TILAPIA

INTRODUCTION
The Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) was first introduced into Thailand in 1965 when the
Emperor of Japan gave a few fish to H! "ing of Thailand The fish were #red at $hitralada
%alace and hence the name $hitralada strain was #orn &ince then' man( other strains of Nile
tilapia have #een introduced' most nota#l( the )*+T strain in the mid nineties The red tilapia'
which is a h(#rid of Nile tilapia and !o,am#i-ue tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus)' was
introduced into Thailand in the late nineties *t is raised using high -ualit( commercial feeds and is
aimed at a more affluent consumer Nile tilapia are mostl( raised using manures and other
rec(cla#le wastes in earthen ponds' as low cost rather than -ualit( is the main priorit(
Tilapia can #e reared in tan.s' cages or earthen ponds #oth in fresh and #rac.ish water up to /5
ppt salinit( 0ed tilapia are more tolerant of high salinit( and some strains can #e raised in full
strength sea water 1nli.e most other fish species' tilapia have the a#ilit( to consume minute
ph(toplan.ton that the( filter out of the water +or this reason' commercial pelleted feeds are not
necessar( for growing tilapia and nutrient2enriched water (3green water4)' produced #( the
addition of animal manure or fertili,er' is sufficient to achieve a mar.eta#le fish of 566 to 566
grams in si7 months
8esides ph(toplan.ton' tilapia will also eat ,ooplan.ton' detritus' a-uatic plants' insects and even
small fish fr( $ommercial pellet' waste food and almost an( other t(pe of feed given' with
perhaps the e7ception of meat' is also eagerl( devoured 9er( little investment is' therefore'
re-uired in their nutrition
The #iggest draw#ac. to the culture of Nile tilapia is their highl( precocious reproductive
efficienc( This results in overcrowding' leading to long grow2out periods of up to a (ear and a
harvest of small mi7ed si,ed fish with ver( little mar.et value To overcome this pro#lem' Nam
&ai +arm controls se7ual development of (oung fr( so that the( all develop into male fish This is
done #( feeding testosterone2impregnated feed for /1 da(s :fter this period' the se7 of the fish
cannot #e changed and the fish will #e male for the rest of their lives The fish are tested on a
monthl( #asis #( gonad s-uash method and are ver( close to 166; male The #enefit of this is a
culture period of onl( si7 months' and a harvest of even si,ed' large' fat fish with high mar.et
value
POND SIZE
There is no ideal pond si,e for growing tilapia and the( var( from 1 to 166 rai (1 rai < 1'666 m/)
8ig ponds re-uire less time in la#our (fertilising' feeding' etc)' #ut are more difficult to harvest
and ta.e longer to prepare and fill with water &urface aeration and water flow in large ponds is
generall( #etter as the long fetch allows larger waves and currents to develop &mall ponds are
more costl( to e7cavate (per unit area)' #ut are of advantage if selling fish directl( to retailers' as a
regular suppl( of fish in small amounts is re-uired
The main thing to thin. a#out is the amount of production re-uired per month and one can e7pect
6662=66 .g per rai using fertili,ation onl( and up to a ton or more if feeds are used >ields in
e7cess of this are possi#le' #ut an aeration s(stem and?or regular water e7change will #e necessar(
to support the high #iomass of fish The #igger the production scale' the #igger the pond si,es
should #e
*n Thailand' tilapia ponds are mostl( 52/6 rai in si,e (water area) and would t(picall( produce @ to
16 tons of fish per crop
POND DEPTH
:n ideal depth of pond is #etween 1 to / meters %onds deeper than this are not good #ecause
light' necessar( for ph(toplan.ton growth' will not penetrate to the #ottom This will lead to
anaero#ic conditions and poor water -ualit( !ore fertiliser will also #e re-uired to maintain a
green pond
There is one e7ception to this rule and that concerns rain2fed ponds where a large volume of
water is re-uired to prevent the pond -uic.l( dr(ing out in the dr( season *n this case it ma( #e
necessar( to increase water depth during the rain( season to 5 meters or more High fertili,ation
will #e necessar( at this time' #ut during the dr( season nutrients will tend to get concentrated'
due the evaporating water' and so little fertili,ation will #e necessar(
%onds shallower than 1 m are not recommended' #ecause temperature fluctuation will #e ver(
