this :onvention and with other rules o international law.
5. 2assage o a oreign ship shall %e considered to %e pre.udicial to the peace, good
order or securit! o the coastal State i in the territorial sea it engages in an! o the
ollowing activities:
(a) an! threat or use o orce against the sovereignt!, territorial integrit! or political
independence o the coastal State, or in an! other #anner in violation o the principles
o international law e#%odied in the :harter o the ;nited Nations<
(%) an! e=ercise or practice with weapons o an! -ind<
(c) an! act ai#ed at collecting inor#ation to the pre.udice o the deence or securit! o
the coastal State<
(d) an! act o propaganda ai#ed at aecting the deence or securit! o the coastal
State< (e) the launching, landing or ta-ing on %oard o an! aircrat<
() the launching, landing or ta-ing on %oard o an! #ilitar! device<
(g) the loading or unloading o an! co##odit!, currenc! or person contrar! to the
custo#s, iscal, i##igration or sanitar! laws and regulations o the coastal State<
(h) an! act o wilul and serious pollution contrar! to this :onvention<
(i) an! ishing activities<
Alwa#& will B
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(.) the carr!ing out o research or surve! activities<
(-) an! act ai#ed at interering with an! s!ste#s o co##unication or an! other
acilities or installations o the coastal State<
(l) an! other activit! not having a direct %earing on passage.
Art. ;.= )Su%#arines and other underwater vehicles. In the territorial sea, s!marines
an# other n#er$ater vehicles are reAire# to navigate on the sr%ace an# to sho$
their %lag.*
<ASSA6E OF WARSHI<S. Some #eny the right o% passage o% $arships in peacetime+
others allo$ sch a right )$hen the territorial $aters are so place# that passage
throgh them is necessary %or international tra%%ic.* >anyDperhaps mostDstates
reAire prior athoriGation, an# conseAently #ogmatic assertions o% a right o% passage
ta'en on an aspect o% a#vocacy.
A #ra%t article !y the IL( gave the coastal state the right to ma'e passage s!"ect to
prior athoriGation P noti%ication, !t this #i# not get the necessary spport at the
6eneva (on%erence o% 1/9:. Ho$ever, SQrensen says that a ma"ority o% #elegations
#i# not inten# $arships to have a right o% passage, thogh no article in the (TS #eals
#irectly $ith this Aestion. Some "rists ho$ever have #e#ce# %rom the text o% the
(onvention a recognition o% the right o% passage. FitGmarice states that Arts. 11&1C
are title# )+ules Applica%le to All Ships*+ the provision relating to s!marines -Art. 11
par. 02 clearly implies that )all ships* incl#es $arships+ ho$ever, the 3preparatory
procee#ings4 precl#e this interpretation.
It has also !een arge# that the right o% passage arises !y implication %rom Art. ;E, the
sole article n#er the title )+ule Applica%le to ,arships>= )I% any $arship #oes not
comply $ith the reglations o% the coastal State concerning passage throgh the
territorial sea an# #isregar#s any reAest %or compliance $hich is ma#e to it, the
coastal State may reAire the $arship to leave the territorial sea.* The provision $as
inten#e# to #eal $ith a case $here a $arship, having commence# passage in
accor#ance $ith international la$, !eing s!"ect to local la$s an# reglations, has
re%se# to comply there$ith. The immnity %rom "ris#iction $hich $arships en"oy
necessitate# a special provision= the hypothesis on $hich the article rests #oes not
precl#e the isse as to a right o% passage. >oreover, the textal argments
a#vance# involve the n$arrante# assmption that a controversial Aestion $as
ltimately settle# !y leaving it p to in%erence. The (LOS contains the same
nresolve# o!scrities -Arts. 1C&E;2.
RI6HTS OF THE (OASTAL STATE. It may ta'e the necessary steps in its coastal sea
to prevent passage $hich is not innocent -Art. 10 par. 1, (TS+ Art. ;9 par. 1, (LOS2.
5essels exercising the right o% passage are s!"ect to local la$s an# reglations,
provi#e# these con%irm $ith international la$ an# treaty o!ligations -Art. 10 par. ;, Art.
1C+ Arts. ;1, ;;, ;9 par. ; (LOS2. The s!stance o% sch la$s an# reglations an# the
mo#e o% en%orcement shol# not !e sch as to ren#er passage impossi!le or
impractica!le. Art. 10 par. E (TS -Art. ;9 par. E (LOS2 con%ers on the coastal state a
right to sspen# innocent passage te#poraril! in speci%ie# areas o% the territorial sea i%
sch sspension is )essential %or the protection o% its secrity.* Art. 1: -Art. ;0 (LOS2
provi#es that no charge may !e levie# on %oreign vessels !y reason only o% their
passage, !t only %or speci%ic services ren#ere# to the ship.
(RI>I7AL H?RISBI(TIO7 O5ER SHI<S I7 <ASSA6E. Warships or non&commercial
govt vessels are not incl#e#+ they en"oy complete immnity %rom local "ris#iction.
Art. 1/ (TS s!stantially repro#ces rles assme# to represent international la$=
4. $he cri#inal .urisdiction o the coastal State should not %e e=ercised on %oard a
oreign ship passing through the territorial sea to arrest an! person or to conduct an!
investigation in conne=ion with an! cri#e co##itted on %oard the ship during its
passage, save onl! in the ollowing cases:
(a) ' the conse9uences o the cri#e e=tend to the coastal State< or
(%) ' the cri#e is o a -ind to distur% the peace o the countr! or the good order o the
territorial sea< or
(c) ' the assistance o the local authorities has %een re9uested %! the captain o the
ship or %! the consul o the countr! whose lag the ship lies< or
(d) ' it is necessar! or the suppression o illicit traic in narcotic drugs.
1-#2 $as an innovation, ho$ever. There $as controversy over the legality o% arrest or
investigation in connection $ith any crime committe# !e%ore a ship entere# the
territorial sea, i% the vessel $as merely passing throgh sai# territorial sea $ithot
entering internal $aters. 6i#el !elieve# arrest $as permitte#. Art. 1/ par. 9 expressly
prohi!its the exercise o% "ris#iction in this $ay+ logically the prohi!ition is inherent in
par. 1. Art. 1/ par. ; reserves a right o% arrest an# investigation on !oar# %oreign
vessels passing throgh the territorial sea a%ter leaving internal $aters. Art. ;C (LOS
a%%irms, $ith minor changes, the (TS provisions.
(I5IL H?RISBI(TIO7 O5ER SHI<S I7 <ASSA6E.
-a2 <ERSO7S O7 @OARB. It is impermissi!le to stop or #ivert a %oreign ship
passing throgh the territorial sea %or the prpose o% exercising civil "ris#iction in
relation to a person on !oar# -Art. ;. par. 1 (TS+ Art. ;: par. 1 (LOS2.
-!2 <RO(ESS A6AI7ST THE 5ESSEL. The coastal state may not levy
exection against or arrest a %oreign ship %or the prpose o% any civil procee#ings
)save only in respect o% o!ligations or lia!ilities assme# or incrre# !y the ship
itsel% in the corse or %or the prpose o% its voyage throgh the $aters o% the
coastal State* -Art. ;. par. ; (TS+ Art. ;: par. ; (LOS2 Ths the rights o% the
coastal states are more restricte# than n#er the @rssels (onvention %or the
?ni%ication o% (ertain Rles Relating to the Arrest o% Sea&going Ships 1/9;. I% the
latter #oes not apply to arrest #ring passage throgh the territorial sea, as
oppose# to internal $aters, there is o% corse no con%lict. In any case, many
states have not rati%ie# the @rssels (onvention.
SHI<S AT A7(HOR I7 THE TERRITORIAL SEA. The a%orementione# rles apply,
since stopping an# anchoring, i% inci#ental to or#inary navigation or are ren#ere#
necessary !y orce #a.eure or #istress, are a part o% passage. In other cases, ships at
anchor may !e treate# in the same $ay as ships in internal $aters, !ecase sch
vessels are not exercising the right o% innocent passage.
FOREI67 5ESSELS I7 I7TER7AL WATERS 3are #iscsse# later in the !oo'.4
(. Speciali?ed +ights
Alwa#& will B
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1. 'ntroductor!
The territorial sea is !y no means the only %orm in $hich the po$er o% the coastal state
is mani%este# over sea areas. It is, ho$ever, the %orm $hich involves a concentration
o% legal rights "sti%ying the term )sovereignty,* an# the limit o% the territorial sea mar's
the sea$ar# %rontier o% states. @eyon# this line stretch the high seas an# the exclsive
economic Gone. A general interest in maintaining the s!stance o% the principle o%
%ree#om o% the seas has !een reconcile# $ith the ten#encies o% coastal states to
exten# their po$er sea$ar#s= -a2 the #evelopment o% generally recogniGe# specialiGe#
extensions o% "ris#iction, an# -!2 rights analogos to legally protecte# possession o%
lan# areas.
5. $he :oncept o the :ontiguous @one
Hrists an# governments $i#ely recogniGe the %act that contigos Gones give
"ris#iction over the high seas -or, more recently, over areas $hich may !e claime# as
the exclsive economic Gone 3EE,42 %or special prposes -see Art. ;1 (TS+ Art. EE
(LOS2. The contigos Gone, i% it is claime#, $ill !e sperimpose# on the EE, -i% sch
a Gone is claime#2 -Art. 99 o% the (onvention 3$hich oneL42. In the a!sence o% a claim
to an EE,, the areas concerne# %orm part o% the high seas -see Art. :0 (LOS2. It
%ollo$s that the rights o% the coastal state in sch a Gone #o not amont to sovereignty,
an# ths other states have rights exercisa!le over the high seas except as they are
Aali%ie# !y the existence o% "ris#ictional Gones. >oreover, these Gones are not
apprtenant as in the case o% the territorial seaDthey mst !e claime#. Ho$ever, li'e
the territorial sea, they are contigos, an# they share the latterIs !aseline.
The most important Aestion concerns the prposes %or $hich special rights o%
"ris#iction an# policy may !e asserte#. Bi%%iclty arises %rom ; sorces. From the
#octrinal point o% vie$, it is only relatively recently that a consistent general #octrine o%
contigos Gones has appeare#+ an# systematic #evelopment ha# not procee#e# very
%ar $hen the IL( too' p these pro!lems. The (LOS provi#es %or the creation o%
contigos Gones %or the same prposes an# on the same !asis as !e%ore -Art. EE2,
except that -12 the contigos Gone is no longer expresse# to !e )a Gone o% the high
seas,* an# -;2 the maximm limit is expresse# to !e ;1 miles.
E. 2er#issi%le $!pes o @one
<OI7T OF BE<ART?RE= Art. ;1 (TS= to prevent in%ringement o% )cstoms, %iscal,
immigration or sanitary reglations $ithin the territory or territorial sea o% the coastal
State.* S!seAently other claims, incl#ing %ishery an# secrity Gones, $ill !e
consi#ere#.
(?STO>S ,O7ES. The exercise o% this type o% "ris#iction is very %reAent an# no
#o!t rests on cstomary international la$. Art. ;1 (TS an# Art. EE (LOS re%er to
)cstoms an# %iscal* reglations, other sorces to )revene la$s.* Smggling is ma#e
easier in narro$ en%orcement areas+ commonly cstoms Gones are 0 or 1; miles. ?S=
1 leages -since 1C/.2. The content o% the claim to en%orcement is presma!ly limite#
!y a reAirement o% reasona!leness, an# reglations #esigne# %or revene cannot !e
employe# in sch a $ay as to accomplish another prpose, e.g. the exclsion o%
%oreign vessels. Treaty regimes may !e crate# %or the mtal recognition o% Gones an#
en%orcement proce#res.
I>>I6RATIO7 ,O7ES. In practice, cstoms an# %iscal reglations might !e applie#
here, an# this type o% "ris#iction shares the !asis in policy o% the cstoms Gone.
These Gones are recogniGe# throgh inclsion in the (TS an# (LOS. The limitation to
immigration is perhaps signi%icant, althogh in the relevant IL( #ra%t, the term $as
inten#e# to incl#e e#igration.
,O7ES FOR SA7ITAR8 <?R<OSES. IL( comment on the #ra%t article= )Althogh
the nm!er o% States $hich claim rights over the contigos Gone %or the prpose o%
applying sanitary reglations is %airly small, the (ommission consi#ers that, in vie$ o%
the connection !et$een cstoms an# sanitary reglations, sch rights shol# also !e
recogniGe# %or* the latter. Writers agree.
<RE5E7TIO7 OF <OLL?TIO7 OF THE SEA, particlarly !y oil. Recently, "ris#iction
to police polltion has !een a#vance# principally !y extension o% the territorial sea an#
the appearance o% the EE,, in $hich the coastal state has the right o% conserving the
natral resorces.
SE(?RIT8 ,O7ES are not recogniGe# in the (TS or (LOS, nor, it is s!mitte#, have
they receive# general acceptance in the practice o% states. The IL( )consi#ere# that
the extreme vageness o% the term RsecrityI $ol# open the $ay %or a!ses an# that
the granting o% sch rights $as not necessary. The en%orcement o% cstoms an#
sanitary reglations $ill !e s%%icient in most cases to sa%egar# the secrity o% the
State Inso%ar as measres o% sel%&#e%ense against an imminent an# #irect threat to the
secrity o% the State are concerne#, the (ommission re%ers to the general principles o%
international la$ an# the* ?7 (harter. >oreover, recognition o% sch rights $ol# go
%ar to$ar# eAating rights over the contigos Gone an# rights in the territorial sea.
1. 1eli#itation o the :ontiguous @one
@ASELI7ES. It has al$ays !een assme#, an# is so in Art. ;1 (TS an# Art. EE (LOS,
that the !aselines %or the #elimitation o% !oth contigos Gones an# the territorial sea
are i#entical.
@REABTH is #ealt $ith !y Art. ;1 (TS, $hich esta!lishe# a 1;&mile limit %or all
prposes. Art. EE (LOS prescri!es ;1 miles.
9. 2ro%le#s o Enorce#ent
As a matter o% general international la$, the coastal state may ta'e any steps
necessary to en%orce compliance $ith its la$s an# reglations in the prescri!e# GonePs.
The po$er is one o% police an# control, an# transgressors cannot !e visite# $ith
conseAences amonting to reprisal or smmary pnishment. Forci!le measres o%
sel%&help may not !e resorte# to as rea#ily as in the case o% trespass over a state
%rontier. In this respect, the text a#opte# !y !oth the IL( an# the (LOS may !e more
restrictive than general international la$, %rom the point o% vie$ o% a coastal state -Art.
;1 par. 1 (TS2.
FitGmarice= )It is control, not "ris#iction, that is exercise#. The po$er is essentially
spervisory an# preventative. 7o o%%ense against the la$s o% the coastal State is
actally !eing committe# at this time. The intention is to avoi# sch an o%%ense !eing
committe# su%se9uentl!, $hen !y entering into the territorial sea the vessel comes
Alwa#& will B
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$ithin the "ris#iction o% the coastal State+ or else to pnish sch an o%%ense alrea#y
committe# $hen the vessel $as $ithin sch "ris#iction. @t $hat are the -RnecessaryI2
po$ers o% control $hich the coastal State can exerciseL So %ar as arrest, as sch, is
concerne#, the ans$er mst !e in the negative. Whatever the evental #esigns o% the
vessel, she cannot e= h!pothesi at this stage have committe# an o%%ense )$ithin 3the
coastal StateIs4 territory or territorial sea.* There is conseAently nothing in respect o%
$hich an arrest as sch can !e e%%ecte#. As regar#s or#ering, or con#cting the vessel
into po$er n#er escort, the case is less clear. En%orce# #irection into port is almost
tantamont to3, i% %ormally #istinct %rom, arrest4. Any necessary inAiries, investigation,
examination, search, etc., shol# ta'e place at sea $hile the ship is still in the
contigos Gone. Only !y insistence on sch limitations is it possi!le to prevent
coastal States %rom treating the contigos Gone as virtally eAivalent to territorial
sea.*
7evertheless, in case o% controversy, re%erence may !e ma#e to the travau=
pr/paratoires= Apparently most states at the (LOS #i# not inten# to restrict rights in
contigos Gones, as hitherto n#erstoo#, !y esta!lishing the #istinction !et$een
)control* an# )"ris#iction.*
0. *ther @ones or Special 2urposes
The ;.
th
centry has pro#ce# a nm!er o% national claims to non&contigos, !t
a#"acent, Gones %or special prposes, $hich represent attempts to apply the logic o%
claims to contigos Gones in a manner calclate# to protect national interests to the
tmost. Inso%ar as those Gones represent claims to extra&territorial "ris#iction over
nationals, they are not necessarily in con%lict $ith general international la$+
%rthermore, grops o% states may cooperate an# !e mtally o!ligate# to respect sch
Gones !y convention. @eyon# these limits sch Gones $ol# !e incompati!le $ith the
stats o% $aters !eyon# the limit o% the territorial sea, at least i% they involve# the
application o% po$ers o% prevention P pnishment in regar# to %oreign vessels or aircra%t.
& #e%ense Gones exten#ing !eyon# the territorial sea
& Gones %or prposes o% air i#enti%ication
FISHER8 (O7SER5ATIO7 ,O7ES. (oastal states $ith particlar interest in o%%shore
%isheries have soght means o% limiting ma"or operations !y extra&regional %ishing
%leets. <ara#oxically it $as the ?S, historically an opponent o% %ishing Gones, $hich
so$e# the see#s o% change. Firstly the ?S too' an important initiative in claiming the
mineral resorces o% the continental shel% in 1/19 3see (hapter 1.4, on the !asis o% the
generos concept o% )a#"acency.* It $ol# not !e srprising i% other states $ere rea#y
to claim the !iological resorces o% the a#"acent $aters or )epicontinental sea* !y a
general parity o% reasoning. Secon#ly the ?S pro#ce# a Fisheries <roclamation o% ;:
Sept 1/19, $hich empo$ere# the 6ovt to esta!lish )explicitly !on#e#* conservation
Gones in areas o% the high seas )contigos to the ?S.*
For a long $hile the ten#ency $as lac'ing in coherence. A#herents $ere scattere#
an# the legal Aality o% some o% the claims $as ncertain an# varie#. Some $ere on
one vie$ an exten#e# territorial sea $ith a concession o% the rights o% over%light an#
%ree navigation. In 1/C., only / ot o% ;. Latin American states s!scri!e# to the
>ontevi#eo Beclaration on the La$ o% the Sea, $herein a ;..&mile Gone is asserte#,
involving )sovereignty an# "ris#iction to the extent necessary to conserve, #evelop,
an# exploit the natral resorces o% the maritime area a#"acent to their coasts, its soil
an# its s!soil,* !t $ithot pre"#ice to %ree#om o% navigation an# over%light. @y 1/C:,
some C1 states ha# %ishing Gones o% ;.. miles+ 1. states ha# claims greater than 1;
!t less than ;.. miles. (learly the %ishery conservation Gone, not greater than ;..
miles %rom the sal !aselines, has !ecome esta!lishe# as a principle o% cstomary
international la$.
Ho$ever, in the early phase o% the %ormation o% the ne$ rle, sch limits $ere
opposa!le to non&a#herents only on the !asis o% express recognition. Fisheries
Aurisdiction case (;B v 'celand): An Icelan#ic %ishing Gone 9. miles in !rea#th $as
hel# invali# as against the ?J, as a conseAence o% the terms o% a !ilateral 1/01
agreement. The (ort avoi#e# ta'ing a position on the vali#ity o% the Icelan#ic claim in
general international la$. 9 "#ges in separate opinions sai# that no rle o% cstomary
la$ concerning maximm %ishery limits ha# yet emerge#. In any case, !y 1/:/, the
#evelopment o% ;..&mile %ishery Gones ha# !een ma#e to an extent re#n#ant !y the
legality an# prepon#erance o% EE,s. Still, approx. ;1 states have %ishery Gones, o%
$hich 11 have a ;..&mie limit. The stats o% %ishery Gones in cstomary la$ $as
recogniGe# !y the International (ort in the Aan &a!en :ase (1en#ar- v Norwa!).
<REFERE7TIAL RI6HTS FOR THE (OASTAL STATE. Fisheries Aurisdiction :ase:
The concept o% pre%erential rights ha# crystalliGe# as cstomary la$+ )pre%erential rights
o% %ishing in a#"acent $aters in %avor o% the coastal state in a sitation o% special
#epen#ence on its coastal %isheries, this pre%erence operating in regar# to other states
concerne# in the exploitation o% the same %isheries.* This concept has srvive# in
cstomary la$ #espite a!sence o% any re%erence to it in the (LOS.
ES(L?SI5E E(O7O>I( ,O7ES. (laims to exclsive %ishery rights in a#"acent
maritime Gones le# eventally to claims encompassing all natral resorces in an# o%
the sea!e# an# sper"acent $aters, in a Gone ;.. miles in !rea#th= the )patrimonial
sea* or )economic Gone* or, !y 1/CE in the ?7 (ommittee on the <eace%l ?ses o% the
Sea!e# an# Ocean Floor, the )exclsive economic Gone.* The (LOS provi#es a
#etaile# strctre -Arts. 99&C92= The Gone is to exten# no %rther than ;.. miles %rom
the !aselines o% the territorial sea+ the Gone is not #e%ine# as a part o% the high seas,
an# is sui generis. Apart %rom the %ree#om o% %ishing, the %ree#oms o% the high seas
apply. The rights o% the coastal state are in Art. 90 par. 1=
'n the e=clusive econo#ic ?one, the coastal State has:
(a) sovereign rights or the purpose o e=ploring and e=ploiting, conserving and
#anaging the natural resources, whether living or non-living, o the waters
super.acent to the sea-%ed and o the sea-%ed and its su%soil, and with regard to
other activities or the econo#ic e=ploitation and e=ploration o the ?one, such as the
production o energ! ro# the water, currents and winds<
(%) .urisdiction as provided or in the relevant provisions o this :onvention with
regard to:
(i) the esta%lish#ent and use o artiicial islands, installations and structures<
(ii) #arine scientiic research<
(iii) the protection and preservation o the #arine environ#ent<
(c) other rights and duties provided or in this :onvention.
7o less than 1.; states have ma#e claims to an EE, an# it %orms part o% cstomary
la$, in#epen#ently o% the version to !e %on# in the (LOS provisions. This cstomary
Alwa#& will B
* bok * cj * tiff * gem * tin * 0
la$ stats has !een recogniGe# !y the International (ort
0
an# also !y the ?S. The
extent o% the coinci#ence !et$een the cstomary la$ version o% the concept an# the
(LOS mo#el is pro!lematic, !t in any event, !oth n#er the (LOS an# in cstomary
la$ the Gone is optional an# its existence #epen#s on an actal claim. When claime#,
an EE, coexists $ith the regime o% the continental shel% $hich governs rights WRT the
sea!e# an# the s!soil -Art. 90 par. E (LOS2. It may also coexist $ith a contigos
Gone.
The ?S ta'es the vie$ that )highly migratory species,* incl#ing the commercially
important tna, are excl#e# %rom the "ris#iction o% the coastal state an# there%ore
availa!le %or %oreign #istant $ater %ishing %leets. This position is #i%%iclt to s!stantiate.
It is contra#icte#, rather than spporte#, !y Art. 01 (LOS, an# is not re%lecte# in the
practice o% states.
The legal regime o% the EE, has varios %acets. Art. 0. (LOS provi#es in part as
%ollo$s=
4. 'n the e=clusive econo#ic ?one, the coastal State shall have the e=clusive right to
construct and to authori?e and regulate the construction, operation and use o:
(a) artiicial islands<
(%) installations and structures or the purposes provided or in article 83 and other
econo#ic purposes<
(c) installations and structures which #a! interere with the e=ercise o the rights o
the coastal State in the ?one.
5. $he coastal State shall have e=clusive .urisdiction over such artiicial islands
installations and structures, including .urisdiction with regard to custo#s iscal health,
saet! and i##igration laws and regulations. = = =
C. Artiicial islands, installations and structures do not possess the status o islands.
$he! have no territorial sea o their own, and their presence does not aect the
deli#itation o the territorial sea, the e=clusive econo#ic ?one or the continental shel.
Art. 01= the responsi!ility o% the coastal state in managing the living resorces in the
Gone+ its #ty to )ensre... that the maintenance o% the living resorces in the EE, is
not en#angere# !y over&exploitation.*
Art. 0;= The coastal state is reAire# to promote the optimm tiliGation o% the living
resorces in the Gone+ to #etermine its capacity to harvest the living resorces, an#
give other States access to $hatever srpls there is, ta'ing into accont all relevant
%actors+ an# the man#atory compliance %or nationals o% other States %ishing in the EE,
$ith conservation measres an# other terms an# con#itions esta!lishe# !y the coastal
State.
The allocation o% the respective rights an# #ties o% the coastal state an# those o% other
states in the Gone involves a #elicate !alancing process $hich is articlate# in %airly
general terms in the provisions o% the (LOS. Art. 9:= All States en"oy %ree#om o%
9
Tunisia-Libya Continental Shelf Case :1"+;7 Gulf of Maine case :1"5;7 Libya-Malta Continental
Shelf Case :1"!;# See also Reo Sanles ! Minist"re #ublic#
navigation, over%light, the laying o% s!marine ca!les an# pipelines an# other
internationally la$%l ses o% the sea relate# to these %ree#oms. Arts. ::&119 an# other
pertinent rles o% international la$ apply to the EE, inso%ar as they are not
incompati!le. States shall have #e regar# to the rights an# #ties o% the coastal State
an# shall comply $ith its la$s an# reglations inso%ar as they are not incompati!le $ith
the (LOS.
Art. 9/, )!asis %or the resoltion o% con%licts regar#ing the attri!tion o% rights an#
"ris#iction in the EE,*=
'n cases where this :onvention does not attri%ute rights or .urisdiction to the coastal
State or to other States within the e=clusive econo#ic ?one, and a conlict arises
%etween the interests o the coastal State and an! other State or States, the conlict
should %e resolved on the %asis o e9uit! and in the light o all the relevant
circu#stances, ta-ing into account the respective i#portance o the interests
involved to the parties as well as to the international co##unit! as a whole.
Art. CE= The coastal state has the po$er to ta'e reasona!le measres o% en%orcement
o% its rights an# "ris#iction $ithin the Gone in accor#ance $ith !oth the stan#ar#s o%
general international la$ an#, $here applica!le, the provisions o% the (LOS.
Brownlie Chapter X: The Continental Shelf: )eli(itation of Shelf Area an$
%&'l"sive %'ono(i' #ones
I. INT*O)UCTION
(lassi%ications o% S!marine Areas=
a2 the Sea!e# o% Internal Waters an# Territorial Seas o% (oastal States
!2 the (ontinental Shel% Area
c2 the Sea!e# o% the Exclsive Economic ,one -EE,2
#2 the Sea!e# an# the Ocean %loor @eyon# the Oter limits o% the (ontinental
Shel% an# the EE, -the legal regime o% the high seas2
It is presme# that these categories incl#e marine s!soil to the extent that rles o%
the particlar legal regime are inten#e# to so apply.
This chapter %ocses on the legal regime o% the continental shel% an# relate# isses o%
#elimitation !et$een opposite or a#"acent States.
II. BAC+,*OUN)
A. The Shel%.
The sea!e#, $hich consists mostly o% the #eep ocean %loor, in many parts o%
the $orl# is separate# %rom the coast o% lan# masses !y a shel%. The increase in #epth
is gra#al, ntil the shel% e#ge is reache#+ the steep incline o% the continental slope
gives $ay to large aprons o% se#iments -the continental rise), $hich hi#e the !on#ary
!et$een the #eep ocean %loor an# the pe#estal o% the continental mass.
In geological ter#s the shel% is part o% the continent. Its $i#th varies %rom a
mile to hn#re#s o% miles+ its #epth range %rom 9. to 99. meters. It carries s!stantial
oil an# gas #eposits, $hile the sea!e# provi#es se#entary %ishery resorces.
@. <ertinent La$s an# Becisions
The Argentine Becree -1/112 create# Gones o% mineral reserves in the
epicontinental sea. Ho$ever, the #ecisive event in state practice $as a the Trman
<roclamation !y the ?S on Sept. ;:, 1/19, relating to the natral resorces o% the
s!soil an# sea!e# o% the continental shel%. The shel% $as regar#e# as a geological
%eatre an# as exten#ing p to the 1.. %athoms line -a!ot 0.. %eet2. The natral
Alwa#& will B
* bok * cj * tiff * gem * tin * 9
resorces $ere #escri!e# as )appertaining to the ?.S., s!"ect to its "ris#iction an#
control*. O% particlar importance $ere the limitations o% the claimPright to the resorces
themselves an# the #eclaration that )the character as high seas o% the $aters o% the
continental shel% an# the right to their %ree an# nimpe#e# navigations are in no $ay
ths a%%ecte#.*
The Trman <roclamation $ere in s!stance %ollo$e# !y the Or#ers in
(oncil o% 1/1: concerning @ahamas, Hamaica, Sa#i Ara!iaIs proclamations -1/1:2
an# nine shei'#oms in the <ersian 6l% n#er protection o% the ?J -1/1/2.
The practice, ho$ever, sho$e# certain variations. The Trman proclamation
an# an Astralian proclamation -Sept 1. 1/9E2 relate the claim -or right2 to the prpose
o% e=ploitation o the resources o% the sea!e# an# s!soil o% the continental shel%,
stiplating that the stats o% the sper"acent $aters as high seas shall !e na%%ecte#. A
nm!er o% states claime# sovereignty over the sea!e# an# s!soil as sch -%or
exploitation2 !t expressly reserve# the Aestion o% the stats o% the a!ove $aters as
high seas.
C
It is in this #evelopment that principles o% geological commnity, sel%&
protection an# e%%ective control playe# a part, an# this #evelopment parallels, in a ne$
sphere, concepts o% the territorial sea an# the contigos Gone.
The thesis in the Trman proclamation prove# attracte# to States o% #i%%erent
variety. The ne$ principle gave a sta!le !asis %or exploiting petrolem $hile
simltaneosly ma'ing a reasona!le accommo#ation %or %ishing an# navigation, $hich
$as #one at the sper"acent&$ater&level. Again, ho$ever, the practice $as not ni%orm.
Far %rom it. The Intl La$ (ommission -IL(2 in 1/91&90 in its #iscssions even in#icate#
the legal regime -the tren# starte# !y the Trman (ommission2 $as immatre.
As a conseAence, the text o% the (onvention on the (ontinental Shel%
-a#opte# at the La$ o% the Sea (on%erence o% 1/9: represente# in part an essay in the
progressive #evelopment in the la$. 7evertheless, the %irst E articles represente# pre&
existingP at least emergent rles o% cstomary intl. la$=
Article 4
For the 2urposes o these Articles, the ter# Dcontinental shel is used as reerring to a)
the sea%ed and su%soil o the su%#arine areas ad.acent to the coast %ut outside the
area o the territorial sea, to a depth o 5EE #eters or, %e!ond that li#it, to where the
depth o the super.acent waters ad#its o the e=ploitation o the natural resources o
the said areas< %) to the sea%ed and su%soil o si#ilar su%#arine areas ad.acent to the
coasts o islands
Article 5
4. $he :oastal State e=ercises over the continental shel sovereign rights or
the purpose o e=ploring it and e=ploiting its natural resources.
5. $he rights reerred to in 2ar 4 are e=clusive in the sense that i the :oastal
State does not e=plore the continental shel or e=ploit its natural resources,
no one #a! underta-e these activities or #a-e a clai# to the continental
shel, without the e=press consent o the coastal State.
6. $he rights o the coastal state over the continental shel do not depend on
occupation, eective or national, or on an! e=press procla#ation.
7. $he natural resources reerred to in these Articles consist o #ineral and
other non-living resources o the sea%ed and su%soil together with living
organis#s %elonging to sedentar! species, that is to sa!, organis#s which, at
the harvesta%le stage, either are i##o%ile on or under the sea%ed or are
8
Though the <rocla*ations sa% the rights of free navigation of the high seas are uni*peded '%
a State=s right over the sea'ed and su'soil of the shelf, a nu*'er of States, '% *a0ing
reservations, in wa% did not want to waive sovereignt% over the high seas a'ove their controlled
shelf# > digester=s ta0e
una%le to #ove e=cept in constant ph!sical contact with the sea%ed or the
su%soil.
Article 6
$he rights o the :oastal State over the continental shel do not aect the legal
status o the super.acent waters as high seas, or that o airspace a%ove those
waters.
III. SOU*C%S O- T.% LA/
The Aote# articles provi#e the essence o% the legal regime. Articles ; an# E $ere
repro#ce# in the La$ o% the Sea (onvention o% 1/:; -Art. CC an# C:, par.12. The
(onvention o% 1/9: has 91 parties, an# occasionally it $as relevant, $hen !oth parties
to a #ispte are party to that (onvention.
:

Ho$ever, the present position in general international la$ no$ #epen#s on a variety o%
sorces, each o% $hich mst !e $eighe# appropriately, as proo% o% cstomary
international la$.
Sch sorces incl#e 'o$ifi'ation 'onventions, recogniGe# !y the (ham!er o% the
Intl (ort -"ul o &aine case), examples o% $hich are the :onvention on the
:ontinental Shel o 4F8C, the )aw o the Sea :onvention o 4FC5 -in so %ar as
procee#ings o% the E
r#
?7 (on%erence on the La$ o% the Sea in#icate# provisions
re%lecting consenss among participants2 , an# the decisions o the :ourt and other
international tri%unals.
The Intl (ort, in the :ase concerning the :ontinental :ase -Li!ya&>alta2 also
consi#ere# certain aspects o% the :onvention o 4FC5 as evi#ence o% international la$.
In that #ecision, the (ort emphasiGe# the signi%icance o% state practice.
With respect to the #elimitation o% shel% areas !et$een opposite an# a#"acent states,
the s!"ect is essentially a matter o% custo#ar! law, esta!lishe# !y #ecisions o% the
(ort an# other tri!nals $hich !egan $ith the North Sea :ontinental Shel :ases
(4F3F).
I0. *I,.TS O- T.% COASTAL STAT% IN T.% S.%L-
A. ARTI(LE ; OF THE (O7TI7E7TAL SHELF (O75E7TIO7 OF 1/9: -repeate# in
Art CC o% the 1/:; La$ o% the Sea (onvention2
?n#er the article, the (oastal State exercises Rsovereign rights %or the prpose o%
exploring it an# exploiting its natral resorcesI. @t in 1/9: the term )sovereignty* $as
avoi#e# as it $as re#olent o% territorial sovereignty $hich $ol#, in e%%ect, pre"#ice the
stats o% $aters over the shel% as high seas.
/
An area $ithin a ;..&mile EE, is not
#esignate# as Rhigh seasI in the 1/:; (onvention -in Arts. 99 an# :02 its Art. C:
provi#es that Rthe rights o% the (oastal State over the (ontinental Shel% #o not a%%ect
the legal stats o% the sper"acent $aters or airspace a!ove those $atersI. -also in Art.
E o% the 1/9: (onvention2 Ths, in the a!sence o% an EE,, an# also $hen the shel%
exten#s !eyon# ;.. miles %rom the coast, the legal stats o% sch $aters $ill !e Rhigh
seasI+ an# even i% there is one, the sper"acent $aters are still s!"ect to a signi%icant
"
$nlo-%rench case& Gulf of Maine case 'an Mayen case

There appears to 'e a conflict created, one 'etween the coastal state=s rights over the shelf,
and the freedo*s of other states over the waters o!er the shelf#
Alwa#& will B
* bok * cj * tiff * gem * tin * 10
nm!er o% high seas %ree#oms in accor#ance $ith general intl. la$ an# $ith Art. 9: o%
the 1/:; (onvention.

@. @ALA7(I76 A(TS
@oth (onventions -1/9: an# 1/:;2 attempte# to !alance the exploiting rights o% the
coastal shel% an# the rights an# %ree#oms o% other states. The (onvention o% 1/:;, in
Art 12 par. 2 provi#es that the e=ercise o the rights o the :oastal State #ust not
inringe or un.ustl! interere with navigation and other rights and reedo#s o other
states as stated in that convention -in Art. 9, par 1 o% the 1/9:2.
Also in Art 13 of the 4322 Convention, it is containe# that RALL STATES are entitle#
to lay s!marine ca!les an# pipelines on the continental shel% -s!"ect to con#itions2I
-in 1/9:, Art. 12+ !t it $as provi#e# in Art 24 that only the (OASTAL STATE shall
have the ES(L?SI5E right to athoriGe an# reglate #rilling on the shel% %or all
prposes.
The ma"or o!"ective has !een to provi#e a sta!le !asis %or sea!e# operations an# to
avoi# sAatting !y o%%shore interests. The sovereign rights inhere in the coastal state
!y operation o% la$, ncon#itione# !y occpation or express claim, an# cannot !e
#e%easi!le except !y express grant. An# $hile coastal states apply their o$n la$s to
activities in the shel%, it is !y no means clear that they #o so either !ecase the shel% is
territorial or as aspect o% their intl. la$ rights over the shel%. In the ?J an# other states,
legislation in#icates that the shel% regime is not assimilate# as state territory.
1.

0. NATU*AL *%SOU*C%S O- T.% S.%L- (an$ the laws pertainin! to the()
1. >ineral resorces T the Trman <roclamation o% 1/19
;. Fisheries T as presse# !y Latin American states, an# later the IL( #eci#e# to
incl#e se$entar5 fisheries+ Art. 2 o% the 1/9: (onvention -repro#ce# in the 1/:;
(onvention, Art CC, par. 12 #e%ine# Rnatral resorcesI to incl#e Rliving organisms
$hich, at the harvesta!le stage, either are immo!ile on or n#er the sea!e# or are
na!le to move except in constant physical contact $ith the sea!e# or s!soil.
Ho$ever, the application o% this #e%inition met #i%%iclties $ith regar# to 'ing cra!s an#
a particlar species o% lo!ster
11
, an# $as pro!lematic as it excl#es in principle
#ermersal species, sch as hali!t an# plaice, $hich s$im close to the sea!e#. @t
$hen an EE, has !een claime# in the area, these isses -WO7 the (oastal State has
a right to the living resorces not incl#e# on the (onventionIs #e%inition2 $ill no
longer arise, as an EE, vests all rights in the living resorces inhere in the coastal
state. -1/:; (onvention Art 90 par. 12
0I. A*TI-ICIAL ISLAN)S AN) INSTALLATIONS ON T.% S.%L-
Accor#ing to Art 9, par ; o% the (onvention -1/:;2=
) the coastal State is entitle# to constrct an# maintain or operate on the continental
shel% installations an# other #evices necessary %or its exploration an# exploitation o% its
natral resorces, an# to esta!lish sa%ety Gones aron# sch installations an# #evices
an# to ta'e in those Gones measres necessary %or their protection.*
These installations #o not have a territorial sea o% their o$n.
1-
(n re )wnership and 'urisdiction o!er )ffshore Mineral Rihts* Clar+ !. )ceanic
Contractors
11
, particular Cra' is even ru*ored to sell ?cra''% patties= thus even challenging trade laws#
The (onvention ho$ever #oes not provi#e %or !asis to !il# #e%ense installations on
the shel%, !t it also #oes no prohi!it, so they may !e la$%l i% some other legal
"sti%ication exists. Ho$ever, i% a coastal state is allo$e# to #o so, an# i% the state
prohi!its other states %rom #oing sch an activity, then a secrity Gone over the whole
shel area may !e "sti%ie# -they $ol#nIt $ant to ris' this as it $as inten#e# that the
rights o% other states !e 'ept $hole2. Thogh the North Sea 'nstallations Act o the
Netherlands -1/012 asserte# rights o% "ris#iction over %ixe# installations on the shel% as
a means to control pirate !roa#casting, this case is not in point here as the measre
$as not !ase# on the #octrine o% the continental shel%.
In Art :. o% the 1/:;, it is simply provi#e# that Art 0. Rapplies #utatis #utandis to
arti%icial islan#s, installations an# strctres on the continental shel%+ an# Art 0. par C
provi#es=
Arti%icial islan#s, installations an# strctres an# the sa%ety Gones aron# them may not
!e esta!lishe# $here inter%erence may !e case# to the se o% recogniGe# sea lanes
essential to international navigationI -Art 9, par 0, 1/9:2
0II. *%,I6% O- T.% SUBSOIL
The s!soil is governe# !y cstomary international la$. It is provi#e# in Art. :9 o% the
1/:; (onvention that )<art 5i #oes not pre"#ice the right o% the coastal state to exploit
the s!soil !y means o% tnneling irrespective o% the #epth o% $ater a!ove the s!soil.
-an# see #a$ Art C o% the 1/9:2.
There is a nota!le #istinction inherent in the arrangement+ i% exploitation occrs %rom
a!ove the shel%, the continental shel% regime applies+ !t i% !y tnnels ro# the
#ainland a #i%%erent regime applies -article #i#nIt say2.
0III. T.% OUT%* LI6ITS O- T.% S.%L-
The inner limit is the oter e#ge o% the territorial sea an# its sea!e#+ as to the oter
limit, there is a s!stantial #isparity !et$een the criteria provi#e# !y Article 1 o% the
(ontinental Shel% (onvention o% 1/9: an# the soltion provi#e# !y the La$ o% the Sea
(onvention o% 1/:;.
Article 1 o% the 1/9: (onvention -in pg 1 o% this #igest2, correctly interprete#, $ol#
seem to say that the ;..&meter #epth criterion can !e exploite#, !t the exploitation is
controlle# !y the conception o% the shel% as a geological %eatre an# !y the principle o%
a#"acency containe# in the same article. The recor#s o% the IL( clearly provi#e# that
the legal conception $as !ase# pon the geological conception an# it $as not thoght
that the $hole ocean %loor col# !e #ivi#e# p as a continental shel%, s!"ect to a
me#ian line #ivision containe# in Article 0. Ho$ever, the trth is that the legal
conception $as not !ase# e=clusivel! on the geological conception, an# there%ore
incl#es a2 the shelves o% islan#s !2 shallo$ !asins sch the 7orth Sea an# the
<ersian 6l% c2 steep !ttresses li'e those a#"acent to (hileIs coast, $hich can !e
exploite# !y tnnels %rom the mainlan#. The legal conception excl#es the sea !e# o%
the territorial sea.
It is n"sti%ie# then to say that the ;..&meter criterion !ecomes sper%los i%
exploita!ility $ol# exten# to greater #epths. I% exploita!ility $ol# !e applie# as a
#ominant test, a scenario !et$een t$o States, A an# @, $ith A having the !roa#er shel%
separate# %rom @Is narro$ one !y the sea!e#Pa!yssal plain, li'e this $ol# reslt in
State A conce#ing part o% a !roa# shel% opposite State @Is narro$ shel% since the
Alwa#& will B
* bok * cj * tiff * gem * tin * 11
me#ian line $ol# %all across the ;.. meter Gone a#"acent to A. @t sch a line in Art 0
applies only $hen the states share the same shel% in the geological conte=t. In other
terms the s!marine area exten#ing to the ;.. meter contor is al$ays a#"acent. The
otcome o% exploita!ility to greater #epths, than ;.., is that the coastal state $ill have
rights over the entire shel% as a geological %eatre, incl#ing the continental slope an#
continental rise.
Ho$ever, it is a part o% crrent state practice, !ase# on legislation an# claims !e%ore
the 1/:; La$ o% the Sea (onvention, to employ a ;.. #epth limit together $ith an
exploita!ility criterion -E0 states2. Ths it may !e presme# that the exploita!ility
criterion is itsel% limite# !y the geological criterion %lo$ing %rom the legal concept o% the
shel%.
The La$ o% the Sea (onvention o% 1/:; contains a signi%icantly #i%%erent approach, in
recogniGing a ;.. mile !rea#th -as oppose# to #epth2 as an in#epen#ent vali#
critierion an# provi#es gi#elines %or #etermining the location o% the Roter e#ge o% the
continental marginI. -see Art C0, $here the gi#elines are state#2
The general mo#s operan#i presente# in this provision -;.. mile !rea#th limit or
$hichever is greater2 $ill pro!a!ly !e recogniGe# as the ne$ stan#ar# o% cstomary
la$. Some states may o!"ect !t this $ill !e #i%%iclt i% they $ish to !e party to the
(onvention o% 1/:;. Another thing evi#ent $ol# !e that states $ith shelves %alling
short o% the ;.. mile !rea#th $ill rely pon a claim to the resorces o% the EE,. Art 90
par E, o% the 1/:; (onvention expressly provi#es that the rights o% the EE, shall !e
exercise# in accor#ance $ith provisions governing the continental shel%.
IX. T.% CONTIN%NTAL S.%L- 0. T.% %%#
The EE, incl#es the continental shel% interest in the sea!e# o% the ;.. mile Gone -art
90, par E, (onvention o% 1/:;2.
The EE, an# the Shel% coexist in the sphere o% cstomary la$ an# in the regime set !y
the La$ o% the Sea (onvention o% 1/:;, !oth containing signi%icant elements o%
similarity an# interpenetration. @oth concepts %ocs on control o% economic resorces
an# are !ase# pon a#"acency an# the #istance principle.
Ho$ever, there are #istinctions.
1. The EE, is optional !t the rights to exploit an# explore the shel% inhere in
the coastal state !y operation o% la$. -In the >e#iterranean, some states
have shel% rights !t no EE,s.2
;. Shel% rights exist !eyon# the limit o% ;.. miles %rom pertinent coasts $hen the
continental shel% exten# !eyon# that limit. (onseAently, the rights o% the Intl.
Sea&!e# Athority -La$ o% the Sea (onvention 1/:;2 mst !e reconcile# $ith
those o% the coastal state.
E. The EE, incl#es the $ater colmn. As a conseAence the EE,Is resorces
-apart %rom the se#entary species o% %ish2 are s!"ect to rles a!ot sharing
the srpls o% the living resorces o% the EE, $ith other states, particlarly
lan#&loc'e# states o% the same region. -La$ o% the Sea (onvention 1/:;, Art.
0;, 0:, 0/, C. an# C12.
1. The EE, regime con%ers on coastal states s!stantial "ris#iction over
polltion !y ships an# greater control in terms o% marine scienti%ic research.
X. S.%L- )%LI6ITATION B%T/%%N O77OSIT% O* A)8AC%NT STAT%S (O*
*%0I%/ O- T.% NO*T. S%A CONTIN%NTAL S.%L- )%CISION)
A. Sources
1. Article 0 o% the (ontinental Shel% (onvention o% 1/9: T %or cases $here the
Rsame continental shel%I exten#s !et$een ; a#"acent or opposite States. The
(onvention stiplates that !on#ary shall !e #etermine# !y agreement, an#
in a!sence o% one, an# nless another !on#ary line is "sti%ie# !y special
circmstances !on#ary shall !e #etermine# !y a me#ian line, or the
principle o% eAi#istance -measrement %rom the nearest points o% the
!aselines %rom $hich the !rea#th o% the territorial sea o% each state is
measre#2.
The #ecision provi#e# as %ollo$s=
A2 the se o% the eAi#istance metho# o% #elimitation not !eing o!ligatory as !et$een
the <arties+ an#
-@2 there !eing no other single metho# o% #elimitation the se o% $hich is in all
circmstances o!ligatory+
-(2 the principles an# rles o% international la$ applica!le to the #elimitation as
!et$een the <arties o% the areas o% the continental shel% in the 7orth Sea $hich
appertain to each o% them !eyon# the partial !on#ary #etermine# !y the agreements
o% 1 Becem!er 1/01 an# / Hne 1/09, respectively, are as %ollo$s=
-12 #elimitation is to !e e%%ecte# !y agreement in accor#ance $ith eAita!le
principles, an# ta'ing accont o% all the relevant circmstances, in sch a $ay as
to leave as mch as possi!le to each <arty all those parts o% the continental shel%
that constitte a natral prolongation o% its lan# territory into an# n#er the sea,
$ithot encroachment on the natral prolongation o% the lan# territory o% the other+
-;2 i%, in the application o% the prece#ing s!&paragraph, the #elimitation leaves to
the <arties areas that overlap, these are to !e #ivi#e# !et$een them in agree#
proportions or, %ailing agreement, eAally, nless they #eci#e on a regime o% "oint
"ris#iction, ser, or exploitation %or the Gones o% overlap or any part o% them+
-B2 in the corse o% the negotiations, the %actors to !e ta'en into accont are to
incl#e=
-12 the general con%igration o% the coasts o% the <arties, as $ell as the
presence o% any special or nsal %eatres+
-;2 so %ar as 'no$n or rea#ily ascertaina!le, the physical an# geological
strctre, an# natral resorces, o% the continental shel% areas involve#+
-E2 the element o% a reasona!le #egree o% proportionality, $hich a #elimitation
carrie# ot in accor#ance $ith eAita!le principles oght to !ring a!ot
!et$een the extent o% the continental shel% areas appertaining to the coastal
State an# the length o% its coast measre# in the general #irection o% the
coastline, accont !eing ta'en %or this prpose o% the e%%ects, actal or
prospective, o% any other continental shel% #elimitations !et$een a#"acent
States in the same region.
;. The 7orth Sea (ontinental Shel% (ases T $here it $as hel# that the eAi#istance
metho# #i# not represent general international la$. Since then, ReAita!le principlesI
!ecame the cstomary norm. These ReAita!le principles have a normative character
as part o% general international la$ an# their application is to !e #istingishe# %rom a
#ecision e= ae9uo et %ono.
7o$, in the (onvention o% 1/:;, #elimitation is le%t to rles o% general or cstomary
international la$. Art :E provi#es=
Alwa#& will B
* bok * cj * tiff * gem * tin * 12
RThe #elimitation o% the continental shel% !et$een States $ith opposite or a#"acent
coasts shall !e e%%ecte# !y agreement on the !asis o% international la$, as re%erre# to
in Art. E: o% the Statte o% the I(H, to achieve an eAita!le soltion.I
(. $he E9uita%le 2rinciples.
The recogniGe# principles are rather general, an# those most o%ten %ormlate# are as
%ollo$s=
1. Belimitation shall !e e%%ecte# !y agreement on the !asis o% international la$.
;. The principle o% non&encroachment !y one party on the natral prolongation o% the
other.
E. <revention any ct o%% o% the sea $ar# pro"ection o% the states concerne#.
1. Belimitation is to !e e%%ecte# !y applying eAita!le criteria an# !y sing practical
metho#s capa!le o% ensring, $ith regar# to the geographical con%igration o% the area
an# other relevant circmstances, an eAita!le reslt.
9. There is a presmption that the eAita!le soltion is an eAal #ivision o% the
overlapping areas o% the continental shelves o% the #ispting states.
:. +elevant circu#stances recogni?ed %! tri%unals
Application o% eAita!le principles ma'es re%erence to relevant circmstances,
examples o% $hich are the %ollo$ing=
1. 6eneral con%igration o% the coasts o% the parties
1;
;. Where there is a geographical sitation o% Aasi&eAality !et$een a nm!er o%
states, it is necessary to a!ate e%%ects o% an incidental special eature $hich might
reslt in n"sti%ie#, #i%%erent treatment. - to avoi# the e%%ects o% a concave coast
1E
, the
location o% islan#s o% one state near the other
11
, an# the eccentric alignment o% small
islan#s lying o%% a peninsla
19
2.
E. The geological strctre o% the sea&!e# an# its geomorphology
10
-or sr%ace
%eatres2
1. The #isparity o% coastal lengths in the relevant area.
1C
9. The general geographical %rame$or' or context.
1:
0. The con#ct o% the parties, sch as the #e %acto line pro#ce# !y the pattern o%
grants o% petrolem concessions in the #ispte# area.
1/
C. The inci#ence o% natral resorces -oil an# natral gas2 in the #ispte# area.
;.
:. The principle o% eAita!le access to the natral resorces o% the #ispte# area
;1
.
/. Be%ense an# secrity interests o% the #ispting states.
;;
1+
North Sea cases, @ulf of Aaine case, Li'%a Aalta case, @uinea/@uinea case
11
North Sea Case
15
,nglo/French Continental case
1!
B'id
19
North Sea cases
18
@ulf of Aaine Case
1"
,nglo/French Continental Case
1
Tunisia/Li'%a case
+-
,nglo French Continental Shelf case
+1
Can Aa%en case
++
,nglo/French Continental Shelf Case
1.. Their navigational interests.
;E
11. (onsistency $ith the general #irection o% the lan# !on#ary.
;1
1. 2roportionalit!
In the 7orth Sea cases, the H#gment states that one o% the %actors to !e ta'en into
accont is the Relement o% a reasona%le degree o proportionalit!, $hich a #elimitation
in accor#ance $ith eAita!le principles oght to !ring a!ot !et$een the extent o% the
continental shel% areas appertaining to the coastal State an# the length o% the coastline,
accont !eing ta'en %or this prpose o% the e%%ects, actal or prospective, o% any
continental shel% #elimitation !et$een a#"acent States in the same region.
<roportionality, in the %irst place, is 7OT an in#epen#ent principle o% #elimitation !t
only a test o% eAita!leness o% a reslt arrive# at !y other means. This e= post acto
veri%ication o% a line arrive# at !ase# on other criteria may ta'e t$o %orms= a ratio !ase#
on the lengths o% the respective coastlines -exceptionally2 or generally, !y vetting -to
appraise, chec' or veri%y2 the #elimitation %or #isproportionality reslting %rom particlar
geographical %eatres.
E. &ode o appl!ing the E9uita%le 2rinciples
The I(H has emphasiGe# a process o% !alancing all the pertinent consi#erations an#
that the relative $eight to !e given to the varios principles an# %actors varies $ith the
circmstances o% the case. Apart %rom the a!ove %actors, other %actors may !e given
consi#eration, sch as maintenance o% the nity o% #eposits, the perpe#iclarity to the
coast, existing %ishing patterns, an# maintenance o% optimm conservation an#
management o% living resorces. @t economic %actors have !een rle# ot as
e=traneous an# varia%le %rom time to time+ the 'ey criterion o% accepta!ility appears to
!e $hether the %actorPconsi#eration is relate# to the legal concept o% the continental
shel%.
The practical application o% the eAita!le principles normally involves #ra$ing a
!on#ary line, then choosing a metho# $hich $ill pro#ce an eAita!le reslt. The
availa!le metho#s incl#e a me#ian line, a me#ian line s!"ect to a %actor o% eAita!le
correction, a perpen#iclar to the general #irection o% the coast, sing a !isector o% the
angle o% the lines expressing the general #irection o% the relevant coasts an# creating a
Gone o% "oint #evelopment.
F. Natural 2rolongation :oncept
The relevance o% this concept is pro!lematical. It states that the shel% is apprtenant to
the lan# territory an# is a prolongation o% lan# territory into an# n#er the sea. It
originate# in the 7orth Sea case an# emphasiGe# the geological aspect o% the shel%.
This encorage# the vie$ that geological %actors shol# en"oy pre&eminence in
#elimitations.
Ho$ever, in practice, these %ormlations constitte no more than a single epitome o%
the shel% concept an# the roots o% title o% the coastal state. In %act the I(H has pointe#
to the principle o% #istance as !asis o% entitlement, an# concl#e# that within areas at a
distance o under 5EE #iles, ro# either o the coasts, there is no role or geological
actors either in ter#s o veri!ing title or actors in deli#itation. 7atral prolongation is
7OT a test %or $hat is eAita!le. Even $hen the sea!e# is irreglar this $ill not play
any role as criterion o% eAity, except $hen they #isrpt the essential nity o% the
+1
,nglo/French Continental Shelf Case
+5
Tunisia/Li'%a case
Alwa#& will B
* bok * cj * tiff * gem * tin * 1+
continental shel% -an# they rarely #o2, nless o% corse, they are in outside areas within
5EE #iles or less o the coasts in dispute.
