May Xay Dung PDF

Earthmoving Operations
Contents
Page
PREFACE .................................................................................................................. v
Chapter 1
MANAGING EARTHMOVING OPERATIONS ....................................................... 1-1
Project Management ............................................................................................... 1-1
Equipment Selection ............................................................................................... 1-1
Production Estimates .............................................................................................. 1-1
Material Considerations .......................................................................................... 1-2
Zones Of Operation ................................................................................................ 1-6
Chapter 2
DOZERS ................................................................................................................. 2-1
Description .............................................................................................................. 2-1
Blades ..................................................................................................................... 2-2
Clearing and Grubbing Operations ......................................................................... 2-3
Sidehill Excavations ................................................................................................ 2-9
Operation Techniques ........................................................................................... 2-11
Dozer Production Estimates ................................................................................. 2-18
Ripping Production Estimates ............................................................................... 2-23
Safety Precautions ................................................................................................ 2-26
Chapter 3
SCRAPERS ............................................................................................................ 3-1
Description .............................................................................................................. 3-1
Production Cycle ..................................................................................................... 3-2
Production Estimates .............................................................................................. 3-9
DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION:
Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.
*This publication supersedes FM 5-434, 26 August 1994, and FM 5-164, 30 August 1974.
Field Manual *FM 5-434
No. 5-434 Headquarters
Department of the Army
Washington, DC 15 JUNE 2000
FM 5-434
ii
Page
Chapter 4 GRADERS ............................................................................................................. 4-1
Grader Components ............................................................................................... 4-1
Road and Ditch Construction ................................................................................. 4-2
Earth- and Gravel-Road Maintenance ................................................................... 4-8
Snow Removal ..................................................................................................... 4-10
Asphalt Mixing ...................................................................................................... 4-10
Operation Techniques and Tips ........................................................................... 4-11
Production Estimates ........................................................................................... 4-14
Safety ................................................................................................................... 4-15
Chapter 5 LOADERS .............................................................................................................. 5-1
Description ............................................................................................................. 5-1
Attachments ........................................................................................................... 5-1
Use ......................................................................................................................... 5-3
Selection ................................................................................................................ 5-3
Operation ............................................................................................................... 5-3
Production Estimates ............................................................................................. 5-8
Safety ................................................................................................................... 5-10
Chapter 6 FORKLIFTS ........................................................................................................... 6-1
Use ......................................................................................................................... 6-1
Operation Techniques ............................................................................................ 6-1
Safety ..................................................................................................................... 6-2
Chapter 7 CRANES ................................................................................................................ 7-1
Basic Crane Unit .................................................................................................... 7-1
Hoisting Operations ................................................................................................ 7-7
Pile Driver ............................................................................................................. 7-11
Clamshell ............................................................................................................. 7-12
Dragline ................................................................................................................ 7-15
Safety ................................................................................................................... 7-20
Chapter 8 HYDRAULIC EXCAVATORS ................................................................................ 8-1
Description ............................................................................................................. 8-1
Excavation Techniques .......................................................................................... 8-2
Operation Techniques ............................................................................................ 8-3
Small Emplacement Excavator with a Loader Bucket ............................................ 8-4
Track-Mounted Excavator ...................................................................................... 8-8
Production Estimates ............................................................................................. 8-8
FM 5-434
iii
Page
Chapter 9 AIR COMPRESSORS AND PNEUMATIC TOOLS ............................................... 9-1
Air Compressors .................................................................................................... 9-1
Compressed-Air Uses ............................................................................................ 9-4
Air Manifolds .......................................................................................................... 9-5
Pneumatic Tools .................................................................................................... 9-6
Safety ................................................................................................................... 9-17
Chapter 10 HAULING EQUIPMENT ...................................................................................... 10-1
Dump Trucks ........................................................................................................ 10-1
Equipment Trailers ............................................................................................... 10-6
Chapter 11 SOIL-PROCESSING AND COMPACTION ......................................................... 11-1
Soil Processing .................................................................................................... 11-1
Soil Compaction ................................................................................................... 11-7
Chapter 12 ROAD SURFACING ............................................................................................ 12-1
Surface Treatment ............................................................................................... 12-1
Surfacing Equipment ............................................................................................ 12-1
In-Place Mixing Equipment .................................................................................. 12-8
Bitumen Handling and Dedrumming Equipment .................................................. 12-9
Support Equipment ............................................................................................ 12-10
Chapter 13 SAFETY ............................................................................................................... 13-1
Safety Program .................................................................................................... 13-1
General Safety Rules ........................................................................................... 13-1
Operator Indoctrination ........................................................................................ 13-2
Operator Qualifications and Requirements .......................................................... 13-2
Equipment Inspection ........................................................................................... 13-2
Repairs and Maintenance .................................................................................... 13-2
Guards and Safety Devices ................................................................................. 13-3
Signals ................................................................................................................. 13-3
Ropes, Cables, and Chains ................................................................................. 13-3
Equipment Loading .............................................................................................. 13-6
Equipment Transporting ....................................................................................... 13-7
Night Operations .................................................................................................. 13-7
Excavations .......................................................................................................... 13-7
Chapter 14 ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION ..................................................................... 14-1
Preoperations Checklist ....................................................................................... 14-1
Personnel-Preparation Checklist .......................................................................... 14-2
FM 5-434
iv
Page
Spill-Response Plan ............................................................................................. 14-2
APPENDIX A METRIC CONVERSION CHART ........................................................................... A-1
GLOSSARY ......................................................................................... GLOSSARY-1
BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................... BIBLIOGRAPHY-1
INDEX ........................................................................................................................1
v
Preface
Thi s fi el d manual (FM) i s a gui de for engi neer per sonnel r esponsi bl e for pl anni ng,
desi gni ng, and constructi ng earthworks i n the theater of operati ons. I t gi ves esti mated
producti on r ates, characteri sti cs, operati on techni ques, and soi l consi der ati ons for
earthmovi ng equi pment. Thi s gui de shoul d be used to hel p sel ect the most economi cal
and effecti ve equi pment for each i ndi vi dual operati on.