high and production per area will #e lower due to the reduced volume of water and lower overall
#iomass of ph(toplan.ton
POND PREPARATION
There are four important steps in pond preparationA
1) Eradicate all wild fish from the pond
Eradication of an( fish left from the previous culture c(cle is imperative in order to ensure
optimum growth of the new crop The #est wa( to do this is to dr( the pond for 12/ wee.s Not
onl( will this .ill an( fish remaining' #ut it will also have a #eneficial effect on the pond #ottom
:pplication of a piscicide (such as rotenone' tea seed ca.e or c(anide) to an( water remaining
ma( #e necessar( during the rain( season when a pond cannot #e dried
/) Bime the pond #ottom
:fter draining the pond' it is advisa#le to treat the pond #ottom with lime This is recommended
practice in a-uaculture' as it will .ill disease organisms and will #uffer fluctuations in pond water
pH 166 .g per rai is sufficient for most ponds' although more lime ma( #e re-uired in acid soil
areas' particularl( if the pond is new
/) +ill the pond with filtered pond water
:fter dr(ing and liming the pond it can now #e filled with water To do this' a filter #ag' made
from fine n(lon netting' should #e secured over the pump discharge pipe to ensure that no wild
fish fr( or eggs can get into the pond This ma( not #e possi#le for large pumps due to the high
pressure *n this case' a hapa can #e erected under the water inlet to catch an( unwanted
organisms 1nwanted #reeding (due female tilapia getting into the pond) will #e prevented if
these procedures are followed and (our all2male tilapia should grow to their full potential
5) :dd fertili,er to the pond to create green water
Nam &ai +arm recommends the addition of 56 .g of 162/626 fertili,er per rai to the newl( filled
pond to create a ph(toplan.ton #loom :nimal manures can #e used' #ut chemical fertili,er will
create #etter water -ualit(' thus ensuring higher survival of the newl( stoc.ed fish : wee. is
normall( sufficient for the water to turn green' after which time fish can #e stoc.ed
FRY TRANSPORT
The se7 reversed tilapia fr( (ou have purchased from Nam &ai +arm have #een starved prior to
pac.ing This will ensure that the water in the #ags sta(s relativel( clean and the fish should
survive for 1= hours without an( significant mortalit( Nam &ai +arm as.s all customers to
follow the following set of guidelines with respect to fr( transportA
1) %lease order and confirm in advance' as this will ena#le our staff to starve the fish for the
optimum period prior to pac.ing
/) :rrange a time to pic. up the fish and arrive on time Cur staff will attempt to finish pac.ing
the fish at the time arranged Not onl( will this minimi,e (our wait' #ut it will also reduce
transport time
5) Tr( and avoid traveling long distances during the da( in :pril and !a( due to the e7treme heat
@) *f traveling during the da(' then cover the #ags with wet sac.ing to .eep the temperature
down
*f a significant num#er of fish die in the #ags during transport' then please inform Nam &ai +arm
sales manager New fish will #e given to customers to replace those lost during transport if Nam
&ai +arm is at fault
FRY RELEASE
There are two main considerations concerning releasing fishA
1) :void stoc.ing fr( when o7(gen levels are low in the pond This will #e in the earl( morning at
first light 1se of aeration is an advantage to elevate o7(gen levels to give the fr( the #est chance
of survival
/) $are should #e ta.en when stoc.ing (our fish that the water temperature in the #ags is not
ver( different to that in the pond *f it is' then the fish will suffer shoc. on contact with the water
The recommended wa( is to float the #ags in the pond for a period of 15 minutes prior to
stoc.ing' so that temperature in and outside the #ags can e-uili#rate 0elease the fish #( pulling
the nec. of the #ag to snap off the elastic #and' then hold the #ag upside down and discharge the
whole of the contents into the pond
STOCKING DENSITY
&toc.ing densit( depends entirel( on the si,e and e7pected (ield of fish (determined #( method of
culture) at harvest +or e7ample' if a farmer has a 16 rai pond and intends to use fertili,ation and
a little supplemental feeding using cheap feedstuffs' he could e7pect =66 .g of fish per rai (1'666
m/) *f the farmer intends to stoc. /4 fish and re-uires a target weight of 566g per fish' then he
can calculate the num#er of fish to stoc. from the following e-uationA
No of fish to stoc. < ( (> 7 :) ? (& ? 1'666) ) 7 !