SI. EE, Belimitation !et$een Opposite or A#"acent States
EE, Belimitation is provi#e# %or in Art C1 o% the La$ o% the Sea (onvention o% 1/:;,
an# is similar to the provisions on continental shel% #elimitation -Art :E2. >oreover, the
!asis o% entitlement o% the coastal state to the EE, is less #i%%erentiate# %rom that o%
shel% areas -)i%!a-&alta case). In general then, it may !e assme# that principles o%
#elimitation are similar, especially $hen the coasts involve# are less than 1.. miles
apart. Bi%%erences $ol# lie in !alancing p o% eAita!le %actors, especially $hen
%isheries are involve#.
The state practice an# #ecisions relating to single maritime !on#aries are, in this
context, signi%icant. Example= In the "ul o &aine case, sch a !on#ary #ivi#es areas
o% #i%%erent stats into an EE, an# a %isheries Gone. In that case, the principles applie#
$ere similar to principles in continental shel% #elimitations, !t it $as also emphasiGe#
that mlti&prpose #elimitation involving !oth the shel% an# the sper"acent $ater
colmn -incl#e# in the EE,2 shol# have its o$n sita!le criteria.
XII. T.% *%,I6% O- ISLAN)S
Islan#s may !e relevant in #elimiting areas. They may either !e consi#ere# $ith e%%ect
-%ll or hal%2 or may !e entirely sn!!e#. >ch $ill #epen# on the geological
relationship o% the Islan#s, rather than their classi%ication as sch. Art 1;1 o% the 1/:;
La$ o% the Sea (onvention provi#es Islan#s cont as lan# territory, $ith the exception
o%= Roc's $hich cannot sstain hman ha!itation or economic li%e o% their o$n. Sch
roc' shall have no EE, or continental shel%. Sch is a ne$ principle an# is expecte# to
create pro!lems, in terms o% #e%inition an# application.
B*O/LI% C.A7T%* 44. T.% *%,I6% O- T.% .I,. S%AS
I. Intro$"'tion
1. The term )high seas* has tra#itionally encompasse# all parts o% the sea that
are not incl#e# in the territorial sea or in the internal $aters o% a State an#
there%ore comprehen#s contigos Gones an# the $aters over the continental
shel% an# otsi#e the limit o% the territorial sea.
;. The 1/:; (onvention o% the La$ o% the Sea states the provisions o% <art 5II
-High Seas2 apply to all parts o% the sea that are not incl#e# in the exclsive
economic Gone, in the territorial sea or in the internal $aters o% the State, or
in the archipelagic $aters o% an Archipelagic State -Art. :0.2
E. The a!ovementione# prescription invites t$o o!servations. First, the
exclsive economic Gone is optional an# !y no means all coastal states claim
sch a Gone. Secon#ly, a signi%icant proportion o% the %ree#oms o% the high
seas are applica!le to the exclsive economic Gone accor#ing to the 1/:;
(onvention -Arts. 9: N :02, $hich is also the position in (stomary
International La$.
1. Lan#loc'e# seas an# international la'es are not governe# !y the regime o%
the high seas. They are not open to %ree navigation except !y special
agreement. @t !y acAiescence, cstom, rein%orce# !y conventions, sch
!o#ies or $ater may acAire the stats o% high seas. -ex. @altic N @lac'
seas2. >ost o% the time, sch is the case to ena!le to maintain the %ree#om o%
transit throgh these la'es an# seas $hich connect to larger !o#ies o% $ater.
II. The -ree$o( of the .i!h Seas
1. Fon#ation o% the la$ on the High Seas is the rles that high seas are not
open to acAisition !y occpation on the part o% states in#ivi#ally or
collectively, it is res extra commercim.
;. The emergence o% this rle coinci#es $ith the rise o% the maritime po$ers.
The %ollo$ing are episo#es in $orl# history $hich contri!te# to the evoltion
o% sch rle=
a. The a%%irmation o% EliGa!eth I o% the %ree#om o% the seas in ans$er
to a Spanish protest arising %rom the expe#ition o% Bra'e. This $as
#ring the time in the 19
th
centry $hen states $ante# exclsive
rights over large expanses o% the sea $hich le# to the issance o%
the <apal @lls -11/E N 19.02 $hich partitione# the oceans o% the
$orl# to Spain N <ortgal.
!. In 10./, the Start policy exten#e# the principle o% close# seas %rom
Scotlan# to Englan# an# Irelan# $hich le# to the concept o% )@ritish
Seas*. The policy o% close# seas heightene# #ring the 1C
th
centry
$ith claims !y Englan#, Benmar', Spain, <ortgal, 6enoa,
Tscany, the <apacy, Tr'ey an# 5enice.
c. (hange !egan in the 1:
th
centry. Btch %avore# %ree#om o%
navigation an# %ishing. With the accession o% William o% Orange to
the English throne in 10:/, #isptes !et$een Hollan# an# Englan#
over %isheries cease#. @ritish claim to sovereignty !ecame o!solete
an# the reAirement o% the %lag ceremony $as en#e# !y the late
1:
th
centry. (laims o% large areas o% sea %a#e# a$ay. (annon shot
rle pre#ominate#.
#. This contine# in the 1/
th
centry $ith commercial interests an#
naval po$er as consi#erations %or the spport %or %ree#om o% the
seas. States have a#opte# a principle o% share# se.
E. The principle o% the %ree#om o% the seas has !een #escri!e# !y 6i#el as
)mlti%orme et %gace*. It is a general principle o% international la$ or policy
concept %rom $hich rles may !e #e#cte#. A limitation o% sch principle is its
application to a speci%ic pro!lem o%ten %ails to give precise reslts. There
arises pro!lems o% mtality an# a!se o% rights. For example, $eapon
testing in the high seas, some states consi#er sch as a legitimate exercise
o% a right $hile others perceive sch as a violation. It has !een sai# that the
only sccess%l %orm o% prescription to sch %ree#om is that o% speci%ying
exceptions sch as the !ill o% rights in a $ritten constittion. 6i#el regar#s the
concept as essentially negative.
1. The s!stance an# character o% the %ree#om o% the high seas provi#e certain
presmptions. 6rotis state# t$o presmptions=
a. The sea col# not !e the o!"ect o% private or state appropriation
!. ?se o% the high seas !y one state $ol# leave the me#im
availa!le %or se !y another.
9. These general principles apply #ring !oth peace an# $ar time.
0. Art. ; o% the (onvention on the High Seas o% 1/9: provi#es= )The high seas
!eing open to all nations, no State may vali#ly prport to s!"ect any part o%
them to its sovereignty. Free#om o% the high seas is exercise# n#er the
con#itions lai# #o$n !y these articles an# !y the other rles o% international
la$. It comprises, inter alia, !oth %or coastal an# non&coastal States=
a. Free#om o% navigation
Alwa#& will B
* bok * cj * tiff * gem * tin * 1,
!. Free#om o% %ishing
c. Free#om to lay s!marine ca!les an# pipeline
#. Free#om to %ly over the high seas
These %ree#oms an# others $hich are recogniGe# !y the general principles o%
international la$, shall !e exercise# !y all States $ith reasona!le regar# to
the interests o% other States in their exercise o% the %ree#om o% the high seas.
C. The %ree#oms a!ovementione# are spporte# !y ar!itral "rispr#ence an#
are inherent in many particlar rles o% la$ -ex. Fisheries case, @ehring Sea
Fisheries ar!itration T %ree#om o% %ishing
:. (hanges ma#e !y the E
r#
?7 (on%erence o% the La$ o% the Sea=
a. Legitimation o% the exclsive economic Gone to a maximm o% ;..
mile in !rea#th. Sch Gone accor#ing to the 1/:; (onvention on
the La$ o% the Sea, the Gone #oes not %orm part o% the high seas
-Art. 99 N :02 althogh some aspects o% the regime o% the high seas
apply to the Gone. This $ol# con%er "ris#iction on coastal states in
respect o% marine scienti%ic research.
!. (reation o% a special regime %or the resorces o% the sea!e# an#
s!soil !eyon# the limits o% the national "ris#iction n#er the
control an# management o% the International Sea&!e# Athority.
c. Free#om o% %ishing has !een s!"ecte# to the re#ction o% area
conseAent pon exclsive economic Gones an# s!"ect to certain
con#itions incl#ing #ty to ta'e or to co&operate $ith other states
in ta'ing sch measres %or their respective nationals as may !e
necessary %or the conservation o% the living resorces o% the high
seas. Activities involve# in exploitation o% the sea!e# an# ocean
%loor an# s!soil thereo% !eyon# the limits o% national "ris#iction
has also !een limite# an# s!"ect to the control o% the International
Sea&!e# Athority.
#. A##itional %ree#oms= %ree#om to constrct arti%icial islan#s an# other
installations permitte# n#er international la$ N %ree#om o%
scienti%ic research, s!"ect to <arts 5I an# SIII.
III. 6aintenan'e of Or$er on the .i!h Seas
1. @y agreement o% the states
;. (onvention on the High Seas con%ers po$er to stop an# seiGe %oreign
vessels !y $ay o% en%orcement.
E. <arty states are o!lige# to incorporate sch prohi!itions to their local
legislation an# en%orcement is per%orme# !y national corts in respect o% local
vessels an# persons s!"ect to their "ris#iction.
1. En%orcement is e%%ecte# !y the cooperation o% international la$ an# the
national la$s o% the states possessing the maritime %lag.
9. Every state is n#er a #ty to %ix the con#itions %or the grant o% nationality to
its ships %or the registration o% ships in its territory an# %or the right to %ly its
%lag. Alongsi#e sch #ty is the #ty to %ix con#itions %or granting nationality to
its ships, %or the registration o% ships in its territory an# %or the right to %ly its
%lag. Ships have the nationality o% the state $hose %lag they are entitle# to %ly
an# each state has an o!ligation to isse to ships to $hich it has grante# the
right to %ly its %lag #ocments to that e%%ect.
0. Essential Elements=
a. 7ationality o% the ship
!. Exclsive "ris#iction o% the %lag state over the ship -apart %rom
treaty provisions to the contrary2
c. The right o% approach to veri%y the right o% a ship to %ly its %lag
#. The imposition on the %lag state o% o!ligations in respect o% the
maintenance o% goo# or#er an# general secrity on the high seas
!y cstomary rles an# !y treaties.
C. The ship $ithot a nationality loses the protection o% the la$ $ith respect to
!oar#ing an# seiGre on the high seas. @t they are not completely otsi#e
the la$ an# their occpants are still protecte# !y elementary consi#erations
o% hmanity.
:. Sch ships shol# not !e inter%ere# $ith provi#e# they #o not attempt to
exercise !elligerent rights against %oreign vessels an# the lives o% any netral
aliens on !oar# are not threatene#.
I0. %&'eptions to the 7rin'iple of the -ree$o( of the .i!h Seas
(a) *"les of C"sto(ar5 Law
a. 7ira'5
& H#ge >oore in the Lots case provi#es that a niversal
"ris#iction applies %or an o%%ense o% piracy !y la$ o% nations, n#er
$hich a person charge# $ith sch o%%ense may !e trie# an#
pnishe# !y any nation into $hose "ris#iction he may come. <iracy
!y la$ o% nations in its "ris#ictional aspects is si generis $hich
may #i%%er %rom the local la$s $hich li'e$ise pnish piracy !t #i%%er
in its #e%inition. A person $ho commits piracy in the high seas is
#enie# the protection o% his %lag an# is treate# an otla$, as the
enemy o% all man'in# T hostis hmani generis, $hom any nation
may captre an# pnish.
& Be%inition= Art. 19 o% the (onvention on the High Seas represent
the existing cstomary la$ an# #e%ines piracy to consist any o% the
%ollo$ing acts=
-12 Any illegal acts o% violence, #etention or any act o% #epre#ation,
committe# %or private en#s !y the cre$ or passengers o% a
privateship or a private aircra%t, an# #irecte#=
-a2 On the high seas, against another ship or aircra%t, or against
persons or property on !oar# sch ship or aircra%t+
-!2 Against a ship, aircra%t, persons or property in a place otsi#e
the "ris#iction o% any State+
-;2 Any act o% volntary participation in the operation o% a ship or o%
an aircra%t $ith 'no$le#ge o% %acts ma'ing it a pirate ship or aircra%t+
-E2 Any act o% inciting or o% intentionally %acilitating an act #escri!e#
in s!&paragraph -12 or -;2 o% this article.
& mst !e committe# %or private en#s, cannot !e committe# !y
$arships or government vessels or aircra%t except $here the cre$
has mtinie# an# ta'en control o% the vessel.
& acts committe# on !oar# a ship !y the cre$ an# #irecte# against
the ship itsel% or against persons or property on the ship are not
$ithin the #e%inition.
& a )place otsi#e the territorial "ris#iction o% any State* re%ers to an
islan# constitting terra nllis or the shore o% an noccpie#
territory.
& Article 1/ o% the 1/9: (onvention on the High Seas provi#es= )On
the high seas, or in any other place otsi#e the "ris#iction o% any
Alwa#& will B
* bok * cj * tiff * gem * tin * 1-
State, every State may seiGe a pirate ship or aircra%t or a ship ta'en
!y piracy an# n#er the control o% pirate# an# arrest the persons
an# seiGe the property on !oar#. The corts o% the State $hich
carrie# ot the seiGre may #eci#e pon the penalties to !e
impose# an# may also #etermine the action to !e ta'en $ith regar#
to the ships, aircra%t or property, s!"ect to the rights o% E
r#
parties
acting in goo# %aith.*
& This provision preserves the e%%ect o% the maxim )pirata non mtat
#ominim*= the right%l o$ner is not #eprive# o% his title !y virte o%
acts o% piracy relating to his goo#s.
&SeiGres on accont o% piracy may only !e carrie# ot !y
athoriGe# $arPmilitaryPgovernment ships or aircra%ts.
9. Other Ille!al A'ts Co((itte$ 95 Ships on the .i!h Seas (other
offenses whi'h are not 'overe$ 95 the $efinition of pira'5)
i. Ins"r!en'5
& ships controlle# !y insrgents may not, $ithot a
recognition o% !elligerency !y thir# states exercising
!elligerent rights against the shipping o% other states.
& Forci!le inter%erence o% this 'in# is nathoriGe# !y la$
an# may !e resiste# !y all availa!le means.
ii. Unlawf"l A'ts Co((itte$ with the A"thorit5 of a
Lawf"l ,overn(ent
& illegal attac's on or seiGres o% innocent merchant ships !y
$arship or government ships reslt in the #elictal
responsi!ility o% the aggressorIs %lag state !t the o%%en#ing
ships #o not !ecome pirate ships. In this case the !elligerent
is responsi!le as principal.
iii. 7oliti'all5 6otivate$ Operations 95 Or!ani:e$ ,ro"ps
& harassing operations !y organiGe# grops #eploying %orces
on the high seas may have political o!"ectives an# yet may
!e neither connecte# $ith insrgency against a particlar
government not per%orme# !y agents o% a la$%l
government. Ships threatene# !y sch activities may !e
protecte# an# yet the aggressors may not !e regar#e# as
pirates.
iv. Unrestri'te$ S"9(arine /arfare
& Sch con#emnation rests on the convention $here the
7yon Agreement too' place !y $hich : states agree# on
collective measres against piratical acts committe# !y
s!marines are acts contrary to the most elementary
#ictates o% hmanity $hich shol# !e "stly treate# as acts o%
piracy. The se o% the term )piracy* a##s nothing to the legal
reslt.
'. The *i!ht of Approa'h in Ti(e of 7ea'e
i. For a system to maintain or#er to !e sccess%l it is
necessary to provi#e %or an approach !y $arships in or#er
to veri%y the i#entity an# nationality o% ships. This is
recogniGe# !y cstomary la$ an# exists in all
circmstances !t #oes not involve the actal
examination o% papers or seiGre o% vessels.
$. 0isit Sear'h an$ Capt"re in Ti(e of 7ea'e
i. 7o general right o% search o% %oreign ships can !e claime#
on the High Seas !y any nation not a !elligerent.
ii. A right to resort to a threat or se o% %orce to e%%ect visit,
search an# i% "sti%ie#, seiGre o% a ship only existe# in the
case o% a 'no$n pirate ship or a ship the !ehavior o%
$hich gave reasona!le gron#s %or sspecting her o%
piracy. This is corollary o% the principle o% the %ree#om o%
the seas an# also o% the rle that in general a merchant
ship can only !e !oar#e# !y a $arship %lying the same
%lag an# there%ore having a right o% "ris#iction.
iii. E threats to sta!ility o% sch legal regime= 12 extension o%
the concept o% piracy+ ;2 claims to a right o% sel%&#e%ense
on the high seas $ithot #e%ining the limits o% sch right+
E2 #e%inition o% the right o% approach or veri%ication o% %lag
$hich is expansive incl#ing mere sspicion o% piracy
$hich col# !e a!se#.
iv. Art. ;; o% the 1/9: (onvention o% the High Seas provi#e=
)1. Except $here acts o% inter%erence #erive %rom po$ers
con%erre# !y treaty, a $arship $hich enconters a %oreign
merchant ship on the high seas is not "st "sti%ie# in
!oar#ing her nless there is reasona!le gron# %or
sspecting=
-a2 that the ship is engage# in piracy+ or
-!2 that the ship is engage# in the slave tra#e+ or
-c2 that thogh %lying a %oreign %lag or re%sing to
sho$ its %lag the ship in reality is o% the same nationality
as the $arship.
;. In the case provi#e# a!ove, the $arship may procee# to
veri%y the shipIs right to %ly its %lag. To this en#, it may sen# a
!oat n#er the comman# o% an o%%icer to the sspecte# ship.
I% sspicion remains a%ter the #ocments have !een
chec'e#. It may procee# to a %rther examination on !oar#
the ship, $hich mst !e carrie# ot $ith all possi!le
consi#eration.
E. I% the sspicions prove to !e n%on#e#, an# provi#e# that
the ship !oar#e# ha# not committe# any act "sti%ying them,
it shall !e compensate# %or any loss or #amage that may
have !een sstaine#.
v. The 1/:; La$ o% the Sea (onvention a##s t$o a##itional
"sti%ications %or !oar#ing $hich are engaging in
nathoriGe# !roa#casting an# in the case $here the ship
has no nationality. It also provi#es that the right o% visit
may !e carrie# ot !y military aircra%ts an# also !y any
other #ly athoriGe# ships or aircra%t clearly mar'e# an#
i#enti%ia!le as !eing on government service.
vi. The act o% !oar#ing even $hen reasona!le gron# exists
is a privilege an# i% no act "sti%ying the sspicions has
!een committe# !y the ship !oar#e#, there is strict lia!ility
an# the %lag state o% the $arship mst compensate %or any
loss or #amage. Severe penalty is "sti%ie# in or#er %or the
right not to !e a!se# as opine# !y the International La$
(ommission.
Alwa#& will B
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e. The *i!ht of Self;$efense
i. The particlar claim to visit an# seiGe vessels on the high
seas may ta'e the %orm o% a secrity Gone, a #e%ense
Gone or a netrality Gone. @t the se o% %orce to #etain
vessels on the gron# o% secrity an# sel%&#e%ense %in# no
legal !asis in the a!sence o% an attac' on other shipping
!y the vessel soght to !e #etaine#. The International
La$ (ommission an# ma"ority o% states #o not accept the
legality o% secrity Gones an# there%ore are nli'ely to
regar# an am!latory exercise o% a right o% anticipatory
sel%&#e%ense $ith any %avor.
ii. As state# in Art. ;; o% the (onvention on the High Seas,
the commission state# that it is not a#visa!le to incl#e a
provision regar#ing the right to !oar# a vessel in the event
a ship is !eing sspecte# o% committing acts hostile to the
state to $hich the $arship !elongs, at a time o% imminent
#anger to the secrity o% that State. This is #e to the
vageness o% sch terms as )imminent #anger* an#
)hostile acts*.
f. Blo'<a$e an$ Contra9an$
i. Bring $artime, exercise o% !elligerent rights $ill !e
"sti%ie# an# may ta'e the %orm o% !loc'a#es o% the
enemyIs ports an# coasts. En%orcement o% the !loc'a#e
may ta'e place on the high seas an# netral merchant
ships may !e con%iscate# i% they attempt to !rea' the
!loc'a#e. The right o% visit, search an# captre may !e
exercise# against netral ships carrying contra!an# or
engage# in acts o% nnetral service.
!. The *i!ht of .ot 7"rs"it
i. Hall explains that $hen a vessel or someone on !oar# her
$hile $ithin %oreign territory commits an in%raction o% its
la$s, she may !e prse# into the open seas an# there
arreste#. This can !e #one only $hen the vessel is still
$ithin the territorial $aters or has only "st escape# %rom
them. The reason %or this permission is that prsit n#er
these circmstances is a contination o% an act o%
"ris#iction $hich ha# !een !egn or $hich !t %or the
acci#ent o% imme#iate escape $ol# have !een !egn
$ithin the territory itsel% an# that is necessary to permit it
in or#er to ena!le the territorial "ris#iction to !e e%%iciently
exercise#.
ii. It is an act o% necessity, instittionaliGe# an# #elimite# !y
state practice.
iii. @y the Hage (onvention o% 1/E., there $as alrea#y a
s%%icient evi#ence o% general recognition !y states.
iv. Art. ;E o% the (onvention on the High Seas o% 1/9:
provi#es that the hot prsit o% a %oreign ship may !e
n#erta'en $hen the competent athorities o% the coastal
state have goo# reason to !elieve that the ship has
violate# the la$s an# reglations o% that state. Hot prsit
mst !e commence# in the coastal stateIs territory or
contigos Gones an# may !e contine# otsi#e o% it
provi#e# that the prsit is not interrpte#. The vessel o%
coastal state nee# not !e $ithin its o$n territory $hen it
commences a hot prsit as long as the vessel !eing
prse# is. Frthermore, the right o% hot prsit ceases as
soon as the ship prse# enters its o$n contryIs
territorial sea or o% a thir# state. The prsit may only !e
commence# a%ter a visal or a#itory signal to stop has
!een given at a #istance $hich ena!les it to !e seen or
hear# !y the %oreign ship. It may !e n#erta'en !y
$arships, military aircra%ts or other ships or aircra%t on
government service specially athoriGe# to that e%%ect. Any
loss or #amage conseAent on n"sti%ie# exercise o% the
right o% prsit is to !e compensate#.
h. Ships /itho"t a -la!
i. Ships %lying no %lag an# re%sing to sho$ a %lag $hen
calle# pon to #o so in a proper manner may !e !oar#e#
!y the ships o% any state.
(b) *estri'tions 95 Treat5
a. 1:19 Treaties o% 6reat @ritain to other contries repressing slave&
tra#e.
!. 1:11 Treaty o% Lon#on -among 9 states2= provi#es that $arships
$ith special $arrants col# search, #etail, or sen# in %or trial
sspecte# merchant ships %lying the %lags o% contracting states.
c. 1:/. 6eneral Act %or the Repression o% the Slave Tra#e at @rssels
T provi#e# limite# right o% search o% sspecte# vessels in a #e%ine#
Gone. -this $as a!rogate# !y Treaty o% St. 6ermany an# the Slavery
(onventions o% 1/;0 N 1/90 $hich #o not provi#e %or visit, search
an# seiGre. The 1/9: (onvention on the High Seas provi#es
thogh %or a right o% visit.2
#. >o#ern Fishery (onservation Agreements= 1/9E ?S&(ana#a
(onvention %or the <reservation o% the Hali!t Fishery o% the
7orthern <aci%ic Ocean an# the @ering Sea+ 1/:0 Treaty
(oncerning <aci%ic Salmon+ 1/0C (onvention on the (on#ct o%
Fishing Operations in the 7orth Atlantic+ 1//9 Stra##ling Stoc's
Agreement $hich creates a regime %or conservation an#
management o% stra##ling %ish stoc's an# highly migratory %ish
stoc's.
e. 1::1 (onvention %or the <rotection o% S!marine (a!les $hich
con%ers the right to stop an# veri%y the nationality o% merchant ships
sspecte# o% !rea'ing the treaty on $arships o% the signatories.
%. States have also !een $illing to provi#e %or the mtal exercise o%
hot prsit in treaties.
0. 8"ris$i'tion Over Ships on the .i!h Seas
1. The 1/9: (onvention on the High Seas a%%irm the general principle
ennciate# in the Lots case that vessels on the high seas are s!"ect to no
athority except that o% the State $hose %lag they %ly. In the a!sence o% any
territorial sovereignty pon the high seas, no State may exercise any 'in# o%
"ris#iction over %oreign vessels pon them. Art. 0 par. 1 provi#es that Ships
shall sail n#er the %lag o% one State only an# save in exceptional cases
expressly provi#e# %or in international treaties or in these articles, hall !e
Alwa#& will B
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s!"ect to its exclsive "ris#iction on the high seas. Sch exceptions are
piracy, slave&tra#e, hot prsit, an# the right o% approach !y $arships $here
reasona!le gron#s exist %or sspecting that a ships is o% the same
nationality as the $arship.
;. Art. ; par.1 o% the 1/9: (onvention provi#es that in the event o% a collision or
o% any other inci#ent o% navigation concerning a ship on the high seas,
involving penal or #isciplinary responsi!ility o% the master or o% any other
person in the service o% the ship, no penal or #isciplinary procee#ings may !e
institte# against sch persons except !e%ore the "#icial or a#ministrative
athorities o% either the %lag State or o% the State o% $hich sch person is a
national.
0I. Oil 7oll"tion Cas"alties 7irate *a$io An$ Terroris(
1. With the rising an# increasing inci#ents o% polltion sch as oil spills in the
high seas there has !een a nee# %or institting reme#ial measres against
ships o% other nations $ho case sch great #amage an# harm to the sea.
This le# to the signing o% an International (onvention Relating to Intervention
on the High Seas in (ases o% Oil spill <olltion (asalties in 1/0/.
Frthermore, Art. ;;1 o% the La$ o% the Sea convention o% 1/:; provi#es a
protective measre $hich reserves the right o% states to ta'e an# en%orce
measres !eyon# the territorial sea proportionate to the actal or threatene#
#amage to protect their coast line or relate# interests, incl#ing %isheries
%rom polltion or threat o% polltion %ollo$ing pon a maritime casalty or acts
relating to sch a casalty $hich may reasona!ly !e expecte# to reslt in
ma"or harm%l conseAences. The #ischarge o% oil into the sea !y ships is
reglate# !y conventions an ela!oration o% #ties o% states in respect o% the
protection an# conservation o% the marine environment.
;. On a #i%%erent matter, the (oncil o% Erope sponsore# the conclsion in
1/09 o% an Agreement %or the <revention o% @roa#casts Transmitte# %rom
Stations otsi#e 7ational Territories $hich provi#es %or the se in e%%ective
coor#ination, o% criminal sanctions in national legal systems aime# !oth at
nationals an# aliens. The La$ o% the Sea (onvention o% 1/:; provi#es %or
!roa# !ases o% "ris#iction an# po$ers o% arrest in respect o% the
transmission o% son# ra#io or television !roa#casts %rom a ship or
installation on the high seas inten#e# %or reception !y the general p!lic
contrary to international reglations, !t excl#ing the transmission o%
#istress calls.
E. The sppression o% terrorist activities against ships an# the persons on
!oar# is the o!"ect o% the convention %or the Sppression o% ?nla$%l Acts
against the Sa%ety o% >arine 7avigation a#opte# on >arch 1., 1/::.
0II. The Sea9e$ an$ O'ean -loor Be5on$ the Li(its of National 8"ris$i'tion
4. The 7re;e&istin! Sea9e$ *e!i(e
a. In principle, the sea!e# o% the high seas is not sscepti!le o%
appropriation !y states an# the regime o% %ree#om o% the high seas
applies. Ho$ever, historic title an# prescription may play a rile an#
title to certain sea!e# -se#entary2 %isheries -ex. pearl, oyster,
sponge %isheries2 has !een o!taine# on the !asis o% prescription.
Title to se#entary %ishes pro!a!ly involve# the exclsive right to
ta'e the harvest rather than a right to the sea!e# as sch.
Se#entary %ishes remain as a separate isse in ; sitation= -12
$here certain historic rights are maintaine# is a shel% area
apprtenant to another state an# -;2 $here historic rights to
se#entary %isheries o% a coastal state on its o$n shel% are greater in
extent than the rights grante# !y the legal regime o% the continental
shel%.
2. The Convention of 4322 = the International Sea;Be$ A"thorit5
a. The 1//1 La$ o% the Sea (onvention contains a ra#ical regime o%
the internationaliGation o% the mineral resorces o% the #eep
sea!e#. These resorces an# the are ocean %loor an# s!soil
thereo% !eyon# the limits o% national "ris#iction are #eclare# to ve
the common heritage o% man'in#. In general, the treaty regime %or
the mineral resorces o% the Are co exists mtatis mtan#is $ith the
legal regime o% the high seas. The treaty regime #oes not a%%ect the
legal stats o% the $aters sper"acent to the Area or that o% the
airspace a!ove those $aters.
!. The instittional n#erpinning o% the regime relating to the
resorces o% the Area consists o% the International Sea&@e#
Athority o% $hich all states parties are ipso %acto mem!ers $hich is
empo$ere# to organiGe an# control activities in the Area.
c. The regime %or the #evelopment o% the resorces o% the Area has 0
'ey elements=
i. no state shall claim sovereignty or sovereign rights over
any part o% the Area or its resorces an# no State or
natral or "ri#ical person shall appropriate any part
thero%.
ii. Activities in the area shall !e organiGe# an# controlle#
exclsively !y the International Sea&@e# Athority an#
shall !e carrie# ot %or the !ene%it o% man'in# as a $hole.
iii. The system o% p!lic or#er, !ase# pon state
responsi!ility provi#es states parties shall have the
responsi!ility to ensre that activities in the Area $hether
carrie# ot !y States <arties or state enterprises or
natral or "ri#ical persons $hich possess the nationality
o% States <arties or are e%%ectively controlle# !y them or
their nationals shall !e carrie# ot in con%ormity $ith this
<art. The same responsi!ility to international
organiGations %or activities in the Area carrie# ot !y sch
organiGations.
Alwa#& will B
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iv. They system o% exploration an# exploitation involves
parallel activities !y the Enterprise -an organ o% the
Athority2 an# !y operators in accor#ance $ith Art. 19E
$hich provi#es that activities in the area shall !e carrie#
ot !y the enterprise an# in association $ith the Athority
!y States <arties or state enterprises or natral or "ri#ical
persons $hich possess the nationality o% States <arties or
are e%%ectively controlle# !y them or their nationals $hen
sponsore# !y sch States or any grop o% the %oregoing
$hich meets the reAirements provi#e# in this <art an# in
Annex III. Activities in the Area shall !e carrie# ot in
accor#ance $ith a %ormal $ritten plan o% $or' #ra$n p in
accor#ance $ith Annex III an# approve# !y the (oncil
a%ter revie$ !y the Legal Technical (ommission. The plan
o% $or' shall !e in the %orm o% contract in the case o%
activities in the Area carrie# ot as athoriGe# !y the
Athority. Sch contracts may provi#e %or "oint
arrangements.
v. The Athority shall provi#e %or the eAita!le sharing o% the
economic !ene%its #erive# %rom activities in the Area.
vi. In the exercise o% its po$ers an# %nctions, the Athority
may sho$ special consi#eration %or the interests o%
#eveloping states.
>. Is the *e!i(e of the International Sea;Be$ A"thorit5 Bin$in! Upon Non;
7arties?
a. For states $ho have signe# the convention the rle is that an
o!ligation o% goo# %aith arises to re%rain %rom acts calclate# to
%rstrate the o!"ects o% the treaty.
!. As to nonparties, the ?S an# certain #evelope# contries opine that
the or#inary regime o% the %ree#om o% the seas is applica!le to the
resorces o% the #eep sea!e#. This is oppose# !y a large ma"ority
o% non&aligne# states in the 6eneral Assem!ly represente# !y a
grop o% CC. They ta'e the vie$ that the sea!e# !eyon# the limits o%
national "ris#iction is part o% the common heritage o% man'in# an#
conseAently not s!"ect to nilateral exploitation. This grop
!elieves that their vie$ re%lect the present state o% cstomary
international la$.
@. The 7ra'ti'al A''o((o$ation of Co(petin! Clai(s
a# Bi%%erent states sch as the ?S have a#opte# legislation permitting
an# reglating sea!e# mining. Those state $hich originally
expecte# to stay otsi#e the regime create# !y the La$ o% the Sea
(onvention create# a Reciprocating States Regime involving
mtal recognition o% athoriGations grante# %or #eep sea!e#
operations. Alongsi#e these #evelopments, the <reparatory
(ommission esta!lishe# !y the Final Act o% the E
r#
?7 (on%erence
o% the La$ o% the Sea has n#erta'en recognition o% the so&calle#
pioneer investors an# the processing an# registration o%
applications !y states as pioneers investors or on !ehal% o% other
pioneer investors. The recent ten#ency has !een to promote
arrangement to prevent overlapping claims as !et$een states
$ithin the (onvention regime an# others. The <reparatory
(ommission %or the International Sea!e# Athority has #eclare#
that any claim, agreement or action regar#ing the are an# its
resorces n#erta'en otsi#e the preparatory commission $hich is
incompati!le $ith the ?7 (onvention on the La$ o% the Sea an# its
relate# resoltions shall not !e recogniGe#.
a. Internal /aters
Ni'ara!"a v. US
Sa"$i Ara9ia v. A*A6CO
9. Territorial Sea
An!lo;Norwe!ian -isheries Case
%l Salva$or v. .on$"ras
Unite$ States vs. California E:; ?.S. 11: -1/092
7ote= This case #eals $ith #e%ining the terms....
The motion !y the ?nite# States %or the entry o% a spplemental #ecree is grante# an#
a spplemental #ecree is entere#.
<ER (?RIA>.
In accor#ance $ith the (ortUs opinion in ?nite# States v. (ali%ornia, E:1 ?.S. 1E/,
-1/1C2 propose# #ecrees have !een s!mitte# !y the parties. The (ort has examine#
sch propose# #ecrees an# the !rie%s an# papers s!mitte# in spport thereo%, an#
enters the %ollo$ing #ecree=
Alwa#& will B
1. In consi#ering $hether or in $hat manner an arrest shol# !e ma#e, the local
athorities shall have #e regar# to the interests o% navigation.
9. Except as provi#e# in <art SII or $ith respect to violations o% la$s an# reglations
a#opte# in accor#ance $ith <art 5, the coastal State may not ta'e any steps on !oar# a
%oreign ship passing throgh the territorial sea to arrest any person or to con#ct any
investigation in connection $ith any crime committe# !e%ore the ship entere# the
territorial sea, i% the ship, procee#ing %rom a %oreign port, is only passing throgh the
territorial sea $ithot entering internal $aters.
A*T. 22: :ivil .urisdiction in relation to oreign ships
1. The coastal State shol# not stop or #ivert a %oreign ship passing throgh the
territorial sea %or the prpose o% exercising civil "ris#iction in relation to a person on
!oar# the ship.
;. The coastal State may not levy exection against or arrest the ship %or the prpose o%
any civil procee#ings, save only in respect o% o!ligations or lia!ilities assme# or
incrre# !y the ship itsel% in the corse or %or the prpose o% its voyage throgh the
$aters o% the coastal State.
E. <aragraph ; is $ithot pre"#ice to the right o% the coastal State, in accor#ance $ith
its la$s, to levy exection against or to arrest, %or the prpose o% any civil procee#ings,
a %oreign ship lying in the territorial sea, or passing throgh the territorial sea a%ter
leaving internal $aters.
A*T. 23: 1einition o warships
For the prposes o% this (onvention, V$arshipV means a ship !elonging to the arme#
%orces o% a State !earing the external mar's #istingishing sch ships o% its nationality,
n#er the comman# o% an o%%icer #ly commissione# !y the government o% the State
an# $hose name appears in the appropriate service list or its eAivalent, an# manne#
!y a cre$ $hich is n#er reglar arme# %orces #iscipline.
A*T.>A: Non-co#pliance %! warships with the laws and regulations o the coastal State
I% any $arship #oes not comply $ith the la$s an# reglations o% the coastal State
concerning passage throgh the territorial sea an# #isregar#s any reAest %or
compliance there$ith $hich is ma#e to it, the coastal State may reAire it to leave the
territorial sea imme#iately.
A*T. >4: +esponsi%ilit! o the lag State or da#age caused %! a warship or other
govern#ent ship operated or non-co##ercial purposes
The %lag State shall !ear international responsi!ility %or any loss or #amage to the
coastal State reslting %rom the non&compliance !y a $arship or other government ship
operate# %or non&commercial prposes $ith the la$s an# reglations o% the coastal
State concerning passage throgh the territorial sea or $ith the provisions o% this
(onvention or other rles o% international la$.
A*T. >2: '##unities o warships and other govern#ent ships operated or non-
co##ercial purposes
With sch exceptions as are containe# in s!section A an# in articles E. an# E1,
nothing in this (onvention a%%ects the immnities o% $arships an# other government
ships operate# %or non&commercial prposes.
UNCLOS Art. 21: :ri#inal .urisdiction on %oard a oreign ship.
1. The criminal "ris#iction o% the coastal State shol# not !e exercise# on !oar# a
%oreign ship passing throgh the territorial sea to arrest any person or to con#ct any
investigation in connection $ith any crime committe# on !oar# the ship #ring its
passage, save only in the %ollo$ing cases=
-a2 i% the conseAences o% the crime exten# to the coastal State+
-!2 i% the crime is o% a 'in# to #istr! the peace o% the contry or the goo# or#er o% the
territorial sea+
-c2 i% the assistance o% the local athorities has !een reAeste# !y the master o% the
ship or !y a #iplomatic agent or conslar o%%icer o% the %lag State+ or
-#2 i% sch measres are necessary %or the sppression o% illicit tra%%ic in narcotic #rgs
or psychotropic s!stances.
;. The a!ove provisions #o not a%%ect the right o% the coastal State to ta'e any steps
athoriGe# !y its la$s %or the prpose o% an arrest or investigation on !oar# a %oreign
ship passing throgh the territorial sea a%ter leaving internal $aters.
E. In the cases provi#e# %or in paragraphs 1 an# ;, the coastal State shall, i% the master
so reAests, noti%y a #iplomatic agent or conslar o%%icer o% the %lag State !e%ore ta'ing
any steps, an# shall %acilitate contact !et$een sch agent or o%%icer an# the shipUs cre$.
In cases o% emergency this noti%ication may !e commnicate# $hile the measres are
!eing ta'en.
* bok * cj * tiff * gem * tin * 19
S%A B%) AN) SUBSOIL O- T.% CONTIN%NTAL S.%L- B%LON,S TO T.% US
NOT IN0I)I)UAL 7%*SONS O* T.% STAT% O- CA
1. As against the State o% (ali%ornia an# all persons claiming n#er it, the s!soil an#
sea!e# o% the continental shel%, more than three geographical miles sea$ar# %rom the
nearest point or points on the coast line, at all ti(es pertinent hereto have
appertaine$ an$ now appertain to the Unite$ States an$ have 9een an$ now are
s"9Be't to its e&'l"sive B"ris$i'tion 'ontrol an$ power of $isposition. $he State
o :aliornia has no title thereto or propert! interest therein.
)%-INITION O- T%*6S
;. As se# herein, Vcoast lineV means &
-a2 The line o% mean lo$er lo$ $ater on the mainlan#, on islan#s, an# on lo$&ti#e
elevations lying $holly or partly $ithin three geographical miles %rom the line o% mean
lo$er lo$ $ater on the mainlan# or on an islan#+ an#
-!2 The line mar'ing the sea$ar# limit o% inlan# $aters.
The coast line is to !e ta'en as hereto%ore or herea%ter mo#i%ie# !y natral or arti%icial
means, an# incl#es the otermost permanent har!or $or's that %orm an integral part
o% the har!or system $ithin the meaning o% Article : o% the (onvention on the Territorial
Sea an# the (ontigos ,one, T. I. A. S. 7o. 90E/.
E. As se# herein &
-a2 VIslan#V means a natrally&%orme# area o% lan# srron#e# !y $ater, $hich is a!ove
the level o% mean high $ater+
-!2 VLo$&ti#e elevationV means a natrally&%orme# area o% lan# srron#e# !y $ater at
mean lo$er lo$ $ater, $hich is a!ove the level o% mean lo$er lo$ $ater !t not a!ove
the level o% mean high $ater+
-c2 V>ean lo$er lo$ $aterV means the average elevation o% all the #aily lo$er lo$ ti#es
occrring over a perio# o% 1:.0 years+
-#2 V>ean high $aterV means the average elevation o% all the high ti#es occrring over
a perio# o% 1:.0 years+
-e2 V6eographical mileV means a #istance o% 1:9; meters -0.C0.1.EEE . . . ?.S. Srvey
Feet or approximately 0.C0.1191/ International Feet2.
1. As se# herein, Vinlan# $atersV means $aters lan#$ar# o% the !aseline o% the
territorial sea, $hich are no$ recogniGe# as internal $aters o% the ?nite# States n#er
the (onvention on the Territorial Sea an# the (ontigos ,one. The inlan# $aters
re%erre# to in paragraph ; -!2 hereo% incl#e &
-a2 Any river or stream %lo$ing #irectly into the sea, lan#$ar# o% a straight line across
its moth+
-!2 Any port, lan#$ar# o% its otermost permanent har!or $or's an# a straight line
across its entrance+
-c2 Any Vhistoric !ay,V as that term is se# in paragraph 0 o% Article C o% the (onvention,
#e%ine# essentially as a !ay over $hich the ?nite# States has tra#itionally asserte#
an# maintaine# #ominion $ith the acAiescence o% %oreign nations+
-#2 Any other !ay -#e%ine# as a $ell&mar'e# coastal in#entation having sch
penetration, in proportion to the $i#th o% its entrance, as to contain lan#loc'e# $aters,
an# having an area, incl#ing islan#s $ithin the !ay, at least as great as the area o% a
semicircle $hose #iameter eAals the length o% the closing line across the entrance o%
the !ay, or the sm o% sch closing lines i% the !ay has more than one entrance2,
lan#$ar# o% a straight line across its entrance or, i% the entrance is more than ;1
geographical miles $i#e, lan#$ar# o% a straight line not over ;1 geographical miles
long, #ra$n $ithin the !ay so as to enclose the greatest possi!le amont o% $ater. An
estary o% a river is treate# in the same $ay as a !ay.
9. In #ra$ing a closing line across the entrance o% any !o#y o% inlan# $ater having
prononce# hea#lan#s, the line shall !e #ra$n !et$een the points $here the plane o%
mean lo$er lo$ $ater meets the otermost extension o% the hea#lan#s. Where there is
no prononce# hea#lan#, the line shall !e #ra$n to the point $here the line o% mean
lo$er lo$ $ater on the shore is intersecte# !y the !isector o% the angle %orme# $here a
line pro"ecting the general tren# o% the line o% mean lo$er lo$ $ater along the open
coast meets a line pro"ecting the general tren# o% the line o% mean lo$er lo$ $ater
along the tri!tary $ater$ay.
0. Roa#stea#s, $aters !et$een islan#s, an# $aters !et$een islan#s an# the mainlan#
are not per se inlan# $aters.
C. The inlan# $aters o% the <ort o% San <e#ro are those enclose# !y the !rea'$ater
an# !y straight lines across openings in the !rea'$ater+ !t the limits o% the port, east
o% the eastern en# o% the !rea'$ater, are not #etermine# !y this #ecree.
:. The inlan# $aters o% (rescent (ity Har!or are those enclose# $ithin the
!rea'$aters an# a straight line %rom the oter en# o% the $est !rea'$ater to the
sothern extremity o% Whaler Islan#.
/. The inlan# $aters o% >onterey @ay are those enclose# !y a straight line !et$een
<oint <inos an# <oint Santa (rG.
1.. The #escription o% the inlan# $aters o% the <ort o% San <e#ro, (rescent (ity
Har!or, an# >onterey @ay, as set %orth in paragraphs C, :, an# / hereo%, #oes not
imply that the three&mile limit is to !e measre# %rom the sea$ar# limits o% those inlan#
$aters in places $here the three&mile limit is place# %arther sea$ar# !y the application
o% any other provision o% this #ecree.
11. The %ollo$ing are not historic inlan# $aters, an# #o not comprise inlan# $aters
except to the extent that they may !e enclose# !y lines as hereina!ove #escri!e# %or
the enclosre o% inlan# $aters other than historic !ays=
-a2 Waters !et$een the Santa @ar!ara or (hannel Islan#s, or !et$een those islan#s
an# the mainlan#+
-!2 Waters a#"acent to the coast !et$een <oint (onception an# <oint Heneme+
Alwa#& will B
1. In consi#ering $hether or in $hat manner an arrest shol# !e ma#e, the local
athorities shall have #e regar# to the interests o% navigation.
9. Except as provi#e# in <art SII or $ith respect to violations o% la$s an# reglations
a#opte# in accor#ance $ith <art 5, the coastal State may not ta'e any steps on !oar# a
%oreign ship passing throgh the territorial sea to arrest any person or to con#ct any
investigation in connection $ith any crime committe# !e%ore the ship entere# the
territorial sea, i% the ship, procee#ing %rom a %oreign port, is only passing throgh the
territorial sea $ithot entering internal $aters.
A*T. 22: :ivil .urisdiction in relation to oreign ships
1. The coastal State shol# not stop or #ivert a %oreign ship passing throgh the
territorial sea %or the prpose o% exercising civil "ris#iction in relation to a person on
!oar# the ship.
;. The coastal State may not levy exection against or arrest the ship %or the prpose o%
any civil procee#ings, save only in respect o% o!ligations or lia!ilities assme# or
incrre# !y the ship itsel% in the corse or %or the prpose o% its voyage throgh the
$aters o% the coastal State.
E. <aragraph ; is $ithot pre"#ice to the right o% the coastal State, in accor#ance $ith
its la$s, to levy exection against or to arrest, %or the prpose o% any civil procee#ings,
a %oreign ship lying in the territorial sea, or passing throgh the territorial sea a%ter
leaving internal $aters.
A*T. 23: 1einition o warships
For the prposes o% this (onvention, V$arshipV means a ship !elonging to the arme#
%orces o% a State !earing the external mar's #istingishing sch ships o% its nationality,
n#er the comman# o% an o%%icer #ly commissione# !y the government o% the State
an# $hose name appears in the appropriate service list or its eAivalent, an# manne#
!y a cre$ $hich is n#er reglar arme# %orces #iscipline.
A*T.>A: Non-co#pliance %! warships with the laws and regulations o the coastal State
I% any $arship #oes not comply $ith the la$s an# reglations o% the coastal State
concerning passage throgh the territorial sea an# #isregar#s any reAest %or
compliance there$ith $hich is ma#e to it, the coastal State may reAire it to leave the
territorial sea imme#iately.
A*T. >4: +esponsi%ilit! o the lag State or da#age caused %! a warship or other
govern#ent ship operated or non-co##ercial purposes
The %lag State shall !ear international responsi!ility %or any loss or #amage to the
coastal State reslting %rom the non&compliance !y a $arship or other government ship
operate# %or non&commercial prposes $ith the la$s an# reglations o% the coastal
State concerning passage throgh the territorial sea or $ith the provisions o% this
(onvention or other rles o% international la$.
A*T. >2: '##unities o warships and other govern#ent ships operated or non-
co##ercial purposes
With sch exceptions as are containe# in s!section A an# in articles E. an# E1,
nothing in this (onvention a%%ects the immnities o% $arships an# other government
ships operate# %or non&commercial prposes.
* bok * cj * tiff * gem * tin * 20
-c2 Waters a#"acent to the coast !et$een <oint Fermin an# <oint Lasen -i#enti%ie# as
the !l%%s at the en# o% the Las @olsas Ri#ge at Hntington @each2+
-#2 Waters a#"acent to the coast !et$een <oint Lasen an# the $estern hea#lan# o%
7e$port @ay+
-e2 Santa >onica @ay+
-%2 (rescent (ity @ay+
-g2 San Lis O!ispo @ay.
1;. With the exceptions provi#e# !y 9 o% the S!merge# Lan#s Act, 0C Stat. E;, 1E
?.S.(. 1E1E -1/01 e#.2, an# s!"ect to the po$ers reserve# to the ?nite# States !y E
-#2 an# 0 o% sai# Act, 0C Stat. E1, E;, 1E ?.S.(. 1E11 -#2 an# 1E11 -1/01 e#.2, the
State o% (ali%ornia is entitle#, as against the ?nite# States, to the title to an# o$nership
o% the ti#elan#s along its coast -#e%ine# as the shore o% the mainlan# an# o% islan#s,
!et$een the line o% mean high $ater an# the line o% mean lo$er lo$ $ater2 an# the
s!merge# lan#s, minerals, other natral resorces an# improvements n#erlying the
inlan# $aters an# the $aters o% the <aci%ic Ocean within three !eo!raphi'al (iles
sea$ar# %rom the coast line an# !on#e# on the north an# soth !y the northern an#
sothern !on#aries o% the State o% (ali%ornia, incl#ing the right an# po$er to
manage, a#minister, lease, #evelop an# se the sai# lan#s an# natral resorces all in
accor#ance $ith applica!le State la$. The ?nite# States is not entitle#, as against the
State o% (ali%ornia, to any right, title or interest in or to sai# lan#s, improvements an#
natral resorces except as provi#e# !y 9 o% the S!merge# Lan#s Act.
1E. The parties shall s!mit to the (ort %or its approval any stiplation or stiplations
that they may enter into, i#enti%ying $ith greater particlarity all or any part o% the
!on#ary line, as #e%ine# !y this #ecree, !et$een the s!merge# lan#s o% the ?nite#
States an# the s!merge# lan#s o% the State o% (ali%ornia, or i#enti%ying any o% the
areas reserve# to the ?nite# States !y 9 o% the S!merge# Lan#s Act. As to any
portion o% sch !on#ary line or o% any areas claime# to have !een reserve# n#er 9 o%
the S!merge# Lan#s Act as to $hich the parties may !e na!le to agree, either party
may apply to the (ort at any time %or entry o% a %rther spplemental #ecree.
11. The (ort retains "ris#iction to entertain sch %rther procee#ings, enter sch
or#ers, an# isse sch $rits as may %rom time to time !e #eeme# necessary or
a#visa!le to give proper %orce an# e%%ect to this #ecree or to e%%ectate the rights o% the
parties in the premises.
'. Straits
Corf" Channel Case
$. Ar'hipela!os
Anal5sis of the Ar'hipela!i' )o'trine in the New Convention on the Law of the
Sea 95 8or!e CoC"ia
The Thir# ?7 (on%erence on the La$ o% the Sea %inally approve# the (onvention o% the
La$ o% the Sea on Apr. E., 1/:;. The approval o% the archipelagic #octrine is
signi%icant to the <hilippines, as it, along $ith In#onesia, espose# this #octrine since
the %irst an# secon# ?7 (on%erence on the La$ o% the Sea.
&id-*cean Archipelagos
THE <RO<OSAL. Bring the preparatory $or' %or the First ?7 (on%erence -1/9:2, the
<hilippines an# In#onesia s!mitte# proposals to treat mi#&ocean archipelagos as one
$hole nit. In its position paper, the <hilippines state# that )all $aters aron#, !et$een
an# connecting #i%%erent islan#s !elonging to the <hilippine archipelago, irrespective o%
Alwa#& will B
UNCLOS A*T. @3: )egal status o archipelagic waters, o the air space over
archipelagic waters and o their %ed and su%soil
1. The sovereignty o% an archipelagic State exten#s to the $aters enclose# !y the
archipelagic !aselines #ra$n in accor#ance $ith article 1C, #escri!e# as archipelagic
$aters, regar#less o% their #epth or #istance %rom the coast.
;. This sovereignty exten#s to the air space over the archipelagic $aters, as $ell as to
their !e# an# s!soil, an# the resorces containe# therein.
E. This sovereignty is exercise# s!"ect to this <art.
1. The regime o% archipelagic sea lanes passage esta!lishe# in this <art shall not in
other respects a%%ect the stats o% the archipelagic $aters, incl#ing the sea lanes, or
the exercise !y the archipelagic State o% its sovereignty over sch $aters an# their air
space, !e# an# s!soil, an# the resorces containe# therein.
A*T. D2: +ight o 'nnocent 2assage
1. S!"ect to article 9E an# $ithot pre"#ice to article 9., ships o% all States en"oy the
right o% innocent passage throgh archipelagic $aters, in accor#ance $ith <art II,
section E.
;. The archipelagic State may, $ithot #iscrimination in %orm or in %act among %oreign
ships, sspen# temporarily in speci%ie# areas o% its archipelagic $aters the innocent
passage o% %oreign ships i% sch sspension is essential %or the protection o% its secrity.
Sch sspension shall ta'e e%%ect only a%ter having !een #ly p!lishe#.
A*T. D>: +ight o archipelagic sea lanes passage
1. An archipelagic State may #esignate sea lanes an# air rotes therea!ove, sita!le
%or the continos an# expe#itios passage o% %oreign ships an# aircra%t throgh or over
its archipelagic $aters an# the a#"acent territorial sea.
;. All ships an# aircra%t en"oy the right o% archipelagic sea lanes passage in sch sea
lanes an# air rotes.
E. Archipelagic sea lanes passage means the exercise in accor#ance $ith this
(onvention o% the rights o% navigation an# over%light in the normal mo#e solely %or the
prpose o% continos, expe#itios an# no!strcte# transit !et$een one part o% the
high seas or an exclsive economic Gone an# another part o% the high seas or an
exclsive economic Gone.
1. Sch sea lanes an# air rotes shall traverse the archipelagic $aters an# the a#"acent
territorial sea an# shall incl#e all normal passage rotes se# as rotes %or
international navigation or over%light throgh or over archipelagic $aters an#, $ithin
sch rotes, so %ar as ships are concerne#, all normal navigational channels, provi#e#
that #plication o% rotes o% similar convenience !et$een the same entry an# exit points
shall not !e necessary.
* bok * cj * tiff * gem * tin * 21
their $i#th or #imension are necessary apprtenances o% the lan# territory %orming an
integral part o% the national or inlan# $aters, s!"ect to the exclsive sovereignty o% the
<hilippines.* The <hilippines maintaine# that its archipelago consists o% a continos
chain o% islan#s or islets in sch a $ay that !aselines col# easily !e #ra$n !et$een
appropriate points on oter islan#s or islets in sch a $ay as to encircle the $hole
archipelago $ithot crossing nreasona!ly large expanses o% $ater an# $ithot
in%ringing on the principles state# in the Anglo-Norwegian case. A rle that treate#
otlying archipelagos as a single nit an# the $aters lying !et$een an# $ithin the
islan#s as internal $aters $as ths propose#.
I7BO7ESIA also #eclare# that an archipelago shol# !e measre# as a nit, an# the
territorial sea measre# %rom the !aseline #ra$n !et$een the otermost islan#s.
Throgh a 1/9C <roclamation, the In#onesian government enclose# its $hole
archipelago $ith one system o% !aselines. @t to treat all the E...O In#onesian islan#s
as having its o$n territorial $aters $ol# !e pro!lematic especially #ring $ar, i.e. $rt
%ree#om o% commnication.
1/0. SE(O7B (O7FERE7(E O7 THE LAW OF THE SEA AT 6E7E5A, In#onesia
intro#ce# into the recor#s Act 7o. 1 o% its <resi#ent, in#icating straight !aselines
encircling all the islan#s o% the archipelago an# claiming all $aters insi#e as internal.
While the Aestion o% archipelagic State $as also raise# in this (on%erence, no
agreement $as reach an# hence no #ecision $as ma#e on the position o%
archipelagos.
(O>>E7T OF <ROF. FRA7(OIS O7 THE ISS?E= the territorial line %or grops o%
islan#s shol# !e the line lin'ing the otermost islan#s an# that the $aters $ithin sch
lines are internal $aters. The only Aestion $as the maximm length o% sch lines.
*pinions o Aurists
(.H. (OLO>@OS= the generally recogniGe# rle appears to !e that a grop o% islan#s
%orming an archipelago shol# !e consi#ere# as a nit an# the extent o% the territorial
$aters !e measre# %rom the center o% the archipelago. As to WO7 a grop o% islan#s
%orm an archipelago is #etermine# !y geographical con#itions !t it also #epen#s in
some cases on historical or prescriptive gron#s.
$he )aw o $erritorial ,aters and &ariti#e Aurisdiction
<HILI< HESS?<= archipelagos are consi#ere# as %orming a nit an# that the extent o%
the territorial $aters is measre# %rom the lan# %arthest %rom the center. He #i#nIt
propose a maximm #istance !et$een the islan#s.
SWAR,E7@ER6ER= in case o% islan#s %orming a natral nit or archipelago, the
esta!lishment o% a territorial "ris#iction is necessarily a gra#al process.
6IBEAL, in his 1roit 'nternational 2u%lic de )a#er, accepts the vie$ that archipelagos
shol# !e consi#ere# as a nit an# that the longer !aselines may !e "sti%ie# on the
theory o% )historic $aters.*
<OBESTA (OSTA N BIA, (IS7EROS= grops o% islan#s %orming an archipelago
shol# !e consi#ere# as a nit.
H8BE= an islan# in the high seaW has its o$n territorial $aters in marginal sea,
measre# three marine miles ot$ar# there%rom in the same manner as %rom the
mainlan#. Where, ho$ever, a grop o% islan#s %orm a %ringe or clster along the ocean
%ront o% maritime State, it may !e #o!te# $hether there is evi#ence o% any rle o%
International La$ that o!liges sch state invaria!ly to limit or measre its claim to the
$aters aron# them !y the exact #istance o% each nit.
HOB6SO7 N ALESA7BER, in their $owards An *%.ective Anal!sis o Special
:ircu#stance: (a!s, +ivers, :oastal and *ceanic Archipelagos and Atolls, consi#ere#
the #iversity o% con#itions $hich col# lea# to a special regime %or a mi#&ocean
archipelago.
2reparator! ,or- o the 6
rd
;N :onerence
(O>>ITTEE. Bring its ;E
r#
session, the ?7 6A a#opte# 1 resoltions= Res. ;10C A,
@, ( an# B -SSII2 esta!lishing the (ommittee on the <eace%l ?ses o% the Sea @e#
an# Ocean Floor @eyon# the Limits o% 7ational Hris#iction. In 6A Res. ;10C -SSIII2,
spplemente# !y Res. ;C9. -SS52, the (ommitteeIs man#ate $as rea%%irme# an# its
composition enlarge#. The <hilippines $as one o% the 11 mem!ers.
S?@&(O>>ITTEES $ere later %orme#=
1. S!&(ommittee I T preparing #ra%t treaty articles em!o#ying the international
regime, incl#ing the international machinery %or the Area an# the resorces
o% the sea !e#, ocean %loor, an# s!soil !eyon# the limits o% national
"ris#iction, ta'ing into accont the eAita!le sharing !y all States in their
!ene%its.
;. S!&(ommittee II T preparing a comprehensive list o% s!"ects an# isses
relate# to the la$ o% the sea
;9
an# to prepare #ra%t treaty articles thereon.
E. S!&(ommittee III T #ealt $ith preservation o% the marine environment an#
scienti%ic research to prepare #ra%t treaty articles thereon.
<OSITIO7 OF AR(HI<ELA6I( STATES. S!&(ommittee II re%erre# to the Aestion o%
the special position o% archipelagic States in international la$ an# to the varios criteria
$hich $ol# #etermine WO7 grops o% islan#s constitte an archipelago. It state# that
the nity o% an archipelagic state an# the protection o% its secrity, the preservation o%
its political an# economic nity, an# the preservation an# exploitation o% its marine
environment "sti%ie# the inclsion o% the $aters insi#e the archipelago n#er the
sovereignty o% the archipelagic State an# the grant o% a special stats to sch $aters.
Also, it state# that this special stats $as an emerging concept an# might !e settle# as
part o% an over&all soltion o% pro!lems relating to the la$ o% the sea.
(asic 2rinciples o Archipelagic States
THE <RI7(I<LE O7 AR(HI<ELA6I( BO(TRI7E $as s!mitte# !y the archipelagic
States
;0
to the Sea!e# (ommittee on 11 >ar. 1/CE. Artro Tolentino, (hairman o% the
<hil. #elegation, sai# that the archipelagic concept is "sti%ie# !y the lan#, $ater an#
people inha!iting the islan# o% the archipelagic State.
THE <RI7(I<LES=
1. An archipelagic state, $hose component islan#s an# other natral %eatres
%orm an intrinsic geographic, economic an# political entity, an# historically
have or may have !een regar#e# as sch may #ra$ straight !aselines
+!
$n the regi*es of the high seas, the continental shelf, the territorial sea and the contiguous
6one, fishing and conservation of the living resources of the high seas#
+9
Fi)i, Bndonesia, Aauritius, and the <hilippines
Alwa#& will B
* bok * cj * tiff * gem * tin * 22
connecting the otermost points % the otermost islan#s an# #rying ree%s o%
the archipelago %rom $hich the extent o% the territorial sea o% the archipelagic
state is or may !e #etermine#.
;. The $aters $ithin the !aselines, regar#less o% their #epth or #istance %rom
the coast, the sea!e# an# the s!soil thereo%, an# the sper"acent airspace,
as $ell as all their resorces, !elong an# are s!"ect to the sovereignty o% the
archipelagic state.
E. Innocent passage o% %oreign vessels throgh the $aters o% archipelagic State
shall !e allo$e# in accor#ance $ith its national legislation, having regar# to
the existing rles o% international la$. Sch passage shall !e throgh
sealanes as may !e #esignate# %or the prpose !y the archipelagic State.
@ASIS OF THE <RI7(I<LES= the nity o% the lan#, $ater an# people into a single
entity. It is %or the prpose o% achieving, maintaining, an# preserving this nity that an
archipelagic State is conceive# as one $hose component islan#s an# other natral
%eatres %orm an intrinsic geographic, economic an# political nity, an# historically have
or may have !een regar#e# as sch. This interrelation o% geography, economics,
politics, an# history is important.
An archipelago mst !e consi#ere# an integral geographical entity, strengthene# !y
political an# economic nity an# -sometimes2 sstaine# throgh the years !y historical
continity, %rom $hich its i#entity is #erive#. The %n#amental %actor is that they mst
have al$ays !een i#enti%ie# as #istinct entities. These essential elements o% nity are
the !ases %or the archipelagic StateIs #esire to preserve its i#entity as one, as many
islan#s compose it, $ith the conseAent %ragmentation o% the nation. Be to this #esire
%or nity, there shol# !e an international recognition o% the right o% archipelagic States
to #ra$ straight !aselines connecting the otermost points o% the otermost islan#s
an# #rying ree%s o% the archipelago %rom $hich the extent o% the territorial sea is or may
!e #etermine#. Within sch !aselines the $aters, sea!e#, s!soil, sper"acent
airspace an# their resorces !elong to an# are s!"ect to the sovereignty an#
exclsive "ris#iction o% the archipelagic State, %ollo$ing the accepte# principles on
State sovereignty an# "ris#iction. The thir# principle -on innocent passage2 reconciles
an# harmoniGes the pecliar national interest o% the archipelagic States an# those o%
the international commnity.
*%.ections to the Archipelagic :oncept
O@HE(TIO7 OF >ARITI>E <OWERS, LEB @8 THE ?S= most o% the islan# grops
claiming to !e archipelagic States lie astri#e some o% the most important
commnication rotes o% the $orl# an# are li'ely to enclose very s!stantial marine
areas. These maritime states sggeste# con#itions %or inclsion o% the archipelagic
#octrine in the (onvention, li'e= a precise #e%inition an# limitation o% the area to prevent
the enclosre o% %ar&%lng islan#s, along $ith great expanses o% $ater+ a %airly
reasona!le lan# to $ater ratio+ an# maximm length o% !aselines. These $ol# insre
compactness an# a reasona!le nity o% islan#. >aritime po$ers also insiste# on the
right o% navigation an# over%light throgh archipelagic $ater, since $aters $hich shol#
have !een high seas or at least territorial $aters $ol# then !ecome internal $aters,
crtailing %ree#om o% navigation.
THE SE(O7B (O>>ITTEEIS SI76LE 7E6OTIATI76 TEST ths incl#e# the
%ollo$ing provisions= $ater area to lan# area ratio is %ixe# !et$een 1=1 an# /=1+
maximm length o% !aselines shall not excee# :. natical miles+ an# !aselines shall
not #epart to any apprecia!le extent %rom the general con%igration o% the archipelago.
"eographic Features o the Archipelagic States
<RE(ISE BEFI7ITIO7 OF A7 AR(HI<ELA6I( STATE
;C
= a grop o% islan#s, incl#ing
parts o% islan#s, interconnecting $aters an# other natral %eatres $hich are so closely
interrelate# that sch islan#s, $aters an# other natral %eatres %orm an intrinsic
geographical, economic, an# political entity, or $hich historically have !een regar#e#
as sch.
1. THE <HILI<<I7ES= consists o% C1.. islan#s, $ith a com!ine# lan# area o%
E..,... sA. 'm. Water to lan# ratio is 9=1. The nity an# compactness o% this
archipelago is clearly sho$n $hen it is enclose# !y straight !aselines "oining
the otermost points. ?n#er these !aselines, total area -incl#ing the $ater2
is approximately ;9C,1.. sA. miles an# $ater to lan# ratio is approximately
1./=1. There are :. !aselines $ith a total length o% ;CC; natical miles. >ost
are relatively short, the longest !eing ;1E9 natical miles.
;. I7BO7ESIA= $ith E...O islan#s an# total lan# area o% 1./ million sA. 'm. Its
!aselines are over :10C.0 natical miles, enclosing approximately 000,1..
sA. natical miles, incl#ing the straits o% Sn#a, Sm!a, >ollcca, an#
>acassar. Lan# to $ater ratio is 1=1.1. It has a very strategic position as its
archipelagic $aters lie among the ma"or shipping lanes !et$een the >i##le
East an# Far East.
E. >A?RITI?S= has a lan# area o% C;. sA. m., an# esta!lishe# straight
!aselines. @t #e to great #istances !et$een islan#s, it might not Aali%y
n#er the reAire# lan# to $ater ratio. One sggestion $as to apply the
system o% straight !aselines as to ma'e this an archipelagic state $ith
several archipelagos.
1. FIHI= has :11 islan#s an# islets, total lan# area o% C.99 sA. miles. It is crosse#
!y ; important shipping lanes, the 7ana' <assage an# the Jan#ay Strait.
It a#opte# the straight !aselines system !t consi#ers the $aters $ithin as
territorial seas, ths innocent passage is nrestricte#. ItIs a party to the 1/9:
(onventions on the Territorial Sea an# the (ontigos ,one, High Seas,
Fishing an# (onservation o% Living Resorces, an# (ontinental Shel% in
1/C1.
9. @AHA>AS= $ith E. inha!ite# an# ninha!ite# caves an# roc's, an# only C..
may !e classi%ie# as islan#s an# the rest -more than 1...2 as roc's. It
propose# the system o% straight !aselines, an# $ater to lan# ratio is /=1, $ith
a maximm o% :. natical miles o% !aselines.
0. <A<?A 7EW 6?I7EA= legislate# its archipelagic !aselines an# other
maritime limits in 1/C:. The longest !aseline is 1;. natical miles !et$een
the 7orthern termins o% the lan# !on#ary !et$een <apa 7e$ 6inea,
In#onesia, an# W$vil Islan#s.
Other territories $here archipelagic !aselines may !e consi#ere#= Astralia, 7e$
He!ri#es, 7e$ ,ealan#, Western Samoa, Solomon Islan#, an# Tonga.
$he 'ssue o 2assage $hrough Archipelagic ,aters
+8
This was the reasona'le criterion, suggested '% *ariti*e powers, which the archipelagic
States accepted#
Alwa#& will B
* bok * cj * tiff * gem * tin * 2+
>OST <I5OTAL ISS?E= maritime po$ersI claim o% the right o% nimpe#e# passage
throgh archipelagic $aters an# %ree#om o% over%light over sai# $aters. This contention
rns conter to the !asic principle o% an archipelagic state, that all $aters $ithin the
!aselines !elong to an# are s!"ect to the sovereignty o% the archipelagic state, $hich
exten# to the airspace a!ove the $aters an# to the $ater colmn, sea!e#, s!soil, an#
all the resorces containe# therein. The $aters $ithin the !aselines -!eing integral
parts o% the archipelago2 are #istinct an# separate %rom those $ithot, ths the
archipelagic stateIs rights over them shol# !e greater than those $aters in the
territorial sea.
I7FOR>AL 7E6OTIATI76 TEST= Art. 1;1 provi#e# %or the right o% innocent passage
throgh archipelagic $aters. Art. 1;9 allo$e# the archipelagic state to #esignate
sealanes an# sea rotes, an# recogniGe# the right o% navigation an# over%light in the
normal mo#e
;:
%or the prpose o% contigos an# expe#itios transit throgh an
archipelago. Example, normal mo#e o% transit o% a s!marine is via s!merge#
passage, hence the passage n#er normal mo#e is more li!eral than the or#inary
passage throgh territorial $aters n#er the innocent passage concept. Art. 1;1, par. :
limite# the archipelagic stateIs right to #esignate sealanes or tra%%ic separation
schemes !y reAiring it to re%er the proposals to a competent organiGation, $hich mst
concr $ith the archipelagic state. I% there is no agreement !et$een them, there $ill !e
no #esignate# sealanes or tra%%ic separation schemes.
THE AR(HI<ELA6I( STATES, to !e consistent $ith the concept o% sovereignty an# to
accommo#ate transit vessels, agree# to grant innocent passage o% %oreign vessels
throgh #esignate# sealanes sita!le %or sa%e an# expe#itios passage, thogh the
archipelagic states may restrict the passage o% certain vessels. I% they $erenIt allo$e#
to #esignate sealanes, then the archipelagic $aters $ol# !e open to %oreign vessels,
ren#ering the archipelagic #octrine meaningless. In #esignating sealanes, archipelagic
states mst consi#er the recommen#ation or technical a#vice o% competent
international organiGations regar#ing the channels to !e se#.
A RE5ISEB SI76LE 7E6OTIATI76 TEST, $hich repro#ce# all the provisions on
archipelagic state, $as s!mitte#. All States en"oy the right o% innocent passage
throgh archipelagic $aters in accor#ance $ith sec. E, (hap. I o% this Text. Archipelagic
states may #esignate sealanes an# air rotes %or %oreign ships an# aircra%t, $hich
en"oy the right o% archipelagic sea lanes passage -this is the right o% navigation an#
over%light in the normal mo#e %or the prpose o% continos an# expe#itios transit
!et$een one part o% the high seasPEE, an# another part o% the high seasPEE,. I% no
sea lanesPair rotes $ere #esignate#, this right may !e exercise# throgh rotes
normally se# %or international navigation.
*%.ections o the 2hilippines to So#e 2rovisions o the +evised $e=t
RE= <ASSA6E THRO?6H TERRITORIAL WATERS, there mst !e a #istinction
!et$een the passage o% merchant ships an# $arships or vessels o% special
characteristics. The %ormer may !e allo$e# innocent passage, the latter only pon prior
noti%ication an#Por consent. A single regime, that o% innocent passage %or normal or
cstomary rotes %or international navigation, $as propose#.
+"
Nor*al *ode depends on the t%pe of vesselDaircraft#
I7(O7SISTE7(IES. While archipelagic states may #esignate sea lanes, these mst
incl#e normal rotes o% passage %or international navigation an# !e approve# !y a
competent international organiGation
;/
. I% no sealanes $ere approve#, then the rotes
normally se# %or international navigation $ill !e the sea lanes. @?T %or the territorial
sea, the coastal State is %ree to #esignate sea lanes $ithot the approval o% any
organiGation.
7?JES. ?n#er Art. ;1, %or the territorial sea, coastal states may reAire tan'ers, ships
!earing nclear $eaponsPinherently #angeros or noxios s!stances to con%ine their
passage to sealanes. This right isnIt given to archipelagic states. Also, Art. ;; reAires
these vessels, $hen exercising innocent passage throgh territorial sea, to carry
#ocments an# o!serve special precationary measres. Again, no sch provision %or
archipelagic states.
THE RE5ISEB TEST impose# more limitations on the sovereignty o% the archipelagic
State over its $aters, $hich is a legal anomaly. The reverse shol# !e the case, since
territorial seas are otsi#e the !aselines an# not an integral part o% the State.
$he 'nor#al :o#posite Negotiating $e=t
THIS TEST, pro#ce# #ring the E
r#
?7 (on%erence, contine# to recogniGe
archipelagic states $hich may constitte one or more archipelagos an# may incl#e
other islan#s.
BEFI7ITIO7 OF AR(HI<ELA6I( STATE
E.
= $ith all $aters aron#, !et$een, an#
connecting the islan#s irrespective o% their !rea#th an# #imensions %orming part o% the
internal $aters o% the <hilippines.
WRT @ASELI7ES, the I(7T state# that archipelagic states may #ra$ straight
!aselines "oining the otermost points o% the otermost islan#s an# #rying ree%s o% the
Archipelago provi#e# that $ithin sch !aselines are incl#e# the main islan#s an# an
area in $hich the ratio o% the are o% the $ater to the area o% the lan#, incl#ing atolls, is
!et$een 1=1 an# /=1, an# the length shall not excee# 1.. natical miles. The !rea#th
o% the territorial sea, contigos Gone, exclsive economic Gone, an# continental shel%
shall !e measre# %rom sch !aselines.
AFTER RE5ISIO7S, THE I(7T $as converte# to the Bra%t (onvention on the La$ o%
the Sea. A%ter still more revisions, the Bra%t (onvention $as %inally approve# on Apr.
E., 1/:; on the last #ay o% the 11
th
session o% the (on%erence.
$he Auridical Status o the Archipelagic State
(O7TE7TS OF THE BRAFT (O75E7TIO7. The #e%inition o% archipelagic state an#
the right o% the state to #ra$ straight !aselines $ere reiterate#. Also reiterate# the
provisions on #esignation o% sea lanes an# the #e%inition o% archipelagic sea lanes
passage.
+
Under ,rt# 1+!#
1-
Sa*e definition under ,rt# 1, <hil# Constitution#
Alwa#& will B
* bok * cj * tiff * gem * tin * 2,
SEA LA7ES shall !e #e%ine# !y a series o% continos axis lines %rom the entry points
o% passage rotes to the exit points. Ships an# aircra%t in archipelagic sea lanes shall
not #eviate more than ;9 natical miles to either si#e o% sch axis lines #ring the
passage, provi#e# that ships an# aircra%t shall not navigate closer to the coasts than
1.X o% the #istance !et$een the nearest points on islan#s !or#ering the sea lanes.
TRAFFI( SE<ARATIO7 S(HE>ES may !e prescri!e# !y the archipelagic State. Sea
lanes an# tra%%ic schemes shall con%orm to generally accepte# international reglations
$hich shall !e re%erre# to the competent international organiGation. The organiGation
may a#opt only sch sea lanes an# tra%%ic separation schemes as may !e #esignate#
!y the archipelagic state. I% none is #esignate#, passage may !e exercise# throgh the
rotes normally se# %or international navigation.
So#e *%servations on the 2rovisions on Archipelagic States
O7 SO5EREI67T8. While sovereignty over the enclose# $aters, airspace, sea!e#
an# s!soil are recogniGe# in Art. 1/, this sovereignty is more limite# than that over
territorial $aters.
a. Art. 9;= all ships, $ithot #istinction, shall en"oy the right o% innocent passage
throgh archipelagic $aters in accor#ance $ith the provisions on innocent
passage in territorial $aters+ this is innocent passage throgh the
normalPcstomary rotes o% navigation.
Art. 9E= $rt po$er to #esignate air rotes an# sea lanes, these shall incl#e all
normal passage rotes se# as rotes %or international navigation or over%light.
There $ill ths !e ; regimes o% passage T innocent passage similar to that in
territorial $aters, an# the archipelagic sea lanes passages $hich is a %ree transit
o% %oreign vessels.
!. Also remem!er the nee# to re%er to the competent international organiGation
$rt #esignation o% sea lanes passage, $hich isnIt %on# in the case o%
territorial $aters.
<HILI<<I7ES <RO<OSEB A>E7BATOR8 <RO5ISIO7S to #istingish the passage
o% $arships, nclear po$ere# vessels, an# those carrying nclearP#angeros
materials
E1
. The Bra%t (onvention ha# no sch #istinction $rt right o% innocent passage.
It $as also propose# that the archipelagic state !e given the po$er to promlgate sch
la$s an# reglations %or the passage o% $arships, nclear po$ere# vessels, an# those
$ith nclearP#angeros material. These amen#ments are particlarly signi%icant to an
archipelagic state, li'e the <hilippines, $ith very narro$ passages -i.e. #angers to the
secrity o% the state2.
$he Archipelagic States and the Straits-States 2roposal
B?E TO O@HE(TIO7S FRO> >ARITI>E <OWERS, $ho insiste# on the nimpe#e#
passage throgh archipelagic $aters, some archipelagic states too' the position that
states have the right to #esignate sea lanes %or $arships an# vessels o% special
characteristics. In the interest o% international navigation the straits states o%%er
innocent passage o% commercial vessels throgh #esignate# sea lanes. This le# to the
:&point proposal o% #ra%t articles o% navigation throgh the territorial sea incl#ing straits
se# %or international navigation.
11
See a'ove, under $')ections of the <hilippines#
:onclusion
From the start o% the E
r#
?7 (on%erence on the la$ o% the sea, the maritime po$ers
o!"ecte# to the archipelagic #octrine as it limite# the mo!ility o% their naval vessels.
Thogh they eventally accepte# it, this acceptance $as hal%&hearte# as they
intro#ce# so many limits -i.e. $ater to lan# ratio, max. length o% !aselines, passage
an# over%lights2. Even the regime o% the archipelagic $aters $as treate# #i%%erently.
While archipelagic principles consi#ere# the $aters insi#e the !aselines as internal
$aters, the opposition coine# the $or# )archipelagic $aters* to #istingish the regime
over sch $aters. This #istinction is clear in the (onvention $hich ma'es the regime o%
$aters, $rt "ris#iction o% the archipelagic states, more li!eral than territorial $aters.
The archipelagic states also $erenIt nite# #ring the negotiations. Except %or the
<hilippines, they a!an#one# the principle that $aters $ithin the !aselines -regar#less
o% #epth or #istances2 are internal $aters an# s!"ect to the archipelagic stateIs
sovereignty.
While the archipelagic #octrine is no$ recogniGe#, the regime o% the archipelagic state
over its $aters has !een crtaile#. Sovereignty o% the archipelagic state over the
enclose# -internal2 $aters is recogniGe# !y this is limite# especially $rt passage an#
ove%light o% military vehicles. The (onvention assre# the nimpe#e# passage o% all
'in#s o% vessels. Aircra%t in transit passage $ill o!serve the rles esta!lishe# !y the
International (ivil Aviation OrganiGation. Bring transit passage, %oreign ships
-incl#ing marine scienti%ic research an# hy#rographic srvey ships2 may not carry ot
any research or srvey activities $ithot the prior athoriGation o% the archipelagic
state.
Corf" Channel Case
e. The Conti!"o"s #one
f. The Continental Shelf
North Sea Continental Shelf Case
CAS% CONC%*NIN, T.% CONTIN%NTAL S.%L-: LIBEAN A*AB
8A6A.I*IEAF6ALTA (> 8"ne 432D)
LI@8A A7B >ALTA TELLS (O?RT OF THEIR S<E(IAL A6REE>E7T TO S?@>IT
BIS<?TE RE BELI>ITATIO7 OF (O7TI7E7TAL SHELF.
1. @y a noti%ication #ate# 1/ Hly 1/:;, receive# in the Registry o% the (ort on ;0 Hly
1/:;, the Secretary o% the <eopleUs (ommittee %or the <eopleUs Foreign Liaison @rea
o% the Socialist <eopleUs Li!yan Ara! Hamahiriya an# the >inister %or Foreign A%%airs o%
the Rep!lic o% >alta noti%ie# the (ort o% a Special Agreement in the Ara!ic an#
English langages signe# at 5alletta on ;E >ay 1/C0 !et$een the Li!ya an# >alta,
provi#ing %or the s!mission to the (ort o% a #ispte concerning the #elimitation o% the
continental shel% !et$een those t$o States+ a certi%ie# copy o% the Special Agreement
$as enclose# $ith the letter.
(O7TE7TS OF A6REE>E7T.
;. The athentic English text o% the Special Agreement rea#s as %ollo$s=
Article 4
The (ort is reAeste# to #eci#e the %ollo$ing Aestion=
Alwa#& will B
* bok * cj * tiff * gem * tin * 2-
What principles an# rles o% international la$ are applica!le to the #elimitation o% the
area o% the continental shel% $hich appertains to the Rep!lic o% >alta an# the area o%
continental shel% $hich appertains to the Li!yan Ara! Rep!lic, an# ho$ in practice
sch principles an# rles can !e applie# !y the t$o <arties in this particlar case in
or#er that they may $ithot #i%%iclty #elimit sch areas !y an agreement as provi#e#
in Article III.
Article ''
1. The procee#ings shall consist o% $ritten plea#ings an# oral hearings.
;. Withot pre"#ice to any Aestion o% the !r#en o% proo%, the $ritten plea#ings shall
consist o% the %ollo$ing #ocments =
(a) >emorials to !e s!mitte# simltaneosly to the (ort !y each <arty an#
exchange# $ith one another $ithin a perio# o% nine months %rom the #ate o%
the noti%ication o% this agreement to the Registrar o% the (ort.
-!2 Replies to !e similarly s!mitte# to the (ort !y each <arty an#
exchange# $ith one another $ithin %or months a%ter the #ate o% the
s!missions o% the >emorials to the Registrar.
-c2 A##itional $ritten plea#ings may !e presente# an# exchange# in the
same manner $ithin perio#s $hich shall !e %ixe# !y the (ort at the reAest
o% one o% the <arties, or i% the (ort so #eci#es a%ter consltation $ith the t$o
<arties.
E. The Aestion o% the or#er o% spea'ing at the oral hearings shall !e #eci#e# !y
mtal agreement !et$een the <arties !t in al1 cases the or#er o% spea'ing a#opte#
shall !e $ithot pre"#ice to any Aestion o% the !r#en o% proo%.
Article '''
Follo$ing the %inal #ecision o% the International (ort o% Hstice the 6overnment o% the
Rep!lic o% >alta an# the 6overnment o% the Li!yan Ara! Rep!lic shall enter into
negotiations %or #etermining the area o% their respective continental shelves an# %or
concl#ing an agreement %or that prpose in accor#ance $ith the #ecision o% the (ort.
Article 'G
This agreement shall enter into %orce on the #ate o% exchange o% instrments o%
rati%ication !y the t$o 6overnments, an# shall !e noti%ie# "ointly to the Registrar o% the
(ort.V
?7 SE(&6E7, ET AL. 6I5E7 (O<8 OF 7OTIFI(ATIO7.
E. <rsant to Article 1., paragraph E, o% the Statte an# to Article 1; o% the Rles o%
(ort, copies o% the noti%ication an# Special Agreement $ere transmitte# to the
Secretary&6eneral o% the ?nite# 7ations, the >em!ers o% the ?nite# 7ations an# other
States entitle# to appear !e%ore the (ort.
<ARTIES (HOSE A H?B6E AB HO(.
1. Since the (ort #i# not incl#e pon the !ench a "#ge o% Li!yan or o% >altese
nationality, each o% the <arties procee#e# to exercise the right con%erre# !y Article E1,
paragraph E, o% the Statte to choose a "#ge ad hoc to sit in the case. The Li!yan
Ara! Hamahiriya #esignate# >r. E#ar#o HimYneG #e ArYchaga, an# >alta #esignate#
>r. Horge (asta%ie#a + on 1E Octo!er 1/:1 >r. (asta%ie#a resigne# his %nctions %or
reasons o% health, $herepon >alta #esignate# >r. 7icolas 5alticos to ta'e his place.
TI>E&LI>ITS FOR FILI76 >E>ORIALS FISEB.
9. @y Or#ers o% ;C Hly 1/:; an# ;0 April 1/:E respectively time&limits $ere %ixe# %or
the %iling o% a >emorial an# a (onter&>emorial !y each o% the t$o <arties, an# the
>emorials an# (onter&>emorials $ere #ly %ile# $ithin those time&limits, an#
exchange# !et$een the <arties throgh the Registrar prsant to the Special
Agreement.
ITAL8 A<<LIEB TO I7TER5E7E+ (O?RT BE7IES.
0. @y an Application #ate# ;E Octo!er 1/:E an# receive# in the Registry o% the (ort
on ;1 Octo!er 1/:E, the 6overnment o% Italy, invo'ing Article 0; o% the Statte,
s!mitte# to the (ort a reAest %or permission to intervene in the case. @y a
H#gment #ate# ;1 >arch 1/:1, the (ort %on# that the application o% Italy %or
permission to intervene col# not !e grante#.
TI>E&LI>IT FOR RE<LIES FISEB.
C. @y an Or#er #ate# ; 1 >arch 1/:1, the <resi#ent o% the (ort, having regar# to
Article II, paragraph ; (c), o% the Special Agreement, Aote# a!ove, %ixe# a time&limit
%or the %iling o% Replies, $hich $ere %ile# an# exchange# $ithin the time&limit %ixe#.
<?@LI( SITTI76S HELB.
:. On ;0 to E. 7ovem!er, E Becem!er, 0 to C Becem!er, 1. to 11 Becem!er 1/:1,
an# 1 to 8 Fe!rary, : Fe!rary, 11 to 1E Fe!rary an# ;1 to ;; Fe!rary 1/:9, the
(ort hel# p!lic sittings at $hich it $as a##resse# !y the %ollo$ing
representatives o% the <arties= (enu#eration deleted)
LI@8AIS ES<ERTS ESA>I7EB.
/. <ro%essor Han van Hinte, Br. Ber' Hongsma an# <ro%essor Icilio Finetti $ere calle#
as experts !y the Li!yan Ara! Hamahiriya, prsant to Articles 8H an# 0E to 09 o% the
Rles o% (ort. They $ere examine# in chie% !y <ro%essor B. W. @o$ett, an# <ro%essor
van Hinte $as cross&examine# !y >r. E. Laterpacht. <ro%essor 6eorges >ascle an#
<ro%essor (arlo >orelli $ere similarly calle# as experts !y >alta + they $ere examine#
in chie% !y >r. E. Laterpacht, an# cross&examine# !y <ro%essor B. W. @o$ett.
ITAL8 ASJS FOR (O<8 OF <LEABI76S+ (O?RT BE7IEB @?T LATER <LEABI76S
>ABE A5AILA@LE TO THE <?@LI(.
1.. <reviosly to its application %or permission to intervene, re%erre# to in paragraph 0
a!ove, the 6overnment o% Italy, in reliance on Article 9E, paragraph 1, o% the Rles o%
(ort, as'e# to !e %rnishe# $ith copies o% the plea#ings in the case. @y a letter #ate#
1E Octo!er 1/:E, a%ter the vie$s o% the <arties ha# !een soght, an# o!"ection ha#
!een raise# !y the 6overnment o% >alta, the Registrar in%orme# the 6overnment o%
Italy that the (ort ha# #eci#e# not to grant its reAest. On ;0 7ovem!er 1/:1 the
(ort #eci#e#, a%ter ascertaining the vie$s o% the <arties prsant to Article 9E,
paragraph ;, o% the Rles o% (ort, that the plea#ings shol# !e ma#e accessi!le to
the p!lic $ith e%%ect %rom the opening o% the oral procee#ings, an# they $ere ths at
the same time ma#e availa!le to Italy.
>E>ORIAL OF LI@8A.
11. In the corse o% the $ritten procee#ings, the %ollo$ing s!missions $ere presente#
!y the <arties=
*n %ehal o the Socialist 2eopleIs )i%!an Ara% Aa#ahiri!a,
in the >emorial = a%ter a pream!le not here Aote#=
J&a! it please the :ourt, re"ecting all contrary claims an# s!missions, to
a#"#ge an# #eclare as %ollo$s =
1. The #elimitation is to !e e%%ecte# !y agreement in accor#ance $ith
eAita!le principles an# ta'ing accont o% all relevant circmstances in or#er
to achieve an eAita!le reslt.
Alwa#& will B
* bok * cj * tiff * gem * tin * 2.
;. The natral prolongation o% the respective lan# territories o% the <arties into
an# n#er the sea is the !asis o% title to the areas o% continental shel% $hich
appertain to each o% them.
E. The #elimitation shol# !e accomplishe# in sch a $ay as to leave as
mch as possi!le to each <arty al1 areas o% continental shel% that constitte
the natral prolongation o% its lan# territory into an# n#er the sea, $ithot
encroachment on the natral prolongation o% the other.
1. A criterion %or #elimitation o% continental shel% areas in the present case can
!e #erive# %rom the principle o% natral prolongation !ecase there exists a
%n#amental #iscontinity in the sea&!e# an# s!soil $hich #ivi#es the areas
o% continental shel% into t$o #istinct natral prolongations exten#ing %rom the
lan# territories o% the respective <arties.
9. EAita!le principles #o not reAire that a State possessing a restricte#
coastline !e treate# as i% it possesse# an extensive coastline.
0. In the particlar geographical sitation o% this case, the application o%
eAita!le pnnciples reAires that the #elimitation shol# ta'e accont o% the
signi%icant #i%%erence in lengths o% the respective coastlines $hich %ace the
area in $hich the #elimitation is to !e e%%ecte#.
C. The #elimitation in this case shol# re%lect the element o% a reasona!le
#egree o% proportionality $hich a #elimitation carrie# ot in accor#ance $ith
eAita!le principles oght to !ring a!ot !et$een the extent o% the
continental shel% areas appertaining to the respective States an# the lengths
o% the relevant parts o% their coasts, accont !eing ta'en o% any other
#elimitations !et$een States in the same region.
:. Application o% the eAi#istance metho# is not o!ligatory, an# its application
in the particlar circmstances o% this case $ol# not lea# to an eAita!le
reslt.
/. The principles an# rles o% international la$ can in practice !e applie# !y
the <arties so as to achieve an eAita!le reslt, ta'ing accont o% the
physical %actors an# all the other relevant circmstances o% this case, !y
agreement on a #elimitation $ithin, an# %ollo$ing the general #irection o%, the
Ri%t ,one as #e%ine# in this >emorialV+
in the (onter&>emorial an# the Reply= a%ter mo#i%ie# pream!les not here Aote#, the
s!missions as presente# in the >emorial $ere repeate#.
>E>ORIAL OF >ALTA.
*n %ehal o the +epu%lic o &alta,
in the >emorial =
J&a! it please the :ourt to a#"#ge an# #eclare that=
-i2 the principles an# rles o% international la$ applica!le to the #elimitation o%
the areas o% the continental shel% $hich appertain to >alta an# Li!ya are that
the #elimitation shall !e e%%ecte# on the !asis o% international la$ in or#er to
achieve an eAita!le soltion +
-ii2 in practice the a!ove principles an# rles are applie# !y means o% a
me#ian line every point o% $hich is eAi#istant %rom the nearest points on the
!aselines o% >alta, an# the lo$&$ater mar' o% the (oast o% Li!yaV +
in the (onter&>emorial an# the Reply = the s!missions as presente# in the >emorial
$ere repeate# an# con%irme#.
FI7AL S?@>ISSIO7S OF <ARTIES.
1;. In the corse o% the oral procee#ings, the %ollo$ing s!missions $ere presente# !y
the <arties =
*n %ehal o the Socialist 2eopleIs )i%!an Ara% Aa#ahiri!a
at the hearing o% ;; Fe!rary 1/:9, the %inal s!missions o% the Li!yan Ara!
Hamahiriya $ere rea#, $hich $ere i#entical $ith those set ot in the
>emorial.
*n %ehal o the +epu%lic o &alta,
at the hearing o% 1E Fe!rary 1/:9=
J&a! it please the :ourt, . . . to declare and ad.udge that =
-i2 the principles an# rles o% international la$ applica!le to the #elimitation o%
the areas o% the continental shel% $hich appertain to >alta an# Li!ya are that
the #elimitation shall !e e%%ecte# on the !asis o% international la$ in or#er to
achieve an eAita!le reslt +
-ii2 in practice the a!ove principles an# rles are applie# !y means o% a
me#ian line every point o% $hich is eAi#istant %rom the nearest points on the
!aselines o% >alta, an# the lo$&$ater mar' o% the coasts o% Li!ya.V
(HA76E OF (O?RTIS (O><OSITIO7 B?E TO TER> ES<IR8.
1E. T$o >em!ers o% the (ort -H#ges >osler an# El&Jhani2 $hose terms o% o%%ice
expire# n#er Article 1E, paragraph 1, o% the Statte o% the (ort on 9 Fe!rary 1/:9
have contine# to participate in the present procee#ings in accor#ance $ith paragraph
E o% Article 1E. On 11 Fe!rary 1/:9, the (ort electe# H#ge 7agen#ra Singh as
<resi#ent o% the (ort an# H#ge #e LacharriZre as 5ice&<resi#ent o% the (ort + in
accor#ance $ith Article E;, paragraph ;, o% the Rles o% (ort, the (ort as compose#
%or the present procee#ings has contine# to sit n#er the presi#ency o% H#ge Elias.
6EO6RA<HI(AL BES(RI<TIO7, TO O?TLI7E 6E7ERAL @A(J6RO?7B O7L8.
11. It is appropriate to !egin $ith a general #escription o% the geographical context o%
the #ispte !e%ore the (ort, that is to Say the area in $hich the continental shel%
#elimitation has to !e e%%ecte#. It shol# ho$ever !e emphasiGe# that the only prpose
o% the #escription $hich %ollo$s is to otline the general !ac'gron# it is not inten#e#
to #e%ine in geographical terms the area $hich is relevant to the #elimitation an# the
area in #ispte !et$een the <arties. The Aestion $hether the area in $hich the
#elimitation is to !e e%%ecte# has %or any reason to !e #e%ine# or containe# $ithin limits
$ill !e examine# later in this H#gment -paragraphs ;.&;E2. Similarly, the only prpose
o% >ap 7o. 1 appen#e# to the present H#gment is to give a general pictre o% the
geographical context o% the #ispte, an# no legal signi%icance attaches to the choice o%
scale or the presence or a!sence o% any particlar geographical %eatre.
LI@8A A7B >ALTAIS 6EO6RA<H8.
19. >alta is a State ma#e p o% a grop o% %or inha!ite# islan#s= >alta -;10 sA 'm in
area2, 6oGo -00 sA 'm2, (omino -;.C sA 'm2, (ominotto -less than one&tenth o% a
sAare 'ilometre2 + an# the ninha!ite# roc' o% Fil%la. The E0V 7 parallel passes
!et$een the main islan# o% >alta an# the islan# o% 6oGo, $hich lie !et$een the 11V E
an# 19V E meri#ians. The islan#s are sitate# in the (entral >e#iterranean, an area o%
the >e#iterranean Sea $hich may !e sai# !roa#ly to !e !on#e# !y the eastern coast
o% Tnisia on the West, a part o% the coast o% Italy, $ith the sothern an# eastern coasts
o% the islan# o% Sicily an# the Ionian coast o% the mainlan# p to the Strait o% Otranto on
the north, the $estern coast o% 6reece, %rom the islan# o% (or% to the sothern tip o%
the <eloponnese an# the islan# o% (rete on the east, an# on the soth !y the coast o%
the Socialist <eopleUs Li!yan Ara! Hamahiriya -hereina%ter calle# VLi!yaV2. Li!ya is a
mainlan# State on the coast o% 7orth A%rica covering a large area lying mainly !et$een
the /V E.U E an# ;9V E meri#ians, an# encompassing some 1,CC9,9.. sAare
Alwa#& will B
* bok * cj * tiff * gem * tin * 2/
'ilometres. The coast o% Li!ya stretches %or more than 1,C.. 'ilometres %rom Ras A"#ir
in the West to near <ort @ar#ia in the east.
10. The >altese islan#s are oriente# in an approximately north$est&sotheast
#irection, an# exten# %or a #istance o% some 11.9 'ilometres -;1 natical miles2. 7orth
o% >alta, at a #istance o% some :. 'ilometres -1E natical miles2 is the islan# o% Sicily.
The sotheast tip o% >alta lies approximately E1. 'ilometres -1:E natical miles2 north
o% the nearest point on the coast o% Li!ya, an# the latter point is to !e %on# some
three&Aarters o% the #istance along the most $esterly segment o% the Li!yan coast,
that rnning %rom the %rontier $ith Tnisia at Ras A"#ir, some$hat soth o% east, throgh
Ras Ta"ra to Ras ,arrA. At a!ot the latter point, the Li!yan coast s$ings
soth$ar#s, %orming the $estern en# o% the 6l% o% Sirt, the coast at the !ac' o% $hich
rns again some$hat soth o% east ntil, at a!ot the meri#ian ;.V E it s$ings ron#
north an# slightly West, then ron# to the east$ar# again throgh @enghaGi to Ras
Arnir. The general line o% the coast %rom there to the %rontier $ith Egypt is again
some$hat soth o% east$ar#s.
>ALTA A7B ITAL8 A6REEB FOR <RO5ISIO7AL ES<LOITATIO7 OF (O7TI7E7TAL
SHELF @ETWEE7 SI(IL8+ ASIBE FRO> THIS, 7O OTHER A6REE>E7T >ABE @8
LI@8A A7B >ALTA WITH OTHER 7EI6H@ORS.
1C. In 1/C. agreement $as reache# !et$een >alta an# Italy %or provisional
exploitation o% the continental shel% in a short section o% the channel !et$een Sicily an#
>alta on each si#e o% the me#ian line, s!"ect to any a#"stments that might !e ma#e
in s!seAent negotiations. With this exception, neither o% the <arties has yet
esta!lishe# any agree# #elimitation o% continental shel%, or other maritime areas, $ith
any neigh!oring State. The Aestion o% the #elimitation !et$een Li!ya an# Tnisia
has !een the s!"ect o% a H#gment o% the (ort (:ontinental Shel ($unisial)i%!an
Ara% Aa#ahiri!a, 4FC5). Belimitations in this part o% the >e#iterranean have !een
e%%ecte# !y agreement !et$een Italy an# 6reece, an# !et$een Italy an# Tnisia.
These #elimitations are in#icate# in >ap 7o. 1. 7either <arty has proclaime# an
exclsive economic Gone, !t >alta has proclaime# a 58-mile exclsive %ishing Gone.
>alta has also #e%ine# straight !aselines %or the measrement o% its territorial sea
relying on Article 1 o% the (onvention on the Territorial Sea an# the (ontigos ,one.
@oth <arties have grante# a nm!er o% petrolem exploration concessions exten#ing
into areas material to the case.
K?ESTIO7 THE (O?RT IS TO BE(IBE+ (O7TE7TIO7S OF THE <ARTIES O7
WHAT THE K?ESTIO7 SHO?LB SETTLE.
1:. The terms o% the Special Agreement !y $hich the (ort $as seise# o% the present
case have !een set ot in paragraph ; o% the present H#gment. The Aestion $hich
the (ort is reAeste# to #eci#e is there #e%ine# as %ollo$s =
VWhat principles an# rles o% international la$ are applica!le to the
#elimitation o% the area o% the continental shel% $hich appertains to the
Rep!lic o% >alta an# the area o% continental shel% $hich appertains to the
Li!yan Ara! Rep!lic, an# ho$ in practice sch principles an# rles can !e
applie# !y the t$o <arties in this particlar case in or#er that they may
$ithot #i%%iclty #elimit sch areas !y an agreement as provi#e# in Article
III.V
The %irst part o% the reAest is ths inten#e# to resolve the #i%%erences !et$een the
<arties regar#ing the principles an# rles o% international la$ $hich are applica!le in
the present case+ there is in this case no #ivergence o% vie$s !et$een the <arties as to
the tas' to !e per%orme# !y the (ort. As to the secon# part o% the reAest, it has !een
state# !e%ore the (ort that the $or#ing o% the Special Agreement in this respect $as a
compromise %ormla. >alta ha# $ishe# the (ort to !e as'e# to #ra$ the #elimitation
line, $hile Li!ya $ante# it to !e reAeste# only to prononce on the principles an#
rles o% international la$ applica!le. Li!ya $ol# not accept that the line itsel% shol#
!e #ra$n !y the (ort since, in its vie$, it $as pre%era!le that this !e #one !y
agreement !et$een the <arties. >alta #i# not agree that the matter !e le%t to the
<arties since it is o% the vie$ that the re%erence o% the #ispte to the (ort $ol# then
%ail to achieve its main prpose. While the Special Agreement as a#opte# #oes not
reAest the (ort itsel% to #ra$ the line o% #elimitation !et$een the areas o% continental
shel% appertaining to each <arty, >alta, relying on the interpretation !y the (ort o% the
similarly $or#e# Special Agreement in the case concerning the :ontinental Shel
($unisiaK)i%!an Ara% Aa#ahiri!a), conten#s that Vthe (ort shol# in#icate the
!on#ary $hich, in its vie$, $ol# reslt %rom the application o% sch metho# as the
(ort may choose %or the <arties to achieve the relevant #eterminationV. >alta
emphasiGes the prpose o% the procee#ings as !eing to ena!le the <arties to e%%ect the
#elimitation V$ithot #i%%icltyV, $hich col# not, it arges, !e achieve# nless the (ort
$ere to state in the clearest possi!le terms ho$ the exercise is to !e carrie# ot.
>altaUs s!missions, accor#ingly, reAest a %in#ing !y the (ort that the appropriate
principles an# rles are in practice to !e applie# !y means o% a speci%ic line -a me#ian
line2. Li!ya on the other han# maintains that the tas' o% the (ort in the present case
#oes not exten# so %ar as the actal #etermination o% the #elimitation line, an# it nee#
not speci%y or particlariGe one metho# o% #elimitation or one $ay !y $hich in practice
the principles an# rles can !e applie# + in Li!yaUs vie$ the goal to !e reache# is the
reslt $hich $ol# !e in accor# $ith eAita!le principles an# represent the most
appropriate application o% the existing principles an# rles o% international la$.
Accor#ingly, the s!missions o% Li!ya re%er in !roa# terms to a #elimitation !y
agreement on the !asis o% the (ortUs H#gment V$ithin, an# %ollo$ing the general
#irection o%V, a particlar sea&!e# area #e%ine# in the Li!yan >emorial+ it is explaine#
that in its plea#ings VLi!ya #i# not a#vance a precise line, since the (ortUs tas' is not
to #etermine a precise lineV.
(O?RT WILL BE(IBE @ASEB O7 AS(ERTAI7>E7T OF THE I7TE7T OF THE
<ARTIES <ER THE S<E(IAL A6REE>E7T.
1/. Since the "ris#iction o% the (ort #erives %rom the Special Agreement !et$een the
<arties, the #e%inition o% the tas' so con%erre# pon it is primarily a matter o%
ascertainment o% the intention o% the <arties !y interpretation o% the Special Agreement.
The (ort mst not excee# the "ris#iction con%erre# pon it !y the <arties, !t it mst
also exercise that "ris#iction to its %ll extent. The Special Agreement, nli'e that !y
$hich the (ort $as seise# in the $unisiaK)i%!a case, contains no re%erence to the
in#ication o% a metho# or metho#s o% #elimitation + !t since the (ort is reAire# to
#eci#e ho$ in practice the principles an# rles o% international la$ can !e applie# in
or#er that the <arties may #elimit the continental
shel% !y agreement V$ithot #i%%icltyV, this necessarily entails the in#ication !y the
(ort o% the metho# or metho#s $hich it consi#ers to reslt %rom the proper application
o% the appropriate rles an# principles. Whether the (ort shol# in#icate an actal
#elimitation line $ill in some #egree #epen# pon the metho# or metho#s %on#
applica!le= i%, %or example, the (ort $ere to %in# that the eAi#istance metho# is
reAire# !y the applica!le la$ in the circmstances o% this case, its %in#ing to that e%%ect
$ol# in %act #ictate the #elimitation line, since the natre o% that metho# is sch that
any given set o% !ase points $ill generate only one possi!le eAi#istance line. Other
metho#s, ho$ever, less atomatic in their operation, might reAire to !e !ac'e# !y
more #etaile# in#ications o% criteria !y the (ort, i% the o!"ective o% an agree#
Alwa#& will B
* bok * cj * tiff * gem * tin * 20
#elimitation reache# V$ithot #i%%icltyV is to !e achieve#. The (ort #oes not in any
event consi#er that it is #e!arre# !y the terms o% the Special Agreement %rom in#icating
a line. Even Li!ya, $hich conten#s that the tas' o% the (ort in the present case #oes
not exten# so %ar as the actal #etermination o% the #elimitation line, #i# in %act itsel%
in#icate on the map t$o possi!le lines %or the prpose o% illstrating a possi!le metho#
$hich it consi#ere# $ol# !e li'ely to pro#ce an eAita!le reslt. It shol# also !e
note# that !oth <arties have in#icate# that the conseAences o% the application o% any
metho# initially a#opte# are to !e teste# against certain criteria in or#er to chec' the
eAita!leness o% the reslt. It is not apparent ho$ this operation col# !e per%orme#
nless that reslt too' the %orm o% at least an approximate line $hich col# !e
illstrate# on a map.
(O7TE7TIO7S O7 WHETHER (O?RTIS BE(ISIO7 SHO?LB (O5ER AREAS
ALSO (LAI>EB @8 OTHER STATES 7OT <ARTIES TO THE <RESE7T (ASE.
;.. The #elimitation contemplate# !y the Special Agreement is o% corse solely that
!et$een the areas o% continental shel% appertaining to the <arties. It is no part o% the
tas' o% the (ort to #e%ine the legal principles an# rles applica!le to any #elimitation
!et$een one or other o% the <arties an# any thir# State, let alone to in#icate the
practical application o% those principles an# rles to sch #elimitation. The (ort is in
%act a$are o% the existence o% speci%ic claims !y a thir# State to areas $hich are also
claime# !y the <arties= these are the claims o% Italy, $hich in 1/:1 ma#e an application
to the (ort %or permission to intervene n#er Article 0; o% the Statte o% the (ort, an#
otline# to the (ort in the corse o% the procee#ings on that reAest the extent o% its
continental shel% claims in the #irection o% Li!ya an# >alta. In its H#gment o% ;1 >arch
1/:1, !y $hich it %on# that the Italian Application col# not !e grante#, the (ort
explaine# that it Vcannot $holly pt asi#e the Aestion o% the legal interest o% Italy as
$ell as o% other States o% the >e#iterranean region, an# they $ill have to !e ta'en into
accontV -I.(.H. Reports 1/:12. In the geographical context o% the case it is also
possi!le that there might !e con%lict !et$een the claims o% the <arties an# sch claims
as may !e ma#e !y Tnisia, thogh the (ort has not !een %rnishe# $ith any
in%ormation as to the vie$s o% that State as to its o$n entitlement vis&[&vis >alta. The
<arties agree, ho$ever, as concerns the extent o% the (ortUs #ecision, in conten#ing
that the (ort shol# not %eel inhi!ite# %rom exten#ing its #ecision to all areas $hich,
in#epen#ently o% thir# party claims, are claime# !y the <arties to this case, since i% the
(ort $ere to excl#e any sch areas as are the s!"ect o% present or possi!le %tre
claims !y a thir# State it $ol# in e%%ect !e #eci#ing on sch claims $ithot "ris#iction
to #o so. Li!ya #ra$s a #istinction= the areas in $hich there are no claims !y thir#
States are the areas primarily in %ocs %or the present procee#ings an# here the <arties
can procee# to a #e%initive #elimitation, $hereas in areas $here there are sch claims,
the caveats an# reservations $hich the (ort $ol# incl#e in its "#gment $ol#
protect the rights o% thir# States !y precl#ing sch a #elimitation !eing #e%initive vis&[&
vis sch thir# States. >alta re"ects this #istinction, arging that it $ol# have no
practical prpose an# $ol# !e o!"ectiona!le on "ris#ictional gron#s.
BE(ISIO7 SHO?LB @E LI>ITEB TO AREAS 7OT (LAI>EB ALSO @8 7O7&<ART8
STATES.
;1. The (ort notes that !y the Special Agreement it is as'e# to #e%ine the legal
principles an# rles applica!le to the #elimitation o% the area o% continental shel% V$hich
appertainsV to each o% the <arties. The #ecision o% the (ort $ill, !y virte o% Article 9/
o% the Statte, have !in#ing %orce !et$een the <arties, !t not against thir# States. I%
there%ore the #ecision is to !e state# in a!solte terms, in the sense o% permitting the
#elimitation o% the areas o% shel% $hich VappertainV to the <arties, as #istinct %rom the
areas to $hich one o% the <arties has sho$n a !etter title than the other, !t $hich
might nevertheless prove to VappertainV to a thir# State i% the (ort ha# "ris#iction to
enAire into the entitlement o% that thir# State, the #ecision mst !e limite# to a
geographical area in $hich no sch claims exist. It is tre that the <arties have in e%%ect
invite# the (ort, not$ithstan#ing the terms o% their Special Agreement, not to limit its
"#gment to the area in $hich theirs are the sole competing claims+ !t the (ort #oes
not regar# itsel% as %ree to #o so, in vie$ o% the interest o% Italy in the procee#ings.
When re"ecting the application o% Italy to intervene in the procee#ings, the (ort note#
that !oth >alta an# Li!ya oppose# that application+ $hile it state# that in its %inal
"#gment in this case
Vthe (ort $ill, so %ar as it may %in# it necessary to #o so, ma'e it clear that it
is #eci#ing only !et$een the competing claims o% Li!ya an# >altaV,
it also $ent on to o!serve that
VI%, as Italy has sggeste#, the #ecision o% the (ort in the present case,
ta'en $ithot ItalyUs participation, ha# %or that reason to !e more limite# in
scope !et$een the <arties themselves, an# s!"ect to more caveats an#
reservations in %avor o% thir# States, than it might other$ise have !een ha#
Italy !een present, it is the interests o% Li!ya an# >alta $hich might !e sai#
to !e a%%ecte#, not those o% Italy. It is material to recall that Li!ya an# >alta,
!y o!"ecting to the intervention o% Italy, have in#icate# their o$n pre%erences.V
The present #ecision mst, as then %oresha#o$e#, !e limite# in geographical scope so
as to leave the claims o% Italy na%%ecte#, that is to Say that the #ecision o% the (ort
mst !e con%ine# to the area in $hich, as the (ort has !een in%orme# !y Italy, that
State has no claims to continental shel% rights. The (ort, having !een in%orme# o%
ItalyUs claims, an# having re%se# to permit that State to protect its interests throgh the
proce#re o% intervention, ths ensres Italy the protection it soght. A #ecision limite#
in this $ay #oes not signi%y either that the principles an# rles applica!le to the
#elimitation $ithin this area are not applica!le otsi#e it, or that the claims o% either
<arty to expanses o% continental shel% otsi#e that area have !een %on# to !e
n"sti%ie#= it signi%ies simply that the (ort has not !een.en#o$e# $ith "ris#iction to
#etermine $hat principles an# rles govern #elimitations $ith thir# States, or $hether
the claims o% the <arties otsi#e that area prevail over the claims o% those thir# States
in the region.
(O?RT WILL LI>IT ITS BE(ISIO7 TO 7OT I7(L?BE AREAS (LAI>EB @8 THIRB
STATES, BEFI7EB I7 TER>S OF ITAL8IS (LAI>S.
;;. The limits $ithin $hich the (ort, in or#er to preserve the rights o% thir# States, $ill
con%ine its #ecision in the present case, may ths !e #e%ine# in terms o% the claims o%
Italy, $hich are precisely locate# on the map !y means o% geographical coor#inates.