DhereA > < >ield per rai e7pected (.g)
: < :rea of pond (water onl(' rai)
& < &i,e of fish re-uired (g)
! < !ortalit( coefficient < (166 ? estimated survival) The following estimated
values could #e usedA
&i,e of fish
!ortalit( coefficient
Nile tilapia 0ed tilapia
1E or 6/g 16F 19/
/E or / g 159 15/
5E or 16g 1/F 15/
@E or 56g 11= 1/6
*n the case a#ove < ( (=66 7 16) ? (566 ? 1'666) ) 7 159 < (='666 ? 65) 7 159 < //'/@6 fish
Nam &ai recommends a grow2out period of no more than F months' as production decreases
dramaticall( after a period of 6 months :t a stoc.ing densit( of /25 fish per s-uare meter'
mar.et2si,ed fish (566 G @66g) can #e attained in si7 months using fertili,ation (addition of
manure' fertili,er' etc) onl( :t stoc.ing densities in e7cess of this' supplementar( feeding will #e
necessar( to get the fish to si,e within the recommended grow2out period *f large si,ed fish are
re-uired' then reduce the stoc.ing densit( appropriatel(
1ltimatel(' the stoc.ing densit( and method of culture used will depend on economics :s
stoc.ing densit( increases' more investment is re-uired in feed' and production cost will increase
:s a general rule' 5'666 7 1 inch fish (6/g) or 1'666 7 @ inch fish (56g) per rai is an ideal stoc.ing
densit( for fertili,ed and?or supplemental fed tilapia ponds in most of Thailand Higher stoc.ing
densit( and investment in aeration would #e an advantage in areas where tilapia prices are high
(fish sales price should #e at least dou#le the cost of good -ualit( commercial pellet per .g) 0ed
tilapia' for e7ample' fetch a high mar.et price and can #e raised at /25 fish per m/ to F66g using
commercial pellet to attain /25 tons per rai This is not to sa( it is the most profita#le wa( to do
it' as +$0 will #e higher (more feed re-uired per .g of tilapia produced) and there will #e costs
associated with aeration and water e7change : farmer who produces / tons of tilapia per rai and
ma.es 5 #aht per .g profit will #e no #etter off than a farmer who produces 1 ton of tilapia per rai
and ma.es 16 #aht?.g profit
The following ta#le can #e used as a guide to determining stoc.ing densit(A
0earing techni-ue
>ield
(.g?rai)
Num#er of fish stoc.ed per rai
1E /E 5E @E
+ertili,ation onl( 6662=66 5'/66 /'F66 /'@66 /'/56
+ertili,ation onl( 6662=66 /'@66 /'666 1'=66 1'F66
+ertili,ation' supplemental cheap feed =6621'/66 @'666 5'=66 5'@66 5'/66
+ertili,ation' supplemental cheap feed =6621'/66 5'@66 /'=56 /'666 /'@56
$omplete feed' no aeration' low densit( 1'666 /'556 /'156 1'966 1'=66
$omplete feed' aeration' high densit( /'666 5'166 @'566 5'=56 5'656
POND FERTILISATION
This section is aimed mainl( at farmers who aim to grow tilapia using 3green water4 using ver(
little' if an(' feed )reen water is a ph(toplan.ton #loom that provides food' removes ammonia
and produces o7(gen for the fish The greener the pond' the more natural food will #e availa#le
and the fish will grow fast with ver( little or no supplemental feeding However' if a pond is too
green' then fish mortalit( can result due to low earl( morning o7(gen
*n order to create a plan.ton #loom' it is necessar( to add nitrogen and phosphorous (N H %)' the
two limiting nutrients to plant growth in water 0ecommended levels are 12/ .g of phosphorous
and @ .g of nitrogen per hectare (16'666 m/ or 6/5 rai) per da( The N H % can come from
man( sources' including chemical fertili,er' animal manure' 3ami4 (monosodium glutamate factor(
waste)' compost' etc $hemical fertili,er is more e7pensive' #ut water -ualit( will #e much #etter
and this allows stoc.ing of low2o7(gen sensitive a-uatic species' such as shrimp' prawns and
carps
+ertili,ation should #e carried out at wee.l( or more fre-uent intervals The amount of fertili,er
needed should #e determined #( water color *f the pond is not ver( green then increase the
amount of fertili,er *f the pond is too green' fish are gasping for air during the morning and fish
#egin to die' then reduce or stop fertili,ing
)enerall(' there will #e an increase in fertili,er re-uirements throughout the growth period Bess
fertili,er will #e re-uired in the case that commercial feeds are used' as the( also contain N H %