Bring the procee#ings hel# on its application, Italy state# that it consi#ere# itsel% to
have rights over a geographical Gone #elimite# on the West !y the meri#ian 19V 1.U E,
to the soth !y the parallel E1V E.U 7, to the east !y the #elimitation line agree#
!et$een Italy an# 6reece -see >ap 7o. 12 an# its prolongation, an# to the north !y the
Italian coasts o% (ala!ria an# Aplia+ an# over a secon# area #elimite# !y lines "oining
the %ollo$ing points = -i2 the soth&eastern en#&point o% the line #e%ine# in the
Agreement !et$een Italy an# Tnisia o% ;. Agst 1/C1, -ii2 points S an# 6, sho$n on
a map s!mitte# to the (ort on ;9 Hanary 1/:1, -iii2 the point E1V ;.U 7 an# 1EV 9.U
E, an# -iv2 the point locate# on the meri#ian 1EV 9.U E, to the north o% the previos point
an# to the east o% the en#&point mentione# n#er -i2. (See &ap No. 5). The (ort, in
replying to the AestionIs %irst part, $ill con%ine itsel% to areas $here no claims !y a thir#
State exist -the area !et$een the meri#ians 1EV 9.U E an# 19V 1.U E2. The (ort notes
that there is on the east o% this a %rther area o% continental shel%, lying soth o% the
Alwa#& will B
* bok * cj * tiff * gem * tin * 29
parallel E1V E.U 7, to $hich the claims o% Italy #o not exten# !t $hich is s!"ect to
con%licting claims !y Li!ya an# >alta. Ho$ever the (ort #oes not thin' that it is
ena!le# to pass "#gment on this area so long as the national attri!tion o% the
continental shel% lying imme#iately to the north o% it -that is, east o% the meri#ian 19V 1.U
E an# north o% the parallelE1V E.U 72 has not !een settle# !y agreement !et$een the
States concerne# or !y the #ecision o% a competent organ. The (ort there%ore
concl#es that on the !asis o% the geographical #e%inition o% the claims o% Italy it shol#
limit the area $ithin $hich it $ill give a #ecision !y the meri#ian 19V 1.U E, incl#ing
also that part o% that meri#ian $hich is soth o% the parallel E1V E.U 7. 7o Aestion o%
this 'in# arises to the West o% the meri#ian 1EV 9.U E, since the soth$ar# limit o%
Italian claims is the same as that o% the claims o% >alta+ the area to the soth is ths
not in #ispte in this case.
WO7 RI6HT OF THIRB STATESI (LAI>S SHO?LB E7A@LE TO RESTRI(T
H?B6>E7T.
;E. It has !een Aestione# $hether it is right that a thir# State -here, Italy2 shol# !e
ena!le#, !y virte o% its claims, to restrict the scope o% a "#gment reAeste# o% the
(ort !y >alta an# Li!ya+ an# it may also !e arge# that this approach $ol# have
prevente# the (ort %rom giving any "#gment at all i% Italy ha# a#vance# more
am!itios claims. Ho$ever, to arge along these lines is to #isregar# the special
%eatres o% the present case. On the one han#, no in%erence can !e #ra$n %rom the
%act that the (ort has ta'en into accont the existence o% Italian claims as to $hich it
has not !een sggeste# !y either o% the <arties that they are o!viosly nreasona!le.
On the other han#, neither >alta nor Li!ya seems to have !een #eterre# !y the
pro!a!ility o% the (ortUs "#gment !eing restricte# in scope as a conseAence o% the
Italian claims. The prospect o% sch a restriction #i# not persa#e these contries to
a!an#on their opposition to ItalyUs application to intervene+ as note# in paragraph ;1
a!ove, the (ort o!serve#, in its H#gment o% ;1 >arch 1/:1, that in expressing a
negative opinion on the Italian application, the t$o contries ha# sho$n their
pre%erence %or a restriction in the geographical scope o% the "#gment $hich the (ort
$as to give.
>ALTAIS ALLE6ATIO7 OF LI@8AIS A(K?IES(E7(E TO A >EBIA7 LI7E.
;1. The history o% the #ispte, an# o% the legislative an# exploratory activities in relation
to the continental shel%, #o not reAire to !e set ot at length, since the (ort #oes not
%in# that anything o% moment trns on consi#erations #erive# %rom this history. It is not
arge# !y either <arty that the circmstances in this case gave rise to Vthe appearance
on the map o% a deacto line #ivi#ing concession areas $hich $ere the s!"ect o% active
claimsV, $hich might !e ta'en into accont as in#icating Vthe line or lines $hich the
<arties themselves may have consi#ere# eAita!le or acte# pon as schV, as the
(ort $as a!le to %in# in the case concerning the :ontinental Shei ($unisiaK )i%!an
Ara% Aa#ahiri!a) ('. :. A. +eports 4FC52. In its plea#ings, ho$ever, >alta reconte#
ho$ it ha# in 1/09 in%orme# Li!ya o% its intention to #elimit its continental shel% !y
means o% a me#ian line, an# state# that ntil Li!ya ma#e a conterproposal in 1/CE,
Li!ya remaine# silent in %ace o% >altaUs claim to sch a #elimitation+ >alta conten#e#
that this pattern o% con#ct col# !e vie$e# Veither as a cogent re%lection o% the
eAita!le character o% >altaUs position or as evi#ence o% acAiescence !y Li!ya in
>altaUs position or as precl#ing Li!ya, in la$ as in %act, %rom challenging the vali#ity o%
>altaUs positionV. >alta re%erre# also to the Aestion o% the northern !on#aries o%
certain Li!yan concessions, an# the exemption o% the licencees %rom the #ty to carry
ot petrolem activities north o% the me#ian line, an# conten#e# that these also
con%irme# >altaUs s!mission that V!y their con#ct, the <arties have in#icate# that the
me#ian line is, to Say the least, very relevant to the %inal #etermination o% the !on#ary
in the present caseV. Li!ya #isptes the allegation o% acAiescence+ it has also
conten#e# that >altese petrolem concessions %ollo$e# geomorphological %eatres in
a manner consistent $ith the Vexploita!ility criterionV, $hich is #enie# !y >alta. It also
conten#e# that >alta, at the time o% the enactment o% its 1/00 (ontinental Shel% Act,
implicitly recogniGe# the signi%icance o% an area #escri!e# as the Vri%t GoneV area, $hich
Li!ya, as $ill !e explaine# !elo$, regar#s as signi%icant %or the #elimitation+ this
contention >alta also re"ects.
@?T (O?RT ?7A@LE TO BIS(ER7 A78 <ATTER7 OF (O7B?(T A>O?7TI76 TO
A(K?IES(E7(E.
;9. The (ort has consi#ere# the %acts an# argments !roght to its attention in this
respect, particlarly %rom the stan#point o% its #ty to Vta'e into accont $hatever
in#icia are availa!le o% the 3#elimitation4 line or lines $hich the <arties themselves may
have consi#ere# eAita!le or acte# pon as schV -I.(.H. +eports 1/:;2. It is ho$ever
na!le to #iscern any pattern o% con#ct on either si#e s%%iciently neAivocal to
constitte either acAiescence or any help%l in#ication o% any vie$ o% either <arty as to
$hat $ol# !e eAita!le #i%%ering in any $ay %rom the vie$ a#vance# !y that <arty
!e%ore the (ort. Its #ecision mst accor#ingly !e !ase# pon the application to the
s!missions ma#e !e%ore it o% principles an# rles o% international la$.
<ARTIES A6REE THAT BIS<?TE IS TO @E 6O5ER7EB @8 (?STO>AR8 LAW
-SI7(E 7O A6REE>E7T O7 WHAT SO?R(ES OF LAW WO?LB @E A<<LI(A@LE2.
;0. The <arties are !roa#ly in agreement as to the sorces o% the la$ applica!le in this
case. >alta is a party to the 1/9: 6eneva (onvention on the (ontinental Shel%, $hile
Li!ya is not+ the <arties agree that the (onvention, an# in particlar the provisions %or
#elimitation in Article 0, is ths not as sch applica!le in the relations !et$een them.
@oth <arties have signe# the 1/:; ?7 (onvention on the La$ o% the Sea, !t that
(onvention has not yet entere# into %orce, an# is there%ore not operative as treaty&la$+
the Special Agreement contains no provisions as to the s!stantive la$ applica!le. 7or
are there any other !ilateral or mltilateral treaties claime# to !e !in#ing on the <arties.
The <arties ths agree that the #ispte is to !e governe# !y cstomary international
la$. This is not at all to Say, ho$ever, that the 1/:; (onvention $as regar#e# !y the
<arties as irrelevant= the <arties are again in accor# in consi#ering that some o% its
provisions constitte, to a certain extent, the expression o% cstomary international la$
in the matter. The <arties #o not ho$ever agree in i#enti%ying the provisions $hich
have this stats, or the extent to $hich they are so treate#.
(O?RT (O7SIBERS THE 1/:; ?7 (O75E7TIO7 O7 THE LAW OF THE SEA
-THE7 7OT 8ET I7 FOR(E2 AS A<<LI(A@LE AS A R?LE OF (?STO>AR8 LAW+
BISTI7(TIO7 @ETWEE7 THE LAW A<<LI(A@LE TO THE @ASIS OF
E7TITLE>E7T TO AREAS OF (O7TI7E7TAL SHELF A7B THE LAW A<<LI(A@LE
TO THE BELI>ITATIO7 OF S?(H AREAS OF SHELF @ETWEE7 7EI6H@O?RI76
STATES.
;C. It is o% corse axiomatic that the material o% cstomary international la$ is to !e
loo'e# %or primarily in the actal practice an# opinio .uris o% States, even thogh
mltilateral conventions may have an important role to play in recor#ing an# #e%ining
rles #eriving %rom cstom, or in#ee# in #eveloping them. There has in %act !een mch
#e!ate !et$een the <arties in the present case as to the signi%icance, %or the
#elimitation o% T an# in#ee# entitlement to & the continental shel%, o% State practice in
the matter, an# this $ill !e examine# %rther at a later stage in the present "#gment.
7evertheless, it cannot !e #enie# that the 1/:; (onvention is o% ma"or importance,
Alwa#& will B
* bok * cj * tiff * gem * tin * +0
having !een a#opte# !y an over$helming ma"ority o% States+ hence it is clearly the
#ty o% the (ort, even in#epen#ently o% the re%erences ma#e to the (onvention !y the
<arties, to consi#er in $hat #egree any o% its relevant provisions are !in#ing pon the
<arties as a rle o% cstomary international la$. In this context particlarly, the <arties
have lai# some emphasis on a #istinction !et$een the la$ applica!le to the !asis o%
entitlement to areas o% continental shel% & the rles governing the existence, Jipso .ure
an# a% initioJ, an# the exercise o% sovereign rights o% the coastal State over areas o%
continental shel% sitate o%% its coasts T an# the la$ applica!le to the #elimitation o%
sch areas o% shel% !et$een neigh!oring States. The %irst Aestion is #ealt $ith in
Article C0 o% the 1/:; (onvention, an# the secon# in Article :E o% the (onvention.
<aragraph 1 o% that Article provi#es that=
VThe #elimitation o% the continental shel% !et$een States $ith opposite or
a#"acent coasts shall !e e%%ecte# !y agreement on the !asis o% international
la$, as re%erre# to in Article E: o% the Statte o% the International (ort o%
Hstice, in or#er to achieve an eAita!le soltion.V
<aragraph 1. o% Article C0 provi#es that VThe provisions o% this article are $ithot
pre"#ice to the Aestion o% #elimitation o% the continental shel% !et$een States $ith
opposite or a#"acent coastsV. That the Aestions o% entitlement an# o% #e%inition o%
continental shel%, on the one han#, an# o% #elimitation o% continental shel% on the other,
are not only #istinct !t are also complementary is sel%&evi#ent. The legal !asis o% that
$hich is to !e #elimite#, an# o% entitlement to it, cannot !e other than pertinent to that
#elimitation.
(O75E7TIO7 WAS SILE7T AS TO THE >ETHOB TO @E ?SEB, IT H?ST
<RES(RI@EB A7 EK?ITA@LE SOL?TIO7.
;:. At this stage o% the present H#gment, the (ort $ol# also %irst recall that, as it
note# in its H#gment in :ontinental Shel ($unisial)i%!an Ara% Aa#ahiri!a),
VIn the ne$ text, any in#ication o% a speci%ic criterion $hich col# give
gi#ance to the intereste# States in their e%%ort to achieve an eAita!le
soltion has !een excl#e#. Emphasis is place# on the eAita!le soltion
$hich has to !e achieve#. The principles an# rles applica!le to the
#elimitation o% continental shel% areas are those $hich are appropriate to
!ring a!ot an eAita!le reslt . . .V ('. :.A. +eports 4FC5, p. 1/, para. 9..2
The (onvention sets a goal to !e achieve#, !t is silent as to the metho# to !e
%ollo$e# to achieve it. It restricts itsel% to setting a stan#ar#, an# it is le%t to States
themselves, or to the corts, to en#o$ this stan#ar# $ith speci%ic content. Secon#ly,
the (ort in 1/:; o!serve# the #isappearance, in the last #ra%t text o% $hat !ecame
Article :E, paragraph 1, o% re%erence to #elimitation !y agreement Vin accor#ance $ith
eAita!le principlesV ('.:.A. +eports 4FC5, p. 1/, para. 1/2. It %on# ho$ever that it $as
V!on# to #eci#e the case on the !asis o% eAita!le principlesV as $ell as that VThe
reslt o% the application o% eAita!le principles mst !e eAita!leV -i!i#., p. 9/, para.
C.2.
<ARTIES A6REE TO THE REK?IRE>E7TS SET @8 THE (O75E7TIO7 -A
)SOL?TIO7* THAT A<<LIES )EK?ITA@LE <RI7(I<LES*2.
;/. In the present case, !oth <arties agree that, $hatever the stats o% Article :E o% the
1/:; (onvention, $hich re%ers only to the VsoltionV as !eing eAita!le, an# #oes not
speci%ically mention the application o% eAita!le principles, !oth these reAirements
%orm part o% the la$ to !e applie#. In the %irst o% Li!yaUs s!missions, the (ort is as'e#
to #eclare that
VThe #elimitation is to !e e%%ecte# !y agreement in accor#ance $ith eAita!le
principles an# ta'ing accont o% all relevant circmstances in or#er to achieve
an eAita!le reslt.V
The %irst s!mission o% >alta rea#s=
Vthe principles an# rles o% international la$ applica!le to the #elimitation o%
the areas o% the continental shel% $hich appertain to >alta an# Li!ya are that
the #elimitation shall !e e%%ecte# on the !asis o% international la$ in or#er to
achieve an eAita!le resltV.
The Agent o% >alta con%irme# that >alta also accepts that the #elimitation is to !e
e%%ecte# in accor#ance $ith eAita!le principles an# ta'ing accont o% all relevant
circmstances.
@?T <ARTIES BISA6REE RE LE6AL @ASIS OF TITLE TO (O7TI7E7TAL SHELF
RI6HTS.
E.. It is ho$ever $ith regar# to the legal !asis o% title to continental shel% rights that the
vie$s o% the <arties are irreconcila!le+ %or Li!ya,
VThe natral prolongation o% the respective lan# territories o% the <arties into
an# n#er the sea is the !asis o% title to the areas o% continental shel% $hich
appertain to each o% them.V -S!mission 7o. ;.2
In Li!yaUs vie$, the prolongation o% the lan# territory o% a State into an# n#er the sea,
re%erre# to !y the (ort in the North Sea :ontinental Shel cases, $as a Vgeological
%actV an# natral prolongation in the same physical sense, involving geographical as
$ell as geological an# geomorphological aspects, remains the %n#amental !asis o%
legal title to continental shel% areas. For >alta, $hile it is still tre to Say that the
continental shel% o% a State constittes a natral prolongation o% its lan# territory into
an# n#er the sea, prolongation is no longer #e%ine# !y re%erence to physical %eatres,
geological or !athymetric, !t !y re%erence to a certain #istance %rom the coasts. The
concept o% natral prolongation has in >altaUs vie$ !ecome a prely spatial concept
$hich operates in#epen#ently o% all geomorphological or geological characteristics,
only resming a physical signi%icance !eyon# ;.. miles %rom the coast, since States
$hich possess a more extensive physical natral prolongation en"oy continental shel%
rights to the e#ge o% their continental margin. For >alta, the principle is the application
o% the V#istance criterionV+ continental shel% rights, $hether exten#ing $ithot restraint
into the open sea or limite# !y re%erence to a neigh!oring State, are controlle# !y the
concept o% #istance %rom the coasts.
>ALTA RAISES THE LE6AL (O7(E<T OF ES(L?SI5E E(O7O>I( ,O7E AS
(O7FIR>ATIO7 OF THE BISTA7(E <RI7(I<LES I7 (O7TI7E7TAL SHELF LAW.
E1. In this connection the Aestion arises o% the relationship, !oth $ithin the context o%
the 1/:; (onvention an# generally, !et$een the legal concept o% the continental shel%
an# that o% the exclsive economic Gone. >alta relies on the genesis o% the exclsive
economic Gone concept, an# its inclsion in the 1/:; (onvention, as con%irming the
importance o% the V#istance principleV in the la$ o% the continental shel% an# the
#etachment o% the concept o% the shel% %rom any criterion o% physical prolongation.
>alta has s!mitte# that, in the present #elimitation, accont mst !e
ta'en o% the rles o% cstomary la$ re%lecte# in Article C0 o% the (onvention in the light
o% the provisions o% the (onvention concerning the exclsive economic Gone. >altaUs
opinion is !ase# on the statement ma#e on this point !y the (ort itsel% in its 1/:;
H#gment, that Vthe #e%inition given in paragraph 1 3o% Article C04 cannot !e ignore#V
an# that the exclsive economic Gone Vmay !e regar#e# as part o% mo#ern
international la$V -I.(.H. +eports 4FC5, p. 1:, para. 1C an# p. C1, para. 1..2. For >alta,
the V#istance principleV, re%erre# to also !y the (ort itsel%, is accor#ingly incl#e#
Alwa#& will B
* bok * cj * tiff * gem * tin * +1
among the principles an# rles o% cstomary international la$ an# shol# !e ta'en into
accont. >alta emphasiGes the #evelopment o% the la$ in this %iel#, an# recalls that in
its 1/:; H#gment the (ort state#= Vthe concept o% natral prolongation . . . $as an#
remains a concept to !e examine# $ithin the concept o% cstomary la$ an# State
practiceV (i%id.,p. 10, para. 1E2.
LI@8A AR6?ES THAT BIS<?TE IS (O7(ER7EB O7L8 WITH BELI>ITATIO7 OF
THE (O7TI7E7TAL SHELF.
E;. Li!ya, on the other han#, points ot that this case is concerne# only $ith the
#elimitation o% the continental shel%, an# emphasiGes that the 1/:; (onvention has not
yet come into %orce an# is not !in#ing as !et$een the <arties to the present case. It
conten#s that the V#istance principleV is not a rle o% positive international la$ $ith
regar# to the continental shel%, an# that the V#istance criterionV, $hich may !e
applica!le to the #e%inition o% the oter limit o% the continental shel% in certain
circmstances, i% it applies at all to #elimitation, is inappropriate %or application in the
>e#iterranean. It is Li!yaUs contention that the continental shel% has not !een a!sor!e#
!y the concept o% the exclsive economic Gone n#er present international la$= an#
that the esta!lishment o% %ishery Gones an# exclsive economic Gones has not
change# the la$ o% maritime Gone #elimitation, or given more prominence to the
criterion o% #istance %rom the coast. It also arges that, $hereas the rights o% the
coastal State over its continental shel% are inherent an# a% initio, rights over the
exclsive economic Gone exist only in so %ar as the coastal State chooses to proclaim
sch a Gone. For Li!ya, the 1/:; (onvention on the La$ o% the Sea, particlarly Article
C:, maintains the #issociation o% the legal regime o% the continental shel%, the sea&!e#
an# s!soil, %rom the regime o% the sper"acent $aters.
(O?RT= (O7TI7E7TAL SHELF A7B ES(L?SI5E E(O7O>I( ,O7E ARE LI7JEB
TO6ETHER I7 >OBER7 LAW.
EE. In the vie$ o% the (ort, even thogh the present case relates only to the
#elimitation o% the continental shel% an# not to that o% the exclsive economic Gone, the
principles an# rles n#erlying the latter concept cannot !e le%t ot o% consi#eration. As
the 1/:; (onvention #emonstrates, the t$o instittions & continental shel% an#
exclsive economic Gone T are lin'e# together in mo#ern la$. Since the rights en"oye#
!y a State over its continental shel% $ol# also !e possesse# !y it over the sea&!e#
an# s!soil o% any exclsive economic Gone $hich it might proclaim, one o% the
relevant circmstances to !e ta'en into accont %or the #elimitation o% the continental
shel% o% a State is the legally permissi!le extent o% the exclsive economic Gone
appertaining to that same State. This #oes not mean that the concept o% the continental
shel% has !een a!sor!e# !y that o% the
exclsive economic Gone + it #oes ho$ever signi%y that greater importance mst !e
attri!te# to elements, sch as #istance %rom the (oast, $hich are common to !oth
concepts.
I7STIT?TIO7 OF ES(L?SI5E E(O7O>I( ,O7E IS SHOW7 @8 STATE <RA(TI(E
TO HA5E @E(O>E <ART OF (?STO>AR8 LAW+ LI@8A SEE>EB TO HA5E
RE(O67I,EB THIS FA(T+ BISTA7(E (RITERIO7 >?ST 7OW A<<L8 TO THE
(O7TI7E7TAL SHELF AS WELL AS TO THE ES(L?SI5E E(O7O>I( ,O7E.
E1. For >alta, the re%erence to #istance in Article C0 o% the 1/:; (onvention represents
a consecration o% the V#istance principleV+ %or Li!ya, only the re%erence to natral
prolongation correspon#s to cstomary international la$. It is in the (ortUs vie$
incontesta!le that, apart %rom those provisions, the instittion o% the exclsive
economic Gone, $ith its rle on entitlement !y reason o% #istance, is sho$n !y the
practice o% States to have !ecome a part o% cstomary la$+ in any case, Li!ya itsel%
seeme# to recogniGe this %act $hen, at one stage #ring the negotiation o% the Special
Agreement, it propose# that the extent o% the exclsive economic Gone !e incl#e# in
the re%erence to the (ort. Althogh the instittions o% the continental shel% an# the
exclsive economic Gone are #i%%erent an# #istinct, the rights $hich the exclsive
economic Gone entails over the sea&!e# o% the Gone are #e%ine# !y re%erence to the
regime lai# #o$n %or the continental shel%. Althogh there can !e a continental shel%
$here there is no exclsive economic Gone, there cannot !e an exclsive economic
Gone $ithot a correspon#ing continental shel%. It %ollo$s that, %or "ri#ical an# practical
reasons, the #istance criterion mst no$ apply to the continental shel% as $ell as to the
exclsive economic Gone+ an# this Aite apart %rom the provision as to #istance in
paragraph 1 o% Article C0. This is not to sggest that the i#ea o% natral prolongation is
no$ sperse#e# !y that o% #istance. What it #oes mean is that $here the continental
margin #oes not exten# as %ar as ;.. miles %rom the shore, natral prolongation, $hich
in spite o% its physical origins has throghot its history !ecome more an# more a
complex an# "ri#ical concept, is in part #e%ine# !y #istance %rom the shore,
irrespective o% the physical natre o% the intervening sea&!e# an# s!soil. The
concepts o% natral prolongation an# #istance are there%ore not oppose# !t
complementary+ an# !oth remain essential elements in the "ri#ical concept o% the
continental shel%. As the (ort has o!serve#, the legal !asis o% that $hich is to !e
#elimite# cannot !e other than pertinent to the #elimitation -paragraph ;C, supra) + the
(ort is ths na!le to accept the Li!yan contention that #istance %rom the (oast is not
a relevant element %or the #ecision o% the present case.
LI@8AIS )RIFT ,O7E* 5S >ALTAIS )BISTA7(E*
E9. It $ill no$ !e convenient in vie$ o% this conclsion to examine t$o important an#
oppose# argments o% the <arties = %irst the Li!yan Vri%tGoneV argment, $hich #epen#s
pon giving primacy to the i#ea o% natral prolongation, in the physical sense + an#
secon#, the argment o% >alta that, on the contrary, it is #istance that is no$ the prime
element + an# that, in conseAence o% this, eAi#istance, at least !et$een opposite
coasts, is virtally a reAire# metho#, i% only as the %irst stage in a #elimitation.
LI@8A= 7AT?RAL <ROLO76ATIO7 STILL <RI>AR8 @ASIS OF TITLE.
E0. As note# a!ove, it is Li!yaUs case that the natral prolongation, in the physical
sense, o% the lan# territory into an# n#er the sea is still a primary !asis o% title to
continental shel%. For Li!ya, as a %irst step each <arty has to prove that the physical
natral prolongation o% its lan# territory exten#s into the area in $hich the #elimitation
is to !e e%%ecte#+ i% there exists a %n#amental #iscontinity !et$een the shel% area
a#"acent to one <arty an# the shel% area a#"acent to the other, then the !on#ary, it is
conten#e#, shol# lie along the general line o% that %n#amental #iscontinity. The
#elimitation o% continental shel% !et$een Li!ya an# >alta mst there%ore respect the
allege# existence o% a %n#amental #iscontinity $hich, accor#ing to Li!ya, #ivi#es the
areas o% physical continental shel% appertaining to each o% the <arties -see %inal
s!missions ; an# 1). The argment is ths that there is no pro!lem o% overlapping
shelves, !t that, on the contrary, t$o #istinct continental shelves are separate# !y
$hat Li!ya calls the Vri%t GoneV.
WHERE THE RIFT ,O7E IS.
EC. The sea&!e# area so re%erre# to !y Li!ya lies !roa#ly to the soth an# soth&$est
o% the >altese islan#s, an# mch closer to them than to the coasts o% Li!ya. In this
area is a series o% #eep troghs, rnning in a generally north$est&sotheast #irection,
an# reaching over 1,... metres in #epth, #escri!e# on the International @athymetric
Alwa#& will B
* bok * cj * tiff * gem * tin * +2
(hart o% the >e#iterranean as the V>alta TroghV, the V<antelleria TroghV an# the
VLinosa TroghV. To the east o% these troghs, an# rnning in !roa#ly the same
#irection, are t$o channels o% lesser #epth #esignate# the V>alta (hannelV an# the
V>e#ina (hannelV. This Vri%t GoneV area lies to$ar#s the northern extremity o% the
<elagian @loc', $hich the (ort ha# occasion to examine in the $unisiaK)i%!a case in
4FC5. It shol# also !e note# that to the east o% the <elagian @loc' is an area calle# !y
Li!ya the VEscarpment&Falt ,oneV, to $hich Li!ya also attri!tes importance +
ho$ever, the argment !ase# pon it appears to the (ort to !e #istinct %rom that
concerning the Vri%t GoneV, an# since the VEscarpment&Falt ,oneV is !eyon# the limits,
#e%ine# in paragraph ;; a!ove, $ithin $hich the present H#gment operates, it $ill not
!e %rther re%erre# to, an# the (ort $ill express no vie$ as to the vali#ity o% the
argments !ase# pon it.
E:. The (ort $as %rnishe# !y !oth <arties $ith consi#era!le expert evi#ence, !oth
$ritten an# oral, as to the geological history an# natre o% the area #escri!e# as the
Vri%t GoneV, on the !asis o% $hich it $as conten#e# !y Li!ya, an# controverte# !y >alta,
that the ri%t Gone in#icate# the !on#ary Gone !et$een Li!yaUs entitlement to areas o%
continental shel% to the north o% the Li!yan lan#mass an# >altaUs entitlement to areas
o% continental shel% to the soth o% the >altese islan#s, either as constitting
geologically a !on#ary !et$een t$o tectonic plates, or simply as a geomorphological
%eatre o% sch importance as to constitte a very mar'e# #iscontinity. Since,
ho$ever, this #iscontinity is not a line !t a Gone, Li!ya allo$s that there remains a
pro!lem o% #elimitation con%ine# to this Vri%t GoneV, to !e settle# !y negotiation !et$een
the <arties, in implementation o% Article III o% the Special Agreement.
(O?RT= VRIFT ,O7EV (A77OT (O7STIT?TE A F?7BA>E7TAL BIS(O7TI7?IT8
TER>I7ATI76 THE SO?THWARB ESTE7SIO7 OF >ALTESE SHELF A7B THE
7ORTHWARB ESTE7SIO7 OF THE LI@8A7 AS IF IT WERE SO>E 7AT?RAL
@O?7BAR8.
E/. The (ort ho$ever consi#ers that since the #evelopment o% the la$ ena!les a
State to claim that the continental shel% appertaining to it exten#s p to as %ar as ;..
miles %rom its coast, $hatever the geological characteristics o% the correspon#ing sea&
!e# an# s!soil, there is no reason to ascri!e any role to geological or geophysical
%actors $ithin that #istance either in veri%ying the legal title o% the States concerne# or
in procee#ing to a #elimitation as !et$een their claims. This is especially clear $here
veri%ication o% the vali#ity o% title is concerne#, since, at least in so %ar as those areas
are sitate# at a #istance o% n#er ;.. miles %rom the coasts in Aestion, title #epen#s
solely on the #istance %rom the coasts o% the claimant States o% any areas o% sea&!e#
claime# !y $ay o% continental shel%, an# the geological or geomorphological
characteristics o% those areas are completely immaterial. It %ollo$s that, since the
#istance !et$een the coasts o% the <arties is less than 1.. miles, so that no
geophysical %eatre can lie more than ;.. miles %rom each coast, the %eatre re%erre#
to as the Vri%t GoneV cannot constitte a %n#amental #iscontinity terminating the
soth$ar# extension o% the >altese shel% an# the north$ar# extension o% the Li!yan as
i% it $ere some natral !on#ary.
6EO<H8SI(AL FA(TOR 7O <ART TO <LA8 HERE FOR BELI>ITATIO7
<?R<OSES.
1.. 7either is there any reason $hy a %actor $hich has no part to play in the
esta!lishment o% title shol# !e ta'en into accont as a relevant circmstance %or the
prposes o% #elimitation. It is tre that in the past the (ort has recogniGe# the
relevance o% geophysical characteristics o% the area o% #elimitation i% they assist in
i#enti%ying a line o% separation !et$een the continental shelves o% the <arties. In the
North Sea :ontinental Shei cases the (ort sai# =
Vit can !e se%l to consi#er the geology o% that shel% in or#er to %in# ot
$hether the #irection ta'en !y certain con%igrational %eatres shol#
in%lence #elimitation !ecase, in certain localities, they point&p the $hole
notion o% the apprtenance o% the continental shel% to the State $hose
territory it #oes in %act prolongV ('.:.A. +eports 4F3F2.
Again, in the $unisial)i%!a case o% 1/:;, the (ort recogniGe# that=
Vi#enti%ication o% natral prolongation may, $here the geographical
circmstances are appropriate, have an important role to play in #e%ining an
eAita!le #elimitation, in vie$ o% its signi%icance as the "sti%ication o%
continental shel% rights in some casesV ('. :.A. +eports 4FC52
an# the (ort remar'e# also that Va mar'e# #isrption or #iscontinance o% the sea&
!e#V may constitte Van in#ispta!le in#ication o% the limits o% t$o separate continental
shelves, or t$o separate natral prolongationsV (i%id.2. Ho$ever to rely on this
"rispr#ence $ol# !e to overloo' the %act that $here sch "rispr#ence appears to
ascri!e a role to geophysical or geological %actors in #elimitation, it %in#s $arrant %or
#oing so in a regime o% the title itsel% $hich se# to allot those %actors a place $hich
no$ !elongs to the past, in so %ar as sea&!e# areas less than ;.. miles %rom the (oast
are concerne#.
REASO7S WH8 RIFT ,O7E AR6?>E7T IS REHE(TEB @8 THE (O?RT.
11. These "ri#ical #i%%iclties o% the ri%t&Gone argment are conclsive against it. Even
ha# this not !een so, there $ol# still have !een #i%%iclties concerning the
interpretation o% the evi#ence itsel%. Having care%lly st#ie# that evi#ence, the (ort is
not satis%ie# that it $ol# !e a!le to #ra$ any s%%iciently cogent conclsions %rom it as
to the existence or not o% the V%n#amental #iscontinityV on $hich the Li!yan argment
relies. Bo!tless the region has many geological or geomorphological %eatres $hich
may properly !e #escri!e# in scienti%ic terms as V#iscontinitiesV. The en#eavor,
ho$ever, in the terms o% the Li!yan argment, $as to convince the (ort o% a
#iscontinity so scienti%ically V%n#amentalV, that it mst also !e a #iscontinity o% a
natral prolongation in the legal sense+ an# sch a %n#amental #iscontinity $as sai#
to !e constitte# !y a tectonic plate !on#ary $hich the #istingishe# scientists calle#
!y Li!ya #etecte# in the ri%t Gone, or at least !y the presence there o% a very mar'e#
geomorphological %eatre. Ho$ever the no less #istingishe# scientists calle# !y >alta
testi%ie# that this sppose# Vsecon#aryV tectonic plate !on#ary $as only an
hypothesis, an# that the #ata at present availa!le $ere Aite ins%%icient to prove, or
in#ee# to #isprove, its existence. The (ort is na!le to accept the position that in
or#er to #eci#e this case, it mst %irst ma'e a #etermination pon a #isagreement
!et$een scientists o%
#istinction as to the more plasi!ly correct interpretation o% apparently incomplete
scienti%ic #ata+ %or a criterion that #epen#s pon sch a "#gment or estimate having to
!e ma#e !y a cort, or perhaps also !y negotiating governments, is clearly inapt to a
general legal rle o% #elimitation. For all the a!ove reasons, the (ort, there%ore,
re"ects the so&calle# ri%t&Gone argment o% Li!ya.
(O?RT ALSO BOES 7OT A((E<T >ALTAIS AR6?>E7T OF BISTA7(E
<RI7(I<LE.
1;. 7either, ho$ever, is the (ort a!le to accept the argment o% >alta & almost
#iametrically oppose# to the Li!yan ri%t&Gone argment T that the ne$ importance o%
the i#ea o% #istance %rom the coast has, at any rate %or #elimitation !et$een opposite
coasts, in trn con%erre# a primacy on the metho# o% eAi#istance. As alrea#y note#,
Alwa#& will B
* bok * cj * tiff * gem * tin * ++
>alta re"ects the vie$ that natral prolongation in the physical sense is the !asis o% title
o% the coastal State, an# !ases its approach to continental shel% #elimitation on the
V#istance principleV= each coastal State is entitle# to continental shel% rights to a certain
#istance %rom its coast, $hatever may !e the physical characteristics o% the sea&!e#
an# s!soil. Since there is not s%%icient space !et$een the coasts o% >alta an# Li!ya
%or each o% them to en"oy continental shel% rights p to the %ll ;.. miles recogniGe# !y
international la$, the #elimitation process mst, accor#ing to >alta, necessarily !egin
!y ta'ing into consi#eration an eAi#istance line !et$een the t$o coasts. The
#elimitation o% the continental shel% mst start %rom the geographical %acts in each
particlar case+ >alta regar#s the sitation as one o% t$o coastal States %acing each
other in an entirely normal setting. >alta #oes not assert that the eAi#istance metho#
is %n#amental, or inherent, or has a legally o!ligatory character. It #oes arge that the
legal !asis o% continental shel% rights & that is to Say, %or >alta, the V#istance principleV &
reAires that as a starting point o% the #elimitation process consi#eration mst !e given
to a line !ase# on eAi#istance+ thogh it is only to the extent that this primary
#elimitation pro#ces an eAita!le reslt !y a !alancing p o% the relevant
circmstances that the !on#ary coinci#es $ith the eAi#istance line. As a provisional
point o% #epartre, consi#eration o% eAi#istance Vis reAire#V on the !asis o% the legal
title.
1E. The (ort is na!le to accept that, even as a preliminary an# provisional step
to$ar#s the #ra$ing o% a #elimitation line, the eAi#istance metho# is one $hich #ust
!e se#, or that the (ort is VreAire#, as a %irst step, to examine the e%%ects o% a
#elimitation !y application o% the eAi#istance metho#V ('.:.A. +eports 4FC52. Sch a
rle $ol# come near to an esposal o% the i#ea o% Va!solte proximityV, $hich $as
re"ecte# !y the (ort in 1/0/ -see '.:.A. +eports 4F3F2, an# $hich has since,
moreover, %aile# o% acceptance at the Thir# ?7 (on%erence on the La$ o% the Sea.
That a coastal State may !e entitle# to continental shel% rights !y reason o% #istance
%rom the coast, an# irrespective o% the physical characteristics o% the intervening sea&
!e# an# s!soil, #oes not entail that eAi#istance is the only appropriate metho# o%
#elimitation, even !et$een opposite or Aasi&opposite coasts, nor even the only
permissi!le point o% #epartre. The application o% eAita!le principles in the particlar
relevant circmstances may still reAire the a#option o% another metho#, or
com!ination o% metho#s, o% #elimitation, even %rom the otset.
STATESI <RA(TI(E I7 THE FIELB OF (O7TI7E7TAL SHELF BELI>ITATIO7,
FALLS SHORT OF <RO5I76 THE ESISTE7(E OF A R?LE <RES(RI@I76 ?SE OF
EK?IBISTA7(E >ETHOB .
11. In this connection, something may !e sai# on the s!"ect o% the practice o% States
in the %iel# o% continental shel% #elimitation+ the <arties have in %act #iscsse# the
signi%icance o% sch practice, as expresse# in p!lishe# #elimitation agreements,
primarily in the context o% the stats o% eAi#istance in present international la$. Over
C. sch agreements have !een i#enti%ie# an# pro#ce# to the (ort an# have !een
s!"ecte# to varios interpretations. Li!ya Aestions the relevance o% State practice in
this #omain, an# has sggeste# that this practice sho$s, i% anything, progressive
#isappearance o% the #istinction to !e %on# in Article 0 o% the 1/9: 6eneva
(onvention on the (ontinental Shel%, !et$een VoppositeV an# Va#"acentV States, an#
that there has since 1/0/ !een a clear tren# a$ay %rom eAi#istance mani%este# in
#elimitation agreements !et$een States, as $ell as in "rispr#ence an# in the
#eli!erations at the ?7 (on%erence on the La$ o% the Sea. >alta re"ects !oth these
latter contentions, an# conten#s that sch practice nee# not !e seen as evi#ence o% a
particlar rle o% cstomary la$, !t mst provi#e signi%icant an# relia!le evi#ence o%
normal stan#ar#s o% eAity. The (ort %or its part has no #o!t a!ot the importance o%
State practice in this matter. 8et that practice, ho$ever interprete#, %alls short o%
proving the existence o% a rle prescri!ing the se o% eAi#istance, or in#ee# o% any
metho#, as o!ligatory. Even the existence o% sch a rle as is conten#e# %or !y >alta,
reAiring eAi#istance simply to !e se# as a %irst stage in any #elimitation, !t s!"ect
to correction, cannot !e spporte# solely !y the pro#ction o% nmeros examples o%
#elimitations sing eAi#istance or mo#i%ie# eAi#istance, thogh it is impressive
evi#ence that the eAi#istance metho# can in many #i%%erent sitations yiel# an
eAita!le reslt.
EK?ITA@LE RES?LT, 7OT THE >EA7S ?SEB TO A(HIE5E IT, >?ST @E THE
<RI>AR8 ELE>E7T
19. H#icial #ecisions are at one & an# the <arties themselves agree -paragraph ;/
a!ove2 & in hol#ing that the #elimitation o% a continental shel% !on#ary mst !e
e%%ecte# !y the application o% eAita!le principles in all the relevant circmstances in
or#er to achieve an eAita!le reslt. The (ort #i# o% corse remar' in its 1/:;
H#gment that this terminology, thogh generally se#, Vis not entirely satis%actory
!ecase it employs the term eAita!le to characteriGe !oth the reslt to !e achieve#
an# the means to !e applie# to reach this resltV -I.(.H. Reports 1/:;2. It is ho$ever
the goal & the eAita!le reslt & an# not the means se# to achieve it, that mst !e the
primary element in this #ality o% characteriGation. As the (ort also sai# in its 1/:;
H#gment =
VEAity as a legal concept is a #irect emanation o% the i#ea o% "stice. The
(ort $hose tas' is !y #e%inition to a#minister "stice is !on# to apply it.V -I.
(. H. Reports 1/:;, p. 0., para. C1 .2
8et the VApplication o% eAita!le principles is to !e #istingishe# %rom a #ecision e=
ae9uo et %onoJ an# as the (ort pt it in its 1/0/ H#gment=
Vit is not a Aestion o% applying eAity simply as a matter o% a!stract "stice,
!t o% applying a rle o% la$ $hich itsel% reAires the application o% eAita!le
principles, in accor#ance $ith the i#eas $hich have al$ays n#erlain the
#evelopment o% the legal regime o% the continental shel% in this %iel#V -I. :.A.
+eports 4F3F, p. 1C, para. :92.
Ths the "stice o% $hich eAity is an emanation, is not a!stract "stice !t "stice
accor#ing to the rle o% la$+ $hich is to Say that its application shol# #isplay
consistency an# a #egree o% pre#icta!ility+ even thogh it loo's $ith particlarity to the
pecliar circmstances o% an instant case, it also loo's !eyon# it to principles o% more
general application. This is precisely $hy the corts have, %rom the !eginning,
ela!orate# eAita!le principles as !eing, at the same time, means to an eAita!le
reslt in a particlar case, yet also having a more general vali#ity an# hence
expressi!le in general terms+ %or, as the (ort has also sai#, Vthe legal concept o%
eAity is a general principle #irectly applica!le as la$V -I.(.H. Reports 1/:;, p. 0.,
para. C12.
7OR>ATI5E (HARA(TER OF EK?ITA@LE <RI7(I<LES AS <ART OF
I7TER7ATIO7AL LAW.
10. The normative character o% eAita!le principles applie# as a part o% general
international la$ is important !ecase these principles govern not only #elimitation !y
a#"#ication or ar!itration, !t also, an# in#ee# primarily, the #ty o% <arties to see'
%irst a #elimitation !y agreement, $hich is also to see' an eAita!le reslt. That
eAita!le principles are expresse# in terms o% general application, is imme#iately
apparent %rom a glance at some $ell&'no$n examples = the principle that there is to !e
no Aestion o% re%ashioning geography, or compensating %or the ineAalities o% natre +
Alwa#& will B
* bok * cj * tiff * gem * tin * +,
the relate# principle o% non&encroachment !y one party on the natral prolongation o%
the other, $hich is no more than the negative expression o% the positive rle that the
coastal State en"oys sovereign rights over the continental shel% o%% its coasts to the %ll
extent athoriGe# !y international la$ in the relevant circmstances + the principle o%
respect #e to all sch relevant circmstances + the principle that althogh all States
are eAal !e%ore the la$ an# are entitle# to eAal treatment, VeAity #oes not
necessarily imply eAalityV -I. (. H. Reports 1/0/, p. 1/, para. / l2, nor #oes it see' to
ma'e eAal $hat natre has ma#e neAal + an# the principle that there can !e no
Aestion o% #istri!tive "stice.
1C. The natre o% eAity is no$here more evi#ent than in these $ell esta!lishe#
principles. In interpreting them, it mst !e !orne in min# that the geography $hich is
not to !e re%ashione# means those aspects o% a geographical sitation most germane
to the legal instittion o% the continental shel% + an# it is Vthe coast o% each o% the
<artiesV, $hich Vconstittes the starting line %rom $hich one has to set ot in or#er to
ascertain ho$ %ar the s!marine areas appertaining to each o% them exten# in a
sea$ar# #irection, as $ell as in relation to neigh!oring States sitate# either in an
a#"acent or opposite positionV -I.(.H. +eports 4FC5, p. 01, para. C12. In a semi&
enclose# sea li'e the >e#iterranean, that re%erence to neigh!oring States is
particlarly apposite, %or, as $ill !e sho$n !elo$, it is the coastal relationships in the
$hole geographical context that are to !e ta'en accont o% an# respecte#.
(IR(?>STA7(ES >?ST @E WEI6HEB E5E7 WITH THE A<<LI(ATIO7 OF
EK?ITA@LE <RI7(I<LES.
1:. The application o% eAita!le principles ths still leaves the (ort $ith the tas' o%
appreciation o% the $eight to !e accor#e# to the relevant circmstances in any
particlar case o% #elimitation. There is a mch Aote# #ictm o% the (ort in its 1/0/
H#gment to this e%%ect=
VIn %act, there is no legal limit to the consi#erations $hich States may ta'e
accont o% %or the prpose o% ma'ing sre that they apply eAita!le
proce#res, an# more o%ten than not it is the !alancing&p o% all sch
consi#erations that $ill pro#ce this reslt rather than reliance on one to the
exclsion o% all others. The pro!lem o% the relative $eight to !e accor#e# to
#i%%erent consi#erations natrally varies $ith the circmstances o% the case.V
-I.(.H. +eports 4F3F, p. 8E, para. /E.2
8et althogh there may !e no legal limit to the consi#erations $hich States may ta'e
accont o%, this can har#ly !e tre %or a cort applying eAita!le proce#res. For a
cort, althogh there is assre#ly no close# list o% consi#erations, it is evi#ent that only
those that are pertinent to the instittion o% the continental shel% as it has #evelope#
$ithin the la$, an# to the application o% eAita!le principles to its #elimitation, $ill
Aali%y %or inclsion. Other$ise, the legal concept o% continental shel% col# itsel% !e
%n#amentally change# !y the intro#ction o% consi#erations strange to its natre.
LA7B>ASS 7OT A @ASIS OF E7TITLE>ET TO (O7TI7E7TAL SHELF RI6HTS.
1/. It $as arge# !y Li!ya that the relevant geographical consi#erations incl#e the
lan#mass !ehin# the coast, in the sense that that lan#mass provi#es in Li!yaUs vie$
the %actal !asis an# legal "sti%ication %or the StateUs entitlement to continental shel%
rights, a State $ith a greater lan#mass having a more intense natral prolongation.
The (ort is na!le to accept this as a relevant consi#eration. Lan#mass has never
!een regar#e# as a !asis o% entitlement to continental shel% rights, an# sch a
proposition %in#s no spport in the practice o% States, in the "rispr#ence, in #octrine,
or in#ee# in the $or' o% the Thir# ?7 (on%erence on the La$ o% the Sea. It $ol#
ra#ically change the part playe# !y the relationship !et$een coast an# continental
shel%. The capacity to engen#er continental shel% rights #erives not %rom the lan#mass,
!t %rom sovereignty over the lan#mass + an# it is !y means o% the maritime %ront o% this
lan#mass, in other $or#s !y its coastal opening, that this territorial sovereignty !rings
its continental shel% rights into e%%ect. What #istingishes a coastal State $ith
continental shel% rights %rom a lan#loc'e# State $hich has none, is certainly not the
lan#mass, $hich !oth possess, !t the existence o% a maritime %ront in one State an#
its a!sence in the other. The "ri#ical lin' !et$een the StateUs territorial sovereignty an#
its rights to certain a#"acent maritime expanses is esta!lishe# !y means o% its coast.
The concept o% a#"acency measre# !y #istance is !ase# entirely on that o% the
coastline, an# not on that o% the lan#mass.
E(O7O>I( FA(TORS A7B SE(?RIT8 ARE ALSO 7OT (O7SIBEREB.
9.. It $as arge# !y >alta, on the other han#, that the consi#erations that may !e
ta'en accont o% incl#e economic %actors an# secrity. >alta has conten#e# that the
relevant eAita!le consi#erations, employe# not to #ictate a #elimitation !t to
contri!te to assessment o% the eAita!leness o% a #elimitation other$ise arrive# at,
incl#e the a!sence o% energy resorces on the islan# o% >alta, its reAirements as an
islan# #eveloping contry, an# the range o% its esta!lishe# %ishing activity. The (ort
#oes not ho$ever consi#er that a #elimitation shol# !e in%lence# !y the relative
economic position o% the t$o States in Aestion, in sch a $ay that the area o%
continental shel% regar#e# as appertaining to the less rich o% the t$o States $ol# !e
some$hat increase# in or#er to compensate %or its in%eriority in economic resorces.
Sch consi#erations are totally nrelate# to the n#erlying intention o% the applica!le
rles o% international la$. It is clear that neither the rles #etermining the vali#ity o%
legal entitlement to the continental shel%, nor those concerning #elimitation !et$een
neigh!oring contries, leave room %or any consi#erations o% economic #evelopment o%
the States in Aestion. While the concept o% the exclsive economic Gone has, %rom the
otset, incl#e# certain special provisions %or the !ene%it o% #eveloping States, those
provisions have not relate# to the extent o% sch areas nor to their #elimitation !et$een
neigh!oring States, !t merely to the exploitation o% their resorces. The natral
resorces o% the continental shel% n#er #elimitation Vso %ar as 'no$n or rea#ily
ascertaina!leV might $ell constitte relevant circmstances $hich it $ol# !e
reasona!le to ta'e into accont in a #elimitation, as the (ort state# in the 7orth Sea
(ontinental Shel% cases -I.(.H. Reports 1/0/2. Those resorces are the essential
o!"ective envisage# !y States $hen they pt %or$ar# claims to sea&!e# areas
containing them. In the present case, ho$ever, the (ort has not !een %rnishe# !y the
<arties $ith any in#ications on this point.
SE(?RIT8 (O7SIBERATIO7S 7OT A <ARTI(?LAR (O7(ER7 HERE.
91. >alta conten#s that the VeAita!le consi#erationV o% secrity an# #e%ence interests
con%irms the eAi#istance metho# o% #elimitation, $hich gives each party a compara!le
lateral control %rom its coasts. Secrity consi#erations are o% corse not nrelate# to
the concept o% the continental shel%. They $ere re%erre# to $hen this legal concept %irst
emerge#, particlarly in the Trman <roclamation. Ho$ever, in the present case
neither <arty has raise# the Aestion $hether the la$ at present attri!tes to the
coastal State particlar competences in the military %iel# over its continental shel%,
incl#ing competence over the placing o% military #evices. In any event, the #elimitation
$hich $ill reslt %rom the application o% the present H#gment is, as $ill !e seen !elo$,
not so near to the (oast o% either <arty as to ma'e Aestions o% secrity a particlar
consi#eration in the present case.
Alwa#& will B
* bok * cj * tiff * gem * tin * +-
ISLA7B STATE 5S ISLA7B <OLITI(ALL8 LI7JEB TO A >AI7LA7B STATE.
9;. A !rie% mention mst also !e ma#e o% another circmstance over the relevance o%
$hich the <arties have !een in some contention. The %act that >alta constittes an
islan# State has given rise to some argment !et$een the <arties as to the treatment
o% islan#s in continental shel% #elimitation. The <arties agree that the entitlement to
continental shel% is the same %or an islan# as %or mainlan#. Ho$ever Li!ya insists that
%or this prpose no #istinction %alls to !e ma#e !et$een an islan# State an# an islan#
politically lin'e# $ith a mainlan# State+ an# %rther conten#s that $hile the entitlement
is the same, an islan# may !e treate# in a particlar $ay in the actal #elimitation, as
$ere the (hannel Islan#s in the Becision o% E. Hne 1/CC o% the (ort o% Ar!itration on
the #elimitation o% the continental shel% !et$een the ?J an# France. >alta explains
that it #oes not claim any privilege# stats %or islan# States, !t #oes #istingish, %or
prposes o% shel% #elimitation, !et$een islan# States an# islan#s politically lin'e# to a
mainlan# State. It is only in the case o% #epen#ent islan#s, in >altaUs vie$, that
international la$ gives varying e%%ect to them, #epen#ing on sch %actors as siGe,
geographical position, poplation or economy.
9E. In the vie$ o% the (ort, it is not a Aestion o% an Vislan# StateV having some sort o%
special stats in relation to continental shel% rights + in#ee# >alta insists that it #oes not
claim sch stats. It is simply that >alta !eing in#epen#ent, the relationship o% its
coasts $ith the coasts o% its neigh!ors is #i%%erent %rom $hat it $ol# !e i% it $ere a
part o% the territory o% one o% them. In other $or#s, it might $ell !e that the sea
!on#aries in this region $ol# !e #i%%erent i% the islan#s o% >alta #i# not constitte an
in#epen#ent State, !t %orme# a part o% the territory o% one o% the srron#ing
contries. This aspect o% the matter is relate# not solely to the circmstances o% >alta
!eing a grop o% islan#s, an# an in#epen#ent State, !t also to the position o% the
islan#s in the $i#er geographical context, particlarly their position in a semi&enclose#
sea.
<RI7(I<LE OF EK?ALIT8 OF STATES IS 7OT A (O7SIBERATIO7.
91. >alta has also invo'e# the principle o% sovereign eAality o% States as an argment
in %avor o% the eAi#istance metho# pre an# simple, an# as an o!"ection to any
a#"stment !ase# on length o% coasts or proportionality consi#erations. It has o!serve#
that since all States are eAal an# eAally sovereign, the maritime extensions
generate# !y the sovereignty o% each State mst !e o% eAal "ri#ical vale, $hether or
not the coasts o% one State are longer than those o% the other. The %irst Aestion is
$hether the se o% the eAi#istance metho# or recorse to proportionality
consi#erations #erive %rom legal rles accepte# !y States. I%, %or example, States ha#
a#opte# a principle o% apportionment o% shel% on a !asis o% strict proportionality o%
coastal lengths -$hich the (ort #oes not consi#er to !e the case2, their consent to
that rle $ol# !e no !reach o% the principle o% sovereign eAality !et$een them.
Secon#ly, it is evi#ent that the existence o% eAal entitlement, ipso "re an# a! initio, o%
coastal States, #oes not imply an eAality o% extent o% shel%, $hatever the
circmstances o% the area+ ths re%erence to the length o% coasts as a relevant
circmstance cannot !e excl#e# apriori. The principle o% eAality o% States has
there%ore no particlar role to play in the applica!le la$.
<RO<ORTIO7ALIT8 FA(TOR IS TAJE7 I7TO A((O?7T.
99. Li!ya has attache# great importance to an argment !ase# on proportionality -see
Li!yan s!missions 9,0 an# C, set ot in paragraph 11 a!ove2. <roportionality is
certainly intimately relate# !oth to the governing principle o% eAity, an# to the
importance o% coasts in the generation o% continental shel% rights. Accor#ingly, the place
o% proportionality in this case calls %or the most care%l consi#eration. The 1/0/
H#gment in the 7orth Sea (ontinental Shel% cases #escri!es $hat it consistently
re%ers to as the proportionality V%actorV in the %ollo$ing terms =
VA %inal %actor to !e ta'en accont o% is the element o% a reasona!le #egree o%
proportionality $hich a #elimitation e%%ecte# accor#ing to eAita!le principles
oght to !ring a!ot !et$een the extent o% the continental shel% appertaining
to the States concerne# an# the lengths o% their respective coastlines, & these
!eing measre# accor#ing to their general #irection in or#er to esta!lish the
necessary !alance !et$een States $ith straight, an# those $ith mar'e#ly
concave or convex coasts, or to re#ce very irreglar coastlines to their trer
proportions.V -I.(.H. Reports 1/0/, p. 9;, para. /:.2
There is a %rther statement in the operative part -i!i#., p. 91, para. 1.1 -B2 -E22, an#
this is in the natre o% things a##resse# speci%ically to the actal case then !e%ore the
(ort, an# is accor#ingly some$hat #i%%erently Aali%ie# =
Vthe element o% a reasona!le #egree o% proportionality, $hich a #elimitation
carrie# ot in accor#ance $ith eAita!le principles oght to !ring a!ot
!et$een the extent o% the continental shel% areas appertaining to the coastal
State an# the length o% its coast measre# in the general #irection o% the
coastline, accont !eing ta'en %or this prpose o% the e%%ects, actal or
prospective, o% any other continental shel% #elimitation !et$een a#"acent
States in the same regionV.
90. It is clear that $hat the (ort inten#e# $as a means o% i#enti%ying an# then
correcting the 'in# o% #istortion & #isproportion & that col# arise %rom the se o% a
metho# inapt to ta'e a#eAate accont o% some 'in#s o% coastal con%igration= ths, %or
example, since an eAi#istance line is !ase# on a principle o% proximity an# is
there%ore controlle# only !y salient coastal points, it may yiel# a #isproportionate reslt
$here a coast is mar'e#ly irreglar or mar'e#ly concave or convex. In sch cases, the
ra$ eAi#istance metho# may leave ot o% the calclation apprecia!le lengths o% coast,
$hilst at the same time giving n#e in%lence to others merely !ecase o% the shape
o% coastal relationships. In %act the proportionality V%actorV arises %rom the eAita!le
principle that natre mst !e respecte# = coasts $hich are !roa#ly compara!le oght
not to !e treate# #i%%erently !ecase o% a technical Air' o% a particlar metho# o%
tracing the corse o% a !on#ary line.
9C. It %ollo$s & an# this also is evi#ent %rom the 1/0/ H#gment T that proportionality is
one possi!ly relevant V%actorV, among several other %actors -see the $hole o% para. -B2
o% the operative part on pp. 9E&91 o% I.(.H. Reports 1/0/2 Vto !e ta'en into accontV. It
is no$here mentione# amongst Vthe principles an# rles o% international la$ applica!le
to the #elimitationV -i!i#., p. 9E, para. -(22. Its prpose $as again ma#e very clear in
the Becision o% E. Hne 1/CC o% the Anglo&French (ort o% Ar!itration, alrea#y re%erre#
to, $hich state# that =
VThe concept o% UproportionalityU merely expresses the criterion or %actor !y
$hich it may !e #etermine# $hether sch a #istortion reslts in an
ineAita!le #elimitation o% the continental shel% as !et$een the coastal States
concerne#. The %actor o% proportionality may appear in the %orm o% the ratio
!et$een the areas o% continental shel% to the lengths o% the respective
coastlines, as in the 7orth Sea (ontinental Shel% cases. @t it may also
appear, an# more sally #oes, as a %actor %or #etermining the reasona!le or
nreasona!le & the eAita!le or ineAita!le & e%%ects o% particlar geographical
%eatres or con%igrations pon the corse o% an eAi#istance&line !on#aryV
-para. 1..2,
Alwa#& will B
* bok * cj * tiff * gem * tin * +.
an# $ent on to Say also that
Vthere can never !e a Aestion o% completely re%ashioning natre, sch as !y
ren#ering the sitation o% a State $ith an extensive coastline similar to that o%
a State $ith a restricte# coastline+ it is rather a Aestion o% reme#ying the
#isproportionality an# ineAita!le e%%ects pro#ce# !y particlar geographical
con%igrations or %eatres in sitations $here other$ise the apprtenance o%
roghly compara!le attri!tions o% continental shel% to each State $ol# !e
in#icate# !y the geographical %acts. <roportionality, there%ore is to !e se# as
a criterion or %actor relevant in evalating the eAities o% certain geographical
sitations, not as a general principle provi#ing an in#epen#ent sorce o%
rights to areas o% continental shel%.V -<ara. 1.1.2
The pertinent general principle, to the application o% $hich the proportionality %actor
may !e relevant, is that there can !e no Aestion o% Vcompletely re%ashioning natreV+
the metho# chosen an# its reslts mst !e %aith%l to the actal geographical sitation.
LI@8AIS <RO<ORTIO7ALIT8 AR6?>E7T 6OES F?RTHER.
9:. @oth <arties appear to agree $ith these general propositions o% la$ concerning the
se o% the proportionality %actor or criterion. 7evertheless, Li!yaUs proportionality
argment in e%%ect goes a goo# #eal %rther. The %i%th an# sixth s!missions o% Li!ya
are to the e%%ect that
VEAita!le principles #o not reAire that a State possessing a restricte#
coastline !e treate# as i% it possesse# an extensive coastlineV+
an# that
VIn the particlar geographical sitation o% this case, the application o%
eAita!le principles reAires that the #elimitation shol# ta'e accont o% the
signi%icant #i%%erence in lengths o% the respective coastlines $hich %ace the
area in $hich the #elimitation is to !e e%%ecte#.V
These s!missions have in argment !een treate# as ancillary to the %orth
s!mission, $here!y Li!ya conten#s that a criterion %or #elimitation can !e #erive#
%rom the principle o% natral prolongation !ecase o% the presence o% a %n#amental
#iscontinity in the sea&!e# an# s!soil+ !t this s!mission & the ri%t&Gone argment &
has !een re"ecte# !y the (ort. 7othing else remains in the Li!yan s!missions that
can a%%or# an in#epen#ent principle an# metho# %or #ra$ing the !on#ary, nless the
re%erence to the lengths o% coastlines is ta'en as sch. Ho$ever, to se the ratio o%
coastal lengths as o% itsel% #eterminative o% the sea$ar# reach an# area o% continental
shel% proper to each <arty, is to go %ar !eyon# the se o% proportionality as a test o%
eAity, an# as a corrective o% the n"sti%ia!le #i%%erence o% treatment reslting %rom
some metho# o% #ra$ing the !on#ary line. I% sch a se o% proportionality $ere right, it
is #i%%iclt in#ee# to see $hat room $ol# !e le%t %or any other consi#eration+ %or it
$ol# !e at once the principle o% entitlement to continental shel% rights an# also the
metho# o% ptting that principle into operation. Its $ea'ness as a !asis o% argment,
ho$ever, is that the se o% proportionality as a metho# in its o$n right is $anting o%
spport in the practice o% States, in the p!lic expression o% their vie$s at -in particlar2
the Thir# ?7 (on%erence on the La$ o% the Sea, or in the "rispr#ence. It is not
possi!le %or the (ort to en#orse a proposal at once so %ar&reaching an# so novel. That
#oes not ho$ever mean that the Vsigni%icant #i%%erence in lengths o% the respective
coastlinesV is not an element $hich may !e ta'en into accont at a certain stage in the
#elimitation process+ this aspect o% the matter $ill !e retrne# to at the appropriate
stage in the %rther reasoning o% the (ort.
9/. Li!ya has also place# particlar reliance pon the 1/:; #ecision in :ontinental
Shel ($unisiaK)i%!an Ara% Aa#ahiri!a), in $hich the (ort too' note o% the relationship
o% the lengths o% the relevant coasts o% the <arties, an# compare# that relationship $ith
the ratio !et$een the areas o% continental shel% attri!te# to each <arty. On the !asis o%
%igres %or #istances an# ratios, the (ort concl#e# that the reslt o% the #elimitation
contemplate# $ol# Vmeet the reAirements o% the test o% proportionality as an aspect
o% eAityV. Li!ya has in its plea#ings an# argments carrie# ot a similar operation in
the present case, in or#er to sho$ that Va #elimitation $ithin, an# %ollo$ing the general
#irection o%, the Ri%t ,oneV $ol# clearly meet the test o% proportionality. 7either the
(ortUs %in#ings as to the proper %nction o% the concept o% proportionality, set ot
a!ove, nor its #ismissal o% the argments !ase# on geological or geophysical %eatres
in spport o% the ri%t Gone, signi%y the re"ection in principle o% the applica!ility o% the
criterion o% proportionality as a test o% the eAita!leness o% the reslt o% a #elimitation.
The Aestion o% its practical applica!ility in the circmstances o% this case ho$ever $ill
%all to !e examine# once the (ort has in#icate# the metho# o% #elimitation $hich
reslts %rom the applica!le principles an# rles o% international la$.
HOW THE (O?RT WILL A<<L8 THE EK?ITA@LE <RI7(I<LES.
0.. In applying the eAita!le principles ths elicite#, $ithin the limits #e%ine# a!ove,
an# in the light o% the relevant circmstances, the (ort inten#s to procee# !y stages+
ths, it $ill %irst ma'e a provisional #elimitation !y sing a criterion an# a metho# !oth
o% $hich are clearly #estine# to play an important role in pro#cing the %inal reslt+ it
$ill then examine this provisional soltion in the light o% the reAirements #erive# %rom
other criteria, $hich may call %or a correction o% this initial reslt.
(O?RTIS (HOSE7 (RITERIO7 A7B >ETHOB TO @E E><LO8EB I7 THE FIRST
<LA(E+ A<<LI(ATIO7.
01. The (ort has little #o!t $hich criterion an# metho# it mst employ at the otset
in or#er to achieve a provisional position in the present #ispte. The criterion is lin'e#
$ith the la$ relating to a StateUs legal title to the continental shel%. As the (ort has
%on# a!ove, the la$ applica!le to the present #ispte, that is, to claims relating to
continental shelves locate# less than ;.. miles %rom the coasts o% the States in
Aestion, is !ase# not on geological or geomorphological criteria, !t on a criterion o%
#istance %rom the (oast or, to se the tra#itional term, on the principle o% a#"acency as
measre# !y #istance. It there%ore seems logical to the (ort that the choice o% the
criterion an# the metho# $hich it is to employ in the %irst place to arrive at a provisional
reslt shol# !e ma#e in a manner consistent $ith the concepts n#erlying the
attri!tion o% legal title.
0;. The conseAence o% the evoltion o% continental shel% la$ can !e note# $ith regar#
to !oth veri%ication o% title an# #elimitation as !et$een rival claims. On the !asis o% the
la$ no$ applica!le -an# hence o% the #istance criterion2, the vali#ity o% the titles o%
Li!ya an# >alta to the sea&!e# areas claime# !y those States is clear enogh.
Kestions arise only in the assessment o% the impact o% #istance consi#erations on the
actal #elimiting. In this assessment, accont mst !e ta'en o% the %act that, accor#ing
to the V%n#amental normV o% the la$ o% #elimitation, an eAita!le reslt mst !e
achieve# on the !asis o% the application o% eAita!le principles to the relevant
circmstances. It is there%ore necessary to examine the eAities o% the #istance
criterion an# o% the reslts to $hich its application may lea#. The (ort has itsel% note#
that the eAita!le natre o% the eAi#istance metho# is particlarly prononce# in
cases $here #elimitation has to !e e%%ecte# !et$een States $ith opposite coasts. In
7orth Sea (ontinental Shel% it sai# that=
VThe continental shel% area o%%, an# #ivi#ing, opposite States 3consists o%4
prolongations 3$hich4 meet an# overlap, an# can there%ore only !e #elimite#
Alwa#& will B
* bok * cj * tiff * gem * tin * +/
!y means o% a me#ian line + an#, ignoring the presence o% islets, roc's an#
rninor coastal pro"ections, the #isproportionally #istorting e%%ect o% $hich can
!e eliminate# !y other means, sch a line mst e%%ect an eAal #ivision o% the
particlar area involve#.V
In the next paragraph it emphasiGe# the appropriateness o% a me#ian line %or
#elimitation !et$een opposite coasts -i!i#.2. @t it is in %act a #elimitation exclsively
!et$een opposite coasts that the (ort is, %or the %irst time, as'e# to #eal $ith. It is
clear that, in these circmstances, the tracing o% a me#ian line !et$een those coasts,
!y $ay o% a provisional step in a process to !e contine# !y other operations, is the
most "#icios manner o% procee#ing $ith a vie$ to the evental achievement o% an
eAita!le reslt.
<RO5ISIO7AL >EBIA7 LI7E >?ST @E ESA>I7EB I7 THE (O7TEST OF
A<<L8I76 EK?ITA@LE <RI7(I<LES TO THE RELE5A7T (IR(?>STA7(ES.
0E. The me#ian line #ra$n in this $ay is ths only provisional. Were the (ort to treat it
as %inal, it $ol# !e con%erring on the eAi#istance metho# the stats o% !eing the only
metho# the se o% $hich is complsory in the case o% opposite coasts. As alrea#y
pointe# ot, existing international la$ cannot !e interprete# in this sense+ the
eAi#istance metho# is not the only metho# applica!le to the present #ispte, an# it
#oes not even have the !ene%it o% a presmption in its %avor. Ths, n#er existing la$,
it mst !e #emonstrate# that the eAi#istance metho# lea#s to an eAita!le reslt in
the case in Aestion. To achieve this prpose, the reslt to $hich the #istance criterion
lea#s mst !e examine# in the context o% applying eAita!le principles to the relevant
circmstances.
01. An imme#iate Aali%ication o% the me#ian line $hich the (ort consi#ers mst !e
ma#e concerns the !asepoints %rom $hich it is to !e constrcte#. The line pt %or$ar#
!y >alta $as constrcte# %rom the lo$&$ater mar' o% the Li!yan coast, !t $ith regar#
to the >altese coast %rom straight !aselines -inter alia2 connecting the islan# o% >alta
to the ninha!ite# islet o% Fil%la. The (ort #oes not express any opinion on $hether
the inclsion o% Fil%la in the >altese !aselines $as legally "sti%ie#+ !t in any event the
!aselines as #etermine# !y coastal States are not per se i#entical $ith the points
chosen on a coast to ma'e it possi!le to calclate the area o% continental shel%
appertaining to that State. In this case, the eAita!leness o% an eAi#istance line
#epen#s on $hether the precation is ta'en o% eliminating the #isproportionate e%%ect o%
certain Vislets, roc's an# minor coastal pro"ections*, to se the langage o% the (ort in
its 1/0/ H#gment, Aote# a!ove. The (ort ths %in#s it eAita!le not to ta'e accont
o% Fil%la in the calclation o% the provisional me#ian line !et$een >alta an# Li!ya.
Having esta!lishe# sch a provisional me#ian line, the (ort still has to consi#er
$hether other consi#erations,
incl#ing the %actor o% proportionality, shol# lea# to an a#"stment o% that line !eing
ma#e.
09. In ths esta!lishing, as the %irst stage in the #elimitation process, the me#ian line
as the provisional #elimitation line, the (ort col# har#ly ignore the %act that the
eAi#istance metho# has never !een regar#e#, even in a #elimitation !et$een
opposite coasts, as one to !e applie# $ithot mo#i%ication $hatever the circmstances.
Alrea#y, in the 1/9: (onvention on the (ontinental Shel%, $hich imposes pon the
States parties to it an o!ligation o% treaty&la$, %ailing agreement, to have recorse to
eAi#istance %or the #elimitation o% the continental shel% areas, Article 0 contains the
proviso that that metho# is to !e se# Vnless another !on#ary line is "sti%ie# !y
special circmstancesV. Similarly, #ring the #ra%ting o% the ?7 (onvention on the La$
o% the Sea, the text $hich containe# re%erence to the se o% the eAi#istance metho#
-later sperse#e# !y $hat is no$ Article :E, paragraph l2, Aali%ie# that re%erence !y
in#icating that the metho# shol# !e se# V$here appropriate, an# ta'ing accont o% all
circmstances prevailing in the area concerne#V. >oreover in the practice o% States as
re%lecte# in the #elimitation agreements concl#e# an# p!lishe#, analysis o% the
#elimitation line chosen, in relation to the coasts o% the parties, or the appropriate
!asepoints, reveals in nmeros cases a greater or lesser #epartre %rom the line
$hich $ol# have !een pro#ce# !y a strict application o% the eAi#istance metho#. It
is ths certain that, %or the prposes o% achieving an eAita!le reslt in a sitation in
$hich the eAi#istance line is prima %acie the appropriate metho#, all relevant
circmstances mst !e examine#, since they may have a $eight in the assessment o%
the eAities o% the case $hich it $ol# !e proper to ta'e into accont an# to re%lect in
an a#"stment o% the eAi#istance line.
A7OTHER (O7TE7TIO7= (O><ARATI5E SI,E OF >ALTA A7B LI@8A+ O7 THE
BIFFERE7(E I7 THE LE76THS OF THE RELE5A7T (OASTS OF THE <ARTIES.
00. The (ort has alrea#y examine#, an# #ismisse#, a nm!er o% contentions ma#e
!e%ore it as to relevant circmstances in the present case. A %rther geographical
circmstance on $hich Li!ya has insiste# is that o% the comparative siGe o% >alta an#
o% Li!ya. So %ar as VsiGeV re%ers to lan#mass, the (ort has alrea#y in#icate# the
reasons $hy it is na!le to regar# this as relevant+ there remains ho$ever the very
mar'e# #i%%erence in the lengths o% the relevant coasts o% the <arties, an# the element
o% the consi#era!le #istance !et$een those coasts re%erre# to !y !oth <arties, an# to
!e examine# !elo$. In connection $ith lengths o% coasts, attention shol# !e #ra$n to
an important #istinction $hich appears to !e re"ecte# !y >alta, !et$een the relevance
o% coastal lengths as a pertinent circmstance %or a #elimitation, an# se o% those
lengths in assessing ratios o% proportionality. The (ort has alrea#y examine# the role
o% proportionality in a #elimitation process, an# has also re%erre# to the operation,
employe# in the $unisiaK)i%!a case, o% assessing the ratios !et$een lengths o% coasts
an# areas o% continental shel% attri!te# on the !asis o% those coasts. It has !een
emphasiGe# that this latter operation is to !e employe# solely as a veri%ication o% the
eAita!leness o% the reslt arrive# at !y other means. It is ho$ever one thing to employ
proportionality calclations to chec' a reslt+ it is another thing to ta'e note, in the
corse o% the #elimitation process, o% the existence o% a very mar'e# #i%%erence in
coastal lengths, an# to attri!te the appropriate signi%icance to that coastal
relationship, $ithot see'ing to #e%ine it in Aantitative terms $hich are only site# to
the e= post assessment o% relationships o% (oast to area. The t$o operations are
neither mtally exclsive, nor so closely i#enti%ie# $ith each other that the one $ol#
necessarily ren#er the other spererogatory. (onsi#eration o% the compara!ility or
other$ise o% the coastal lengths is a part o% the process o% #etermining an eAita!le
!on#ary on the !asis o% an initial me#ian line+ the test o% a reasona!le #egree o%
proportionality, on the other han#, is one $hich can !e applie# to chec' the
eAita!leness o% any line, $hatever the metho# se# to arrive at that line.
0C. In or#er to assess any #isparity !et$een lengths o% coasts it is %irst necessary to
#etermine $hich are the coasts $hich are !eing contemplate#+ !t that #etermination
nee# only !e in !roa# terms. The Aestion as to $hich coasts o% the t$o States
concerne# shol# !e ta'en into accont is clearly one $hich has eventally to !e
ans$ere# $ith some #egree o% precision in the context o% the test o% proportionality as
a veri%ication o% the eAity o% the reslt. Sch a test $ol# !e meaningless in the
a!sence o% a precise #e%inition o% the Vrelevant coastsV an# the Vrelevant areaV, o% the
'in# $hich the (ort carrie# ot in the $unisiaK)i%!a case. Where a mar'e# #isparity
Alwa#& will B
* bok * cj * tiff * gem * tin * +0
reAires to !e ta'en into accont as a relevant circmstance, ho$ever, this rigoros
#e%inition is not essential an# in#ee# not appropriate. I% the #isparity in Aestion only
emerges a%ter scrplos #e%inition an# comparison o% coasts, it is e= h!pothesi
nli'ely to !e o% sch extent as to carry $eight as a relevant circmstance. It is in this
light that the (ort has here to consi#er the coasts o% the <arties $ithin the area to
$hich, as explaine# a!ove, its "#gment relates+ the Aestion o% the coasts an# areas
to !e ta'en into accont %or application o% the proportionality test is one $hich only
arises at a later stage in the #elimitation process.
7O K?ESTIO7 ARISES OF A78 LI>IT SET @8 THIRB STATESI (LAI>S TO THE
RELE5A7T (OASTS OF >ALTA ?7BER (O7SIBERATIO7.
0:. Within the !on#s set !y the (ort having regar# to the existence o% claims o% thir#
States, no Aestion arises o% any limit, set !y thir# statesI claims, to the relevant coasts
o% >alta to !e ta'en into consi#eration. On the Li!yan si#e, Ras A"#ir, the termins o%
the %rontier $ith Tnisia, mst clearly !e the starting point+ the meri#ian 19V 1.U E $hich
has !een %on# !y the (ort to #e%ine the limits o% the area in $hich the H#gment can
operate crosses the coast o% Li!ya not %ar %rom Ras ,arrA, $hich is regar#e# !y Li!ya
as the limit o% the extent o% its relevant coast. I% the coasts o% >alta an# the coast o%
Li!ya %rom Ras A"#ir to Ras ,arrA are compare#, it is evi#ent that there is a
consi#era!le #isparity !et$een their lengths, to a #egree $hich, in the vie$ o% the
(ort, constittes a relevant circmstance $hich shol# !e re%lecte# in the #ra$ing o%
the #elimitation line. The coast o% Li!ya %rom Ras A"#ir to Ras ,arrA, measre#
%ollo$ing its general #irection, is 1/; miles long, an# the coast o% >alta %rom Ras il&
War#i"a to Belimara <oint, %ollo$ing straight !aselines !t excl#ing the islet o% Fil%la, is
;1 miles long. In the vie$ o% the (ort, this #i%%erence is so great as to "sti%y the
a#"stment o% the me#ian line so as to attri!te a larger shel% area to Li!ya + the #egree
o% sch a#"stment #oes not #epen# pon a mathematical operation an# remains to !e
examine#.
(O?RT (O7SIBERS THE 6E7ERAL 6EO6RA<HI(AL (O7TEST.
0/. In the present case, the (ort has also to loo' !eyon# the area concerne# in the
case, an# consi#er the general geographical context in $hich the #elimitation $ill have
to !e e%%ecte#. The (ort o!serves that that #elimitation, althogh it relates only to the
continental shel% appertaining to t$o States, is also a #elimitation !et$een a portion o%
the sothern littoral an# a portion o% the northern littoral o% the (entral >e#iterranean. I%
accont is ta'en o% that setting, the >altese islan#s appear as a minor %eatre o% the
northern sea!oar# o% the region in Aestion, locate# s!stantially to the soth o% the
general #irection o% that sea!oar#, an# themselves comprising a very limite# coastal
segment. From the vie$point o% the general geography o% the region, this soth$ar#
location o% the coasts o% the >altese islan#s constittes a geographical %eatre $hich
shol# !e ta'en into accont as a pertinent circmstance+ its in%lence on the
#elimitation line mst !e $eighe# in or#er to arrive at an eAita!le reslt.
A7OTHER REASO7 WH8 >ALTAIS (O7TE7TIO7 RE >ERIBIA7 LI7E IS 7OT
A((E<TA@LE.
C.. Enogh has !een sai# a!ove to sho$ $hy the (ort is na!le to accept the
contention o% >alta that the relationship o% the coasts o% >alta an# Li!ya %orms a
VclassicalV an# straight%or$ar# case %or a simple application o% the me#ian line. It is tre
that the coasts are opposite an# that the area !et$een them is clear o% any
complicating %eatres. @t $ithin the area to $hich the present H#gment relates the
me#ian line #ra$n !y >alta is $holly controlle# !y t$o !asepoints, on the islet o% Fil%la
an# on the sotheastern extremity o% the islan# o% >alta+ that is to Say !ase points
some 11 'ilometres apart. Even i% the islet o% Fil%la !e excl#e# as a !asepoint, as the
(ort has %on# that it shol# !e, the line is controlle#, $ithin the area mentione#, only
!y points !et$een Ras il&Ka$s an# @enghisa <oint on the soth$estern coast o% the
islan# o% >alta. In either case, neither the rece#ing $esterly coast o% the islan# o%
>alta, nor the islan# o% 6oGo, nor the straight !aseline #ra$n %rom Ras il&Ka$s to Ras
il&War#i"a, have any in%lence on the corse o% the me#ian line. On the Li!yan coast
also, the !asepoints controlling the line in the area mentione# are concentrate# on a
short stretch o% coastline imme#iately east o% Ras Ta"ra. Frthermore, it is $ell to
recall the precise reason $hy the (ort in its 1/0/ H#gment contraste# the e%%ect o%
an eAi#istance line !et$een opposite coasts an# the e%%ect !et$een a#"acent coasts.
In the latter sitation, any #istorting e%%ect o% a salient %eatre might $ell exten# an#
increase throgh the entire corse o% the !on#ary + $hilst in the %ormer sitation, the
in%lence o% one %eatre is normally Aic'ly sccee#e# an# correcte# !y the in%lence
o% another, as the corse o% the line procee#s !et$een more or less parallel coasts.
BELI>ITATIO7 LI7E >?ST @E ABH?STEB TO @E (LOSER TO >ALTESE (OASTS.
C1. In the light o% these circmstances, the (ort %in#s it necessary, in or#er to ensre
the achievement o% an eAita!le soltion, that the #elimitation line !et$een the areas
o% continental shel% appertaining respectively to the t$o <arties, !e a#"ste# so as to lie
closer to the coasts o% >alta. Within the area $ith $hich the (ort is concerne#, the
coasts o% the <arties are opposite to each other, an# the eAi#istance line !et$een
them lies !roa#ly $est to east, so that its a#"stment can !e satis%actorily an# simply
achieve# !y transposing it in an exactly north$ar# #irection.
WHAT WO?LB @E THE ESTERE>E LI>IT OF S?(H A SHIFT.
C;. Once it is contemplate# that the !on#ary reAires to !e shi%te# north$ar# o% the
me#ian line !et$een Li!ya an# >alta, it seems appropriate %irst to esta!lish $hat might
!e the extreme limit o% sch a shi%t. This is easily #one an# in#ee# the calclation is, in
!roa# terms, apparent %rom any map o% the area as a $hole, sho$ing the $i#er
geographical context $hich the (ort has %on# to !e relevant. Let it !e sppose#, %or
the sa'e o% argment, that the >altese islan#s $ere part o% Italian territory, an# that
there $as a Aestion o% the #elimitation o% the continental shel% !et$een Li!ya an#
Italy, $ithin the area to $hich this H#gment relates. Again,
!et$een opposite coasts, $ith a large, clear area !et$een them, that !on#ary $ol#
not then !e the me#ian line, !ase# solely pon the coasts o% Li!ya to the soth an#
Sicily to the north. At least some accont $ol# !e ta'en o% the islan#s o% >alta+ an#
even i% the minimm accont $ere ta'en, the continental shel% !on#ary !et$een Italy
an# Li!ya $ol# !e some$hat soth o% the me#ian line !et$een the Sicilian an#
Li!yan coasts. Since >alta is not part o% Italy, !t is an in#epen#ent State, it cannot !e
the case that, as regar#s continental shel% rights, it $ill !e in a $orse position !ecase
o% its in#epen#ence. There%ore, it is reasona!le to assme that an eAita!le !on#ary
!et$een Li!ya an# >alta mst !e to the soth o% a notional me#ian line !et$een Li!ya
an# Sicily+ %or that is the line, as $e have seen, $hich allo$s no e%%ect at all to the
islan#s o% >alta. The position o% sch a me#ian line, employing the !aselines on the
coasts o% Sicily esta!lishe# !y the Italian 6overnment, may !e #e%ine# %or present
prposes !y its intersection $ith the meri#ian 19V 1.U E + accor#ing to the in%ormation
spplie# to the (ort, this intersection is at a!ot latit#e E1V E0U 7. The corse o% that
line evi#ently #oes not rn parallel to that o% the me#ian line !et$een >alta an# Li!ya,
!t its %orm is, it is n#erstoo#, not greatly #i%%erent. The eAi#istance line #ra$n
!et$een >alta an# Li!ya -excl#ing as !asepoint the islet o% Fil%la2, accor#ing to the
in%ormation availa!le to the (ort, intersects that same meri#ian 19V 1.U E at
Alwa#& will B
* bok * cj * tiff * gem * tin * +9
approximately E1V 1;U 7. A transposition north$ar#s throgh ;1U o% latit#e o% the >alta&
Li!ya me#ian line $ol# there%ore !e the extreme limit o% sch north$ar# a#"stment.
<OSITIO7 OF THE (O?RT TH?S FAR.
CE. The position reache# !y the (ort at this stage o% its consi#eration o% the case is
there%ore the %ollo$ing. It ta'es the me#ian line -ignoring Fil%la as a !asepoint2 as the
%irst step o% the #elimitation. @t relevant circmstances in#icate that some north$ar#
shi%t o% the !on#ary line is nee#e# in or#er to pro#ce an eAita!le reslt. These are
%irst, the general geographical context in $hich the islan#s o% >alta appear as a
relatively small %eatre in a semi&enclose# sea+ an# secon#ly, the great #isparity in the
lengths o% the relevant coasts o% the t$o <arties. The next step in the #elimitation is
there%ore to #etermine the extent o% the reAire# north$ar# shi%t o% the !on#ary line.
Here, there are t$o important parameters $hich the (ort has alrea#y mentione#
a!ove. First, there is the otsi#e limit o% any north$ar# shi%t, o% some ;1U -see
paragraph C; a!ove2. Secon#, there is the consi#era!le #istance !et$een the coasts
-some 1/9U #i%%erence o% latit#e, in ron# terms, !et$een @enghisa <oint an# the
Li!yan coast #e soth o% that point2, $hich is an o!viosly important consi#eration
$hen #eci#ing $hether, an# !y ho$ mch, a me#ian line !on#ary can !e shi%te#
$ithot ceasing to have an approximately me#ian location, or approaching so near to
one coast as to !ring into play other %actors sch as secrity. In the present case there
is clearly room %or a signi%icant a#"stment, i% it is %on# to !e reAire# %or acheving an
eAita!le reslt.
Weighing p these several consi#erations in the present 'in# o% sitation is not a
process that can in%alli!ly !e re#ce# to a %ormla expresse# in actal %igres.
7evertheless, sch an assessment has to !e ma#e, an# the (ort has concl#e# that
a !on#ary line that represents a shi%t o% aron# three&Aarters o% the #istance
!et$een the t$o oter parameters & that is to say !et$een the me#ian line an# the line
;1U north o% it & achieves an eAita!le reslt in all the circmstances. It has there%ore
#eci#e# that the eAita!le !on#ary line is a line pro#ce# !y transposing the me#ian
line north$ar#s throgh 1:U o% latit#e. @y VtransposingV is meant the operation here!y
to every point on the me#ian line there $ill correspon# a point on the line o%
#elimitation, lying on the same meri#ian o% longit#e !t 1:U %rther to the north. Since
the me#ian line intersects the meri#ian 19V 1.U E at E1V 1;U 7 approximately, the
#elimitation line $ill intersect that meri#ian at E1V E.U 7 approximately + !t it $ill !e %or
the <arties an# their experts to #etermine the exact position o% the line reslting %rom
the north$ar# transposition !y 1:U. The corse o% the #elimitation line #ictate# !y the
metho# a#opte# is sho$n, %or the prposes o% illstration only, on >ap 7o. E appen#e#
hereto.
BIFFI(?LT8 I7 A<<L8I76 <RO<ORTIO7ALIT8 TEST.
C1. There remains the aspect $hich the (ort in the North Sea :ontinental Shel cases
calle# Vthe element o% a reasona!le #egree o% proportionality . . . !et$een the extent o%
the continental shel% areas appertaining to the coastal State an# the length o% its
coastV. In the vie$ o% the (ort, there is no reason o% principle $hy the test o%
proportionality, more or less in the %orm in $hich it $as se# in the $unisial )i%!a case,
namely the i#enti%ication o% Vrelevant coastsV, the i#enti%ication o% Vrelevant areasV o%
continental shel%, the calclation o% the mathematical ratios o% the lengths o% the coasts
an# the areas o% shel% attri!te#, an# %inally the comparison o% sch ratios, shol# not
!e employe# to veri%y the eAity o% a #elimitation !et$een opposite coasts, "st as $ell
as !et$een a#"acent coasts. Ho$ever, there may $ell in sch a case !e practical
#i%%iclties $hich ren#er it inappropriate in that %orm. These #i%%iclties are particlarly
evi#ent in the present case $here, in the %irst place, the geographical context is sch
that the i#enti%ication o% the relevant coasts an# the relevant areas is so mch at large
that virtally any variant col# !e chosen, lea#ing to $i#ely #i%%erent reslts+ an# in the
secon# place the area to $hich the H#gment $ill in %act apply is limite# !y reason o%
the existence o% claims o% thir# States. To apply the proportionality test simply to the
areas $ithin these limits $ol# !e nrealistic+ there is no nee# to stress the #angers o%
reliance pon a calclation in $hich a principal component has alrea#y !een
#etermine# at the otset o% the #ecision, not !y a consi#eration o% the eAities, !t !y
reason o% Aite other preoccpations o% the (ort. 8et to apply proportionality
calclations to any $i#er area $ol# involve t$o serios #i%%iclties. First, there is the
pro!a!ility that %tre #elimitations $ith thir# States $ol# overthro$ not only the
%igres %or shel% areas se# as !asis %or calclations !t also the ratios arrive# at.
Secon#ly, it is the reslt o% the #elimitation line in#icate# !y the (ort $hich is to !e
teste# %or eAita!leness+ !t that line #oes not exten# !eyon# the meri#ians 1EV 9.U E
to the West an# 19U 1.U E to the east. To !ase proportionality calclations on any $i#er
area $ol# there%ore involve an arti%icial prolongation o% the line o% #elimitation, $hich
$ol# !e !eyon# the "ris#iction o% the (ort, even !y $ay o% hypothesis %or an
assessment o% the eAities $ithin the area to $hich the H#gment relates.
7O E5IBE7T BIS<RO<ORTIO7 I7 THE AREAS OF SHELF ATTRI@?TEB TO THE
<ARTIES.
C9. This #oes not mean, ho$ever, that the (ort is #e!arre# %rom consi#ering the
eAita!leness o% the reslt o% the #elimitation $hich it has in contemplation %rom the
vie$point o% the proportional relationship o% coasts an# continental shel% areas. The
(ort #oes not consi#er that an en#eavor to achieve a pre#etermine# arithmetical
ratio in the relationship !et$een the relevant coasts an# the continental shel% areas
generate# !y them $ol# !e in harmony $ith the principles governing the #elimitation
operation. The relationship !et$een the lengths o% the relevant coasts o% the <arties
has o% corse alrea#y !een ta'en into accont in the #etermination o% the #elimitation
line+ i% the (ort trns its attention to the extent o% the areas o% shel% lying on each si#e
o% the line, it is possi!le %or it to ma'e a !roa# assessment o% the eAita!leness o% the
reslt, $ithot see'ing to #e%ine the eAities in arithmetical terms. The conclsion to
$hich the (ort comes in this respect is that there is certainly no evi#ent #isproportion
in the areas o% shel% attri!te# to each o% the <arties respectively sch that it col# !e
sai# that the reAirements o% the test o% proportionality as an aspect o% eAity $ere not
satis%ie#.
S?>>AR8 OF WHAT THE (O?RT TOOJ ?<.
C0. Having ths complete# the tas' con%erre# pon it !y the Special Agreement, the
(ort $ill !rie%ly smmariGe the conclsions reache# in the present H#gment. The
(ort has %on# that that tas' is to lay #o$n the principles an# rles o% international
la$ $hich shol# ena!le the <arties to e%%ect a #elimitation o% the areas o% continental
shel% !et$een the t$o contries in accor#ance $ith eAita!le principles an# so as to
achieve an eAita!le reslt. In #oing so, the (ort consi#ers that the terms o% the
Special Agreement also ma'e it its #ty to #e%ine as precisely as possi!le a metho# o%
#elimitation $hich shol# ena!le !oth <arties to #elimit their respective areas o%
continental shel% V$ithot #i%%icltyV, %ollo$ing the (ortUs #ecision in the case. The
(ort has ho$ever to loo' !eyon# the interests o% the <arties themselves+ it has, as
explaine# a!ove, to leave na%%ecte# the possi!le claims o% thir# States in the region,
$hich are otsi#e the competence o% the (ort in the present case, an# ths remain
nresolve#. While every case o% maritime #elimitation is #i%%erent in its circmstances
%rom the next, only a clear !o#y o% eAita!le principles can permit sch circmstances
Alwa#& will B
* bok * cj * tiff * gem * tin * ,0
to !e properly $eighe#, an# the o!"ective o% an eAita!le reslt, as reAire# !y general
international la$, to !e attaine#.
CC. The (ort has ths ha# occasion to note the #evelopment $hich has occrre# in
the cstomary la$ o% the continental shel%, an# $hich is re%lecte# in Articles C0 an# :E
o% the ?7 (onvention on the La$ o% the Sea, concerning the relationship !et$een the
concept o% the continental shel% as the natral prolongation o% the lan# territory o% the
coastal State an# the %actor o% #istance %rom the coast. As the (ort has explaine#, in
a geographical sitation li'e that $ith $hich the present case is concerne#, $here a
single continental shel% %alls to !e #elimite# !et$een t$o opposite States, so that no
Aestion arises, as !et$een those States, o% #elimitation !y re%erence to a continental
margin exten#ing !eyon# ;.. miles %rom the !aselines ron# the coast o% either State,
the legal concept o% natral prolongation #oes not attri!te any relevance to geological
or geophysical %actors either as !asis o% entitlement or as criterion %or #elimitation.
Each coastal State is entitle# to exercise sovereign rights over the continental shel% o%%
its coasts %or the prpose o% exploring it an# exploiting its natral resorces -Art. CC o%
the (onvention2 p to a #istance o% ;.. miles %rom the !aselines & s!"ect o% corse to
#elimitation $ith neigh!oring States & $hatever the geophysical or geological %eatres
o% the sea&!e# $ithin the area comprise# !et$een the (oast an# the ;..&mile limit.
The intro#ction o% this criterion o% #istance has not ho$ever ha# the e%%ect o%
esta!lishing a principle o% Va!solte proximityV or o% con%erring pon the eAi#istance
metho# o% #elimitation the stats o% a general rle, or an o!ligatory metho# o%
#elimitation, or o% a priority metho#, to !e teste# in every case -c%. :ontinental Shel
($unisiaK)i%!an Ara% Aa#ahiri!a). The %act that the (ort has %on# that, in the
circmstances o% the present case, the #ra$ing o% a me#ian line constittes an
appropriate %irst step in the #elimitation process, shol# not !e n#erstoo# as implying
that an eAi#istance line $ill !e an appropriate !eginning in all cases, or even in all
cases o% #elimitation !et$een opposite States.
C:. Having #ra$n the initial me#ian line, the (ort has %on# that that line reAires to
!e a#"ste# in vie$ o% the relevant circmstances o% the area, namely the consi#era!le
#isparity !et$een the lengths o% the coasts o% the <arties here n#er consi#eration, the
#istance !et$een those coasts, the placing o% the !asepoints governing any
eAi#istance line, an# the general geographical context. Ta'ing these into
consi#eration, an# setting as an extreme limit %or any north$ar# #isplacement o% the
line the notional me#ian line $hich, on the hypothesis O% a #elimitation !et$een Italy
an# Li!ya on the !asis o% eAi#istance, in the area to $hich the H#gment relates,
$ol# #eny any e%%ect $hatever to >alta, the (ort has !een a!le to in#icate a metho#
ma'ing it possi!le %or the <arties to #etermine the location o% a line $hich $ol# ensre
an eAita!le reslt !et$een them. This line gives a reslt $hich seems to the (ort to
meet the reAirements o% the test o% proportionality, an# more generally to !e eAita!le,
ta'ing into accont all relevant circmstances.
5OTATIO7.
C/. For these reasons, !y %orteen votes to three, %in#s that, $ith re%erence to the
areas o% continental shel% !et$een the coasts o% the <arties $ithin the limits #e%ine# in
the present H#gment, namely the meri#ian 1EV 9.U E an# the meri#ian 19V 1.U E=
A. The principles an# rles o% international la$ applica!le %or the #elimitation, to !e
e%%ecte# !y agreement in implementation o% the present H#gment, o% the areas o%
continental shel% appertaining to the Socialist <eopleUs Li!yan Ara! Hamahiriya an# to
the Rep!lic o% >alta respectively are as %ollo$s =
-12 the #elimitation is to !e e%%ecte# in accor#ance $ith eAita!le principles an# ta'ing
accont o% al1 relevant circmstances, so as to arrive at an eAita!le reslt +
-;2 the area o% continental shel% to !e %on# to appertain to either <arty not exten#ing
more than ;.. miles %rom the coast o% the <arty concerne#, no criterion %or #elimitation
o% shel% areas can !e #erive# %rom the principle o% natral prolongation in the physical
sense.
@. The circmstances an# %actors to !e ta'en into accont in achieving an eAita!le
#elimitation in the present case are the %ollo$ing =
-12 the general con%igration o% the coasts o% the <arties, their oppositeness, an# their
relationship to each other $ithin the general geographical context +
-;2 the #isparity in the lengths o% the relevant coasts o% the <arties an# the #istance
!et$een them +
-E2 the nee# to avoi# in the #elimitation any excessive #isproportion !et$een the
extent o% the continental shel% areas appertaining to the coastal State an# the length o%
the relevant part o% its coast, measre# in the general #irection o% the coastlines.
(. In conseAence, an eAita!le reslt may !e arrive# at !y #ra$ing, as a %irst stage in
the process, a me#ian line every point o% $hich is eAi#istant %rom the lo$&$ater mar'
o% the relevant coast o% >alta -excl#ing the islet o% Fil%la2, an# the lo$&$ater mar' o%
the relevant coast o% Li!ya, that initial line !eing then s!"ect to a#"stment in the light
o% the a!ove&mentione# circmstances an# %actors.
B. The a#"stment o% the me#ian line re%erre# to in s!paragraph : a!ove is to !e
e%%ecte# !y transposing that line north$ar#s throgh 1:U o% latit#e -so that it intersects
the meri#ian 19V 1.U E at approximately latit#e E1V E.U 72 sch transpose# line then
constitting the #elimitation line !et$een the areas o% continental shel% appertaining to
the Socialist <eopleUs Li!yan Ara! Hamahiriya an# to the Rep!lic o% >alta
respectively.
A%,%AN S%A CONTIN%NTAL S.%L- CAS%: ,*%%C% v. TU*+%E (43 )%C. 4312)
Note: $his decision pri#aril! ocuses on ,*N the ':A has .urisdiction, it doesnt go
into the su%stantial #atter o the dispute which is the deli#itation o the Aegean Sea
:ontinental Shel.
SUB6ISSIONS.
,*%%C%: 6overnment o% 6reece reAests the (ort to a#"#ge an# #eclare=
-i2 that the 6ree' islan#s as part o% the territory o% 6reece, are entitle# to the
portion o% the continental shel% $hich appertains to them accor#ing to the
applica!le principles an# rles o% international la$+
-ii2 $hat is the corse o% the !on#ary -or !on#aries2 !et$een the portions o%
the continental shel% appertaining to 6reece an# Tr'ey in the Aegean Sea in
accor#ance $ith the principles an# rles o% international la$ $hich the (ort
shall #etermine to !e applica!le to the #elimitation o% the continental shel% in
the a%oresai# areas o% the Aegean Sea+
-iii2 that 6reece is entitle# to exercise over its continental shel% sovereign an#
exclsive rights %or the prpose o% researching an# exploring it an# exploiting
its natral resorces+
-iv2 that Tr'ey is not entitle# to n#erta'e any activities on the 6ree' continental
shel%, $hether !y exploration, exploitation, research or othen$ise, $ithot the
consent o% 6reece+
-v2 that the activities o% Tr'ey as #escri!e# in the application constitte
in%ringements o% the sovereign an# exclsive rights o% 6reece to explore an#
Alwa#& will B
* bok * cj * tiff * gem * tin * ,1
exploit its continental shel% or to athoriGe scienti%ic research respecting the
continental shel%+
-vi2 that Tr'ey shall not contine any %rther activities as #escri!e# a!ove $ithin
the areas o% the continental shel% $hich the (ort shall a#"#ge appertain to
6reece.*
TU*+%E )I) NOT 7A*TICI7AT%. 7o plea#ings $ere %ile# !y the 6overnment o%
Tr'ey, an# it $as not represente# at the oral procee#ings+ no %ormal s!missions
$ere there%ore ma#e !y that 6overnment.
BAC+,*OUN)%*.
TU*+IS. ACTS IN T.% A%,%AN S%A /.IC. ,*%%C% 7*OT%ST%). To$ar#s the
en# o% 1/CE the Tr'ish 6overnment grante# licences to carry ot exploration %or
petrolem in s!marine areas o% the Aegean Sea, incl#ing areas, $hich encroache#
pon the continental shel% $hich, accor#ing to the 6ree' 6overnment, appertains to
certain 6ree' islan#s. @y a 7ote 5er!ale o% C Fe!rary 1/C1, the 6ree' 6overnment,
!asing itsel% on international la$ as co#i%ie# !y Articles 1 -!2 an# ; o% the 1/9: 6eneva
(onvention on the (ontinental Shel%, Aestione# the vali#ity o% the licenses grante# !y
Tr'ey, reserve# its sovereign rights over the continental shel% a#"acent to the coasts o%
the sai# islan#s, an# conten#e# that the continental shel% reAire# to !e #elimite#
!et$een the t$o States on a !asis o% eAi#istance !y means o% a me#ian line. The
Tr'ish 6overnment replie#, !y a 7ote 5er!ale o% ;C Fe!rary 1/C1, that )the 6ree'
Islan#s sitate# very close to the Tr'ish (oast #o not possess a continental shel% o%
their o$n*, an# #ispte# the applica!ility o% the principle o% eAi#istance+ $hile
reserving its rights, it state# that it consi#ere# it appropriate to see' !y means o%
agreement a soltion in con%ormity $ith the rles o% international la$. In its reply o% ;1
>ay 1/C1, the 6ree' 6overnment in#icate# that it $as not oppose# to a #elimitation
!ase# on the provisions o% present #ay positive international la$, )as co#i%ie# !y the
1/9: 6eneva (onvention on the (ontinental Shel%*+ the Tr'ish 6overnment in its trn,
on 9 Hne 1/C1, state# that it $as the #ty o% the t$o 6overnments to se every
en#eavor to !ring a!ot agree# soltions o% the varios pro!lems arising !y reason o%
the %act that they $ere neigh!ors in the Aegean Sea+ it expresse# rea#iness to enter
into negotiations %or the #elimitation o% the continental shel% !et$een the t$o contries.
On ;/ >ay 1/C1 the Tr'ish vessel :andarli !egan a program o% exploration in $aters
$hich $ere $holly or partly sper"acent to the continental shel% in the Aegean Sea
$hich, accor#ing to the 6ree' 6overnment, appertains to 6reece. The 6ree'
6overnment, in a 7ote o% 11 Hne 1/C1, o!serve# that this exploration $as a !reach o%
6reeceIs exclsive sovereign rights an# lo#ge# a vigoros protest. The Tr'ish
6overnment, in its reply o% 1 Hly 1/C1, re%se# to accept the 6ree' protest. Another
protest in respect o% %rther licenses %or exploration $as ma#e !y 6reece on ;; Agst
1/C1+ Tr'ey re%se# to accept it on 10 Septem!er 1/C1, an# repeate# the sggestion
o% negotiations.
6%%TIN,S B%T/%%N ,*%%C% = TU*+%E. This le# to !oth states #eci#ing to !ring
the #ispte as to the applica!le la$ as $ell as over the s!stance o% the matter to the
I(H. The t$o states s!seAently met to %inaliGe the special agreement they $ol#
ma'e to !ring the isse to the I(H. @t in sch meetings, Tr'ey $as %irm in its stan#
that it $ol# not !e in the interest o% the t$o contries to s!mit the #ispte to the
(ort $ithot %irst attempting meaning%l negotiations. @t 6reece on the other han#
$ante# to !ring the isse %irst to the I(H. In a 7ote o% 1: 7ovem!er 1/C9 the Tr'ish
6overnment invite# the 6ree' 6overnment to con#ct meaning%l negotiations %or an
agree# eAita!le settlement, as $ell as %or consi#ering "oint s!mission o% nresolve#
!t $ell #e%ine# legal isses, i% necessary, to the (ort. The 6ree' government replie#
an# expresse# the vie$ that since negotiation $as in any case necessary in or#er to
procee# $ith the #ra%ting o% the special agreement, it $as n#erstoo# that i% in the
corse o% that negotiation proposals $ere ma#e %or the elimination o% points o%
#isagreement concerning #elimitation, those proposals $ol# !e given appropriate
consi#eration. In accor#ance $ith the vie$s expresse# in the a!ove commnications,
meetings o% experts too' place in @erne %rom in 1/C0, !t no agreement $as reache#.
T.% LAST ST*A/ -O* ,*%%C%. On 1E Hly 1/C0 a Tr'ish 6overnment press
release $as isse# concerning researches that $ol# !e n#erta'en !y a Tr'ish
seismic research vessel in the Tr'ish territorial sea an# the high seas, an# in a
statement on Tr'ish ra#io the Tr'ish Foreign >inister in#icate# that these
researches $ol# !e carrie# ot in the areas o% the Aegean claime# !y Tr'ey, an#
col# exten# to all areas o% the Aegean otsi#e the territorial $aters o% 6reece. When
the vessel prse# its researches into areas $here, in the vie$ o% the 6ree'
6overnment, the continental shel% appertains to 6reece, that 6overnment ma#e a
#iplomatic protest to the Tr'ish 6overnment in a 7ote 5er!ale an# 6reece re%erre#
the matter simltaneosly to the International (ort o% Hstice an# to the Secrity
(oncil.
S%CU*ITE COUNCIL *%SOLUTION. On ;9 Agst 1/C0 the Secrity (oncil
a#opte# resoltion E/9 $hich calle# on the t$o 6overnments )to resme #irect
negotiations over their #i%%erences* an# appeale# to them )to #o everything $ithin their
po$er to ensre that this reslts in mtally accepta!le soltions.*
While the present case $as pen#ing !e%ore the (ort, 6reece an# Tr'ey resme#
their negotiations, in accor#ance $ith the Secrity (oncil resoltion. The Tr'ish
6overnment %eels thogh that the (ort oght not to procee# $ith the case $hile the
parties contine to negotiate an# that the existence o% active negotiations in progress
constittes an impe#iment to the (ortIs exercise o% "ris#iction in the present case.
The (ort is na!le to share this vie$. 7egotiation an# "#icial settlement are
enmerate# together in Article EE o% the (harter o% the ?nite# 7ations as means %or the
peace%l settlement o% #isptes.
N%,OTIATIONS NOT INCONSIST%NT /IT. IC8 7*OC%%)IN,S. The "rispr#ence
o% the (ort provi#es varios examples o% cases in $hich negotiations an# recorse to
"#icial settlement have !een prse# paripassu (side %! side). The a!ove&mentione#
o!servations o% the Tr'ish 6overnment might also !e interprete# as ma'ing the point
that there is no #ispte !et$een the parties $hile negotiations contine, so that the
(ort col# not %or that reason !e seise# o% "ris#iction in the case. As the (ort
recogniGe# in its Or#er, the existence o% a #ispte can har#ly !e open to #o!t in the
present case. (onsel %or 6reece correctly state# that there is in %act a #o!le #ispte
!et$een the parties= )There is a #ispte a!ot $hat the continental shel% !on#aries in
the Aegean Sea shol# !e, an# there is a #ispte as to the metho# $here!y this %irst
#ispte shol# !e settle#&$hether !y negotiation alone or !y s!rnission to a tri!nal
competent to exercise "ris#iction in the matter, either %ollo$ing pon negotiations or
even in the a!sence o% them.*
T.%*% IS A L%,AL )IS7UT%. Again, in the Tr'ish Am!assa#orIs letter o% 1/C:, the
%rther argment is a#vance# that the #ispte !et$een 6reece an# Tr'ey is )o% a
highly political natre*. @t a #ispte involving t$o States in respect o% the #elimitation
o% their continental shel% can har#ly %ail to have some political element an# the present
Alwa#& will B
* bok * cj * tiff * gem * tin * ,2
#ispte is clearly one in $hich )the parties are in con%lict as to their respective rights*.
6reece has as'e# the (ort to prononce on its s!missions )in accor#ance $ith the
principles an# rles o% international la$*. Tr'ey, %or its part, has invo'e# legal gron#s
in reply to the 6ree' claim, sch as the existence o% )special circmstances*. It is clear
%rom the s!missions in the 6ree' Application an# >emorial, as $ell as in the
o!servations in the varios Tr'ish #iplomatic commnications to 6reece, that 6reece
an# Tr'ey are in con%lict as to the #elimitation o% the spatial extent o% their sovereign
rights over the continental shel% in the Aegean Sea. Ths there are certain sovereign
rights !eing claime# !y !oth 6reece an# Tr'ey, one against the other an# it is
mani%est that legal rights lie at the root o% the #ispte that #ivi#es the t$o States. The
(ort there%ore %in#s that a legal #ispte exists !et$een 6reece an# Tr'ey in respect
o% the continental shel% in the Aegean Sea.
SO )O%S T.% IC8 .A0% 8U*IS)ICTION?
CLAI6%) BASIS -O* IC8Gs 8U*IS)ICTION. The %irst !asis o% "ris#iction is
%ormlate# in paragraph E; -12 o% the Application as %ollo$s= )Article 1C o% the 6eneral
Act %or the <aci%ic Settlement o% Inter&national Bisptes, 1/;:, rea# together $ith
Articles E0 -12 an# EC o% the Statte o% the (ort. Respectively on 11 Septem!er 1/E1
an# ;0 Hne 1/E1, 6reece an# Tr'ey acce#e# to this instrment, $hich is still in %orce
%or !oth o% them. The texts o% these accessions $ere accompanie# !y #eclarations
$hich are irrelevant to the present case.*
Article 1C o% the 6eneral Act o% 1/;: %orms part o% (hapter II o% the Act, entitle#
)H#icial Settlement*, an# rea#s as %ollo$s= )All #isptes $ith regar# to $hich the
parties are in con%lict as to their respective rights shall, s!"ect to any reservations
$hich may !e ma#e n#er Article E/, !e s!mitte# %or #ecision to the <ermanent (ort
o% International Hstice, nless the parties agree, in the manner hereina%ter provi#e#, to
have resort to an ar!itral tri!nal. It is n#erstoo# that the #isptes re%erre# to a!ove
incl#e in particlar those mentione# in Article E0 o% the Statte o% the <ermanent
(ort o% International Hstice.*
The Article ths provi#es, n#er certain con#itions, %or the re%erence to the %ormer
<ermanent (ort o% International Hstice o% #isptes $ith regar# to $hich the parties
are in con%lict as to their respective rights. Article EC o% the Statte o% this (ort,
ho$ever, States that= )Whenever a treaty or convention in %orce provi#es %or re%erence
o% a matter to the <ermanent (ort o% International Hstice, the matter shall, as
!et$een the parties to the present Statte, !e re%erre# to the International (ort o%
Hstice.*
(learly, Article 1C o% the 6eneral Act o% 1/;:, here invo'e# !y 6reece, contains a
"ris#ictional clase $hich #oes provi#e %or re%erence to the <ermanent (ort o% certain
speci%ie# matters, namely, )all #isptes $ith regar# to $hich the parties are in con%lict
as to their respective rights*. It %ollo$s that, i% the 1/;: Act is consi#ere# to !e a
convention in %orce !et$een 6reece an# Tr'ey an# applica!le to the )matter* $hich is
the s!"ect o% the present #ispte, the Act, rea# in com!ination $ith Article EC, an#
Article E0, paragraph 1, o% the Statte, may s%%ice to esta!lish the (ortIs "ris#iction
in the present case.