The following ta#le can #e used as a guideline for nutrient re-uirementsA
Type of input Amount reuire! "#$%r&i%'ee#(
162/626 chemical fertili,er 56
@62626 (urea) I 62@626 (phosphate) 9 I 11
+resh chic.en manure 566
+resh chic.en manure I @62626 (urea) 1F5 I @
+resh pig manure =66
$ow?#uffalo manure 1'666 I
:mi /66 l?rai
$hemical fertili,er should #e applied wee.l( (or more fre-uentl( if possi#le) #( dissolving it in
water and then #roadcasting the solution over the surface of the pond There are no strict
guidelines for the application of animal manure !ost farmers either use general #roadcast or
the( appl( the manure to a few selected spots located around the edge of the pond +re-uent
manuring in small amounts is advisa#le' #ut one time per wee. will suffice
FEEDS ) FEEDING
The relationship #etween feeding and stoc.ing densit( was mentioned earlier %roduction costs
will increase with increasing stoc.ing densit( +eed will onl( #e re-uired once the pond #iomass
rises to 6662=66 .g of fish per rai However' feed can #e used from da( 1 to increase growth rate
and so reduce culture period +or e7ample' red tilapia will attain a si,e of F66g in @ months in
ponds when fed a complete diet of commercial pellet The same fish could #e raised to F66g in 6
months using much less and?or cheaper feed' and so reduce investment costs Cne has to decide
whether the increased feed costs would #e worth the -uic. grow2out period Cther factors' such
as land' water and pond e7cavation prices' should also #e considered *f land rental is ver(
e7pensive for e7ample' then higher densit( fed s(stems will #e more economic
Cnce a decision has #een made to feed the fish' one should then decide what t(pe of feed to use
This will #e determined #( availa#ilit( and price of feedstuffs to a large e7tent' #ut the factors
mentioned previousl( are also important +or e7ample' if the price of tilapia is ver( low' then it
will not #e economic to feed large amounts of relativel( e7pensive commercial pellet Cnl( cheap
feed inputs will #e cost effective in such a situation &uch feeds might includeA
Daste food from hospitals and schools
0ice #ran H #ro.en rice 2 if availa#le ver( cheapl(
8read' wafer' (east and other edi#le factor( wastes
Daste animal feeds
The t(pes of supplemental feeds #eing used #( farmers are too numerous to mention and Nam &ai
advises that farmers test out an( new feed inputs #efore using them e7tensivel( Things one
should consider areA
1) Dill the fish eat themJ
/) :re the increased returns cost effective in terms of added costs and la#orJ
5) :re the( are safe from micro2organism to7insJ
*n situations where the price of tilapia is twice as high as the cost of good -ualit( commercial
pellet' then cage culture and use of commercial feeds in ponds #ecomes economic The advantage
of using such feeds is that fish growth is -uic.er' the( are clean and donKt produce foul odor'
water -ualit( will #e #etter and the( are easil( availa#le +loating pellets are #est' as the( allow
the farmer to see the feed #eing eaten and so reduce waste &in.ing pellets can also #e used
The( are generall( cheaper to produce and can #e made from all sorts of feedstuffs using a simple
meat grinder !onitoring feed eaten is difficult' though' and wastage is higher The( are not
recommended for cage culture' as sin.ing feeds would #e lost through the #ottom of the cage
There are man( t(pes of floating commercial pellet availa#le' #ut the( generall( onl( differ in
crude protein level and pellet si,e %rice increases with increasing level of protein' #ut less high
protein feed will #e re-uired for a certain num#er of fish (higher protein < lower food conversion
ratio or +$0) and growth rate will #e faster %rotein levels under /6; are not recommended
for tilapia' as the( donKt find the pellet ver( appeti,ing 56; crude protein for final grow2out ma(
#e the most cost2effective feed and a little higher for small fish
NURSERY
&mall' one2inch fr( are ver( suscepti#le to predation #( fish and #irds The( are also less tolerant