The 6eneral Act came into %orce in accor#ance $ith its terms on 1/;/, an# 6reece
!ecame a party to the Act !y #epositing an instrment o% accession on 1/E1, s!"ect to
certain reservations. Tr'ey li'e$ise !ecame a party to the Act !y #epositing an
instrment o% accession on 1/E1 $hich, also, $as s!"ect to certain reservations. In
conseAence, the 6eneral Act n#o!te#ly !ecame a convention in %orce as !et$een
6reece an# Tr'ey on the ninetieth #ay %ollo$ing the #eposit o% Tr'eyIs instrment o%
accession, in accor#ance $ith Article 11, paragraph ;, o% the Act+ nor is there any
recor# o% either 6reece or Tr'ey having noti%ie# the Secretary&6eneral, in con%ormity
$ith Article 19, paragraph E, o% its #ennciation o% the Act. The 6ree' 6overnment
maintains that, in these circmstances, the 6eneral Act mst !e presme# to !e still in
%orce as !et$een 6reece an# Tr'ey, in virte o% paragraph ; o% Article 19, n#er
$hich the Act is expresse# to remain in %orce %or )sccessive perio#s o% %ive years in
the case o% (ontracting <arties $hich #o not #enonce it at least six months !e%ore the
expiration o% the crrent perio#*. It %rther maintains that neither the reservations in
6reeceIs o$n instrment o% accession nor those in the Tr'ish instrment have any
relevance to the present #ispte, an# that Article 1C o% the 6eneral Act accor#ingly
constittes a vali# !asis %or the exercise o% the (ortIs "ris#iction in the present case
n#er Article E0, paragraph 1, o% the Statte.
TU*+%EGS CONT%NTIONS: ,%N. ACT NO LON,%* IN -O*C% AN) NOT
A77LICABL%. The Tr'ish 6overnment, on the other han#, in the o!servations $hich
it transmitte# to the (ort $ith its letter to the Registrar o% 1/C0, conteste# the 6ree'
6overnmentIs right to invo'e Article 1C o% the 6eneral Act in the present case on !oth
conts. It there too' the position that the 6eneral Act is no longer in %orce an# that,
$hether or not the 6eneral Act is in %orce, it is inapplica!le as !et$een 6reece an#
Tr'ey. In this connection, the Tr'ish 6overnment has emphasiGe# )that at no time
#ring the exchanges o% #ocments an# #iscssions concerning the continental shel%
areas o% the Aegean Sea has any 6ree' representative ma#e any mention o% the
6eneral Act o% 1/;:*.
UN ,AGS STU)E O- T.% ,%N%*AL ACT. In 1/1:, the 6A o% the ?7 n#ertoo' a
st#y o% the text o% the 6eneral Act $ith a vie$ to restoring its %ll e%%icacy, since this
ha# !een impaire# in some respects as a reslt o% the #issoltion o% the Leage o%
7ations an# the #isappearance o% its organs. The 6A a#opte# resoltion ;0:A&III, !y
$hich it instrcte# the Secretary&6eneral to prepare the text o% a )Revise# 6eneral Act
%or the <aci%ic Settlement o% International Bisptes* incorporating the amen#ments
$hich it ha# a#opte#, an# to hol# it open to accession !y States. Explaining the
reasons %or this instrction, it state# that the amen#ments are o% a natre to restore to
the 6eneral Act its original e%%icacy+ these amen#ments $ill only apply as !et$een
States having acce#e# to the 6eneral Act as ths amen#e# an#, as a conseAence,
$ill not a%%ect the rights o% sch States, parties to the Act as esta!lishe# on ;0
Septem!er 1/;:, as shol# claim to invo'e it in so %ar as it might still !e operative.*
BOT. ,*%%C% = TU*+%E A*% IN T.% LIST O- T.OS% /.O ACC%)%). The
Secretariat, in a memoran#m o% 1 >ay 1/1:, ha# provi#e# a list o% the States $hich
p to E1 Hly 1/10 ha# acce#e# to the 1/;: Act an# that list incl#e# !oth 6reece an#
Tr'ey.
IN T.% -I*ST 7LAC% IS T.% ,%N%*AL ACT *%L%0ANT IN CON-%**IN, T.%
IC8 /IT. 8U*IS)ICTION IN T.IS 7A*TICULA* )IS7UT%?
*%S%*0ATION B. The Tr'ish 6overnment neAivocally too' the position that,
$hether or not the 6eneral Act is assme# to !e still in %orce, it is s!"ect to a clase,
i.e., reservation (b), $hich $ol# excl#e the (ortIs competence $ith respect to the
present #ispte. The Tr'ish 6overnment there #eclare# that in con%ormity $ith Article
E/, paragraph E, o% the Act, )Tr'ey opposes reservation (b) to the 6ree' Application*.
Alwa#& will B
* bok * cj * tiff * gem * tin * ,+
In its %rther letter to the Registrar o% ;1 April 1/C: the Tr'ish 6overnment in%orme#
the (ort that it maintaine# its vie$ that the (ort has no "ris#iction to entertain the
6ree' Application %or the reasons $hich it ha# explaine# in its earlier letter o% ;9
Agst 1/C0. The (ort is ths con%ronte# $ith a sitation in $hich, even i% the
6eneral Act is to !e consi#ere# a convention in %orce, its $hole relevance as a
potential sorce o% the (ortIs "ris#iction in a matter concerning a coastal StateIs
sovereign rights over the continental shel% is conteste# !y the Tr'ish 6overnment.
(learly, i% the Tr'ish 6overnmentIs vie$ o% the e%%ect o% reservation (b) on the
applica!ility o% the Act as !et$een 6reece an# Tr'ey $ith respect to the s!"ect&
matter o% the present #ispte is %on# !y the (ort to !e "sti%ie#, a %in#ing on the
Aestion $hether the Act is or is not a convention in %orce to#ay ceases to !e essential
%or the (ortIs #ecision regar#ing its "ris#iction to entertain the present Application.
,*%%C%: *%S%*0ATION B S.OUL) NOT B% TA+%N INTO ACCOUNT. The 6ree'
6ovemment has a#vance# the contention that reservation -!2 shol#, in any event, !e
le%t ot o% consi#eration altogether !y the (ort !ecase the Aestion o% its e%%ect on
the application o% the 6eneral Act $ith respect to the present #ispte $as not raise# !y
Tr'ey as a preliminary o!"ection. In its vie$, since Tr'ey has not %ile# a preliminary
o!"ection, it cannot !e regar#e# as having )en%orce#* the reservation in con%ormity $ith
o% the 6eneral Act. The 6ree' 6overnment recogniGes that )the (ort, $hose
"ris#iction is international, is not !on# to attach to matters o% %orm the same #egree
o% importance $hich they might possess in mnicipal la$* an# also that in previos
cases $here the respon#ent has not appeare#, the (ort has ta'en into accont all the
elements !e%ore it, incl#ing those spplie# !y extra&proce#ral commnications %rom
the respon#ent, %or the prpose o% satis%ying itsel% as to $hether its "ris#iction $as
esta!lishe#. It %rther recogniGes that, even $hen the respon#ent has not in%orme# the
(ort o% its attit#e, the (ort has mot proprio enAire# into the possi!le o!"ections to
its "ris#iction in the case. It maintains, ho$ever, that in previos cases the (ort has
never gone %rther than to ta'e accont o% )o!"ection,, )legal argments* or
)contentions* a#vance# !y the respon#ent or conceive# o% !y the (ort. It then as's
$hether, in a case li'e the present, the (ort can go so %ar as to s!stitte itsel% %or the
a!sent govemment !y en%orcing mot proprio in place o% that government the
reservation o% the Applicant, ths assimilating the extra&proce#ral expression o% a
#esire to ta'e a#vantage o% the reservation to the proce#ral expression o% a #ecision
to en%orce it.
COU*T NOT CON0INC%) BE ,*%%C%GS CONT%NTIONS. TU*+%E %N-O*C%)
T.% *%S%*0ATION T.*OU,. A L%TT%*. The proce#ral o!"ection a#vance# !y
6reece to reservation -!2Is !eing ta'en into consi#eration #oes not appear to the (ort
to !e convincing. Accor#ing to the in%ormation !e%ore the (ort, no mention $as ma#e
o% the 6eneral Act #ring the negotiations, so that the %irst mention o% the Act !y
6reece in the present #ispte $as in its Application, $ith $hich it also %ile# a reAest
%or interim measres o% protection. It $as only then that the Tr'ish 6overnment ha#
occasion to consi#er its position regar#ing the application o% the 6eneral Act to the
present #ispte. On 1: Agst 1/C0, the 6ree' an# Tr'ish 6overnments $ere
in%orme# that p!lic hearings $ol# open to a%%or# the parties the opportnity o%
presenting their o!servations on the 6ree' reAest %or the in#ication o% provisional
measres. The Registrar, at the #irection o% the (ort, in%orme# the Tr'ish
Am!assa#or to the 7etherlan#s that his 6overnment ha# the right to a##ress to the
(ort in $riting any o!servations that it might have on the 6ree' reAest. It $as in
these circmstances that, !y its letter the Tr'ish 6overnment transmitte# to the (ort
the #ocment entitle# )O!servations o% the 6overnment o% Tr'ey on the reAest !y
the 6overnment o% 6reece %or provisional measres o% protection #ate# The Hage, 1.
Agst 1/C0*. In those o!servations the Tr'ish 6overnment speci%ically re%erre# to
the right con%erre# pon it !y Article E/, paragraph > o% the 6eneral Act to invo'e
6reeceIs reservation -!2 on the !asis o% reciprocity, an# then state#= )In con%ormity $ith
this provision, Tr'ey opposes reservation -!2.* In the vie$ o% the (ort, that %ormal
statement, ma#e in response to a commnication %rom the (ort, mst !e consi#ere#
as constitting an )en%orcement* o% the reservation $ithin the meaning o%, an# in
con%ormity $ith, Article E/, paragraph E, o% the Act.
The Tr'ish 6overnment, it is tre, $as not represente# at the p!lic hearings on
6reeceIs reAest %or the in#ication o% provisional measres, an# #i# not a%ter$ar#s %ile
a preliminary o!"ection or ta'e any steps in the procee#ings. @t there is no provision
in the Rles o% (ort $hich excl#es the s!mission o% $ritten o!servations on a
reAest %or provisional measres+ nor is there any provision $hich excl#es the raising
o% Aestions o% "ris#iction in $ritten o!servations s!mitte# in procee#ings on the
in#ication o% provisional measres. On the contrary, in vie$ o% the rgency o% a reAest
%or provisional measres, $ritten commnications not s!mitte# throgh an agent !t
either #irectly or throgh the Am!assa#or in The Hage have invaria!ly !een a#mitte#
!y the (ort+ $hile one o% the very prposes o% sch commnications has commonly
!een to raise Aestions as to the competence o% the (ort $ith respect to the particlar
case.
In the present case, the Tr'ish 6overnmentIs o!servations $ere imme#iately
commnicate# to the 6ree' Agent, an# they $ere re%erre# to !y consel %or 6reece
#ring the hearings concerning the reAest %or interim measres. In#ee#, consel %or
6reece then expressly recogniGe# that !y reason o% the title given to the #ocment the
Tr'ish 6overnment ha# place# itsel% )$ithin the context o% Article 00, paragraph :, o%
the Rles o% (ort*, a##ing= )Ths, not only has an opportnity o% presenting
o!servations !een given to Tr'ey, !t Tr'ey has in %act, in the letter $hich it has sent
to the (ort an# in the #ocment, availe# itsel% o% that opportnity o% presenting
o!servations.*
The (ort itsel%, in its Or#er o% 11 Septem!er 1/C0 too' #e notice o% the Tr'ish
6overnmentIs o!servations. It also calle# attention to the invocation !y Tr'ey o%
reservation (b) in 6reeceIs instrment o% accession, an# set ot the text o% the
reservation. In that Or#er, moreover, the (ort expressly state# that, )having regar# to
the position ta'en !y the Tr'ish 6overnment in its o!servations commnicate# to the
(ort on ;0 Agst 1/C0, that the (ort has no "ris#iction to entertain the 6ree'
Application*, it $as )necessary to resolve %irst o% all the Aestion o% the (ortIs
"ris#iction $ith respect to the case.* Accor#ingly, a%ter giving its %in#ing on the reAest
%or interim measres, the (ort $ent on to #eci#e that the present procee#ings shol#
!e a##resse# to )the Aestion o% the (ortIs "ris#iction to entertain the #ispte*.
T%XT O- T.% *%S%*0ATION IN ,*%%C%GS INST*U6%NT O- ACC%SSION
(O*I,. T%XT IN -*%NC. %N,. T*ANSLATION).
)The %ollo$ing #isptes are excl#e# %rom the proce#res #escri!e# in the 6eneral
Act, incl#ing the proce#re o% conciliation re%erre# to in (hapter 1=
(a) #isptes reslting %rom %acts prior either to the accession o% 6reece or to the
accession o% another <arty $ith $hom 6reece might have a #ispte+
(b) $isp"tes 'on'ernin! C"estions whi'h 95 international law are solel5
within the $o(esti' B"ris$i'tion of States an$ in parti'"lar $isp"tes
relatin! to the territorial stat"s of ,ree'e in'l"$in! $isp"tes relatin! to
its ri!hts of soverei!nt5 over its ports an$ lines of 'o(("ni'ation.H
Alwa#& will B
* bok * cj * tiff * gem * tin * ,,
,*%%C%: T.% ISSU% O- CONTIN%NTAL S.%L- )%LI6ITATION IS NOT
CO0%*%) BE *%S%*0ATION (B) SINC% IT IS NOT A IU%STION CO0%*%) BE
T.% )O6%STIC 8U*IS)ICTION O- STAT%S. The 6ree' 6overnment maintains on
varios gron#s that reservation (b) cannot !e consi#ere# as covering the present
#ispte regar#ing the continental shel% o% the Aegean Sea. One o% those gron#s
consists o% a contention that, $hen rea# correctly accor#ing to its terms, reservation -!2
#oes not cover all #isptes relating to the territorial stats o% 6reece !t only sch as
!oth relate to its territorial stats an# at the same time concern )Aestions $hich !y
international la$ are solely $ithin the #omestic "ris#iction o% States*. On this !asis, it
arges that, as the #elimitation o% the continental shel% cannot !e consi#ere# a
Aestion )solely $ithin the #omestic "ris#iction o% States*, the s!"ect&matter o% the
present #ispte is not covere# !y reservation (b). This gron# is !ase# on an
essentially grammatical interpretation o% the reservation.
,*%%C%GS J,*A66ATICALH INT%*7*%TATION. The grammatical argment hinges
pon the interpretation o% the $or#s )an# in particlar* -"et, notamment") $hich
prece#e the re%erence to #isptes relating to the territorial stats o% 6reece* -"les
diffrends ayant trait au statut territorial de la Grce) . Those $or#s are sai# !y the
6ree' 6overnment to ma'e it plain that the re%erence to )#isptes relating to the
territorial stats o% 6reece* $as not inten#e# to #esignate an atonomos category o%
#isptes a##itional to the category o% #isptes concerning matters solely $ithin
#omestic "ris#iction. The e%%ect o% those $or#s, accor#ing to the 6ree' 6overnment, is
to sho$ that in reservation -!2 )#isptes relating to the territorial stats o% 6reece* are
incl#e# $ithin the #escription o% #isptes concerning matters solely $ithin #omestic
"ris#iction, an# are there mentione# merely as a particlar example o% sch #isptes
$hich it $as #esire# to emphasiGe.
In spport o% this interpretation o% the $or#s et, notamment, the 6ree' 6overnment
invo'es the athority o% Ro!ertIs Dictionnaire alpha-!YtiAe et analogiAe #e la
lange %ran\aise -5ol. I52 $hich explains
notamment as meanin d!une manire "ui mrite d!#tre note (in a $ay
$hich #eserves to !e note#2, an# a##s in !rac'ets= sert leplus sou%ent
[ attirer IIattention sr n o plsiers o!"ets particliers %aisant partie #In ensem!le
prYcY#emment #YsignY o sos&enten#* -most o%ten se# to #ra$ attention to one or
more particlar o!"ects %orming part o% a previosly #esignate# or n#erstoo# $hole2.
<articlar stress is then lai# !y the 6ree' 6overnment on the phrases given !y Ro!ert
to illstrate the se o% the $or# notamment, in the ma"ority o% $hich the $or# is
prece#e# !y the $or# et, !t still #enotes merely a particlar instance o% a $i#er
gens or category. The 6ree' 6overnment also cites sirnilar exarnples o% this se o%
)et notamment* given in the Bictionnaire #e IAca#Ymie %ran\aise an# in LittrY,
Dictionnaire de. la lanue fran&aise. On the !asis o% this lingistic evi#ence, it
maintains that the natral, or#inary an# crrent meaning o% this expression a!soltely
precl#es the 6ree' reservation %rom !eing rea# as covering #isptes regar#ing
territorial stats in a##ition to, an# Aite separately %rom, #isptes regar#ing matters o%
#omestic "ris#iction.
6ATT%*S O- )O6%STIC 8U*IS)ICTION )ISTINCT = S%7A*AT% -*O6
T%**ITO*IAL STATUS. Bisptes concerning matters o% )#omestic "ris#iction* an#
#isptes relating to )territorial stats* are #i%%erent concepts $hich, in treaty provisions,
incl#ing Article >3 paragraph ;, o% the 6eneral Act, an# in reservations to treaties or
to acceptances o% "ris#iction n#er Article E0, paragraph ;, o% the Statte, have !een
'ept Aite separate an# #istinct. Frthermore, the integration o% )#isptes relating to
territorial stats* $ithin the category o% #isptes concerning matters o% )#omestic
"ris#iction*, largely #eprives the %ormer o% any signi%icance. (onseAently, only i% the
grammatical argments $ere compelling an# #ecisive $ol# the (ort !e convince#
that sch is the e%%ect $hich oght to !e given to the $or#s et, notamment, in
reservation (b). @t those argments #o not appear to the (ort to !e so compelling as
has !een sggeste#.
,*A66ATICAL A*,U6%NT NOT SU--ICI%NT. In the %irst place, the grammatical
argment overloo's the commas place# !oth !e%ore an# a%ter notamment. To pt
the matter at its lo$est, one possi!le prpose o% these commas might have !een to
ma'e it clear that in the phrase et, notamment, les diffrend etc., the $or# et is
inten#e# to !e a tre con"nctive intro#cing a category o% diffrends a##itional to
those alrea#y speci%ie#.
Another point overloo'e# !y the argment is that the meaning attri!te# to et,
notamment, !y 6reece is grammatically not the only, althogh it may !e the most
%reAent, se o% that expression. Ro!ertIs Dictionnaire itsel% goes no %rther than to
Say o% the $or# notamment that it is )most o%ten* se# to #ra$ attention to one o%
several particlar o!"ects %orming part o% a collectivity previosly in#icate# or implie#.
The Aestion $hether in the present instance the expression 'et, notamment, has the
meaning attri!te# to it !y 6reece ths #epen#s on the context in $hich those $or#s
$ere se# in 6reeceIs instrment o% accession an# is not a matter simply o% their
prepon#erant lingistic sage. Even a prely gram&matical interpretation o% reservation
(b), there%ore, leaves open the possi!ility that the $or#s et, notamment, les
diffrends ayant trait au statut territorial de la Grce $ere inten#e# to speci%y an
atonomos category o% #isptes a##itional to those concerning matters o% #omestic
"ris#iction, $hich $ere also speci%ically )excl#e# %rom the proce#res #escri!e# in
the 6eneral Act*. In any event, )the (ort cannot !ase itsel% on a prely grammatical
interpretation o% the text.
*%S%*0ATION B CONTAINS 2 S%7A*AT% *%S%*0ATIONS. A nm!er o%
consi#erations o% a s!stantive character point #ecisively to the conclsion that
reservation (b) in %act containe# t$o separate an# atonomos reservations.
A*T. >3 O- T.% ,%N%*AL ACT. One is that the ma'ing o% reservations to the
6eneral Act $as expressly athoriGe# an# reglate# !y Article E/, $hich allo$e# only
the reservations )exhastively enmerate#* in paragraph ; o% the Article, namely=
(a) Bisptes arising ot o% %acts prior to the accession either o% the <arty ma'ing the
reservation or o% any other <arty $ith $hom the sai# <arty may have a #ispte+
-!2 Bisptes concerning Aestions $hich !y international la$ are solely $ithin the
#omestic "ris#iction o% States+
(c) Bisptes concerning particlar cases or clearly speci%ie# s!"ect&matters, sch as
territorial stats, or #isptes %alling $ithin clearly #e%ine# categories.*
When a mltilateral treaty ths provi#es in a#vance %or the ma'ing only o% particlar,
#esignate# categories o% reservations, there is clearly a high pro!a!ility, i% not an actal
presmption, that reservations ma#e in terms se# in the treaty are inten#e# to relate
to the correspon#ing categories in the treaty. 7or #oes the %act that the instrment o%
accession incl#es in a single paragraph t$o categories o% #isptes $hich are liste# in
the treaty as separate categories, !y itsel%, in any $ay #iminish that pro!a!ility. When
ma'ing reservations n#er the 6eneral Act, States have not, as a rle, meticlosly
Alwa#& will B
* bok * cj * tiff * gem * tin * ,-
%ollo$e# the pattern o% reservations set ot in Article E/, paragraph ;+ an# they have
not in%reAently grope# together in one paragraph t$o or more reservations liste#
separately in the Act.
In the present instance, the very strctre o% reservation (b) har#ly seems consistent
$ith an intention to ma'e )#isptes relating to the territorial stats o% 6reece*, $hich
are place# !y the 6eneral Act in one category, merely an example o% #isptes
concerning Aestions o% #omestic "ris#iction, $hich are place# !y the Act in a Aite
#i%%erent category. I% that ha# !een the intention at the time, it $ol# have !een natral
%or those $ho #ra%te# 6reeceIs instrment o% accession to pt the $or#s y compris
-incl#ing2 $here the $or#s et, notamment, -an# in particlar2 in %act appear in
reservation (b) an# the $or#s et, notamment, $here the $or#s y compris are no$
%on#. @t that is not ho$ reservation (b) $as #ra%te#.
,*%%C%GS %A*LI%* )%CLA*ATION. A %rther consi#eration is that 6reeceIs
#eclaration accepting complsory "ris#iction n#er the optional clase o% the Statte
o% the <ermanent (ort containe# a provision $hich, in#ispta!ly, $as an atonomos
reservation o% )#isptes relating to the territorial stats o% 6reece*. That #eclaration,
ma#e on 1; Septem!er 1/;/, only t$o years !e%ore 6reeceIs accession to the
6eneral Act, $as state# to !e s!"ect to t$o reservations=
(a) #isptes relating to the territorial stats o% 6reece, incl#ing #isptes relating
to its rights o% sovereignty over its ports an# lines o% commnication+
(b) #isptes relating #irectly or in#irectly to the application o% treaties or
conventions accepte# !y 6reece an# provi#ing %or another proce#re*.
It can har#ly !e sppose# that 6reece shol# at the same time have inten#e# to give a
scope to its reservation o% )#isptes relating to the territorial stats o% 6reece* $hich
#i%%ere# %n#amentally %rom that given to it !oth in the 6eneral Act an# in its #eclaration
n#er the optional clase. That 6reece shol# have ha# sch an intention seems all
the more impro!a!le in that in 1/E1 an# again in 1/E/ it rene$e# its #eclaration n#er
the optional clase $ithot mo#i%ying in any $ay the %orm o% its reservation o% )#isptes
relating to the territorial stats o% 6reece*.
,*%%C%Gs %XCUS%. The 6ree' 6overnment has sggeste# that an improvement in
the political climate o% the time ena!le# 6reece to #ispense $ith an atonomos
reservation o% #isptes relating to its territorial stats, an# to content itsel% $ith the
integration o% those #isptes into its #omestic "ris#iction reservation. @t this $ol#
not explain $hy 6reece shol# then have maintaine# an atonomos reservation o%
#isptes relating to territorial stats in its acceptance o% the optional clase. Another
#i%%iclty is that accession to the 6eneral Act involve# an even $i#er ris' o% claims than
acceptance o% the optional clase+ %or the paci%ic settlement proce#res o% the 6eneral
Act are not limite# to the "#icial settlement o% legal #isptes. They also provi#e %or
conciliation $ith respect to #isptes )o% every 'in#*, an# even %or the possi!ility, n#er
certain con#itions, o% ar!itration o% political #isptes on the !asis that the ar!itrators
may #eci#e e( ae"uo et bono. It har#ly seems li'ely, there%ore, that 6reece shol#
have inten#e# to have crtaile# the protection given !y its reservation o% #isptes
relating to territorial stats, $hen s!"ecting itsel% to the $i#er range o% proce#res
containe# in the Act.
EAally nconvincing is a sggestion that, althogh the scope o% the )territorial stats*
reservation $as re#ce# !y its incorporation in the reservation o% Aestions o% #omestic
"ris#iction, 6reece there!y o!taine# a )rein%orce# !arrage*, a )Aalitatively enhance#
protection* an# a )#o!ly&!olte#* #oor against the claims $hich it $as particlarly concerne#
to gar# against. This sggestion ta'es no accont o% the legal implications o% incorporating
)#isptes relating to territorial stats* into a reservation o% Aestions o% )#omestic
"ris#iction*. The <ermanent (ort there o!serve# that the Aestion $hether a certain
matter is or is not solely $ithin the "ris#iction o% a State is an essentially relative Aestion
an# #epen#s pon )the #evelopment o% international relations*. It pointe# ot that a matter
$hich is not, in principle, reglate# !y international la$ an# is ths a matter $ithin the
StateIs #omestic "ris#iction, $ill cease to !e sch i% the State has n#erta'en o!ligations
to$ar#s other States $ith respect to that matter. (onseAently, an# in the light o% historical
circmstances no$ to !e #escri!e#, it is har#ly conceiva!le that 6reece inten#e# to re#ce
the scope o% its )territorial stats* reservation !y integrating it into its )#omestic "ris#iction*
reservation.
T.% *%ASON /.E ,*%%C% /OUL) S%%6 TO INT%N) A S%7A*AT%
T%**ITO*IAL STATUS *%S%*0ATION. 6reeceIs main preoccpation in the years
%ollo$ing the First Worl# War, so the (ort $as in%orme#, $as to gar# against the
revival o% @lgarian aspirations to recover #irect access to the Aegean Sea $hich it ha#
lost as a reslt o% the territorial changes e%%ecte# !y the peace treaties. (! the $reat! o
Neuill! o 4F4F, (ulgaria had renounced all its rights and titles over areas o $hrace,
%ut the 2rincipal Allied and Associated 2owers at the sa#e ti#e Lundertoo- to ensure
the econo#ic outlets o (ulgaria to the Aegean Sea> (Art. 7C). Article 7 o the $reat! o
S0vres o 4F5E relating to $hrace, put into orce %! 2rotocol MG' o the )ausanne
:onerence, provided that "reece Lin order to ensure to (ulgaria ree access to the
Aegean Sea> recogni?ed her reedo# o transit Lover the territories and in the ports
assigned to "reece under the present $reat!>. $he e=pectation that (ulgaria #ight
see- to secure a revision o this territorial settle#ent was the source o "reeces
preoccupation and, also, as will %e shown shortl!, its #otive or inserting in its
declaration under the optional clause a reservation o disputes relating to its territorial
status. 'n the present connection, however, what needs to %e e#phasi?ed is that the
territorial settle#ent, against the revision o which "reeces Lterritorial status>
reservation was designed to provide a saeguard, consisted essentiall! o a co#ple= o
rights and o%ligations esta%lished %! treaties. :onse9uentl!, having regard to the
i#plications o the Nationalit! Decrees Opinion, that territorial settlement $as !y its
very natre one $hich col# not legally !e consi#ere# as capa!le o% %alling $ithin the
concept o% Aestions o% #omestic "ris#iction. It %ollo$s that, !y integrating its territorial
stats reservation into its reservation o% Aestions o% #omestic "ris#iction, 6reece
$ol# atomatically have #eprive# itsel% o% the protection $hich the %ormer reservation
$ol# other$ise have given it against attempts to se the 6eneral Act as a means o%
e%%ecting a revision o% the territorial settlement esta!lishe# !y the peace treaties.
This !asic o!"ection to the 6ree' 6overnmentIs $ay o% interpreting reservation (b) is
not remove# !y another sggestion ma#e in the p!lic hearings. This $as that the
series o% treaties connecte# $ith the territorial arrangements an# the treatment o%
minorities provi#e# their o$n special proce#res %or the settlement o% #isptes, $hich
ha# priority over those o% the 6eneral Act n#er Article ;/, so that an atonomos
reservation o% #isptes relating to territorial stats $as not really in#ispensa!le to
6reece. The #i%%iclty $ith this sggestion, ho$ever, is that these proce#res !y no
means covere# all possi!le claims relating to territorial stats an# to rights o%
sovereignty over ports an# lines o% commnication. It is tre that the Treaty o% 7eilly
provi#e# %or recorse to the <ermanent (ort or to other metho#s o% paci%ic settlement
on Aestions relating to minorities an# certain other matters, !t special proce#res
$ere never esta!lishe# %or the settlement o% #isptes concerning the parts o% the
Treaty #ealing $ith @lgariaIs economic otlet to the Aegean Sea.
Alwa#& will B
* bok * cj * tiff * gem * tin * ,.
T.% COU*T IS NOT CON0INC%) BE T.% S%0%*AL %X7LANATIONS /.IC.
.A0% B%%N 7UT -O*/A*) TO ACCOUNT -O* T.% )I--%*%NC% B%T/%%N
,*%%C%GS T%**ITO*IAL STATUS *%S%*0ATION IN ITS )%CLA*ATION UN)%*
T.% O7TIONAL CLAUS% AN) T.AT IN ITS INST*U6%NT O- ACC%SSION TO
T.% ,%N%*AL ACT I- T.% LATT%* INST*U6%NT IS ,I0%N T.% 6%ANIN,
CONT%N)%) -O* BE ,*%%C%. IT ALSO A77%A*S SI,NI-ICANT T.AT NO
SU77O*T -O* ANE O- T.%S% %X7LANATIONS CAN B% -OUN) IN T.%
CONT%67O*A*E %0I)%NC% 7LAC%) B%-O*% T.% COU*T *%LATIN, TO T.%
6A+IN, O- ,*%%C%GS )%CLA*ATION UN)%* T.% O7TIONAL CLAUS% IN 4323
AN) TO T.% )%7OSIT O- ITS INST*U6%NT O- ACC%SSION IN 43>4.
T.% OT.%* %0I)%NC% O- ,*%%C%:
(4) T.% L%TT%* O- 6. 7OLITIS TO T.% ,*%%+ -O*%I,N 6INIST%*.
In a #ocment re%erre# as )the tra%au(prparatoires o% the reservation* containing a
letter a##resse# !y >. <olitis to the 6ree' Foreign >inister on 1/;:, setting ot the
reservations $hich he recommen#e# that 6reece shol# ma'e to its acceptance o% the
<ermanent (ortIs "ris#iction n#er the optional clase. >. <olitis $as at that time the
Rapporter %or the #ra%ting o% the 6eneral Act $hich $as then nearing completion, an#
in that letter he sai#=
JI thin' that it $ol# !e $ise to sa%egar# orselves against an evental application o%
@lgaria on matters relate# to Or territorial stats, to the access -o% @lgaria2 to the
Aegean an# to the protection o% @lgarian&spea'ing minorities in 6reece.*
He $ent on to sggest a possi!le text o% a #eclaration to give e%%ect to his
recommen#ation $hch containe# the %ollo$ing three reservations=
-a2 #isptes relating to the territorial stats o% 6reece+
-!2 #isptes relating to its rights o% sovereignty over its ports an# lines o%
commnication+
(c) #isptes %or the settlement o% $hich the treaties signe# !y it provi#e another
proce#re.
CONC%I0%) AS A S7%CI-IC = AUTONO6OUS *%S%*0ATION. That letter con%irms
in the clearest manner the 6ree' 6overnmentIs explanation o% its motive in intro#cing
a )territorial stats* reservation into its #eclaration n#er the optional clase. @t it also
sho$s that this reservation $as originally conceive# o% an# %ormlate# as a speci%ic
an# atonomos reservation. In the actal #eclaration the secon# reservation,
)#isptes relating to its rights o% sovereignty over its ports an# lines o% commnication*,
$as tac'e# on to, an# speci%ically )incl#e#* in, the %irst reservation o% )#isptes
relating to territorial stats*. The reason, no #o!t, $as that the #isptes covere# !y
the secon# reservation $ere realiGe# to !ecase o% )#isptes relating to the territorial
stats o% 6reece*. At any rate, this change in the presentation o% the %irst an# secon#
reservations only serve# to emphasiGe !oth the generic an# the atonomos character
o% 6reeceIs reservation o% #isptes relating to its )territorial stats*. Another point $hich
may !e #e#ce# %rom >. <olitisIs letter is that he clearly #i# not thin' a reservation o%
#isptes %or the settlement o% $hich treaties provi#e# another proce#re $ol#
necessarily cover all #isptes relating to 6reeceIs )territorial stats*+ other$ise, he
$ol# not have recommen#e# the inclsion o% t$o separate, atonomos reservations
to cover speci%ically each o% these t$o categories o% #isptes.
(2) ,*%%C%GS INT%*NAL )OCU6%NTS *%LATIN, TO T.% 7*%7A*ATION O-
,*%%C%GS INST*U6%NT O- ACC%SSION TO T.% ,%N%*AL ACT. These
#ocments incl#e# a %irst #ra%t o% the pro)et de loi to !e presente# to the 6ree'
(ham!re #es #YptYs %or rati%ication o% the instrment o% accession, the text o% the
pro)et de loi as %inally presente#, an# the e(pos des motifs explaining the pro)et de
loi to the (ham!re #es #YptYs+ alll o% the #ocments !eing accompanie# !y certi%ie#
translations into the French langage.
The (ort consi#ers that the intention to ma'e an atonomos reservation as to
matters relating to territorial stats is pt !eyon# #o!t !y the explanation o% the
reservation $hich $as given !y the 6overnment to the (ham!re #es #YptYs in the
e(pos des motifs accompanying the pro)et de loi. The %inal paragraph o% this
#ocment state#=
)We have "#ge# it necessary to procee# to that accession s!"ect to certain
reservations. The latter are those enmerate# in Article ; o% the pro)et de loi
s!mitte#, an# consist, on the one han#, o% the repetition o% one o% the t$o
reservations $e %ormlate# $hen $e accepte# the complsory "ris#iction o% the
<ermanent (ort reservation -!2 & the other !eing esta!lishe# in Article ;/ o% the Act+
an#, on the other han#, o% the reservations enmerate# in Article E/ o% the Act.*
As the 6ree' Agent con%irme# in reply to a Aestion pt !y the (ort, the $or#s )the
repetition o% one o% the t$o reservations $hich $e %ormlate# $hen $e accepte# the
complsory "ris#iction o% the <ermanent (ort* re%er neAivocally to the reservation
o% )territorial stats* alrea#y se# in 6reeceIs #eclaration n#er the optional clase an#
ths alrea#y 'no$n to the (ham!re #es #YptYs. The pro"et de loi $as approve#
$ithot #iscssion an# $ithot change, so that reservation (b) mst !e presme# to
have !een incl#e# in 6reeceIs instrment o% accession on the !asis o% the
explanations given in the e(pos des motifs.
Accor#ingly, $hen the (ham!re #es #YptYs athoriGe# the #eposit o% 6reeceIs
instrment o% accession to the 6eneral Act, it col# only have !elieve# that 6reece
$as ma'ing its accession s!"ect to precisely the same reservation o% #isptes relating
to its territorial stats as the (ham!re ha# previosly athoriGe# %or its #eclaration
n#er the optional clase. It seems reasona!le to assme that, i% any change ha# !een
inten#e# in the scope o% the )territorial stats* reservation, to $hich particlar
importance $as attache# !y 6reece, some in#ication an# explanation o% that change
$ol# have !een incl#e# in the e(pos des motifs. @t there is no evi#ence o% sch
a change o% intention either in the e(pos des motifs or in any other contemporary
#ocment !e%ore the (ort.
*%S%*0ATION B CO67*IS%S 2 *%S%*0ATIONS. Having regar# to the several
consi#erations $hich have !een mentione# !y the (ort, as $ell as to the explanation
o% reservation (b) given in the e(pos des motifs, the (ort %eels !on# to concl#e
that the $or#ing o% reservation (b) #i# not have the e%%ect o% integrating the reservation
o% #isptes relating to territorial stats into the reservation o% #isptes concerning
Aestions o% #omestic "ris#iction. On the contrary, the (ort %in#s that reservation (b)
comprises t$o reservations, one o% #isptes concerning Aestions o% #omestic
"ris#iction an# the other a #istinct an# atonomos reservation o% )#isptes relating to
the territorial stats o% 6reece, incl#ing #isptes relating to its rights o% sovereignty
over its ports an# lines o% commnication
A77LICATION O- *%S%*0ATION B.
Alwa#& will B
* bok * cj * tiff * gem * tin * ,/
,*%%C%GS CONT%NTIONS. The 6ree' 6overnment maintains that a restrictive vie$
has to !e ta'en o% the meaning o% the expression )#isptes relating to the territorial
stats o% 6reece* in reservation (b) !y reason o% the historical context in $hich that
expression $as incorporate# into the reservation. In this connection, it invo'es the
"rispr#ence o% this (ort an# the <ermanent (ort concerning the interpretation o%
nilateral #eclarations o% acceptance of the *ourt!s.
ATT%NTION TO INT%NTION O- ,*%%C%. Accor#ing to this "rispr#ence it is in#ee#
clear that in interpreting reservation (b) regar# mst !e pai# to the intention o% the
6ree' 6overnment at the time $hen it #eposite# its instrment o% accession to the
6eneral Act+ an# it $as $ith that "rispr#ence in >in# that the (ort as'e# the 6ree'
6overnment to %rnish it $ith any availa!le evi#ence o% explanations o% the instrment
o% accession given at that time. The (ort has alrea#y re%erre# to >. <olitisIs letter to
the 6ree' Foreign >inister setting ot the reservations $hich he recommen#e#
6reece shol# ma'e to its #eclaration n#er the optional clase o% Article >K o% the
Statte. One o% his recommen#ations concerne# )#isptes relating to the territorial
stats o% 6reece* an# another )#isptes relating to its rights o% sovereignty over its
ports an# lines o% commnication*. The 6ree' 6overnment is there%ore "sti%ie# in
as'ing the (ort to concl#e that it $as the same motive $hich inspire# their inclsion
also in reservation (b) o% 6reeceIs accession to the 6eneral Act. It goes %rther,
ho$ever, an# as's the (ort to interpret reservation (b) in the light o% that motive, so
as to restrict its scope to matters o% territorial stats connecte# $ith attempts to revise
the territorial arrangements esta!lishe# !y the peace treaties o% the First Worl# War.
>oreover, in spport o% this interpretation o% reservation (b), the 6ree' 6overnment
has also lai# stress on the general historical context in $hich reservations o% Aestions
relating to territorial stats ha# come into se in the Leage o% 7ations perio#.
Bisptes concerning territorial stats $ere expressly mentione# in Article E/,
paragraph ;, o% the 6eneral Act as an example o% the )clearly speci%ie# s!"ect&
matters* in regar# to $hich reservations to the Act $ere to !e permitte#. (onseAently,
it is reasona!le to presme that there is a close lin' !et$een the concepts o% territorial
stats in the 6eneral Act an# in 6reeceIs instrment o% accession to it+ an# that
presmption is all the stronger $hen it is recalle# that >. <olitis $as the Rapporter %or
the #ra%ting o% the 6eneral Act as $ell as the athor o% the letter o% / Septem!er 1/;:
$hich prompte# 6reeceIs recorse to a reservation n#er the optional clase relating
to territorial stats. Ths, the meaning $ith $hich the expression )territorial stats* $as
se# in Article E/ o% the 6eneral Act may clearly have a !earing on its meaning in
6reeceIs instrment o% accession.
.ISTO*ICAL %0I)%NC%. (onsel %or 6reece $ent into the historical evi#ence in
#etail more especially the se o% the expression in the nmeros !ilateral treaties o%
paci%ic settlement o% the inter&$ar perio#, an# in the procee#ings o% the Leage o%
7ations connecte# $ith the #ra%ting o% the Locamo <rotocol. The propositions $hich
they a#vance# on the !asis o% that evi#ence $ere, !rie%ly, as %ollo$s. First, the reason
%or the appearance o% expressions sch as )territorial stats*, )territorial integrity*,
)territorial sitation*, )maintenance o% %rontiers* in treaties o% the perio#, $hether in the
context o% reservations to paci%ic settlement provisions, or o% territorial garantees, $as
a prevailing apprehension o% attempts to mo#i%y the post&$ar settlements. Secon#ly,
althogh the actal expressions se# might vary, their meaning $as essentially the
same, namely territorial sitations or rYgimes esta!lishe# !y treaties. Thir#ly, $hen the
expression )territorial stats* occrre# in reservations to treaties o% paci%ic settlement,
$hat the States ha# in min# $as )#isptes $hich $ere li'ely to arise ot o% territorial
claims !y neigh!ors #issatis%ie# $ith existing soltions*. In#ee#, it
Was sai# that the term )territorial stats* in those reservations $as simply )a Rco#e&
$or#I %or intangi!ility o% the %rontiers an# territorial statses esta!lishe# !y the
international instrments in %orce*. The general conclsion $hich the 6ree'
6overnment then as'e# the (ort to #ra$ %rom that evi#ence $as that=
)Everything that is 'no$n o% the contemporary n#erstan#ing o% sch terms as
Rterritorial statsI, Rterritorial sitationI an# Rterritorial integrityI in the 1/;.s in#icates that
these e(pressions are to be i%en a restricti%e interpretation limited to the
maintenance of the status "uo established by treaties, normally as the result of
post-$ar settlement.
COU*T T.IN+S T.AT JT%**ITO*IAL STATUSH US%) IN ITS O*)INA*E =
,%N%*IC S%NS%. In the vie$ o% the (ort, the historical evi#ence may "sti%ia!ly !e
sai# to sho$ that in the perio# in Aestion the moti%e $hich le# States to incl#e in
treaties provisions regar#ing )territorial stats* $as, in general, to protect themselves
against possi!le attempts to mo#i%y territorial settlements esta!lishe# !y the peace
treaties. @t it #oes not %ollo$ that they inten#e# those provisions to !e con%ine# to
Aestions connecte# $ith the revision o% sch settlements. Any mo#i%ication o% a
territorial )stats* or )sitation* or )%rontier* is npalata!le to a State+ an# the strong
pro!a!ility is that a State $hich ha# recorse to a reservation o% #isptes relating to
territorial stats, or the li'e, inten#e# it to !e Aite general. Article E/ o% the 6eneral
Act, it is tre, $as #esigne# to reglate the %ormlation o% reservations an# to excl#e
vage or s!"ective reservations. @t in ma'ing express mention o% #isptes relating to
territorial stats as an example o% #isptes concerning a clearly speci%ie# s!"ect&
matter, Article E/ sai# nothing o% this example !eing exclsively #irecte# against
attempts to revise the territorial settlements esta!lishe# !y the peace treaties. The
historical evi#ence a##ce# !y
6reece #oes not s%%ice to esta!lish that the expression )territorial stats* $as se# in
the Leage o% 7ations perio#, an# in particlar in the 6eneral Act o% 1/;:, in the
special, restricte#, sense conten#e# %or !y 6reece. The evi#ence seems rather to
con%irm that the expression )territorial stats* $as se# in its or#inary, generic sense o%
any matters properly to !e consi#ere# as relating to the integrity an# legal rYgime o% a
StateIs territory.
SEST%6ATIC SU*0%E. It is signi%icant in this regar# that in the analysis o% treaty
provisions ma#e in the Systematic Srvey o% Ar!itral (onventions an# Treaties o%
>tal +ecurity, p!lishe# in 1/;C !y the Secretariat o% the Leage o% 7ations
-one o% the #ocments se# in connection $ith the #ra%ting o% the 6eneral Act2,
reservations o% #isptes relating to )territorial integrity*, )territorial stats* an# )%rontiers*
$ere examine# together as having the same or a very similar meaning. The
Systematic Srvey o% Treaties %or the <aci%ic Settlement o% International Bisptes 1/;:&
1/1: prepare# !y the Secretaria o% the ?nite# 7ations an# p!lishe# in 1/1:, also
grops together, n#er the title )Bisptes relating to territorial stats*, provisions
concerning )territorial stats*, )territorial Aestions*, )territorial integrity*, )present
%rontiers*. As to the legal $riters o% the Leage o% 7ations perio#, the 6ree'
6overnment itsel% lai# stress on the %act that they consistently lin'e# together treaty
provisions excepting Aestions relating to )territorial stats*, )territorial integrity* an#
)existing %rontiers*.
It %ollo$s that %or the same reasons the (ort is na!le to accept the contention
a#vance# in the >emorial that i% the athors o% the 6eneral Act, or o% the ar!itration
Alwa#& will B
* bok * cj * tiff * gem * tin * ,0
treaties containing a territorial stats reservation= )ha# contemplate# excl#ing any
#isptes concerning the spatial #elimitation o% State "ris#ictions, they $ol# not have
%aile# clearly to mention the %amiliar category o% %rontier #isptes rather than resort to
the term o% territorial stats $hich $as a very speci%ic one in the practice o% the time*.
6%ANIN, O- JT%**ITO*IAL STATUSH. In the vie$ o% the (ort, the term )territorial
stats* in the treaty practice o% the time #i# not have the very speci%ic meaning
attri!te# to it !y the 6ree' 6overnment. As the natre o% the $or# )stats* itsel%
in#icates, it $as a generic term $hich in the practice o% the time $as n#erstoo# as
em!racing the integrity an# %rontiers, as $ell as the legal rYgime, o% the territory in
Aestion. This is implicit in the very $or#ing o% reservation (b) itsel% $hich treats
#isptes relating to 6reeceIs )rights o% sovereignty over its ports an# lines o%
commnication* as included in its reservation o% #isptes relating to its )territorial
stats*. These #isptes !y their natre relate# to the interpretation an# application o%
existing treaties rather than to their revision.
Accor#ingly, the expression )relating to the territorial stats o% 6reece* in reservation
(b) is to !e n#erstoo# as a generic term #enoting any matters properly to !e
consi#ere# as comprise# $ithin the concept o% territorial stats n#er general
international la$, an# there%ore incl#es not only the particlar legal rYgime !t the
territorial integrity an# the !on#aries o% a State.
ISSU%: /ON *%S%*0ATION (,) )O%S O* )O%S NOT .A0% T.% %--%CT O-
%XCLU)IN, T.% 7*%S%NT )IS7UT% -*O6 T.% SCO7% O- ,*%%C%GS
ACC%SSION TO T.% ,%N%*AL ACT O- 4322.
,*%%C%GS A))ITIONAL .ISTO*ICAL A*,U6%NTS:
-12 The concept o% continental shel% $as $holly n'no$n in 1/;: $hen the 6eneral Act
$as concl#e#, an# in 1/E1 $hen 6reece acce#e# to the Act. Once it is esta!lishe#
that the expression )the territorial stats o% 6reece* $as se# in 6reeceIs instrment o%
accession as a generic term #enoting any matters comprise# $ithin the concept o%
territorial stats n#er general international la$, the presmption necessarily arises
that its meaning $as inten#e# to %ollo$ the evoltion o% the la$ an# to correspon# $ith
the meaning attache# to the expression !y the la$ in %orce at any given time. This
presmption, in the vie$ o% the (ort, is even more compelling $hen it is recalle# that
the 1/;: Act $as a convention %or the paci%ic settlement o% #isptes #esigne# to !e o%
the most general 'in# an# o% contining #ration, %or it har#ly seems conceiva!le that
in sch a convention terms li'e )#omestic "ris#iction* an# )territorial stats* $ere
inten#e# to have a %ixe# content regar#less o% the s!seAent evoltion o% international
la$.
JT%**ITO*IAL STATUSH S.OUL) LI+%/IS% %0OL0% IN 6%ANIN, IN
ACCO*)ANC% /IT. JT.% )%0%LO76%NT O- INT%*NATIONAL *%LATIONSH.
The 6ree' 6overnment invo'es as a !asis %or the (ortIs "ris#iction in the present
case Article 1C o% the 6eneral Act n#er $hich the parties agree# to s!mit to "#icial
settlement all #isptes $ith regar# to $hich they )are in con%lict as to their respective
rights*. 8et the rights that are the s!"ect o% the claims pon $hich 6reece reAests the
(ort in the Application to exercise its "ris#iction n#er Article 1C are the very rights
over the continental shel% o% $hich, as 6reece insists, the athors o% the 6eneral Act
col# have ha# no i#ea $hatever in 1/;:. I% the 6ree' 6overnment is correct, as it
n#o!te#ly is, in assming that the meaning o% the generic term )rights* in Article 1C
%ollo$s the evoltion o% the la$, so as to !e capa!le o% em!racing rights over the
continental shel%, it is not clear $hy the similar term )territorial stats* shol# not
li'e$ise !e lia!le to evolve in meaning in accor#ance $ith )the #evelopment o%
international relations* It may also !e o!serve# that the claims $hich are the s!"ect&
matter o% the Application relate more particlarly to continental shel% rights claime# to
appertain to 6reece in virte
o% its sovereignty over certain islan#s in the Aegean Sea, incl#ing the
islan#s o% the )Bo#ecanese grop*. @t the Bo#ecanese grop $as not in 6reeceIs
possession $hen it acce#e# to the 6eneral Act in 1/E1 %or those islan#s $ere ce#e# to
6reece !y 'aly only in the <eace Treaty o% 1/1C. In conseAence, it seems clear that,
in the vie$ o% the 6ree' 6overnment, the term )rights* in Article 1C o% the 6eneral Act
has to !e interprete# in the light o% the geographical extent o% the 6ree' State to#ay,
not o% its extent in 1/E 1. It $ol# then !e a little srprising i% the meaning o% 6reeceIs
reservation o% #isptes relating to its territorial stats* $as not also to evolve in the
light o% the change in the territorial extent o% the 6ree' State !roght a!ot !y )the
#evelopment o% international relations*.
Frthermore, the close an# necessary lin' that al$ays exists !et$een a "ris#ictional
clase an# reservations to it, ma'es it #i%%iclt to accept that the meaning o% the clase,
!t not o% the reservation, shol# %ollo$ the evoltion o% the la$. In the present
instance, this #i%%iclty is n#erline# !y the %act that alongsi#e 6reeceIs reservation o%
#isptes relating to its )territorial stats* in reservation (b) is another reservation o%
#isptes relating to Aestions o% )#omestic "ris#iction*, the content o% $hich, as the
(ort has alrea#y ha# occasion to note, is )an essentially relative Aestion* an#
n#o!te#ly )#epen#s pon the #evelopment o% international relations*. Again, the
(ort can see no vali# reason $hy one part o% reservation -!2 shol# have !een
inten#e# to %ollo$ the evoltion o% international relations !t not the other, nless sch
an intention shol# have !een ma#e plain !y 6reece at the time.
TA+IN, TO ACCOUNT )%0%LO76%NTS IN INT%*NATIONAL LA/. Having regar#
to the %oregoing consi#erations, the (ort is o% the opinion that the expression in
reservation (b) )#isptes relating to the territorial stats o% 6reece* mst !e interprete#
in accor#ance $ith the 1/E1. It %ollo$s that in interpreting an# applying reservation -!2
$ith respect to the present #ispte the (ort has to ta'e accont o% the evoltion $hich
has occrre# in the rles o% international la$ concerning a coastal StateIs rights o%
exploration an# exploitation over the continental shel%. The (ort is, there%ore, no$
calle# pon to examine $hether, ta'ing into accont the #evelopments in international
la$ regar#ing the continental shel%, the expression )#isptes relating to the territorial
stats o% 6reece* shol# or shol# not !e n#erstoo# as comprising $ithin it #isptes
relating to the geographical & the spatial extent o% 6reeceIs rights over the continental
shel% in the Aegean Sea.
T.% *%AL IU%STION IN T.% )IS7UT%: /.%T.%* T.% )IS7UT% IS ON% /.IC.
-./01.+ TO T.% T%**ITO*IAL STATUS O- ,*%%C%.
Accor#ingly, a lingistic argment presente# !y the 6ree' 6overnment, an# !ase# on
the #e%initions o% the $or#s statut -stats2 an# territorial in the Dictionnaire de
la terminoloie du droit international, appears to the
(ort to !e only o% marginal interest. 7o #o!t, it is tre the expression territorial stats
is commonly se# in international la$ $ith re%erence to a legal con#ition or rYgime o% a
territory+ !t althogh the expression, as Article E/, paragraph ;, o% the 6eneral Act
itsel% in#icates, #enotes a category or concept covering clearly speci%ie# s!"ect&
matters, it is not an expression $hich can !e sai# to have rigi# legal connotations. On
the contrary, the (ort consi#ers it to !e a generic expression $hich comprises $ithin
Alwa#& will B
* bok * cj * tiff * gem * tin * ,9
its meanings varios legal con#itions an# relations o% territory. The ans$er to the
Aestion $hether any given matter is properly to !e consi#ere# as relating to the
territorial stats o% a State mst, there%ore, #epen# on the particlar circmstances o%
the case.
T.% SUB8%CT;6ATT%* O- T.% 7*%S%NT )IS7UT%:
(4) whether 'ertain ,ree< islan$s in the Ae!ean Sea Jas part of the territor5
of ,ree'e are entitle$ to the portion of the 'ontinental shelf whi'h
appertains to the( a''or$in! to the appli'a9le prin'iples an$ r"les of
international lawHL
(2) what is Jthe 'o"rse of the 9o"n$ar5 (or 9o"n$aries) 9etween the
portions of the 'ontinental shelf appertainin! to ,ree'e an$ T"r<e5 in
the Ae!ean Sea in a''or$an'e with the prin'iples an$ r"les of inter;
national law whi'h the Co"rt shall $eter(ine to 9e appli'a9le to the
$eli(itation of the 'ontinental shelf in the aforesai$ areas of the Ae!ean
SeaH.
In (aintainin! that the s"9Be't;(atter of the $isp"te e(9ra'e$ 95 ,ree'eGs
s"9(issions $oes not fall within the s'ope of reservation (9) the ,ree<
,overn(ent p"ts its 'ase in two wa5s. -irst it 'onten$s that the $isp"te
'on'erns the $eli(itation of the 'ontinental shelf 9o"n$ar5 9etween ,ree'e an$
T"r<e5 an$ that $eli(itation is entirel5 e&traneo"s to the notion of territorial
stat"s an$ se'on$l5 it 'onten$s that the 'ontinental shelf not 9ein! part of the
territor5 of the 'oastal State "n$er the appli'a9le r"les of international law the
present $isp"te re!ar$in! ri!hts over the 'ontinental shelf 'annot 9e 'onsi$ere$
as one relatin! to Jterritorial stat"sH.
IU%STION O- %NTITL%6%NT. The !asic Aestion in #ispte is $hether or not certain
islan#s n#er 6ree' sovereignty are entitle# to a continental shel% o% their o$n an#
entitle 6reece to call %or the !on#ary to !e #ra$n !et$een those islan#s an# the
Tr'ish (oast. The very essence o% the #ispte, as %ormlate# in the Application, is
ths the entitlement o% those 6ree' islan#s to a continental shel%, an# the #elimitation
o% the !on#ary is a secon#ary Aestion to !e #eci#e# a%ter, an# in the light o%, the
#ecision pon the %irst !asic Aestion. >oreover, it is evi#ent %rom the #ocments
!e%ore the (ort that Tr'ey. $hich maintains that the islan#s in Aestion are mere
prot!erances o% the Tr'ish continental shel% an# have no continental shel% o% their
o$n, also consi#ers the !asic Aestion to !e one o% entitlement. Kite apart %rom the
%act that the present #ispte cannot, there%ore, !e vie$e# as one simply relating to
#elimitation, it $ol# !e #i%%iclt to accept the !roa# proposition that #elimitation is
entirely extraneos to the notion o% territorial stats. Any #ispte# #elimitation o% a
!on#ary entails some #etermination o% entitlement to the areas to !e #elimite#, an#
the historical evi#ence a##ce# !y the 6ree' 6overnment itsel% sho$s that in the
treaty practice in the Leage o% 7ations perio#, the notions o% )territorial integrity*,
)%rontiers* an# )territorial stats* $ere regar#e# as closely associate#.
A )IS7UT% *%LATIN, TO T%**ITO*IAL STATUS. The #ispte relates to the
#etermination o% the respective areas o% continental shel% over $hich 6reece an#
Tr'ey are entitle# to exercise the sovereign rights recogniGe# !y international la$. It is
there%ore necessary to esta!lish the !on#ary or !on#aries !et$een neigh!oring
States, that is to say, to #ra$ the exact line or lines $here the extension in space o% the
sovereign po$ers an# rights o% 6reece meets those o% Tr'ey. Whether it is a lan#
%rontier or a !on#ary line in the continental shel% that is in Aestion, the process is
essentially the same, an# inevita!ly involves the same element o% sta!ility an#
permanence, an# is s!"ect to the rle excl#ing !on#ary agreements %rom
%n#amental change o% circmstances.
The secon# contention mentione# in paragraph :; a!ove #oes not pt the Aestion to
!e #eci#e# in its correct context. The Aestion %or #ecision is $hether the present
#ispte is one )relating to the territorial stats o% 6reece*, not $hether the rights in
#ispte are legally to !e consi#ere# as )territorial* rights+ an# a #ispte regar#ing
entitlement to an# #elimitation o% areas o% continental shel% ten#s !y its very natre to
!e one relating to territorial stats. The reason is that legally a coastal StateIs rights
over the continental shel% are !oth apprtenant to an# #irectly #erive# %rom the StateIs
sovereignty over the territory a!tting on that continental shel%. This emerges clearly
%rom the emphasis place# !y the (ort in the 7orth Sea (ontinental Shel% cases on
)natral prolongation* o% the lan# as a criterion %or #etermining the extent o% a coastal
StateIs entitlement to continental shel% as against other States a!tting on the same
continental shel%+ an# this criterion, the (ort notes, has !een invo'e# !y !oth 6reece
an# Tr'ey #ring their negotiations concerning the s!stance o% the present #ispte.
As the (ort explaine# in the a!ove&mentione# cases, the continental shel% is a legal
concept in $hich )the principle is applie# that the lan# #ominates the sea*+ an# it is
solely !y virte o% the coastal StateIs sovereignty over the lan# that rights o%
exploration an# exploitation in the continental shel% can attach to it, ipso "re, n#er
international la$. In short, continental shel% rights are legally !oth an emanation %rom
an# an atomatic a#"nct o% the territorial sovereignty o% the coastal State. It %ollo$s
that the territorial rYgime &the territorial stats o% a coastal State comprises, ipso "re,
the rights o% exploration an# exploitation over the continental shel% to $hich it is entitle#
n#er international la$. A #ispte regar#ing those rights $ol#, there%ore, appear to !e
one $hich may !e sai# to )relate* to the territorial stats o% the coastal State.
(ort is o% the opinion that the present #ispte is one $hich )relat3es4 to the territorial
stats o% 6reece* $ithin the meaning o% reservation (%) in 6reeceIs instrment o%
accession to the 6eneral Act. It accor#ingly %in#s that Tr'eyIs invocation o% the
reservation on the !asis o% reciprocity has the e%%ect o% excl#ing the present #ispte
%rom the application o% Article 1C o% the Act.
,*%CO;TU*+IS. T*%ATE O- -*I%N)S.I7. In examining the application o% the
6eneral Act to the present #ispte, the (ort has not overloo'e# a sggestion that the
Act has never !een applica!le as !et$een Tr'ey an# 6reece !y reason o% the
existence o% the 6reco&Tr'ish Treaty o% Frien#ship, 7etrality, (onciliation an#
Ar!itration signe# at An'ara on E. Octo!er 1/E.. This Treaty provi#e# %or a general
system o% proce#res %or the paci%ic settlement o% #isptes !et$een the t$o contries
similar to, !t in some respects #i%%erent %rom, those provi#e# in the 6eneral Act. It
entere# into %orce !y exchange o% rati%ications on 9 Octo!er 1/E1, an# n#er Article ;:
$as expresse# to contine in %orce %or sccessive perio#s o% %ive years, nless
#enonce#. The length o% these perio#s $as exten#e# to ten years !y an )A##itional
Treaty* o% ;C April 1/E:, $hich at the same time provi#e# that )the mtal
engagements, !ilateral or plrilateral*, $hich the parties ha# contracte# shol#
)contine to pro#ce their %ll e%%ect irrespective o% the provisions o% the present
Treaty*. @y these Treaties an# !y the 6eneral Act, there%ore, 6reece an# Tr'ey
appear, prima %acie, to have provi#e# %or t$o parallel systems o% paci%ic settlement, %or
so long as the 1/E. Treaty an# the 6eneral Act might contine in %orce, an# !oth
6reece an# Tr'ey have state# that they consi#er the 1/E. Treaty still to !e in %orce.
Ho$ever, the %act alrea#y esta!lishe# !y the (ort that, !y reason o% Tr'eyIs
invocation o% reservation -02 to the 6ree' accession, the 6eneral Act is not applica!le
to the present #ispte, an# the %act that the 1/E. Treaty has not !een invo'e# as a
Alwa#& will B
* bok * cj * tiff * gem * tin * -0
!asis %or the (ortIs "ris#iction in the present procee#ings, #ispense the (ort %rom
any Rnee# to enter into these Aestions.
S%CON) CLAI6%) BASIS O- 8U*IS)ICTION: 8OINT CO66UNIIU%. In
paragraph E; -;2 o% the Application the 6ree' 6overnment speci%ie# as the secon#
!asis on $hich it claims to esta!lish the (ortIs "ris#iction=
)The "oint commniAY o% @rssels o% E 1 >ay 1/C9, $hich %ollo$e# previos
exchange o% vie$s, States that the <rime >inisters o% 6reece an# Tr'ey have #eci#e#
that the pro!lems #ivi#ing the t$o contries shol# !e resolve# peace%lly Ret, a s"et
# platea continental #e la mer EgYe, par la (or internationale #e La HayeI. The t$o
6overn&ments there!y "ointly an# severally accepte# the "ris#iction o% the (ort in the
present matter, prsant to Article E0 -12 o% the Statte o% the (ort.*
The @rssels (ommniAY o% E1 >ay 1/C9 #oes not !ear any signatre or initials, an#
the (ort $as in%orme# !y consel %or 6reece that the <rime >inisters isse# it
#irectly to the press #ring a press con%erence hel# at the conclsion o% their meeting
on that #ate. The Tr'ish 6overnment, in the o!servations $hich it transmitte# to the
(ort on ;9 Agst 1/C0, consi#ere# it )evi#ent that a "oint commniAY #oes not
amont to an agreement n#er international la$*, a##ing that )I% it $ere one, it $ol#
nee# to !e rati%ie# at least on the part o% Tr'ey*. The 6ree' 6overnment, on the other
han#, maintains that a "oint commniAY may constitte sch an agreement. To have
this e%%ect, it says, )It is necessary, an# it is s%%icient, %or the commniAY to incl#e&in
a##ition to the cstomary %orms, protestations o% %rien#ship, recital o% ma"or principles
an# #eclarations o% intent&provisions o% a treaty natre*. (onsel %or 6reece, moreover,
re%erre# to the isse o% "oint commniAYs as )a mo#ern rital $hich has acAire# %ll
stats in international practice*.
NATU*% = T%*6S O- T.% CO66UNIIU%. On the Aestion o% %orm, the (ort nee#
only o!serve that it 'no$s o% no rle o% international la$ $hich might precl#e a "oint
commniAY %rom constitting an international agreement to s!mit a #ispte to
ar!itration or "#icial settlement. Accor#ingly, $hether the @rssels (ommniAY o% E1
>ay 1/C9 #oes or #oes not constitte sch an agreement essentially #epen#s on the
natre o% the act or transaction to $hich the (ommniAY gives expression+ an# it
#oes not settle the Aestion simply to re%er to the %orm & a commniAY & in $hich that
act or transaction is em!o#ie#. On the contrary, in #etermining $hat $as in#ee# the
natre o% the act or transaction em!o#ie# in the @rssels (ommniAY, the (ort mst
have regar# a!ove all to its actal terms an# to the particlar circmstances in $hich it
$as #ra$n p.
The relevant paragraphs o% the @rssels (ommniAY rea# as %ollo$s=
)In the corse o% their meeting the t$o <rime >inisters ha# an opportnity to give
consi#eration to the pro!lems $hich le# to the existing sitation as regar#s
relations !et$een their contries. They #eci#e# 2ont dcid3 that those pro!lems
shol# !e resolve# 2doi%ent #tre rsolus3 peace%lly !y means o% negotiations
an# as regar#s the continental shel% o% the Aegean Sea !y the International (ort
at The Hage. They #e%ine# the general lines on the !asis o% $hich the
%orthcoming meetings o% the representatives o% the t$o 6ovemments $ol# ta'e
place.
In that connection they #eci#e# to !ring %or$ar# the #ate o% the meeting o% experts
concerning the Aestion o% the continental shel% o% the Aegean Sea an# that o% the
experts on the Aestion o% air space.*
,*%%C%: T.% CO66UNIIU% *%7*%S%NT%) AN A,*%%6%NT. In presenting the
(ommniAY as constitting a #e%initive agreement !et$een the <rime >inisters to
s!mit the present #ispte to the (ort, the 6ree' 6ovemment places particlar
emphasis on the $or# )#Yci#Y* an# the $or#s )#oivent ]tre rYsols* in the original&
French& text o% the secon# paragraph. These $or#s, it says, are $or#s o% )#ecision*
an# o% )o!ligation* in#icative o% a mtal commitment on the part o% the <rime >inisters
to re%er the #ispte to the (ort. Speci%ically, it claims that the )agreement* em!o#ie#
in the (ommniAY )is more than an n#erta'ing to negotiate* an# #irectly )con%ers
"ris#iction on the (ort*. It li'e$ise claims that the (ommniAY )commits the parties
to concl#e any implementing agreement nee#e# %or the per%ormance o% the
o!ligation* an# that the re%sal !y one party to concl#e sch an agreement )permits
the other party to seise the (ort nilaterally*. In its vie$, moreover, no implementing
agreement is reAire# !y the (ommniAY $hich, it says, )ena!les the parties to resort
to the (ort !y Application no less than !y special agreement*.
Finally, i% it is consi#ere# that )a complementary agreement is a legal prereAisite %or
seising o% the (ort*, it maintains that )the t$o parties are n#er o!ligation to
negotiate in goo# %aith the conclsion o% sch an agreement*.
TU*+%E: CO66UNIIU% )O%S NOT CONSTITUT% AN A,*%%6%NT. The Tr'ish
6overnment, in the o!servations transmitte# to the (ort on ;9 Agst 1/C0, not only
#enies that the (ommniAY constittes )an agreement n#er international la$* !t
also maintains that in any event the t$o 6overnments cannot !e sai# to have there!y
)"ointly an# severally accepte# the "ris#iction o% the (ort in the present matter* $hen
they have never agree# on the scope o% the )matter* to !e s!mitte# to the (ort.
Examination o% the text, it maintains, sho$s that the intention $as Aite #i%%erent, an#
that the (ommniAY $as )%ar %rom amonting to agreement !y one State to s!mit to
the "ris#iction o% the (ort pon the nilateral application o% the other State*.
Accor#ing to the 6overnment o% Tr'ey=
)it is clear that there $as no commitment to s!mit to the (ort $ithot a special
agreement !ecase the %ollo$ing paragraph sai# in this connection that the t$o <rime
>inisters ha# #eci#e# to accelerate the meeting o% the experts concerning the Aestion
o% the continental shel% o% the Aegean Sea* This means, in its vie$, that )priority $as
given to negotiations* on the s!stance o% the Aestion o% the continental shel%, an#
nothing $as sai# in that connection )even a!ot the negotiation o% a special
agreement* to s!mit the Aestion to the (ort. It also points to the s!seAent e%%orts
o% 6reece to secre the negotiation o% sch an agreement as con%irmation o% the
correctness o% Tr'eyIs interpretation o% the (ommniAY.
CONT%XT O- T.% CO66UNIIU%. This #ivergence o% vie$s as to the interpretation
o% the @rssels (ommniAY ma'es it necessary %or the (ort to consi#er $hat light is
thro$n on its meaning !y the context in $hich the meeting o% E1 >ay 1/C9 too' place
an# the (ommniAY $as #ra$n p. The %irst mention o% the (ort, accor#ing to the
evi#ence, $as in a 6ree' 7ote 5er!ale o% ;C Hanary 1/C9, that is some %or months
!e%ore the meeting o% the t$o <rime >inisters in @rssels. In that 7ote the 6ree'
6overnment propose# that )the #i%%erences over the applica!le la$ as $ell as over the
s!stance o% the matter* shol# !e re%erre# to the (ort, a##ing= )In#ee#, the 6ree'
6overnment, $ithot pre"#ice to their right to initiate (ort procee#ings nilaterally,
$ol# see consi#era!le a#vantage in reaching "oint N $ith the Tr'ish 6overnment a
special Agreement. Replying on 0 Fe!rary 1/C9, the Tr'ish 6overnment re%erre# to
)meaning%l negotiations* as )a !asic metho# %or the settlement o% international
#isptes* an# sai# that, !ecase o% the a!sence o% sch negotiations, )the isses
relating to the #isptes have neither !een %lly i#enti%ie# nor elci#ate#*. It then
Alwa#& will B
* bok * cj * tiff * gem * tin * -1
contine#= )Ho$ever, in principle, the Tr'ish 6overnment %avora!ly consi#ers the
6ree' 6overnmentIs proposal to re%er the #ispte over the #elimitation o% the Aegean
continental shel% to the International (ort o% Hstice. To this e%%ect an# to ela!orate the
terms n#er $hich the matter shall !e re%erre# to the sai# (ort, Tr'ey proposes high
level tal's to !e initiate# !et$een the t$o 6overnments. On 1. Fe!rary 1/C9,
commenting on the Tr'ish reply, the 6ree' 6ovemment note# $ith satis%action that
)the Tr'ish 6overnment accept in principle their proposal that the Aestion o% the
#elimitation o% the continental shel% o% the Aegean Sea !e s!mitte# "ointly to the
Intemational (ort o% Hstice in The Hage*. It also agree# that )%ollo$ing sita!le
preparation, tal's shol# !e hel# in or#er to #ra%t the terms o% the special agreement
-compromism2 reAire# to that e%%ect* -i!i#.2. This le# the Tr'ish <rime >inister, $hen
explaining the matter to the Tr'ish 6ran# 7ational Assem!ly on E >arch 1/C9 to Say=
)The 6ree's have ans$ere# positively to Or proposal concerning tal's prior to Or
going to The Hage. These 3tal's4 #i# not start yet. The o!"ect o% the tal's $ill !e the
special agreement (co#pro#is) $hich $ill #e%ine the !asis o% the case.*
Accor#ing to the in%ormation !e%ore the (ort, those $ere the respective positions
$hich the t$o 6overnments ha# ta'en p a short time !e%ore their Foreign >inisters
met in Rome on 1C& 1/ >ay 1/C9 to #iscss, inter alia, the Aestion o% the continental
shel% in the Aegean Sea. Frthermore, in the light o% the #iplomatic exchanges, the
6ree' 6overnment can har#ly have !een le%t in any #o!t as to the natre o% the
proposal regar#ing the (ort $hich the Tr'ish 6overnment $ol# n#erstan# to !e
the s!"ect o% the #iscssions at the Rome meeting= namely, a .oint s!mission o% the
#ispte to the (ort !y agree#ent.
NOT% 0%*BAL%. Re%erence is ma#e to the procee#ings at the Rome meeting in a
later 6ree' 7ote 5er!ale o% ; Octo!er 1/C9, %rom $hich it appears that the 6ree'
#elegation s!mitte# a #ra%t text o% a co#pro#is %or negotiation, !t the Tr'ish
#elegation sai# that they $ere not yet rea#y to #iscss it an# nee#e# more time to
prepare themselves. The meeting en#e# $ith the isse !y the t$o Foreign >inisters on
1/ >ay 1/C9 o% a !rie% Hoint (ommniAY, $hich incl#e# the %ollo$ing statements=
)The Aestions relating to the continental shel% o% the Aegean Sea $ere #iscsse#
an# initial consi#eration $as given to the text o% a special agreement concerning
the s!mission o% the matter to the International (ort o% Hstice.
It $as agree# that the meetings !et$een experts $ol# !e contine# in the near
%tre.*
Accor#ing to the a!ove&mentione# 7ote 5er!ale o% ; Octo!er 1/C9, a committee o%
experts $as to meet at the earliest possi!le #ate )to negotiate the special agreement*,
an# to explore a Tr'ish i#ea in regar# to "oint exploitation. The Tr'ish 6overnment
also re%erre# to the Rome meeting, in a 7ote o% 1: 7ovem!er 1/C9. It there spo'e o%
the 6ree' #elegation having agree# to see' a negotiate# settlement o% the #i%%erences,
!earing also in min# the Tr'ish proposal %or "oint exploration an# exploitation o%
resorces, an# to try to prepare, i% necessary, a #ra%t special agreement %or the "oint
re%erence to the International (ort o% Hstice o% those aspects o% the sitation $hich,
they might agree, $ere the points o% genine #isagreement !et$een the t$o si#es*.
TU*+%E .AS NOT ACC%7T%) T.% COU*TGS 8U*IS)ICTION. The (ort can see
nothing in the terms o% the Rome (ommniAY o% 1/ >ay 1/C9, or in the s!seAent
acconts o% the meeting given !y the t$o 6overnments, $hich might in#icate that
Tr'ey $as then rea#y to contemplate, not a "oint s!mission o% the #ispte to the
(ort, !t a general acceptance o% the (ortIs "ris#iction $ith respect to it. On the
contrary, the positions o% the 6ree' an# Tr'ish 6overnments on this point appear to
have !een Aite nchange# $hen, only a %e$ #ays later on E1 >ay 1/C9, the t$o
<rime >inisters !egan their meeting in @rssels.
(onseAently, it is in that context&a previosly expresse# $illingness on the part o%
Tr'ey "ointly to s!mit the #ispte to the (ort, a%ter negotiations an# !y a special
agreement #e%ining the matters to !e #eci#e#&that the meaning o% the @rssels Hoint
(ommniAY o% E1 >ay 1/C9 has to !e appraise#.
S7%CIAL A,*%%6%NT -I*ST B%-O*% ,OIN, TO COU*T. When rea# in that
context, the terms o% the (ommniAY #o not appear to the (ort to evi#ence any
change in the position o% the Tr'ish 6overnment in regar# to the con#itions n#er
$hich it $as rea#y to agree to the s!mission o% the #ispte to the (ort. It is tre that
the (ommniAY recor#s the #ecision o% the <rime >inisters that certain pro!lems in
the relations o% the t$o contries shol# !e resolve# peace%lly !y means o%
negotiations, an# as regar#s the continental shel% o% the Aegean Sea !y the (ort. As
appears ho$ever %rom paragraph /C a!ove, they also #e%ine# the general lines on the
!asis o% $hich the %orthcoming meetings o% the representatives o% the t$o
6overnments $ol# ta'e place an# #eci#e# in that connection to !ring %or$ar# the
#ate o% the meeting o% experts. These statements #o not appear to the (ort to !e
inconsistent $ith the general position ta'en p !y Tr'ey in the previos #iplomatic
exchanges= that it $as rea#y to consi#er a .oint s!mission o% the #ispte to the (ort
!y means o% a special agree#ent.
At the same time, the express provision ma#e !y the <rime >inisters %or a %rther
meeting o% experts on the continental shel% #oes not seem easily reconcila!le $ith an
imme#iate an# nAali%ie# commitment to accept the s!mission o% the #ispte to the
(ort nilaterally !y Application. In the light o% Tr'eyIs previos insistence on the
nee# to )i#enti%y* an# )elci#ate* the isses in #ispte, it seems nli'ely that its <rime
>inister shol# have n#erta'en sch a commitment in sch $i#e an# imprecise
terms.
NO CO66IT6%NT TO SUB6IT )IS7UT% TO IC8. The in%ormation !e%ore the (ort
concerning the negotiations !et$een the experts an# the #iplomatic exchanges
s!seAent to the @rssels (ommniAY appears to con%irm that the t$o <rime
>inisters #i# not !y their )#ecision* n#erta'e an ncon#itional commitment to s!mit
the continental shel% #ispte to the (ort. The t$o si#es, it is tre, pt some$hat
#i%%erent interpretations pon the meaning o% the (ommniAY, the Tr'ish si#e
insisting pon the nee# %or meaning%l negotiations on the s!stance o% the #ispte
!e%ore any s!mission to the (ort, the 6ree' si#e pressing %or the case to !e ta'en
#irectly to the (ort. From the %irst, ho$ever, the Tr'ish si#e consistently maintaine#
the position that re%erence o% the #ispte to the (ort $as to !e contemplate# only on
the !asis o% a "oint s!mission a%ter the conclsion o% a special agreement #e%ining the
isses to !e resolve# !y the (ort. Even the 6ree' 6overnment, $hile arging in %avor
o% imme#iate s!mission o% the #ispte to the (ort, re%erre# to the #ra%ting o% a
special agreement as )necessary* %or s!mitting the isse to the (ort.
US% O- 8OINT CO66UNIIU% AS BASIS O- 8U*IS)ICTION: A 6%*%
A-T%*T.OU,.T O- ,*%%C%. It is also signi%icant that no$here in the #iplomatic
exchanges or in the negotiations !et$een the experts #oes the 6ree' 6overnment
appear to have invo'e# the Hoint (ommniAY as an alrea#y existing an# complete,
#irect title o% "ris#iction. Frthermore, althogh in a 7ote 5er!ale o% ;C Hanary 1/C9,
Alwa#& will B
* bok * cj * tiff * gem * tin * -2
!e%ore any Hoint (ommniAY existe#, the 6ree' 6overnment expressly reserve# its
)right to initiate (ort procee#ings nilaterally* -presma!ly having in min# the 6eneral
Act2, the (ort has not %on# any mention !y 6reece, prior to the %iling o% the
Application, o% the possi!ility that the #ispte might !e s!mitte# to the (ort
nilaterally on the !asis o% the Hoint (ommniAY.
CO66UNIIU% NOT A 0ALI) BASIS -O* 8U*IS)ICTION. Accor#ingly, having
regar# to the terms o% the Hoint (ommniAY o% E1 >ay 1/C9 an# to the context in
$hich it $as agree# an# isse#, the (ort can only concl#e that it $as not inten#e#
to, an# #i# not, constitte an imme#iate commitment !y the 6ree' an# Tr'ish <rime
>inisters, on !ehal% o% their respective 6overnments, to accept ncon#itionally the
nilateral s!mission o% the present #ispte to the (ort. It %ollo$s that, in the opinion
o% the (ort, the @rssels (ommniAY #oes not %rnish a vali# !asis %or esta!lishing
the (ortIs "ris#iction to entertain the Application %ile# !y 6reece on 1. Agst 1/C0.
)IS7OSITION. In so %in#ing, the (ort emphasiGes that the sole Aestion %or #ecision
in the present procee#ings is $hether it #oes, or #oes not, have "ris#iction to entertain
the Application %ile# !y 6reece on 1. Agst 1/C0. Having concl#e# that the Hoint
(ommniAY isse# in @rssels on E1 >ay 1/C9 #oes not %rnish a !asis %or
esta!lishing the (ortIs "ris#iction in the present procee#ings, the (ort is not
concerne#, nor is it competent, to prononce pon any other implications $hich that
(ommniAY may have in the context o% the present #ispte. It is %or the t$o
6overnments themselves to consi#er those implications an# $hat e%%ect, i% any, is to !e
given to the Hoint (ommniAY in their %rther e%%orts to arrive at an amica!le
settlement o% their #ispte. 7othing that the (ort has sai# may !e n#erstoo# as
precl#ing the #ispte %rom !eing !roght !e%ore the (ort i% an# $hen the con#itions
%or esta!lishing its "ris#iction are satis%ie#. For these reasons, !y 1; votes to ;, %in#s
that it is $ithot "ris#iction to entertain the Application %ile# !y the 6ovemment o% the
Hellenic Rep!lic on 1. Agst 1/C0.
Ar9itration 9etween the Unite$ +in!$o( of ,reat Britain an$ Northern Irelan$
an$ the -ren'h *ep"9li' on the )eli(itation of the Continental Shelf: AN,LO
-*%NC. A*BIT*ATION (>A 8"ne 4311)
INT*O)UCTION
1. Follo$ing several years o% nsccess%l negotiations, the 6overnments o% the
?nite# Jing#om an# France agree# that the #elimitation o% the continental shel% as
!et$een the t$o contries shol# !e s!mitte# to an a# hoc (ort o% Ar!itration. An
Agreement provi#ing %or the esta!lishment o% the (ort an# %or its terms o% re%erence
$as signe# !y representatives o% the t$o 6overnments on 1. Hly 1/C9. As #e%ine# in
the Agreement, the ar!itration area stretches %rom the meri#ian .UE.U West o%
6reen$ich -roghly soth o% Worthing2 to the 1,... metre #epth contor in the Soth&
Western Approaches -some 1C. natical miles soth&$est o% tile Scilly Isles2.
;. The (ort #elivere# a nanimos #ecision -#ate# E. Hne 1/CC2 to representatives
o% !oth 6overnments on 1: Hly 1/CC. H#ge @riggs, $hile expressing his agreement
$ith the !on#ary lines lai# #o$n !y the (ort, appen#e# a separate #eclaration
#ealing $ith certain points o% la$. In the (ortUs #ecision, $hich, n#er Article 1.-l2 o%
the Ar!itration Agreement is %inal an# !in#ing on tile t$o 6overnments, the %ollo$ing
!on#ary lines $ere lai# #o$n= in the English (hannel, a me#ian line giving %ll e%%ect
to all islan#s -incl#ing the E##ystone2+ in the Soth&Western Approaches, a me#ian
line giving hal% e%%ect to the Scilly Islan#s+ an# in the area to the north an# north$est or
tile (hannel Islan#s, a 1;&mile enclave !on#ary. The (ort #eclare# that it $as not
competent n#er the Ar!itration Agreement to #elimit the !on#ary in the narro$ !elt
cast an# soth o% the (hannel Islan#s -$here Aestions a%%ecting the territorial sea
$ere involve#2.
E. The relevant portion o% the Ar!itration Agreement rea#s=
ARTI(LE ;
1. The (ort is reAeste# to #eci#e, in accor#ance $ith the rles o%
international la$ applica!le in the matter as !et$een the <artiesU
the %ollo$ing Aestion=
What is the corse o% the !on#ary -or !on#aries2.!et$een the
portions o% the continental shel% appertaining to the ?nite# Jing#om
an# the (hannel Islan#s an# to the French Rep!lic, respectively,
$est$ar# o% E. mintes West o% the 6reen$ich >eri#ian as %ar as
the 1,... metre iso!athL
;. The choice o% the 1,... metre iso!ath is $ithot pre"#ice to the
position o% either 6overnment concerning the oter limit o% the
continental shel%
1. THE FRE7(H S?@>ISSIO7 O7 THE A<<LI(A@LE LAW. With regar# to the
applica!le la$ in the resoltion o% the #ispte, France ma#e a s!mission that althogh
it has acce#e# to the 6eneva (onvention -)(O75E7TIO7*2 on the (ontinental Shel%
in 11 Hne 1/09, it has ma#e reservations regar#ing the sai# convention prsant to
Article 1; thereo%. The ?J, in trn, ma#e o!"ections as to FranceIs reservations. As a
reslt, the (onvention is not in %orce !et$een France an# the ?J, an# it has contine#
to !e so !ecase France has never exhi!ite# any con#ct to lea# any state to !elieve
that it has a!an#one# sch reservations. For prposes o% the ar!itration, there%ore, the
rles o% international la$ applica!le !et$een the <arties are the rles o% cstomary la$,
as state# in particlar !y the International (ort o% Hstice in the 7orth Sea (ontinental
Shel% cases an# con%irme# !y the s!seAent practice o% States an# the $or' o% the
Thir# (on%erence on the La$ o% $e Sea. Those rles prescri!e that the !on#ary -or
!on#aries2 !et$een the portions o% the (ontinental Shel% appertaining to the ?nite#
Jing#om an# the (hannel Islan#s an# to the French Rep!lic respectively $est$ar# o%
E. mintes $est o% the 6reen$ich >eri#ian an# as %ar as the 1,...&metre iso!ath mst
!e #ra$n in con%ormity $ith the principle o% the natral prolongation o% the territories o%
each o% the t$o States an# $ith the eAita!le principles to$ar#s the elci#ation o%
$hich the (ort contri!te# in the a%orementione# cases.
9. THE E76LISH S?@>ISSIO7 O7 THE A<<LI(A@LE LAW. The ?J conten#s that,
neither at the time o% the %ormlation o% FranceUs reservations on accession to the
6eneva (onvention o% 1/9: on the (ontinental Shel% nor at the time or the %ormlation
o% the ?nite# Jing#omUs o!servations on those reservations -nor s!seAently2, #i#
there exist any rle o% international la$ esta!lishing a presmption -still less an
irre!tta!le presmption2 that, in relation to a treaty containing no provisions regar#ing
reservations, an o!"ection to a reservation precl#e# the entry into %orce o% the treaty
as !et$een the VreservingV an# the Vo!"ectingV States. Frther, the rles o% general
international la$ on the s!"ect o% reservations to mltilateral conventions -$hich in this
Alwa#& will B
* bok * cj * tiff * gem * tin * -+
respect have remaine# nchange# since the relevant time2 reAire e%%ect to !e given in
the %irst instance to the particlar regime %or reservations containe# in the text o% the
treaty in Aestion+ that is to say, in the particlar case o% the 1/9: (onvention, Article
1; o% the sai# (onvention, $hich expressly permits reservations to !e ma#e to articles
thereo% other than Articles 1 to E inclsive. To the extent that the legal e%%ect o% the
French Reservations to the 1/9: (onvention is not speci%ically provi#e# %or !y the
terms o% tile sai# Article 1;, the legal e%%ect o% the sai# reservations an# o% the ?nite#
Jing#omUs o!servations thereon is #etermine# on the !asis o% the intention n#erlying
the ?nite# Jing#omUs o!servations in%erre# %rom the terms thereo% an# %rom the
srron#ing circmstances. In this regar#, the clear an# nmista'a!le intention
n#erlying the o!servations o% he ?nite# Jing#om on the sai# French reservations $as
not to precl#e the esta!lishment, or #eny the existence o%, treaty relations $ith France
on the !asis o% the 1/9: (onvention incl#ing Article 0 thereo%. France is, in any event,
precl#e# !y her s!seAent con#ct %rom #enying the applica!ility o% the 1/9E
(onvention as a $hole, incl#ing Article 0 thereo%, as !et$een the ?nite# Jing#om an#
France. Accor#ingly the 1/9: (onvention is in its entirety a treaty in %orce !et$een the
?nite# Jing#om an# France. Ho$ever, in the alternative, shol# the (ort %in# that
FranceIs reservation to the (onvention has !een e%%ective ipso "re %rom the time o% its
accession, the ?J conten#s that sch reservations $ere not the ones contemplate# in
international la$, or that they are not the ones permitte# n#er Article 0.
T.% ,%O7.ESICAL C.A*ACT%*ISTICS O- T.% A*BIT*ATION A*%A
0. The area o% continental shel% $ith $hich the (ort is concerne# in the present
ar!itration -herea%ter %or convenience terme# the Var!itration areaV2 %orms part o% the
continental shel% or 7orth&West Erope, $hich exten#s over the s!marine areas o% the
7orth Sea an# English (hannel -La >anche2U an# o% all the $aters lying $est$ar#s o%
France an# the ?nite# Jing#om as %ar as the %rthest limits or the continental shel% in
the Atlantic ocean. The ar!itration area comprises the continental shel% o% the (hannel
$est$ar# o% E.U $est o% 6reen$ich, an# the portions o% the continental shel%
appertaining to France an# the ?nite# Jing#om in the Atlantic region imme#iately to
the $est$ar# o% the (hannel as %ar as the 1,... metre iso!ath. The continental shel%
o% this area, as the in%ormation !e%ore the (ort clearly sho$s an# !oth <arties have
stresse# in their plea#ings, is characteriGe# !y the essential continity o% its geological
strctre.
C. The in%ormation !e%ore the (ort in#icates the presence in the Atlantic region o%
certain geological %alts or grops o% %alts in the strctre o% the continental shel% to
the&$est o% the ?shant&Scillies line. A series o% sch %alts, $hich %ollo$ the same
general soth&$esterly tren# as the English (hannel, is to !e %on# in the Atlantic
region as %ar as 0UE.U $est o% 6reen$ich an# others, $ith a more sotherly tren#,
exten# almost as %or as the 1,...&metre iso!ath. The <arties are in accor# as to the
existence o% the %alts in the geological strctre o% this region, an# as to their general
soth&$esterly tren#. They are also at one in consi#ering that the %alts #o not #etract
%rom the essential geological continity o% the continental shel%. They are not, ho$ever,
in agreement as to the s%%iciency o% the scienti%ic in%ormation regar#ing the geological
%eatres in Aestion or as to its correct interpretation+ nor are they agree# as to the
signi%icance o% the %alts in relation to the geology an# geomorphology o% the shel%.
The French 6overnment consi#ers the %alts to constitte, at most, minor an#
#isconnecte# ri%ts in the strctre o% the shel% an# is na!le to see in them any
coherent or continos %alt Gone. The ?nite# Jing#om 6overnment, on the contrary,
consi#ers these geological %eatres, $hich it #enominates the Hr# Beep Falt ,one,
to esta!lish the existence o% a ma"or an# persistent ri%t in the strctre or the shel%
constitting a prolongation o% the Hr# Beep into the Atlantic region. These #i%%erences
!et$een the <arties relate to the alternative an# s!si#iary S!mission pt %or$ar# !y
the ?nite# Jing#om that i% IL continos me#ian line shol# not !e a#opte# as the
!on#ary throghot the ar!itration area. the Hr# Beep an# Hr# Beep Falt ,one
provi#e the only appropriate #ivi#ing line !et$een the natral prolongationIs o% the
continental shelves or each contry. The (ort, %or reasons given later in this
Becision, #oes not %in# it necessary to resolve the #i%%erences !et$een the <arties
concerning the character an# the signi%icance o% the geological %alts o% the continental
shel%. The (ort, there%ore, %in#s it nnecessary here to set ot in #etail the %acts an#
evi#ence place# !e%ore it regar#ing these %alts.
:. Althogh the <arties are agree# that the !on#ary shol#, in principle, !e the
me#ian line in these areas $here the coasts o% the (hannel Islan#s an# those o%
7orman#y an# @rittany arc opposite each other, the me#ian line !on#aries $hich they
propose !y no means coinci#e. On the contrary, the !on#aries #iverge in a nm!er
o% places, an# these #ivergenceIs re%lect nresolve# #i%%erences regar#ing the
con%ormity $ith international la$ o% the se o% this or that !ase&point !y one or other
<arty. The ?nite# Jing#om, %or example, contests the French Rep!licUs se o% a.
straight !aseline across the Anse #o 5aville, $hile the French Rep!lic challenges
the ?nite# Jing#omUs se o% the Ecrehos an# >inAiers grops as !ase&points %or the
me#ian line. Again, i% the >inAiers arc not accepte# as constitting a !ase&point, the
?nite# Jing#om challenges the legitimacy o% the French Rep!licUs se o% the Roches
Bovres+ an# i% the >inAiers are se# as a !ase&point, the French Rep!lic asserts a
right to the se o% the (hasey grop %or #elimiting the me#ian line.
COU*TGS *ULIN, ON T.% A77LICABL% LA/
/. The !asic #i%%erence !et$een the <arties as to the applica!le la$ concerns the
Aestion $hether the (onvention on the (ontinental Shel% concl#e# at 6eneva on ;/
April 1/9:, an# in particlar Article 0 o% that (onvention, is in %orce !et$een them an#
governs the present matter or $hether it is the rles o% cstomary la$ $hich apply.
Althogh tile French Rep!lic an# the ?nite# Jing#om are !oth parties to that
(onvention, the French 6overnment conten#s that it has never entere# into %orce
!et$een the French Rep!lic an# the ?nite# Jing#om !y reason o% the latterUs re%sal
to accept certain reservations %ormlate# !y the French Rep!lic $hen #epositing its
instrment o% accession to the (onvention. The Aestion !eing one o% the respective
intentions o% the French Rep!lic an# the ?nite# Jing#om in regar# to their& legal
relations n#er the (onvention, it is necessary %irst to set ot the %acts in#icative o%
their intentions.
1.. FIRST E5IBE7(E= E76LISH 7OTE 5ER@ALE. @y a 7ote 5er!ale o% 1: Fe!rary
1/01, !e%ore either State ha# rati%ie# the (onvention, the ?nite# Jing#om 6overnment
invite# the French 6overnment to enter into preliminary #iscssions V$ith a vie$ to
arriving it proce#res %or agreeing a line #ivi#ing that part o% the (ontinental Shel%
$hich lies !et$een France an# the ?nite# Jing#om.V It propose# that this line shol#
!e calclate# on me#ian line principles an# the measrements ta'en, in accor#ance
$ith Article 0 o% the (ontinental Shel% (onvention, %rom !aselines #ra$n in accor#ance
$ith the provisions o% the 1/9: (onvention on the Territorial Sea. At the same time, it
in%orme# the French 6overnment that the necessary ?nite# Jing#om legislation %or
esta!lishing straight !aselines $ol# shortly !e s!mitte# to <arliament an# that, %or
reasons o% ni%ormity, the ?nite# Jing#om consi#ere# it V#esira!le that the calclations
Alwa#& will B
* bok * cj * tiff * gem * tin * -,
%or the me#ian lines on the continental shel% shol# !e ma#e %rom !aselines #ra$n in
accor#ance $ith the 1/9: (onvention rather than %rom the lo$&$ater mar'.V On 11
>ay 1/01, the ?nite# Jing#om rati%ie# the (onvention $hich, n#er Article 11, then
entere# into %orce on 1. Hne o% that year.
11. SE(O7B E5IBE7(E= FRE7(H 7OTE 5ER@ALE. The French 6overnment !y a
7ote 5er!ale o% C Agst 1/01, accepte# the ?nite# Jing#omUs proposal %or
preliminary #iscssion. In #oing so, it in%orme# the latter o% its intention to acce#e to the
1/9: (onvention s!"ect to a nm!er o% reservations an# an interpretative #eclaration
o% Article I #esigne# to stress that the term Vareas a#"acentV in itsel% excl#es an
nlimite# extension o% the continental shel%. In a##ition, it speci%ie# that the French
6overnment consi#ere# special circmstances $ithin the meaning o% Article 0,
paragraph 1, o% the 6eneva (onvention to exist in regar# to the continental shel%
a#"acent to the coasts o% France an# the ?nite# Jing#om. An# it %rther state# that in
these circmstances, Van eAi#istance line #etermine# nilaterally !y France or !y tile
?nite# Jing#om, !ase# on straight !aselines, sch as those re%erre# to in the ?nite#
Jing#omUs 7ote o% 1: Fe!rary 1/01, col# not !e a#mitte# %or the calclation o% the
#ivi#ing line $ithot the agreement o% the other <artyV.
1;. THIRB E5IBE7(E= FRA7(EIS RESER5ATIO7S TO THE 6E7E5A
(O75E7TIO7. On 11 Hne 1/09 the French Rep!lic #eposite# its instrment o%
accession to the (onvention to $hich $as appen#e# the %ollo$ing #eclaration=U
ARTI(LE 1
In the vie$ o% the 6overnment o% the French Rep!lic, the
expression Va#"acentV areas implies a notion o% geophysical,
geological an# geographical #epen#ence $hich ipso %acto rles ot
an nlimite# extension o% the continental
shel%.
ARTI(LE ; -paragraph 12
The 6overnment o% the French Rep!lic consi#ers that the
expression Vliving organisms !elonging to se#entary speciesV mst
!e interprete# as excl#ing crstaceans, $ith the exception o% the
species o% cra! terme# V!arnacleV+ an# it ma'es the %ollo$ing
reservations= ...
ARTI(LE 1
The 6overnment o% the French Rep!lic accepts this article only on
con#ition that the coastal State claiming that the &measres it
inten#s to ta'e are Vreasona!leU agrees that i% their reasona!leness
is conteste# it shall !e #etermine# !y ar!itration.
ARTI(LE 9 -paragraph 12
The 6overnment o% the French Rep!lic accepts the provisions
o% Article 9, paragraph 1, $ith the %ollo$ing reservations=
-a2 An essential element $hich shol# serve as a !asis %or
appreciating any Uinter%erenceU $ith the conservation o% the living
resorces o% the sea, reslting %rom the exploitation or the
continental shel%, particlarly in !ree#ing areas %or maintenance o%
stoc's, shall !e the technical report o% the international scienti%ic
!o#ies responsi!le %or tile conservation o% the living resorces o% the
sea in the areas speci%ie# respectively in Article 1 o% the (onvention
%or the 7orth&West Atlantic Fisheries o% : Fe!rary 1/1/ an# Article
1 o% the (onvention %or the 7orth&East Atlantic Fisheries o% ;1
Hanary 1/9/.
-!2 Any restrictions place# oil the exercise o% acAire# %ishing rights
in $aters a!ove the continental shel% shall give rise to a right to
compensation.
-c2 It mst !e possi!le to esta!lish !y means o% ar!itration, i% the
matter is conteste#, $hether the exploration o% tile continental shel%
an# the exploitation o% its natral resorces reslt in an inter%erence
$ith the other activities protecte# !y Article 9, paragraph 1, $hich is
n"sti%ia!le.
ARTI(LE 0 -paragraphs 1 an# ;2
In the a!sence o% a speci%ic agreement the 6overnment o% the
French Rep!lic $ill not accept that any !on#ary or the continental
shel% #etermine# !y application o% the principle eAi#istince shall !e
invo'e# against it=
& i% sch !on#ary is calclate# %rom !aselines esta!lishe# a%ter ;/
April 1/9:+
& i% it exten#s !eyon# the ;..&metre iso!ath+
& i% it lies in areas $here, in the 6overnmentUs opinion, there are
Uspecial circmstancesU $ithin the meaning o% Article 0, paragraphs I
an# ;, that is to say= the @ay o% @iscay, the @ay o% 6ranville. an# the
sea areas o% the Straits o% Bover an# o% the 7orth Sea o%% the
French coast.V
1E. FO?RTH E5IBE7(E= ?JIS O@HE(TIO7S TO FRA7(EIS RESER5ATIO7S.
7oti%ication or FranceUs instrment o% accession an# o% its #eclaration $as receive# !y
the ?nite# Jing#om %rom the Secretary&6eneral on E. Hly 1/09, an# on 11 Hanary
1/00, it a##resse# a commnication to the Secretary&6eneral as #epositary o% the
(onvention in the %ollo$ing terms.
VARTI(LE 1
The 6overnment o% the ?nite# Jing#om ta'e note o% the #eclaration
ma#e !y the 6overnment o% the French Rep!lic an# reserve their
position concerning it.
ARTI(LE ; -paragraph 12
Alwa#& will B
* bok * cj * tiff * gem * tin * --
This #eclaration #oes not call %or any o!servations on the part o% the
6overnment o% the ?nite# Jing#om.
ARTI(LE 1
The 6overnment o% the ?nite# Jing#om an# The 6overnment o%
the French Rep!lic are !oth parties to the Optional <rotocol or
Signatre concerning the (omplsory Settlement o% Bisptes #one
at 6eneva on the ;/th April 1/9:. U>e 6overnment o% the ?nite#
Jing#om assme that the #eclaration ma#e !y the 6overnment o%
the French Rep!lic is not inten#e# to #erogate %rom the rights an#
o!ligations o% the parties to the Optional <rotocol.
ARTI(LE 9 -paragraph 12
Reservation -a2 #oes not call %or any o!servation on the part o% the
6overnment o% the ?nite# Jing#om+
The 6overnment o% the ?nite# Jing#om are na!le to accept
reservation -!2+
The 6overnment o% the ?nite# Jing#om are prepare# to accept
reservation -c2 on tile n#erstan#ing that it is not inten#e# to
#erogate %rom the rights an# o!ligations o% parties to the Optional
<rotocol o% Signatre concerning the (omplsory Settlement o%
Bisptes.
ARTI(LE 0 -paragraphs 1 an# ;2
The 6overnment o% the ?nite# Jing#om are na!le to accept the
reservations ma#e !y the 6overnment o% the French Rep!lic.V
11. (O?RTIS I7TER<RETATIO7= 6E7E5A (O75E7TIO7 IS I7 F?LL FOR(E A7B
EFFE(T @ETWEE7 ?J A7B FRA7(E. The (ort is #irecte# !y Article ; o% the
Ar!itration Agreement to #eci#e the corse or the !on#ary Vin accor#ance $ith the
rles o% international la$ applica!le in the matter as !et$een the <artiesV+ an#, as the
<arties agree, the rles o% international la$ to !e applie# !y the (ort n#er this r!ric
are nAestiona!ly the rles in %orce to#ay. At the same time, the (ort recognises
!oth the importance or the evoltion o% the la$ or the sea $hich is no$ in progress an#
the possi!ility that a #evelopment in cstomary la$ may, n#er certain con#itions,
evi#ence the assent o% the States concerne# to the mo#i%ication, or even termination,
o% previosly existing treaty rights an# o!ligations. @t the (ontinental Shel%
(onvention o% 1/9: entere# into %orce as !et$een the <arties little more than a #eca#e
ago. >oreover, the in%ormation !e%ore the (ort contains re%erences !y the French
Rep!lic an# the ?nite# Jing#om, as $ell as !y other States, to the (onvention as an
existing treaty in %orce $hich are o% Aite recent #ate. (onseAently, only the most
conclsive in#ications o% the intention o% the parties to the 1/9: (onvention to regar# it
as terminate# col# $arrant this (ort in treating it as o!solete an# inapplica!le as
!et$een the French Rep!lic an# the ?nite# Jing#om in the present matter. In the
opinion o% the (ort, ho$ever, neither the recor#s o% the Thir# ?nite# 7ations
(on%erence on the La$ o% the Sea nor the practice o% States otsi#e the (on%erence
provi#e any sch conclsive in#ication that the (ontinental Shel% (onvention o% 1/9: is
to#ay consi#ere# !y its parties to !e alrea#y o!solete an# no longer applica!le as a
treaty in %orce. The (ort accor#ingly %in#s that the 6eneva (onvention or 1/9: on the
(ontinental Shel% is a treaty in %orce, the provisions or $hich are applica!le as !et$een
the <arties to the present procee#ings n#er Article ; o% the Ar!itration Agreement.
This %in#ing, the (ort $ishes at the same time to emphasise, #oes not mean that it
regar#s itsel% as #e!arre# %rom ta'ing an accont in these procee#ings o% recent
#evelopments in cstomary la$. On the contrary, the (ort has no #o!t that it shol#
ta'e #e accont o% the evoltion o% the la$ o% the sea in so %ar as this may !e relevant
in the context o% the present case.
19. O7 THE FRE7(H RESER5ATIO7. The (ort consi#ers that the ans$er to the
Aestion o% the legal e%%ect o% the French reservations lies partly in the contentions o%
the French Rep!lic an# partly in those o% the ?nite# Jing#om. (learly, the French
Rep!lic is correct in stating that the esta!lishment o% treaty relations !et$een itsel%
an# the ?nite# Jing#om n#er the (onvention #epen#e# on the consent o% each State
to !e mtally !on# !y its provisions+ an# that $hen it %ormlate# its reservations to
Article 0 it ma#e its consent to !e !on# !y the provisions o% that Article s!"ect to the
con#itions em!o#ie# in the reservations.. There is, on the other han#, mch %orce in
the ?nite# Jing#omUs o!servation that its re"ection $as #irecte# to the reservations
alone an# not to Article 0 as a $hole. In short, the #isagreement !et$een the t$o
contries $as not one regar#ing the recognition o% Article 0 as applica!le in their
mtal relations !t one regar#ing the matters reserve# !y the French Rep!lic %rom
the application o% Article 0. The e%%ect o% the ?nite# Jing#omUs re"ection o% the
reservations is ths limite# to the reservations themselves. The %act that Article 0 is not
applica!le as !et$een the <arties to the extent that it is excl#e# !y tile French
reservations #oes not mean that there arc no legal rles to govern the #elimitation o%
the !on#ary in areas $here the reservation operates. On the contrary, as the
International (ort or "stice o!serve# in tile 7orth Sea (ontinental Shel% cases, there
are still rles an# principles o% la$ to !e applie#V+ an# these are the rles an# principles
governing #elimitation o% the continental shel% in general international la$.
10. THE )EK?IBISTA7(E&S<E(IAL (IR(?>STA7(ES* >ETHOB AS THE
<RE5AILI76 R?LE OF BELI>ITATIO7 ?7BER THE (O75E7TIO7. The (ort #oes
not overloo' that n#er Article 0 the eAi#istance principle ltimately possesses an
o!ligatory %orce $hich it #oes not have in the same measre n#er the rles o%
cstomary la$+ %or Article 0 ma'es the application o% the eAi#istance principle a matter
or treaty o!ligation %or <arties to the (onvention. @t the com!ine# character or the
eAi#istance&special circmstances rle means that the o!ligation to apply the
eAi#istance principle is al$ays one Aali%ie# !y the con#ition Vnless another
!on#ary line is "sti%ie# !y special circmstancesV. >oreover, the travax
preparatories o% Article 0, in the International La$ (ommission an# at the 6eneva
(on%erence o% 1/9:, sho$ that this con#ition $as intro#ce# into paragraphs 1 an# ;
o% the Article !ecase it $as recognise# that, o$ing to particlar geographical %eatres
or con%igrations, application o% the eAi#istance principle might not in%reAently reslt
in an nreasona!le or ineAita!le #elimitation o% tile continental shel%. In short, the role
o% the Vspecial circmstancesV con#ition in Article 0 is to ensre an eAita!le
#elimitation an# the com!ine# VeAi#istance&special circmstances rleV, in e%%ect,
gives particlar expression to a general norm that, %ailing agreement, the !on#ary
!et$een States a!tting on the same continental shel% is to !e #etermine# oil eAita!le
principles. In a##ition, Article 0 neither #e%ines Vspecial circmstancesV nor lays #o$n
tile criterion !y $hich it is to !e assesse# $hether any given circmstances "sti%y a
!on#ary line other than the eAi#istance line. (onseAently, even n#er Article 0 the
Alwa#& will B
* bok * cj * tiff * gem * tin * -.
Aestion $hether the se o% the eAi#istance principle or some other metho# is
appropriate %or achieving an eAita!le #elimitation is very mch a matter o%
appreciation in the light o% the geographical an# other circmstances. In other $or#s,
even n#er Article 0 it is the geographical an# other circmstances o% any given case
$hich in#icate an# "sti%y the se o% the eAi#istance metho# as the means o%
achieving an eAita!le soltion rather than the inherent Aality o% the metho# as a legal
norm o% #elimitation.
1C. FRA7(EIS THIRB RESER5ATIO7. >ore signi%icance clearly attaches to the thir#
reservation #esignating areas in $hich the French Rep!lic consi#ers there are
Vspecial circmstancesV $ithin the meaning o% Article 0 !y reason or the inclsion o% the
,@ay or 6ranvilleV amongst those areas. In the plea#ings the ?nite# Jing#om has
conteste# the French 6overnmentUs interpretation o% the expression V@ay o% 6ranvilleV
as covering the $hole (hannel Islan#s region. Tracing the #evelopment o% the varios
ses o% this expression, the ?nite# Jing#om claims that previos ses or the
expression have relate# only to sea areas to the cast an# soth o% Hersey+ an# it
maintains that the French Rep!lic has, accor#ingly, not esta!lishe# that, as se# in
the reservation, the expression exten#s to the (hannel Islan#s region as a $hole. 7o
#o!t, the expression V@aie #e 6ranvilleV may have normally !een se# in the past
$ith a more restricte# sense. Bring the negotiations in the years 1/C.&1/C1,
ho$ever, as the (ort has alrea#y note# in paragraph E9, mention $as ma#e !y !oth
<arties o% the French reservation regar#ing V6ranville @ayV, an# in the #ocments
!e%ore the (ort relating to those negotiations they are recor#e# as having #iscsse#
the #elimitation o% the !on#ary in the $hole (hannel Islan#s region n#er the r!ric
V6ranville @ayV. 7or is there any in#ication in those #ocments o% the French
reservations having !een given a more restricte# interpretation. As, moreover, it har#ly
seems pro!a!le that the French 6overnment inten#e# to restrict its reservation to the
V@aie #e 6ranvilleV in one o% the narro$er senses o% this expression. the (ort
consi#ers that this reservation mst !e vie$e# as relating to the (hannel Islan#s
region as a $hole. The reservation having !een re"ecte# !y the ?nite# Jing#om, the
#elimitation or the continental shel% !on#ary in the (hannel Islan#s region mst
accor#ingly !e #etermine# !y re%erence to the rles o% cstomary la$.
1:. RE5ISITI76 THE 7ORTH SEA (O7TI7E7TAL SHELF (ASE BO(TRI7E. The
(ort there ma#e certain o!servations, $hich $ere o% an entirely general character,
regar#ing the #i%%ering vali#ity o% the eAi#istance principle as a means o% achieving an
eAita!le #elimitation in #i%%erent geographical sitations. These o!servations, to
$hich the present (ort o% Ar!itration in general s!scri!es, in#icate that the vali#ity o%
the eAi#istance metho#, or o% any other metho#, as a means o% achieving an
eAita!le #elimitation o% the continental shel% is al$ays relative to the particlar
geographical sitation. In short, $hether n#er cstomary lo$ or Article 0, it is never a
Aestion either o% complete or o% no %ree#om o% choice as to metho#+ %or the
appropriateness the eAita!le character & o% the metho# is al$ays a %nction o% the
particlar geographical sitation. As to the (ortUs o!servations on the role o% the
eAi#istance principle, it $as %ar %rom #isconting the vale o% the eAi#istance metho#
o% #elimitation, $hile #eclining to regar# it as o!ligatory n#er cstomary la$. VIt has
never !een #o!te#V, the (ort commente#, Vthat the eAi#istance metho# is a very
convenient one, the se o% $hich is in#icate# in a consi#era!le nm!er o% cases+ an#
again it commente# Vit $ol# pro!a!ly !e tre to say that no other metho# o%
#elimitation has the same com!ination o% practical convenience an# certainty o%
applicationV. The trth o% these o!servations is certainly !orne ot !y State practice,
$hich sho$s that p to #ate a large proportion o% the #elimitations o% the continental
shel% have !een e%%ecte# !y the application either or the eAi#istance metho# or, not
in%reAently, o% some variant o% that metho#. @t the (ort also #ra$ a clear, an# even
sharp, #istinction !et$een the geographical sitations $here the coasts o% States
a!tting on the same continental shel% are opposite an# $here they are a#"acent to
each other+
V>ost o% the #i%%iclties %elt in the International La$ (ommission relate#, as
here, to the case or the lateral !on#ary !et$een a#"acent States. Less #i%%iclty $as
%elt over that or the me#ian line !on#ary !et$een opposite States, althogh it too is
an eAi#istance line. For this there seems to the (ort to !e goo# reason. The
continental shel% area o%%, an# #ivi#ing, opposite States, can !e claime# !y each o%
them to !e a natral prolongation o% its territory. These prolongations meet an#
overlap, an# can there%ore only !e #elimite# !y means o% a me#ian line+ an#, ignoring
the presence o% islets, roc's an# minor coastal pro"ections, the #isproportionally
#istorting e%%ect o% $hich can !e eliminate# !y other means, sch a line mst e%%ect an
eAal #ivision o% the particlar area involve#. This type o% case is there%ore #i%%erent
%rom that o% laterally a#"acent States on the same coast $ith no imme#iately opposite
coast in %ront or it an# #oes not give rise to the same 'in# or pro!lem & a conclsion
$hich also %in#s some con%irmation in the #i%%erence o% langage to !e o!serve# in the
t$o paragraphs o% Article 0 o% the 6eneva (onvention... as respects recorse in the
one case to me#ian lines an# in the other to lateral eAi#istance lines, in the event o%
a!sence o% agreement.