to poor water -ualit(' as is often found in large manured grow2out ponds 0esults are' therefore'
a #it 3hit and miss4 and will depend on survival during the crucial first month %urchasing
fingerlings or nursing the fr( to a large si,e prior to stoc.ing can alleviate this pro#lem &toc.ing
a larger fish also reduces culture period in the main grow2out ponds and so increases farm
production
Nursing is #est carried out in hapas or in small earthen ponds Hapas are ver( useful for nurser('
as the (oung fr( can #e protected from predation #( #irds' mammals' sna.es' and carnivorous fish
ver( easil( No special pond is re-uired' as a canal or a pond #eing used for other uses will
suffice The fish can #e harvested ver( simpl(' using a length of #am#oo to confine the fish in the
corner of the hapa %rotection of fr( stoc.ed directl( in nurser( ponds is more pro#lematic' #ut
growth is much faster Harvesting fingerlings is also more difficult' as a fine seine net is re-uired
and the pond must #e drained to catch all the fish
Dhether nurser( is carried out in a hapa or in a small pond' 3green water4 should #e first created
using chemical fertili,er :nimal manure is not recommended for nurser( ponds as it leads to poor
water -ualit( and could affect survival &toc.ing densit( in hapas is recommended at 566 one
inch fish?m/ for the first month and /56 fish?m/ for the second month Earthen ponds can #e
stoc.ed with an(thing from 15266 fish?m/ for a / month nurser( period' #ut aeration and some
water e7change will #e necessar( at high densities +eeding should #e carried out two to four
times per da( with floating commercial pellet (smallest pellet si,e) or a powdered feed' for
e7ample rice #ran H fish meal with a crude protein level of at least 56; %ond2nursed fish will
have achieved a si,e of 16256g in this time' whilst hapa2nursed fish will #e /216g +ish nursed in
hapas will onl( grow at the same rate as fish in ponds if the( are stoc.ed at the same densit( per
m/' #ut the large num#ers of hapas re-uired will ma.e it ver( e7pensive
POLYCULTURE
Nile tilapia can #e raised in conLunction with other species of fish' crustaceans and mollus.s The
main reason for doing this is to increase income without significantl( increasing investment costs
The other advantage is reduced ris. of financial loss due to high mortalit( or a drop in mar.et
price of one species +or e7ample' a farmer ma( have high mortalit( of tilapia due to
streptococcus' #ut other fish ma( #e unaffected #( this species2specific disease and the (ield of
these fish would increase due to the reduced densit( of tilapia
POLYCULTURE OF TILAPIA *ITH OTHER FISH SPECIES
*ntegration of tilapia with carps' gouramis' catfish and other fish species is ver( common Tilapia
will tend to concentrate their feeding activit( on the one or two sources of food that the( prefer
This will usuall( #e ph(toplan.ton and?or ,ooplan.ton and?or detritus 8( stoc.ing a variet( of
different fish' an( food not eaten #( the tilapia will #e eaten #( another species and will not #e
wasted
The t(pe of species and num#er of fish stoc.ed is entirel( a matter of personal preference and
e7perience' #ut the following points should #e consideredA
1) $hoose fish species that eat different t(pes of food in different areas of the pond' so that
competition #etween species is reduced and all availa#le food is utili,ed
/) Dhatever t(pe and num#er of fish is stoc.ed' ideall( the( should attain mar.et si,e at
the same time to avoid having to restoc. fish
5) *n manured ponds onl( select fish that can tolerate poor water -ualit( and low
dissolved o7(gen These include gouramis' catfish and tilapia' and donKt include most carp
species
@) Tr( and match the t(pe and num#er of species stoc.ed according to the amount of food
that the( prefer to eat that is availa#le +or e7ample' if hotel food waste is used as supplemental
feed' more catfish ma( #e of advantage' as the( prefer such food *f #read or wafer is used' then
carps and gouramis ma( #e a#le to ma.e #etter use of this input
+or ponds using fertili,ation onl( the following ta#le can #e used as a guideA
Type of fee!er Spe+ie, &-&i.&/.e
0 of tot&.
fi,1 ,to+#e!
%h(toplan.ton Nile tilapia' red tilapia' silver carp 96
!acroph(te )rass carp' silver #ar# /
Mooplan.ton 0oho' #ighead carp' $atla' %angasius catfish @
8ottom?detritus $ommon carp' Clarias catfish' mrigal' sna.es.in gourami @
POLYCULTURE OF TILAPIA *ITH SHRI2P ) PRA*NS
8ecause tilapia are not carnivorous' the( can #e raised in pol(culture with penaeid shrimp or giant
fresh water prawns (Machrobrachium rosenbergii) +or this to #e effective' it is important that
the post larvae are either stoc.ed earlier than the tilapia or the shrimp?prawns are pre2nursed to a
si,e of 6/ g or more :lthough tilapia are not carnivorous' the( will eat small plan.tonic
organisms and that includes post larval shrimp or prawns
There are two main forms of shrimp?prawn pol(culture s(stemA
1) High densit( shrimp culture (562F6 per m/) with monose7 tilapia stoc.ed at low
densit( (1 per / m/)
The tilapia improve water -ualit( and reduced incidence of disease Cnl( the shrimp are
fed and no dou#t the tilapia will eat some of the e7pensive shrimp feed Nespite this' shrimp food
conversion ratio (+$0) is reported to #e unaffected #( the tilapia Cnl( good -ualit( monse7
tilapia should #e used or the tilapia will #reed and overpopulate the pond The shrimp are usuall(
stoc.ed as post larvae and the tilapia stoc.ed a month later to avoid predation of the shrimp This
s(stem is not as suita#le for giant freshwater prawns' as the( donKt perform so well at high
densit(
/) Bow densit( shrimp or prawn culture (@26 per m/) with monose7 tilapia stoc.ed at
high densit( (12/ fish per m/)
The advantage of this s(stem over tilapia monoculture is that e7tra income is created for
ver( little e7tra investment Cnl( the tilapia are fed on floating pellets and the prawns?shrimp feed
on natural food at the pond #ottom *deall(' pre2nursed prawns (6/g or more) and tilapia (162
56g) should #e stoc.ed at the same time This wa( culture period is reduced to onl( @ months
and predation of post larvae is avoided
There will no dou#t #e a multitude of alternatives to the two main s(stems descri#ed a#ove *t
ma( #e possi#le' for e7ample' to raise #oth species at higher densit( #( feeding #oth the shrimp
and tilapia This could ta.e the form of a sin.ing feed eaten #( #oth species' or #( using floating
feed for the tilapia and a sin.ing pellet at night for the shrimp Cther crustaceans' such as cra(fish
((a##ies) or cra#s (#rac.ish water)' could also #e used as an alternative to shrimp :n( fish
species that will consume food uneaten #( the tilapia and shrimp could #e used to improve the
s(stem Cther a-uatic species such as frogs' turtles' and mollus.s provide another avenue of
possi#ilit(
HAR3ESTING FISH
There are two main methods used for catching tilapia in earthen pondsA
1) &eine net the fish
Nrop the water level of the pond #( half and use a seine net (should #e at least one and a half
times the width of the pond in length) to catch the fish (match mesh to fish si,e) 0epeat the
procedure until few fish can #e netted and then drain the pond :n( remaining fish can scooped
up from the pond #ottom after draining
/) $atch in corner of pond
&et up a large pump in the corner of the pond and #uild a #arrier with sta.es (#am#oo for
e7ample) fi7ed closel( together This #arrier will stop the fish from getting to the pump inta.e