Frther explaining its reasons %or ma'ing this #istinction, the (ort sai#
-I.(.H. Reports 1/0/, paragraph 9:2=
V$hereas a me#ian line #ivi#es eAally !et$een the t$o opposite contries
areas that can !e regar#e# as !eing the natral prolongation o% the territory o% each o%
them, a lateral eAi#istance line o%ten leaves to one o% the States concerne# areas that
are a natral prolongation o% the territory o% the otherV.
The International (ort o% Hstice also single# ot an aspect o% lateral
!on#ary sitations $hich ten# to increase the li'elihoo# that strict application o% the
eAi#istance metho# may !e pro#ctive o% ineAita!le reslts in #elimitations !et$een
States having a#"oining coasts. Althogh its o!servations on this aspect o% Va#"acent
StatesV sitations $ere #irecte# to the particlar context o% a concave coastline %orme#
!y the a#"oining territories o% three States, they re%lect an evi#ent geometrical trth an#
clearly have a more general vali#ity. It pointe# ot that in the case or lateral
!on#aries the e%%ect o% any irreglarity in the coastline on the areas o% continental
shel% allocate# to each State !y the eAi#istance metho# is atomatically magni%ie#,
the greater the #istance the !on#ary exten#s %rom the shore. Spea'ing o% the case o%
a concave or convex coastline, It sai# -I.(.H. Reports 1/0/, paragraph :/ -a2+ an# c%.
paragraphs : an# 9/2+
)i% the eAi#istance metho# is employe#, then the greater the irreglarity an#
the %rther %rom the coastline the area to !e #elimite#, the more nreasona!le are the
reslts pro#ce#. So great an exaggeration o% the conseAences o% a natral
geographical %eatre mst !e reme#ie# or compensate# %orU as %ar as possi!le, !eing
o% itsel% creative or ineAityV.
(learly, this characteristic o% the eAi#istance metho# mar's a material
#i%%erence !et$een a geographical sitation or Vopposite StatesV an# one o% Va#"acent
Alwa#& will B
* bok * cj * tiff * gem * tin * -/
StatesV in the #elimitation o% continental shel% !on#aries.
1/. THE )O<<OSITE STATES* SIT?ATIO7 AS THE A<<LI(A@LE STA7BARB. In the
present procee#ings, !oth the <arties have recognise# the signi%icance o% the
#istinction #ra$n !y the International (ort o% Hstice !et$een Vopposite StatesV an#
Va#"acent StatesV sitations in relation to the se o% the eAi#istance metho# $hether
n#er Article 0 or n#er cstomary la$. They are agree# that throghot the English
(hannel $here the coasts o% the French Rep!lic an# the ?nite# Jing#om are
opposite each other the !on#ary shol#, in principle, !e the me#ian line. They are in.
ra#ical #isagreement as to the appropriate metho# o% #elimitation in the (hannel
Islan#s region. Even in that region, as alrea#y mentione# in paragraph 19, they are
agree# that in the areas $here the coasts o% the (hannel Islan#s an# the coasts o%
7orman#y an# @rittany are opposite each other, the sea!e# an# s!soil !on#ary
shol# in principle !e the me#ian line. In short, leaving asi#e the special pro!lem
reslting %rom the position o% the (hannel Islan#s o%% the French coast, they are agree#
that the geographical an# legal %rame o% re%erence %or the #elimitation o% the !on#ary
is that o% an Vopposite StatesV sitation+ an# that, in conseAence, the appropriate
metho# is, in principle, eAi#istance. In so agreeing, the French Rep!lic !ases itsel%
on the rles or cstomary la$, the ?nite# Jing#om provisions o% Article 0 o% the
(onvention+ !t the reslt is the same. $hich seems to con%irm that, n#er either hea#,
it is the geographical sitation $hich in#icates the applica!le metho# or #elimitation.
In any event, this (ort o% Ar!itration sees no reason to #i%%er %rom the conclsion o%
the <arties that, in principle, the metho# applica!le in the English (hannel is to #ra$ a
me#ian line eAi#istant %rom their respective coasts, a conclsion $hich is in
accor#ance !oth $ith Article 0 o% the (onvention an# $ith the appreciation !y the
International (ort o% Hstice o% the position in cstomary la$.
The o!servations o% the International (ort o% Hstice regar#ing the #i%%erence
!et$een the application o% the eAi#istance metho# in Vme#ian lineV an# Vlateral lineV
!on#ary sitations $ere, as alrea#y stresse#, %rame# in general terms applica!le
ali'e to #elimitation n#er the provisions o% Article 0 or n#er the rles o% general
international la$. The reason is clear= the relationship o% VoppositeV or Va#"acentV
States is nothing !t a re%lection o% the geographical %acts, an# the trans%er o% the legal
plane %rom the (onvention to cstomary la$ #oes not mo#i%y the geographical %acts. It
is also clear that the #istinction #ra$n !y the (ort !et$een the t$o geographical
sitations is one #erive# not %rom any legal theory !t %rom the very s!stance o% the
#i%%erence !et$een the t$o sitations. Whereas in the case, o% VoppositeV States a
me#ian line $ill normally e%%ect a !roa#ly eAita!le #elimitation, a lateral eAi#istance
line exten#ing ot$ar#s %rom the coasts o% a#"acent States %or long #istances may not
in%reAently reslt in an ineAita!le #elimitation !y reason o% the #istorting e%%ect o%
in#ivi#al geographical %eatres. In short, it is the com!ine# e%%ect o% the si#e&!y&si#e
relationship o% the t$o States an# the prolongation o% the lateral !on#ary %or great
#istances to sea$ar#s $hich may !e pro#ctive o% ineAity an# is the essence o% the
#istinction !et$een Va#"acentV an# VoppositeV coasts sitations.
In short, this (ort consi#ers that the appropriateness o% the eAi#istance
metho# or any other metho# %or the prpose o% e%%ecting an eAita!le #elimitation is a
%nction or re%lection o% the geographical an# other relevant circmstances o% each
particlar case. The choice o% the metho# or metho#s o% #elimitation in any given
case, $hether n#er the 1/9: (onvention or cstomary la$, has there%ore to !e
#etermine# in the light o% those circmstances an# or the %n#amental norm that the
#elimitation mst !e in accor#ance $ith eAita!le principles. Frthermore, in
appreciating the appropriateness o% the eAi#istance metho# as a means or achieving
an eAita!le soltion, regar# mst !e ha# to the #i%%erence !et$een a VlateralV
!on#ary !et$een Va#"acentV States an# a Vme#ianV !on#ary !et$een VoppositeV
States.
COU*TGS A77LICATION O- T.% LA/ TO T.% -ACTS O- T.% CAS%
;.. In the English (hannel, leaving asi#e the particlar sitation reslting %rom the
(hannel Islan#sU !eing locate# o%% the French coast, the geographical an# the legal
%rame o% re%erence %or #etermining the corse or the !on#ary o% the continental shel%
is patently that o% a #elimitation !et$een VoppositeV States. The e%%ects or irreglarities
in the coastline o% each State are, !roa#ly, o%%set !y the e%%ects o% irreglarities in the
coastline o% the other, an# a me#ian line !on#ary $ill ths reslt in a generally
eAita!le #elimitation as !et$een the <arties. The (ort, there%ore, consi#ers that its
%irst step shol# !e to #etermine the corse o% the me#ian line $ithin the (hannel to
the east an# to the $est o% the points $here the presence o% the (hannel Islan#s has
to !e ta'en into consi#eration.
;1. THE H?RB BEE<&H?RB BEE< FA?LT. The (ort #oes not consi#er that the Hr#
Beep&Hr# Beep Falt ,one is a geographical %eatre capa!le o% exercising a material
in%lence on the #etermination o% the !on#ary either in the Atlantic region or in the
English (hannel. The (ort shares the vie$ repeate#ly expresse# !y !oth <arties that
the continental shel% throghot the ar!itration area is characterise# !y its essential
geological continity. The geological %alts $hich constitte the Hr# Beep an# the so&
calle# Hr# Beep Falt ,one, even i% they !e consi#ere# as #istinct %eatres in the
geomorphology o% the shel%, are still #iscontinities in the sea!e# an# s!soil $hich #o
not #isrpt the essential nity o% the continental shel% either in the (hannel or the
Atlantic region. In#ee#, In comparison $ith the #eep 7or$egian Trogh in the 7orth
Sea, they can only !e regar#e# as minor %alts in the geological strctre o% the shel%+
an# yet the ?nite# Jing#om agree# that the trogh shol# not constitte an o!stacle to
the extension o% 7or$ayUs continental shel% !on#ary !eyon# that ma"or %alt Gone.
>oreover, to attach critical signi%icance to a physical %eatre li'e the Hr# Beep Hr#
Beep Falt ,one in #elimiting the continental shel% !on#ary in the present case $ol#
rn conter to the $hole ten#ency o% State practice on the continental shel% in recent
years. In any event, having regar# to the essential continity o% the continental shel% in
the (hannel an# the Atlantic region, there #oes not seem to !e any legal gron# %or
#iscar#ing the eAi#istance or any other metho# o% #elimiting the !on#ary in %avor
simply o% sch a %eatre as the Hr# Beep&Hr# Beep Falt ,one. Shol# the
eAi#istance line not appear to the (ort to constitte the appropriate !on#ary in any
area, it $ill !e !ecase some geographical %eatre amonts to a Vspecial
circmstanceV "sti%ying another !on#ary n#er Article 0 or, !y ren#ering the
eAi#istance line ineAita!le, calls n#er cstomary la$ %or the se o% some other
metho#. It %ollo$s that any alternative !on#ary $ol# have either to !e one "sti%ie#
!y the Vspecial circmstancesV or one apt to correct the ineAity case# !y the
particlar geographical %eatre. @t the axis o% the Hr# Beep&Hr# Beep Falt ,one
is place# $here it is simply as a %act o% natre, an# there is no intrinsic reason $hy a
!on#ary along that axis shol# !e the !on#ary $hich is "sti%ie# !y the special
circmstance n#er Article 0 or $hich, n#er cstomary la$, is nee#e# to reme#y the
particlar ineAity.
;;. THE (HA77EL ISLA7BS. In the vie$ o% the (ort, it is mani%est %rom a mere
glance at the map that, $ith respect to the #elimitation o% the continental shel% as
Alwa#& will B
* bok * cj * tiff * gem * tin * -0
!et$een the French Rep!lic an# the ?nite# Jing#om, the (hannel Islan#s region
presents particlar %eatres an# pro!lems. The <arties themselves !oth recogniGe that
this region has particlar %eatres. @t they #isagree as to $hich o% its %eatres are to
!e consi#ere# particlar an# as to ho$ %ar any or them may constitte a )special
circmstanceV "sti%ying a !on#ary other than the me#ian line or a circmstance
creative o% ineAity. The <arties li'e$ise !ase opposing consi#erations or la$ an#
eAity pon the %eatres $hich one or other o% them alleges to !e particlar. The
(ort, accor#ingly, %in#s it necessary %irst to i#enti%y the %eatres an# consi#erations
$hich, in its vie$, may in varying #egrees reAire to !e evalate# in #eci#ing pon the
corse o% the !on#ary -or !on#aries2 in the (hannel Islan#s region.
The (ort $ill !egin $ith the %acts $hich #etermine the geographical an#
legal %rame$or' %or its #ecision regar#ing the #elimitation o% this part o% the !on#ary.
The region %orms an integral part o% the English (hannel an# %or the prpose o%
#elimiting its continental shel% the region has clearly, in the opinion o% the (ort, to !e
vie$e# in its context as part o% that $hole maritime area. From its eastern en# at the
Straits or Bover, the English (hannel stretches in a generally $est&soth&$esterly
#irection %or a #istance o% a!ot E.. natical miles, its $i#th gra#ally $i#ening %rom
a!ot 1: natical miles at the Straits o% Bover to some 1.. natical mile at its $estern
en#. Along the $hole E.. miles o% the soth coast or the (hannel rns the mainlan#
coast o% the French Rep!lic+ along the $hole E.. miles or the north coast or the
(hannel rns the mainlan# coast o% the ?nite# Jing#om. Each contry has some
promontories on its coast an# the general reslt is that the coastlines or their
mainlan#s %ace each other across the (hannel in a relation o% approximate eAality.
@et$een opposite States a me#ian line !on#ary $ill in normal
circmstances leave !roa#ly eAal areas o% continental shel% to each State an#
constitte a #elimitation in accor#ance $ith eAita!le principles. It %ollo$s that $here
the coastlines o% t$o opposite States are themselves approximately eAal in their
relation to the continental shel% not only shol# the !on#ary in normal circmstances
!e the me#ian line !t the areas o% shel% le%t to each <arty on either si#e o% the me#ian
line shol# !e !roa#ly eAal or at least !roa#ly compara!le. (learly, i% the (hannel
Islan#s #i# not exist, this is precisely ho$ the #elimitation or the !on#ary o% the
continental shel% in the English (hannel $ol# present itsel%.
The (hannel Islan#s, ho$ever, #o exist an# are sitate# not only on the
French si#e or a me#ian line #ra$n !et$een the t$o mainlan#s !t practically $ithin
the arms o% a gl% on the French coast. Inevita!ly, the presence o% these islan#s in the
English (hannel in that particlar sitation #istr!s the !alance or the geographical
circmstances $hich $ol# other$ise exist !et$een the <arties in this region as a
reslt o% the !roa# eAality o% the coastlines o% their mainlan#s. The Aestion then is
$hether an#, i% so, in $hat manner this a%%ects the level %rame$or' $ithin $hich the
!on#ary has to !e #elimite# in the (hannel Islan#s region.
The case o% the (hannel Islan#s mst, in the vie$ o% the (ort, !e
#i%%erentiate# %rom that o% the roc's or small islan#s $hich %igre in some o% the
prece#ents canvasse# !y the <arties in their plea#ings. <ossessing a consi#era!le
poplation an# a s!stantial agricltral an# commercial economy, they are clearly
territorial an# political nits $hich have their o$n separate existence, an# $hich are or
a certain importance in their o$n right separately %rom the ?nite# Jing#om. Accor#ing
to the in%ormation !e%ore the (ort, the t$o @aili$ic's o% Hersey an# 6ernsey $hich
compose the (hannel Islan#s are not, constittionally, part o% the ?nite# Jing#om itsel%
!t #irect #epen#encies o% the @ritish (ro$n, an# have !een so %or several hn#re#
years. Accor#ing to this in%ormation, they n#o!te#ly en"oy a very large measre o%
political, legislative, a#ministrative an# economic atonomy+ so mch Uso that the
?nite# Jing#om as's the (ort to regar# them as, in e%%ect, #istinct islan# States %or
the prpose o% #etermining the continental shel% apprtenant to them. Responsi!ility %or
the %oreign relations or the (hannel Islan#s in#ispta!ly rests $ith the ?nite# Jing#om+
an# the (ort notes that tile (ontinental Shel% (onvention o% 1/9: $as rati%ie# !y the
?nite# Jing#om simply in its o$n name an# on its o$n !ehal%, $ithot separate
mention o% the (hannel Islan#s. It also seems %rom the #iplomatic correspon#ence
an# %rom the recor# o% the meetings in the years 1/C.&1/C1 that the a!ortive
negotiations !et$een the t$o contries %or an agree# #elimitation or their continental
shel% !on#ary $ere con#cte# !y the ?nite# Jing#om $ithot the participation o% the
(hannel Islan#s athorities in its #elegation. Similarly, the (ort notes that the
Ar!itration Agreement itsel% $as concl#e# !y the 6overnment o% the ?nite# Jing#om
in its o$n name alone $ithot mention o% the (hannel Islan#s other$ise than in the
#e%inition in Article ; o% the Aestion s!mitte# to the (ort. Frthermore, as the (ort
has pointe# ot in paragraph 1C;, the speci%ic in%ormation given to the (ort
concerning the legal position or the (hannel Islan#s in regar# to maritime "ris#iction
appears to con%irm that, in matters relating to the continental shel%, it is the ?nite#
Jing#om 6overnment $hich is the responsi!le athority, !oth internally an# externally.
It %ollo$s that, as !et$een the ?nite# Jing#om an# the French Rep!lic, the (ort
mst treat the (hannel Islan#s only as islan#s o% the ?nite# Jing#om, not as semi&
in#epen#ent States entitle# in their o$n right to their o$n continental shel% vis&[&vis the
French Rep!lic.
;E. THE (O?RTIS LE6AL FRA>EWORJ, TAJI76 I7TO A((O?7T THE (HA77EL
ISLA7BS. The legal %rame$or' $ithin $hich the (ort mst #eci#e the corse o% the
!on#ary -or !on#aries2 in the (hannel Islan#s region is, there%ore, that o% t$o
opposite States one or $hich possesses islan# territories close to the coast o% the
other State. To state this conclsion is not, ho$ever, to #eny the relevance to the siGe
an# importance o% the (hannel Islan#s $hich, on the contrary, may properly !e ta'en
into accont in !alancing the eAities in this region. <art also o% this legal %rame$or' is
the limits o% the territorial seas an# coastal %isheries o% the French Rep!lic an# the
?nite# Jing#om in the (hannel Islan#s region. The French Rep!lic esta!lishe# a 1;&
mile Gone o% coastal %isheries o%% the coasts o% France in 1/01 in prsance o% #ie
Eropean Fisheries (onvention o% that year, an# in 1/C1 also exten#e# its Gone o%
territorial seas to 1; miles. In 1/01 the ?nite# Jing#om li'e$ise esta!lishe# 1;&mile
%ishery Gones o%% the coasts !oth or the mainlan# an# o% the (hannel Islan#s in
con%ormity $ith the Eropean Fisheries (onvention+ !t it still retains a territorial sea o%
three miles. On the other han#, the ?nite# Jing#om too' the position !e%ore the (ort
that coastal States to#ay have a right n#er international la$ to exten# their territorial
set to 1; miles, an# repeate#ly re%erre# in the plea#ings to the possi!ility o% its #oing
so. (onseAently, the (ort has to ta'e accont o% the %act that, apart %rom their three&
mile Gone o% territorial sea the (hannel Islan#s have an existing %ishery Gone o% 1;
miles, expressly recognise# !y the French Rep!lic, an# the potentiality o% an
extension o% their territorial sea %rom three to 1; miles.
Other elements in the %rame$or' arc the varios eAita!le consi#erations
invo'e# !y the <arties regar#ing their respective navigational #e%ence an# secrity
interests in the region. These consi#erations may !e, an# have !een, rge# !y !oth
<arties as spporting the soltions $hich they a#vocate= !y the French Rep!lic in
%avor o% a continos lin' !et$een the eastern an# $estern parts o% its continental
Alwa#& will B
* bok * cj * tiff * gem * tin * -9
shel% in the (hannel+ an# !y the ?nite# Jing#om in %avor o% a continos lin' !et$een
the continental shel% o% the (hannel Islan#s an# that o% the mainlan#. >oreover, the
$eight o% sch consi#erations in this region is, in any event, some$hat #iminishe# !y
the very particlar character o% the English (hannel as a ma"or rote or international
maritime navigation serving ports otsi#e the territories o% either or the <arties.
(onseAently, they cannot !e regar#e# !y the (ort as exercising a #ecisive in%lence
on the #elimitation o% the !on#ary in the present case. They may spport an#
strengthen, !t they cannot negative, any conclsions that are alrea#y in#icate# !y the
geographical, political an# legal circmstances o% the region $hich the (ort has
i#enti%ie#. As to the conclsion to !e #ra$n %rom those consi#erations in connexion
$ith the #elimitation o% the continental shel%, the (ort thin's it s%%icient to say that, in
its vie$, they ten# to evi#ence the pre#ominant interest o% the French Rep!lic in the
sothern areas o% the English (hannel, a pre#ominance $hich is also strongly
in#icate# !y its position as a riparian State along the $hole o% the (hannelUs soth
coast.
The continental shel% o% the (hannel Islan#s an# o% the mainlan#s o% France
an# o% the ?nite# Jing#om, in la$, appertains to each o% them as !eing the natral
prolongation o% its lan# territory n#er the sea. The physical continity o% the
continental shel% o% tile English (hannel means that geographically it may !e sai# to !e
a natral prolongation o% each one o% the territories $hich a!t pon it. The Aestion
%or the (ort to #eci#e, ho$ever, is $hat areas o% continental shel% are to !e
consi#ere# as legally the natral prolongation o% the (hannel Islan#s rather than o% the
mainlan# o% France. In international la$, as the ?nite# Jing#om emphasiGe# in the
plea#ings, the concept o% the continental shel% is a "ri#ical concept $hich connotes the
natral prolongation n#er the sea not o% a continent or geographical lan# mass !t or
the lan# territory o% each State. An# the very %act that in international la$ the
continental shel% is a "ri#ical concept means that its scope an# the con#itions %or its
application are not #etermine# exclsively !y the physical %acts o% geography !t also
!y legal rles. >oreover, it is clear !oth %rom the insertion o% the. Vspecial
circmstancesV provision in Article 0 an# %rom the emphasis on VeAita!le principlesV in
cstomary la$ that the %orce o% the car#inal principle or natral prolongation or territoryV
is not a!solte, !t may !e s!"ect to Aali%ication in particlar sitations.
;1. THE <RI7(I<LE OF 7AT?RAL <ROLO76ATIO7. Accor#ingly, in the opinion o%
the (ort, the principle o% natral prolongation o% territory cannot !e sai# to reAire that
the continental shel% to the north an# north$est o% the (hannel Islan#s shol# !e
consi#ere# as atomatically an# necessarily apprtenant to them rather than to the
French Rep!lic. The ?nite# Jing#om itsel% #oes not contest that in the application o%
the eAi#istance&special circmstances rle there may !e some #i%%erence in the
treatment o% islan#s !y reason o% their geographical sitations, siGe an# importance.
7or, in particlar, #oes it contest the possi!ility o% plea#ing special circmstances
"sti%ying a !on#ary other than the me#ian line $here islets or small islan#s !elonging
to one contry are nearer to the coast o% an opposite contry. 8et, i% the %orce o% the
principle o% natral prolongation o% territory $ere a!solte, a small islan# $ol# !loc'
the natral prolongation o% the territory o% the near!y mainlan# in the same $ay, i% not
al$ays to the same extent, as a larger islan#. The Aestion o% the apprtenance to the
(hannel Islan#s o% the areas o% continental shel% exten#ing to their north an# north&
$est is not there%ore resolve# merely !y re%erring to the principle o% natral
prolongation o% territory. The principle o% natral prolongation o% territory is neither to !e
set asi#e nor treate# as a!solte in a case $here islan#s !elonging to one State are
sitate# on continental shel% $hich $ol# other$ise constitte a natral prolongation o%
the territory o% another State. The application o% that principle in sch a case, as in
other cases concerning the #elimitation o% the continental shel%, has to !e appreciate#
in the light o% all the relevant geographical an# other circmstances. When the
Aestion is $hether areas o% continental shel%, $hich geologically may !e consi#ere# a
natral prolongation o% the territories o% t$o States, appertain to one State rather than
to the other, the legal rles constitting the "ri#ical concept o% the continental shel%
ta'e over an# #etermine the Aestion. (onseAently, in these cases the e%%ect to !e
given to the principle or natral prolongation or the coastal StateUs lan# territory is
al$ays #epen#ent not only on the particlar geographical an# other circmstances !t
also on any relevant consi#erations o% la$ an# eAity.
;9. THE <RI7(I<LES OF EK?IT8. The legal rles to !e applie# in the (hannel
Islan#s region, the (ort has hel#, are those or cstomary international la$, rather
than or Article 0 o% the (onvention. ?n#er cstomary la$, the metho# a#opte# %or
#elimiting the !on#ary mst, $hile applying the principle o% natral prolongation o%
territory, also ensre that the reslting #elimitation o% the !on#ary accor#s $ith
eAita!le principles. In other $or#s, the Aestion is $hether the (hannel Islan#s
shol# !e given the %ll !ene%it or the application or the principle o% natral prolongation
in the areas to their north an# north$est or $hether their sitation close to the
mainlan# o% France reAires, on eAita!le gron#s, some mo#i%ication o% the
application o% the. principle in those areas. In the. opinion o% the (ort, the #octrine o%
the eAality o% States $hich, inter alia, the French Rep!lic invo'es as "sti%ying a
crtailment o% the continental shel% attri!ta!le to the (hannel Islan#s, cannot !e
consi#ere# as constitting sch an eAita!le gron#. The #octrine o% the eAality o%
States, applie# generally to the #elimitation o% the continental shel%, $ol# have vast
implications %or the #ivision o% the continental shel% among the States o% the $orl#,
implications $hich have !een re"ecte# !y a ma"ority o% States an# $hich $ol# involve,
on a hge scale, that re%ashioning o% geography rep#iate# in the 7orth Sea
(ontinental Shel% cases. Any gron# o% eAity, the (ort consi#ers, is rather to !e
loo'e# %or in the particlar circmstances o% the present case an# in the particlar
eAality o% the t$o States in their geographical relation to the continental shel% o% the
(hannel.
The (ort has alrea#y #ra$n attention to the approximate eAality o% the
mainlan# coastlines o% the <arties on either si#e o% the English (hannel, an# to the
reslting eAality o% their geographical relation to the continental shel% o% the (hannel, i%
the (hannel Islan#s themselves are le%t ot o% accont. The presence o% these @ritish
islan#s close to the French coast, i% they are given %ll e%%ect in #elimiting the
continental shel%, $ill mani%estly reslt in a s!stantial #imintion or the area o%
continental shel% $hich $ol# other$ise accre to the French Rep!lic. This %act !y
itsel% appears to the (ort to !e, prima %acie, a circmstance creative o% ineAity an#
calling %or a metho# o% #elimitation that in some measre re#resses the ineAity. I%.
this conclsion is teste# !y applying the eAi#istance&special circmstances rle o%
Article 0, instea# o% the rles o% cstomary la$, it appears to the (ort that the
presence o% the (hannel Islan#s close to the French coast mst !e consi#ere#, prima
%acie, as constitting a Vspecial circmstanceV "sti%ying a #elimitation other than the
me#ian line propose# !y the ?nite# Jing#om.
The (ort re%ers to the presence o% the (hannel Islan#s close to the French&
coast as constitting a circmstance creative o% ineAity, an# a Vspecial circmstanceV
$ithin the meaning o% Article 0, merely prima %acie, !ecase a #elimitation, to !e
VeAita!leV or V"sti%ie#V, mst !e so in relation to !oth <arties an# in the light o% all the
Alwa#& will B
* bok * cj * tiff * gem * tin * .0
relevant circmstances. The ?nite# Jing#om, moreover, maintains that the speci%ic
%eatres o% the (hannel Islan#s region militate positively in %avor o% the #elimitation it
proposes. It invo'es the particlar character o% the (hannel Islan#s as not roc's or
islets !t poplos islan#s o% a certain political an# economic importance+ it
emphasiGes the close ties !et$een the islan#s an# the ?nite# Jing#om an# the latterUs
responsi!ility %or their #e%ence an# secrity+ an# it invo'es these as calling %or the
continental shel% o% the islan#s to !e lin'e# to that o% the ?nite# Jing#om. A!ove all, it
stresses that at !est it is only in the open $aters o% the English (hannel to their $est
an# north that they have any possi!ility o% an apprecia!le area o% continental shel%. In
the light o% all these consi#erations, it s!mits that to #ivi#e this area to the $est an#
north o% the islan#s !et$een the (hannel Islan#s an# the French Rep!lic !y the
me#ian line $hich it proposes #oes not involve any V#isproportion or exaggeration.V
;0. THE FIRST BELI>ITATIO7= THE >EBIA7 LI7E. In the actal circmstances o%
the (hannel Islan#s region, $here the extent o% the continental shel% is comparatively
mo#est an# the scope %or a#"sting the eAities correspon#ingly small, the (ort
consi#ers that the sitation #eman#s a t$o%ol# soltion. First, in or#er to maintain the
appropriate !alance !et$een the t$o States in relation to the continental shel% as
riparian States o% the (hannel $ith approximately eAal coastlines, the (ort #eci#es
that the primary !on#ary !et$een them shall !e a me#ian line, lin'ing the agree#
eastern segment to the $estern agree# segment. In the light o% the (ortUs previos
#ecisions regar#ing the corse o% the !on#ary in the English (hannel, this means that
throghot the $hole length o% the (hannel comprise# $ithin the ar!itration area the
primary !on#ary o% the continental shel% $ill !e a mi#&(hannel me#ian line. In
#elimiting its corse in the (hannel Islan#s region the (hannel Islan#s themselves are
to !e #isregar#e#, since their continental shel% mst !e the s!"ect o% a secon# an#
separate #elimitation.
;C. THE SE(O7B BELI>ITATIO7= THE (O7TI7E7TAL SHELF AREA ARO?7B THE
(HA77EL ISLA7BS. The secon# part o% the soltion is to #elimit a secon# !on#ary
esta!lishing, vis&[&vis the (hannel Islan#s, the sothern limit o% the continental shel%
hel# !y the (ort to !e apprtenant to the French Rep!lic in this region to the soth
o% the mi#&(hannel me#ian line. This secon# !on#ary mst not. in the opinion or the
(ort, !e so #ra$n as to allo$ the continental shel% or the French Rep!lic to encroach
pon the esta!lishe# 1;&mile %ishery Gone o% the (hannel Islan#s. &The (ort there%ore
%rther #eci#es that this !on#ary shall !e #ra$n at a #istance o% 1; natical miles
%rom the esta!lishe# !aselines o% the territorial sea o% the (hannel Islan#s. The e%%ect
$ill !e to accor# to the French Rep!lic a s!stantial !an# o% continental shel% in mi#&
(hannel $hich is continos $ith its continental shel% to the cast an# $est o% tile
(hannel Islan#s region+ an# at the same time to leave to the (hannel Islan#s, to their
north an# to their $est, a Gone o% sea!e# an# s!soil exten#ing 1; natical miles %rom
the !aselines o% the t$o @aili$ic's. The reslt, so %ar as the (hannel Islan#s are
concerne#, is to enclose them in an enclave %orme#, to their north an# $est, !y the
!on#ary o% the 1;&mile Gone "st #escri!e# !y the (ort an#, to their east, soth an#
soth&$est !y the !on#ary !et$een them an# the coasts o% 7orman#y an# @rittany,
the exact corse o% $hich it is otsi#e the competence o% the (ort to speci%y.
;:. THE ATLA7TI( (O7TI7E7TAL SHELF. The (ort, as in the (hannel Islan#s
region, $ill !egin !y i#enti%ying the geographical an# other %eatres $hich esta!lish the
legal %rame$or' %or its #ecision regar#ing the corse o% the continental shel% !on#ary
in the Atlantic region. The essential continity or the continental shel% o% the English
(hannel an# Atlantic region has alrea#y !een emphasiGe# repeate#ly in the present
Becision. It is also common gron# !et$een the <arties that, geologically the slight
soth$esterly tren# o% the continental shel% o% the (hannel exten#s $est$ar#s into the
Atlantic region along the line o% the %alts re%erre# to in the plea#ings as the Hr# Beep
Falt ,one. They are li'e$ise agree# that, geologically, the islan# o% ?shant %orms an
integral part o% the lan# mass o% France, an# the Scilly Isles part o% the an# mass o% the
?nite# Jing#om+ an# that in the $estern region o% the (hannel the coast o% France,
incl#ing the islan# o% ?shant, an# the coast o% the ?nite# Jing#om, incl#ing the
Scilly Isles, have the same soth&$esterly tren# as the continental shel% o% the (hannel
an# the Atlantic region. In these varios respects, there%ore, the ?nite# Jing#om
insistence that the Atlantic region may not !e consi#ere# a separate sector o% the
ar!itration area has a certain "sti%ication. 7evertheless, in the vie$ or the (ort, this
region has characteristics $hich #istingish it geographically an# legally %rom the
region $ithin the English (hannel.
;/. BISTI76?ISHI76 (HARA(TERISTI(S OF THE ATLA7TI( SHELF. The chie% o%
these #istingishing characteristics consists in the %act that the continental shel% o% the
Atlantic region is not one con%ine# $ithin the arms o% a comparativelyU narro$ channel
!t one exten#ing sea$ar#s %ront the coasts o% the t$o contries into the open spaces
o% the Atlantic Ocean. In conseAence, the areas o% continental shel% to !e #elimite#,
in the phrase se# !y the ?nite# Jing#om, lie o%%, rather than !et$een, the coasts or
the t$o contries. A %rther conseAence is that the continental shel% across $hich the
(ort has to #eci#e the corse o% the !on#ary exten#s to sea$ar#s o% the coasts o%
the t$o contries %or great #istances. In %act, as alrea#y note# in paragraph II o% this
Becision, the #istance %rom ?shant to the limit o% the ar!itration area at the 1,...&
metre iso!ath, ta'en in a soth$esterly #irection, is o% the or#er o% 10. natical miles+
an# the #istance %rom the Scilly Isles, ta'en in the same general #irection, is o% the
or#er o% 1:. natical miles. Other #istigishing characteristics are that the actal
coastlines o% the t$o contries a!tting on the continental shel% to !e #elimite# are
comparatively short+ an# that, althogh separate# !y some 1.. miles o% sea, their
geographical relation to each other vis&[&vis the continental shel% to !e #elimite# is one
o% lateral rather than opposite coasts,
E.. S<E(IAL (IR(?>STA7(E R?LE. The pertinent #issimilarity !et$een the t$o
coasts, %or the prpose o% #elimiting the !on#ary o% their continental shel%, is rather
the one invo'e# !y the French Rep!lic as a Vspecial circmstanceV calling %or a
!on#ary other than the eAi#istance line. This is the circmstance, not that the
?nite# Jing#om has no coastal %rontage pon the Atlantic region, !t that its coastal
%rontage pro"ects %rther into the Atlantic than that o% the French Rep!lic. The greater
pro"ection o% the ?nite# Jing#om coast into the Atlantic region is #e in part to the %act
that the most $esterly point or its mainlan# is Sitate# almost one #egree %rther to
$est$ar# than that o% the French mainlan#. @t it is also #e to the greater extension
$est$ar#s o% the Scilly Isles !eyon# the ?nite# Jing#om mainlan# than that o% ?shant
!eyon# the French mainlan#. Ths, at its nearest point, ?shant is only a!ot 1. miles
an# at its most $esterly point no more than 11.1 natical miles %rom the coast o%
Finistere+ the nearest point o% the Scilly isles, on the other han#, is some ;1 natical
miles an# their most $esterly point some E1 miles #istant %rom Lan#Us En#. As a
reslt, even $hen accont is ta'en o% the slight soth$esterly tren# o% the English
(hannel, the %rther extension soth&$est$ar#s o% the ?nite# Jing#omUs coast has a
ten#ency to ma'e it o!tr#e pon the continental shel% sitate# to sea$ar#s o% the
more $esterly %acing coast o% the French Rep!lic in that region.
An a##itional %eatre o% the Atlantic region is the %act that the French Rep!lic
Alwa#& will B
* bok * cj * tiff * gem * tin * .1
an# the ?nite# Jing#om are not the only States $hich a!t pon the continental shel%
in the Atlantic $est$ar#s o% France an# the ?nite# Jing#om. The existence o% the
Spanish coast %ar to the soth&$est is not material in the present ar!itration. @t the
possi!le impact o% the claims o% the Irish Rep!lic in the north pon the areas o%
continental shel% accring to the ?nite# Jing#om in the Atlantic region has !een
invo'e# !y the latter an# #iscsse# !y the French 6overnment in the plea#ings.
Accor#ingly, the (ort has necessarily ta'en cogniGance o% this %eatre or the Atlantic
region althogh it #oes not itsel% consi#er that the a!tting o% the Irish Rep!lic on the
same continental shel% in the north a%%ects its #ecision regar#ing the !on#ary !et$een
the ?nite# Jing#om an# the French Rep!lic in these procee#ings.
E1. THE LE6AL FRA>EWORJ, TAJI76 I7TO A((O?7T THE ATLA7TI( SHELF.
What then is the legal %rame$or' %or the #elimitation o% the !on#ary in the Atlantic
region, having regar# to the varios %eatres o% the sitation in the region to $hich the
(ort has #ra$n attentionL The (ort has alrea#y hel# !oth that Article 0 governs the
#elimitation in the Atlantic region an# that there is no Aestion o% any cass omisss
$hich #oes not %all $ithin the scope o% either paragraph 1 or paragraph ; o% the Article.
The Aestion, there%ore, is $hether it is paragraph 1, #ealing $ith VoppositeV States, or
paragraph ;, #ealing $ith )a#"acentV States, $hich is applica!le. The rles o%
#elimitation lai# #o$n in the t$o paragraphs o% Article 0 are essentially the same. In
the a!sence o% agreement, an# nless another !on#ary is "sti%ie# !y special
circmstances, the !on#ary is to !e the line $hich is eAi#istant %rom the nearest
points o% the !aselines %rom $hich the !rea#th o% the territorial sea o% each State is
measre#. In paragraph I the line is #esignate# Vthe me#ian line every point o% $hich
is eAi#istant %rom the nearest points o% the !aselinesV etc.+ in paragraph ; it is simply
re%erre# to as the !on#ary V#etermine# !y application o% the principle o% eAi#istance
%rom the nearest points o% the !aselinesV etc. @t !oth the legal rle an# the metho# or
#elimitation prescri!e# in. the t$o paragraphs are precisely the same. (onseAently,
there is nothing in the langage o% Article 0 to imply that in sitations %ailing n#er
paragraph I the virtes o% the eAi#istance principle as a metho# o% e%%ecting an
eAita!le #elimitation are in any $ay sperior to those $hich it possesses in sitations&
%alling n#er paragraph ;. The emphasis place# in the 7orth Sea (ontinental Shel%
cases on the #i%%erence !et$een the sitations o% VoppositeV an# Va#"acentV States
re%lects not a #i%%erence in the legal regime applica!le to the t$o sitations !t a
#i%%erence in the geographical con#itions in $hich the applica!le legal regime operates.
The appropriateness o% the eAi#istance or any other metho# %or the prpose
o% e%%ecting an eAita!le #elimitation in any given case is al$ays a %nction or re%lection
o% the geographical an# other relevant circmstances o% the particlar case. In a
sitation $here the coasts o% the t$o States are opposite each other, the me#ian line
$ill normally e%%ect a !roa#ly eAal an# eAita!le #elimitation. @t this is simply
!ecase o% the geometrical e%%ects or applying the eAi#istance principle to an area o%
continental shel% $hich, in %act, lies !et$een coasts that, in %act, %ace each other across
that continental shel%. In short, the eAita!le character o% the #elimitation reslts not
%rom the legal #esignation o% the sitation as one o% VoppositeV States !t %rom its
actal geographical character as sch. Similarly, in the case o% Va#"acentV States it is
the lateral geographical relation o% the t$o coasts, $hen com!ine# $ith a large
extension o% the continental shel% sea$ar#s %rom those coasts, $hich ma'es in#ivi#al
geographical %eatres on either coast more prone to ren#er the geometrical e%%ects o%
applying the eAi#istance principle ineAita!le than in the case o% VoppositeV States.
The greater ris' in these cases that the eAi#istance metho# may pro#ce an
ineAita!le #elimitation ths also reslts not %rom the legal #esignation o% the sitation
as one o% Va#"acentV States !t %rom its actal geographical character as one involving
laterally relate# coasts.
(learly, there is consi#era!le %orce in the contention, pt %or$ar# !y !oth
<arties that, o$ing to the separation o% the t$o coasts !y a $i#e expanse o% sea, the
Sitation in the Atlantic region cannot !e categoriGe# as, legally, a case o% Va#"acentV
States governe# !y paragraph ; o% Article 0. I% that vie$ is accepte#, it %ollo$s that the
sitation is to !e consi#ere# as, legally, a case o% VoppositeV States an# there%ore one
governe# !y paragraph I o% that Article. It is, on the other han#, certain that in the
Atlantic region the sitation geographically is one o% t$o laterally relate# coasts,
a!tting on the same continental shel% $hich exten#s %rom them a great #istance
sea$ar#s into the Atlantic Ocean. In#ee#, the (ort notes that so evi#ent is this lateral
relation o% the t$o coasts, geographically, that !oth <arties in their plea#ings sa$ some
analogy !et$een the sitation in the Atlantic region an# the sitation o% U.a#"acentV
States. Accor#ingly, $hether the Atlantic region is consi#ere#, legally, to !e a case o%
VoppositeV States governe# !y paragraph 1 or a case o% U.a#"acentV States governe# !y
paragraph ; o% Article 0, appreciation o% the e%%ects o% any special geographical
%eatres on the eAi#istance line has to ta'e accont o% those t$o geographical %acts=
the lateral relation o% the t$o coasts an# the great #istance $hich the continental shel%
exten#s sea$ar#s %rom those coasts.
E;. THE )O<<OSITE STATES* R?LE IS A<<LI(A@LE. In so %ar as the point may !e
thoght to have importance, the (ort is incline# to the opinion that the Atlantic region
%alls $ithin the terms o% paragraph 1 rather than paragraph ; o% Article 0. As the ?nite#
Jing#om emphasiGes. there are a nm!er o% prece#ents in $hich eAi#istance
!on#aries !et$een VoppositeV States are prolonge# sea$ar#s !eyon# the point
$here their coasts are geographically VoppositeV each other+ an# the assmption
seems to !e that these are prolongations o% me#ian lines. Another vie$ o% the matter
might !e that, !eyon# the point $here the coasts arc geographically opposite each
other, the legal sitation changes to one analogos to that o% a#"acent States. In
certain geographical con%igrations, as $as state# in the 7orth Sea (ontinental Shel%
cases in an o!servation recalle# !y the ?nite# Jing#om itsel%, Va given eAi#istance
line may parta'e in varying #egree o% the natre !oth o% a me#ian an# o% a lateral lineV
-paragraph 02. @t to %ix the precise legal classi%ication o% the Atlantic region appears
to this (ort to !e o% little importance. The rles o% #elimitation prescri!e# in
paragraph I an# paragraph ; are the same, an# it is the actal geographical relation o%
the coasts o% the t$o States $hich #etermine their application. What is important is
that, in appreciating the appropriateness o% the eAi#istance metho# as a means o%
e%%ecting a V"stV or VeAita!leV #elimitation in the Atlantic region, the (ort mst have
regar# !oth to the lateral relation o% the t$o coasts as they a!t pon the continental
shel% o% the region an# to the great #istance sea$ar#s that this shel% exten#s %rom
those coasts.
EE. A<<LI(ATIO7. The essential point, there%ore, is to #etermine $hether, in the actal
geographical circmstances o% the Atlantic region, the prolongation o% the Scilly Isles
some #istance %rther $est$ar#s than the islan# o% ?shant ren#ers )n"stV or
VineAita!leV an eAi#istance !on#ary #elimite# %rom the !aselines o% the French an#
?nite# Jing#om coasts. The e%%ect o% the presence o% the Scilly Isles $est&soth&$est
o% (orn$all is to #e%lect the eAi#istance line on a consi#era!ly more soth$esterly
corse than $ol# !e the case i% it $ere to !e #elimite# %rom the !aseline o% the
English mainlan#. The #i%%erence in the angle is 10UE0U11U+ an# the extent or the
a##itional area o% shel% accring to the ?nite# Jing#om, an# correspon#ingly not
Alwa#& will B
* bok * cj * tiff * gem * tin * .2
accring to the French Rep!lic, in the Atlantic region east$ar#s or the 1,... metre
iso!ath is approximately 1,... sAare miles. The mere %act, ho$ever, that the
presence o% the Scilly Isles in the position in $hich they lie has that e%%ect, #oes not in
itsel% s%%ice to "sti%y a !on#ary other than an eAi#istance line #elimite# !y re%erence
to the Scillies. The Aestion is $hether, in the light o% all the pertinent geographical
circmstances, that %act amonts to an ineAita!le #istortion o% the eAi#istance line
pro#cing #isproportionate e%%ects on the areas o% shel% accring to the t$o States.
The pro"ection o% the (ornish peninsla an# the Isles o% Scilly %rther
sea$ar#s into the Atlantic than the @rittany peninsla an# the islan# o% ?shant, is a
geographical %act, a %act or natre+ an#, as $as o!serve# in the 7orth Sea (ontinental
Shel% cases, there is no Aestion or eAity Vcompletely re%ashioning natreV or Vtotally
re%ashioning geographyV -H#gment, paragraph /12. It may also !e rge# that the very
%act o% the pro"ection o% the ?nite# Jing#om lan# mass %rther into the Atlantic region
has the natral conseAence o% ren#ering greater areas o% continental shel%
apprtenant to it. 7evertheless, $hen accont is ta'en o% the %act that in other
respects the t$o States a!t on the same continental shel% $ith coasts not mar'e#ly
#i%%erent in extent an# !roa#ly similar in their relation to that shel%, a Aestion arises as
to $hether giving %ll e%%ect to the Scilly Isles in #elimiting an eAi#istance !on#ary ot
to the 1,...&metre iso!ath may not #istort the !on#ary an# have #isproportionate
e%%ects as !et$een the t$o States. In the vie$ o% the (ort, the %rther pro"ection
$est$ar#s o% the Scilly lsles, $hen spera##e# to the greater pro"ection o% the (ornish
mainlan# $est$ar#s !eyon# Finistere, is mch o% the same natre %or present
prposes, an# has mch the same ten#ency to #istortion o% the eAi#istance line, as
the pro"ection o% an exceptionally long promontory, $hich is generally recogniGe# to !e
one o% the potential %orms o% Vspecial circmstanceV. In the present instance, the (ort
consi#ers that the a##itional pro"ection o% the Scilly Isles into the Atlantic region #oes
constitte an element o% #istortion $hich is material enogh to "sti%y the #elimitation o%
a !on#ary other than the strict me#ian line envisage# in Article 0, paragraph 1, o% the
(onvention.
The (ort ths recogniGes that the position o% the Scilly Isles $est&soth&$est
o% the (ornish peninsla constittes a Vspecial circmstanceV "sti%ying a !on#ary
other than the strict me#ian line. It #oes not, ho$ever, consi#er that the existence o%
this Vspecial circmstanceV in the Atlantic region gives it carte !lanche to employ any
metho# that it chooses in or#er to e%%ect an eAita!le #elimitation o% the continental
shel% The French Rep!lic, it is tre, has impresse# pon this (ort certain
o!servations in the H#gment in the 7orth Sea (ontinental Shel% cases to the e%%ect
that, in or#er to achieve an eAita!le soltion, Vit is necessary to see', not one metho#
o% #elimitation !t one goalV -paragraph /;2, an# that Vthere is no legal limit to the
consi#erations $hich States may ta'e accont o% %or the prpose o% ma'ing sre that
they apply eAita!le proce#resV -paragraph /E2. @t in those cases the <arties ha#
retaine# the actal #elimitation o% the !on#ary in their o$n han#s %or %rther
negotiation in the light o% the principles an# rles to !e state# !y the International (ort
o% Hstice+ an# in any event the o!servations invo'e# !y the French Rep!lic have to
!e rea# in the light o% certain other o!servations o% the International (ort in the same
H#gment. In these other o!servations, it $as stresse# that any recorse to eAita!le
consi#erations mst !e to consi#erations Vlying not otsi#e !t $ithin the rlesV o% la$,
an# that there is no Aestion o% any #ecision ex aeAo et !ono -paragraph ::2+ an#, as
alrea#y note#, it $as also stresse# that Vthere can never !e any Aestion o% completely
re%ashioning natreV -paragraph /12. Frthermore, at the otset o% the H#gment it $as
n#erline# that #elimitation o% the continental shel% is rot a process o% #ivi#ing it p into
eAita!le VsharesV !t or #elimiting a !on#ary in areas $hich, in principle, are alrea#y
apprtenant to one or other State+ an# that the notion o% Vthe "st an# eAita!le shareV
is $holly at variance $ith the %n#amental principle that the continental shel% appertains
to the coastal State as the natral prolongation o% its lan# territory -paragraphs 1:&;.2.
The (ort, %or the a!ove reasons, %in#s itsel% na!le to accept the
prolongations o% the general #irections o% the (hannel coasts o% the t$o contries as a
relevant !asis %or #etermining the corse o% the !on#ary ill the Atlantic region. It nee#
not, there%ore, explore the %rther #i%%iclties $hich the application o% that metho# $ol#
involve in #etermining the precise lines that shol# !e consi#ere# as the appropriate
representation o% the general #irections o% the t$o coasts.
The (ort consi#ers that the metho# o% #elimitation $hich it a#opts %or the
Atlantic region mst !e one that has relation to the coasts o% the <arties actally
a!tting on the continental shel% o% that region. Essentially, these are the coasts o%
Finistere an# ?shant on the French si#e an# the coasts o% (orn$all an# the Scilly Isles
on the ?nite# Jing#om si#e. The islan# o% ?shant not only %orms part, geologically, o%
the lan# mass o% France !t lies no more than ten natical miles %rom the French coast
$ithin the territorial sea o% the French mainlan#. In#ee#, the islan# %orms one o% the
lin's in the system o% straight !aselines along the French coast esta!lishe# !y the
French Rep!lic in 1/01. The Scilly Isles li'e$ise %orm part o% the lan# mass o% the
?nite# Jing#om an#, althogh some ;1 miles #istant %rom tile mainlan#, they are
nAestiona!ly islan#s o%%shore o% the ?nite# Jing#om $hich, !oth geographically an#
politically, %orm part o% its territory. In %act, the existing 1;&mile %ishery Gones o% the
mainlan# an# o% the Scilly Isles merge into one an#, i% the ?nite# Jing#om exercises
the right $hich it claims to esta!lish a 1;&mile territorial sea, the same $ill !e the case
$ith their territorial sea. @oth ?shant an# the Scilly Isles are, moreover, islan#s o% a
certain siGe an# poplate#+ an#, in the vie$ o% the (ort, they !oth constitte natral
geographical %acts. o% the Atlantic region $hich cannot !e #isregar#e# in #elimiting the
continental shel% !on#ary $ithot .Ure%ashioning geographyV. The pro!lem there%ore
is, $ithot #isregar#ing ?shant an# the Scillies, to %in# a metho# o% reme#ying in an
appropriate measre the #istorting e%%ect on the corse or the !on#ary o% the more
$esterly position o% the Scillies an# the #isproportion $hich it pro#ces in the areas o%
continental shel% accring to the French Rep!lic an# the ?nite# Jing#om.
E1. >OBIFI(ATIO7, RATHER THA7 REHE(TIO7, OF THE EK?IBISTA7(E
<RI7(I<LE. The (ort notes that in a large proportion o% the #elimitations 'no$n to it,
$here a particlar geographical %eatre has in%lence# the corse or a continental shel%
!on#ary, the metho# o% #elimitation a#opte# has !een some mo#i%ication or variant o%
the eAi#istance principle rather than its total re"ection. In the present instance, the
pro!lem also arises precisely %rom the #istorting e%%ect o% a geographical %eatre in
circmstances in $hich the line eAi#istant %rom the coasts o% the t$o States $ol#
other$ise constitte the appropriate !on#ary. (onseAently, it seems to the (ort to
!e in accor# not only $ith the legal rles governing the continental shel% !t also $ith
State practice to see' the soltion in a metho# mo#i%ying or varying the eAi#istance
metho# rather than to have recorse to a $holly #i%%erent criterion o% #elimitation. The
appropriate metho#, in the opinion o% the (ort, is to ta'e accont o% the Scilly Isles as
part o% the coastline o% the ?nite# Jing#om !t to give them less than their %ll e%%ect in
applying the eAi#istance metho#. Hst as it is not the %nction or eAity in the
#elimitation o% the continental shel% completely to re%ashion geography, so it is also not
the %nction o% eAity to create a sitation o% complete eAity $here natre an#
geography have esta!lishe# an ineAity. EAity #oes not, there%ore, call %or coasts, the
Alwa#& will B
* bok * cj * tiff * gem * tin * .+
relation o% $hich to the continental shel% is not eAal, to !e treate# as having
completely eAal e%%ects. What eAity calls %or is an appropriate a!atement o% the
#isproportionate e%%ect o% a consi#era!le pro"ection oil to the Atlantic continental shel%
o% a some$hat attenate# portion o% the coast o% the ?nite# Jing#om.
The a!atement o% these #isproportionate e%%ects, as previosly in#icate# in
paragraph ;C, #oes not entail any nice calclations o% proportionality in regar# to the
total areas o% continental shel% accring to the <arties in the Atlantic region. This is
!ecase, as pointe# ot in paragraphs //&1.1, the element o% VproportionalityV in the
#elimitation o% the continental shel% #oes not relate to the total partition o% the area or
shel% among the coastal States concerne#, its role !eing rather that o% a criterion to
assess the #istorting e%%ects o% particlar geographical %eatres an# the extent o% the
reslting ineAity. In the present instance, VproportionalityV comes into accont only in
appreciating $hether the Scilly Isles are to !e consi#ere# a Vspecial circmstanceV
having #istorting e%%ects on the eAi#istance !on#ary as !et$een the French Rep!lic
an# the ?nite# Jing#om an#, i% so, the extent o% the a#"stment appropriate to a!ate
the ineAity. These Aestions #o not there%ore reAire nice calclations o% the areas o%
continental shel% appertaining to the ?nite# Jing#om in the north n#er a prospective
#elimitation o% its continental shel% !on#ary $ith the Irish Rep!lic. The point here at
isse is simply $hether the geographical sitation or the Scilly Isles in relation to the
French coast has a #istorting e%%ect an# is a case o% ineAity as !et$een the ?nite#
Jing#om an# the French Rep!lic.
A nm!er o% examples are to !e %on# in State practice o% #elimitations in
$hich only partial e%%ect has !een given to o%%shore islan#s sitate# otsi#e the
territorial sea o% the mainlan#. The metho# a#opte# has varie# in response to the
varying geographical an# other circmstances or the particlar cases+ !t in one
instance, at least, the metho# employe# $as to give hal%, instea# o% %ll, e%%ect to the
o%%shore islan# in #elimiting the eAi#istance line. Tile metho# o% giving hal% e%%ect
consists in #elimiting the line eAi#istant !et$een the t$o coasts, %irst, $ithot the se
o% the o%%shore islan# as a !ase&point, an#, secon#ly, $ith its se as a !ase&point+ a
!on#ary giving hal%&e%%ect to the islan# is then the line #ra$n mi#$ay !et$een those
t$o eAi#istance lines. This metho# appears to the (ort to !e an appropriate an#
practical metho# o% a!ating the #isproportion an# ineAity $hich other$ise reslts %rom
giving %ll e%%ect to the Scilly Isles as a !asepoint %or #etermining the corse o% the
!on#ary. The #istance that the Scilly Isles exten# the coastline or the mainlan# o% the
?nite# Jing#om $est$ar#s onto the Atlantic continental shel% is slightly more than
t$ice the #istance that ?shant exten#s $est$ar#s the coastline o% the French
mainlan#, The (ort, $ithot attri!ting any special %orce as a criterion to this ratio o%
the #i%%erence in the #istance or the Scillies an# ?shant %rom their respective
mainlan#s, %in#s in it an in#ication o% the sita!ility o% the hal%&e%%ect metho# as a
means o% arriving at an eAita!le #elimitation in the present case. The %nction o%
eAity, as previosly state#, is not to pro#ce a!solte eAality o% treatment, !t an
appropriate a!atement o% the ineAita!le e%%ects o% the #istorting geographical %eatre.
In the particlar circmstances o% the present case the hal%&e%%ect metho# $ill serve to
achieve sch an a!atement o% the ineAity. At the same time, the (ort notes that the
!on#ary reslting %rom the se o% this metho# $ill %ollo$ the slight& soth$esterly
tren# o% the coastlines o% the <arties an# o% the continental shel% in the region.
%astern ,reenlan$ Case
Alwa#& will B