and the fish can #e netted #( placing a piece of net over the #arrier and lifting at intervals The
pond should #e deep in this corner The fish will naturall( move to this corner with the suction of
the pump :n automatic fish lifter could easil( #e used at this point
CAGE CULTURE
$age culture of tilapia is now ver( widespread in rivers and reservoirs in Thailand Cn a small
scale this is fine' #ut on a large scale the( can o#struct #oat traffic and cause su#stantial pollution
to natural waterwa(s !ost farmers are attracted to this form of a-uaculture #ecause it is not
necessar( to #u( or rent land' and capital investments are ver( low The disadvantage is that
running costs are higher than pond2#ased farms' as large amounts of commercial feed have to #e
used 0is. is also -uite high' as water -ualit( and disease cannot #e controlled easil( and escape
of fish is alwa(s a possi#ilit( $age culture of tilapia is onl( economic if the price of tilapia is
-uite high and it is for this reason that red tilapia are mainl( raised in cages in Thailand
Bocation is most important when setting up a tilapia cage farmA
1) 0eservoirs
0eservoirs t(picall( have deep' clear water with e7cellent water -ualit( and so are
e7cellent sites for cage farms %ermission is necessar( and sites are limited The( are
most suita#le for red tilapia culture' as the clear water enhances the color of the fish Nile
tilapia #ecome ver( dar. when raised in clear water in cages and ma( not #e accepted #(
the consumer &ome reservoirs are not suita#le due to off2flavor pro#lems
/) 0ivers
$age culture of tilapia in rivers is more ris.( than in reservoirs' as pollution is common'
and strong water flow and floating de#ris ma( cause damage !an( rivers are ver(
mudd(' particularl( after heav( rain' and this can lead to fish mortalit( Nile tilapia will
tend to #e lighter in color than those raised in clear water' and red tilapia will ver( pale
The fish get constant e7ercise in the flowing water and the tilapia will #e fat with firm
flesh :s (et there is little restriction on setting up cage farms in rivers' e7cept that the(
should not hinder #oat traffic
There is a huge range of cage designs and cage si,es' #ut the( all consist of a floating structure
from which nets are suspended $hanges in water level are not a pro#lem and most cage
structures can #e moved around #( towing with a #oat $ages in Thailand are mostl( constructed
from galvani,ed steel poles to which /66 liter #arrels are attached for floatation Cn larger rivers
the( often incorporate a house of some sort for securit( reasons *n 9ietnam the( use ver( large
cages made of wood with a house #uilt over the whole structure to prevent theft *n giant la.es'
such as those found in :frica' European2st(le salmon cages' are the onl( option' as Thai2st(le
cages would #e destro(ed #( the ver( rough water conditions
!ost cage farmers stoc. /6256g fish (@ inch)' as the mesh si,e used for the cages (/5256 cm)
would allow small fr( to swim through &toc.ing rate is #ased on cage volume (width 7 length 7
depth)' as one can e7pect a (ield of tilapia from 152/5 .g per m5 +or e7ample' a farmer has a
cage 5 7 5 m and / m deep' total volume 56 m5 He e7pects a (ield of 1'666 .g and re-uires a
mean si,e of 656g &urvival is e7pected to #e 96;' as the farmer will stoc. a large si,e fingerling
No of fish to stoc. < ( (> 7 9) ? (& ? 1'666) ) 7 !
DhereA > < >ield per m5 e7pected (.g)
9 < 9olume of cage (m5)
& < &i,e of fish re-uired (g)
! < !ortalit( coefficient < (166 ? estimated survival)
No of fish to stoc. < ( (/6 7 56) ? (656 ? 1'666) ) 7 (166 ? 96)
< 1'F69 fish
+loating pellet is essential in cages (sin.ing feed would #e wasteful) and most farmers feed 3ad
li#itum4 (according to fish demand and less than satiation) /25 times per da( : #and of fine
netting material should #e installed inside the cage at the water surface to stop feed floating out
and getting lost $rude protein can #e an(thing from /5256;' and the higher the protein the
faster the fish will grow +ood conversion ratio should #e lower for high protein feed' #ut it costs
more per .g
$ulture period is appro7imatel( @ months from 56g to F66g in Thailand for red tilapia raised in
cages Nile tilapia will grow slightl( faster than this $ages installed in farm ponds' canals and
large ditches can e7pect slower growth' much depending on aspects of water -ualit(' depth and
water flow *mprovements can #e made using paddle wheels' #ut growth rate is usuall( #etter in
large reservoirs and rivers
OFF4FLA3OUR
Cff2flavor is a common pro#lem associated with fish raised in freshwater !udd( and must( off2
flavors are the most common and are caused #( a#sorption of geosmin (mudd() and /2
meth(liso#orneol (!*8) (must() over the gills These chemicals can originate from certain
species of ph(toplan.ton and actinom(cetes #acteria that are commonl( found in freshwater
ponds *nterestingl(' even when off2flavor2related #lue2green algal species such as :na#aena'
:phani,omenon' Cscillatoria and !icroc(stis are common' the fish donKt necessaril( have off2
flavor
!ost people relate off2flavor to the use of manures' which is true to some e7tent' #ut unfertili,ed
ponds where fish are fed commercial pellet can also suffer Cff2flavor is most common in ponds
with poor water -ualit( and ver( low earl( morning dissolved o7(gen However' it can also #e
found in cage2reared fish in certain reservoirs possi#l( due to actinom(cetes #acteria in #ottom
mud and on deca(ing plants *t is also found in indoor recirculating s(stems and can #e related to
sludge #eneath the #iofilter
The following factors affect the incidence off2flavor in earth pondsA
1) %ond si,e G Cff2flavor is less common in large ponds due to improved water -ualit( (more
wave action and water flow)
/) %ond inputs 2 Cff2flavor is less common in ponds using dr( feeds and?or inorganic fertili,er
5) :mount of fertili,er G Cver2fertili,ation is a common reason for off2flavor' particularl( when
manures are used *ntegrated chic.en?fish or pig?fish s(stems are particularl( #ad' as there is no
control over manuring rate
@) &alinit( G Cff2flavor is ver( uncommon in ponds over 52@ ppt salinit(
5) :eration G aeration improves water -ualit( and dissolved o7(gen levels and so reduces
incidence of off2flavor
*n the event that off2flavor is a pro#lem in fish a#out to #e harvested' there are one or two wa(s to
alleviate the pro#lem
1) &top fertili,ing the pond and use onl( feed a few wee.s prior to harvesting
/) E7change water (must #e no geosmin or !*H in the incoming water)
5) %urge the fish #( .eeping them in water free of geosmin or !*H for 5 da(s
FISH 2ARKETING
*n Thailand' and pro#a#l( man( other countries' there 5 main options with regards to mar.eting
fishA
1) &ell the fish to a pond harvester
*n this case the farmer negotiates a price #efore harvesting the fish The price will usuall( #e -uite
a #it lower than wholesale prices as the fish harvester is responsi#le for pumping the pond'
emplo(ing staff' harvesting and selling all the fish The farmer need onl( watch as the fish are
weighed
This method is fre-uentl( emplo(ed #( small farms' especiall( those involving animal integration
/) Harvest and sale to the provincial wholesale fish mar.et
*n this case the farmer harvests his own fish and delivers them to the wholesale fish mar.et This
ena#les a farmer to get a #etter price' #ut necessitates investment in a net' la#our' transport' ice'
etc
!an( farmers find that wholesale fish mar.ets will onl( -uote a price once the( see the fish This
leaves the farmer in a poor position #ecause he has to harvest his fish first and is then at the merc(
of the fish wholesaler who will often give a ver( poor price Dholesale mar.ets that sell #(
auction and ta.e a small amount of commission are recommended' as the farmer gets paid the
current retail price
5) Harvest and sale retail
This method ena#les a farmer to cut out the middle man and gain a control over the price of his
fish #( selling to shops' mar.et stalls and the pu#lic The disadvantage is that the fish must #e
sold in small volumes and it ta.es time to sell a whole pond *t also ta.es time in #uilding up a
mar.et and it is essential that the farm alwa(s has a suppl( of fish to .eep regular customers
supplied This method gains the highest and most sta#le mar.et price
HEALTH CONSIDERATIONS
!an( people en-uire a#out the health and safet( issues regarding the consumption of se7 reversed
tilapia The :sian *nstitute of Technolog( did some research man( (ears ago The( found that
#lood se7 hormone levels of se7 reversed male tilapia and mi7ed se7 fish were not significantl(
different The( concluded that adult male tilapia produced using the se7 reversal process are
perfectl( safe to eat