Thi s manual di scusses the compl ete process of esti mati ng equi pment producti on rates.
However , users of thi s manual are encouraged to use thei r experi ence and data from
other projects i n esti mati ng producti on rates.
The mater i al i n thi s manual appl i es to al l constructi on equi pment regardl ess of make
or model . The equi pment used i n thi s manual are exampl es onl y. I nformati on for pro-
ducti on cal cul ati ons shoul d be obtai ned from the operator and mai ntenance manual s
for the make and model of the equi pment bei ng used.
Appendix A contai ns an Engl i sh-to-metri c measurement conversi on chart.
The proponent of thi s publ i cati on i s HQ TRADOC. Send comments and recommenda-
ti ons on Department of the Army (DA) Form 2028 di rectl y to Uni ted States Army Engi -
neer School (USAES), ATTN: ATSE-DOT-DD, Di rectorate of Trai ni ng, 320 Engi neer
Loop Sui te 336, Fort Leonard Wood, Mi ssouri 65473-8929.
Unl ess thi s publ i cati on states otherwi se, mascul i ne nouns and pronouns do not refer
excl usi vel y to men.
Managing Earthmoving Operations 1-1
Chapter 1
Managing Earthmoving Operations
Ear thmovi ng may i ncl ude si te pr epar ati on; excavati on; embank ment
constr ucti on; backfi l l i ng; dr edgi ng; pr epar i ng base cour se, subbase, and
subgr ade; compacti on; and r oad sur faci ng. The types of equi pment used
and the envi ronmental condi ti ons wi l l affect the man- and machi ne-hour s
requi red to compl ete a gi ven amount of wor k. Before prepari ng esti mates,
choose the best method of oper ati on and the type of equi pment to use.
Each pi ece of equi pment i s s peci fi cal l y des i gn ed to per for m cer tai n
mechani cal tasks. Ther efor e, base the equi pment sel ecti on on effi ci ent
operati on and avai l abi l i ty.
PROJ ECT MANAGEMENT
1-1. Pr oject manager s must fol l ow basi c management phases to ensur e that
con s tr u cti on pr oj ects s u cces s fu l l y meet deadl i n es s et for th i n pr oj ect
di r ecti ves. Addi ti onal l y, manager s must ensur e confor mance to safety and
envi r onmen tal -pr otecti on stan dar ds . The bas i c man agemen t ph ases as
di scussed i n FM 5-412 are
Pl anni ng.
Or gani zi ng.
Staffi ng.
Di r ecti ng.
Contr ol l i ng.
Executi ng.
EQUIPMENT SELECTION
1-2. Pr oper equi pment sel ecti on i s cr uci al to achi evi ng effi ci ent ear thmovi ng
and constr ucti on oper ati ons. Consi der the machi nes oper ati onal capabi l i ti es
and equi pment avai l abi l i ty when sel ecti ng a machi ne for a par ti cul ar task.
The manager shoul d vi sual i ze how best to empl oy the avai l abl e equi pment
bas ed on s oi l con s i der a ti on s , zon e of oper ati on , an d pr oj ect-s peci fi c
requi r ements. Equi pment pr oducti on-esti mati ng procedures di scussed i n thi s
manual hel p quanti fy equi pment pr oducti vi ty.
PRODUCTION ESTIMATES
1-3. Producti on esti mates, pr oducti on contr ol , and producti on r ecor ds are the
basi s for management deci si ons. Ther efor e, i t i s hel pful to have a common
method of r ecor di ng, di r ecti ng, and r epor ti ng pr oducti on. (Refer to speci fi c,
FM 5-434
1-2 Managing Earthmoving Operations
equi pment pr oducti on-esti mati ng pr ocedur es i n the appr opr i ate chapter s i n
thi s manual .)
PRODUCTION-RATE FORMULA
1-4. The most conveni ent and useful unit of work done and unit of time to use
i n cal cul ati ng pr oducti vi ty for a par ti cul ar pi ece of equi pment or a par ti cul ar
job i s a functi on of the speci fi c wor k-task bei ng anal yzed. To mak e accur ate
and meani ngful compar i sons and concl usi ons about pr oducti on, i t i s best to
use standar di zed terms.

Production rate. The enti r e expr essi on i s a ti me-rel ated pr oducti on
r ate. I t can be cubi c yar ds per hour , tons per shi ft (al so i ndi cate the
dur ati on of the shi ft), or feet of di tch per hour.
Unit of work done. Thi s denotes the uni t of pr oducti on
accompl i shed. I t can be the vol ume or wei ght of the mater i al moved,
the number of pi eces of mater i al cut, the di stance tr avel ed, or any
si mi l ar measur ement of producti on.
Unit of time. Thi s denotes an arbi trar y ti me uni t such as a mi nute,
an hour , a 10-hour shi ft, a day, or any other conveni ent dur ati on i n
whi ch the uni t of work done i s accompl i shed.
TIME-REQUIRED FORMULA
1-5. The i nver se of the pr oducti on-r ate for mul a i s someti mes useful when
schedul i ng a pr oject because i t defi nes the ti me r equi r ed to accompl i sh an
arbi trary amount of wor k.
NOTE: Express the time required in units such as hours per 1,000 cubic
yards, hours per acre, days per acre, or minutes per foot of ditch.
MATERIAL CONSIDERATIONS
1-6. Dependi ng on wher e a mater i al i s consi der ed i n the constructi on pr ocess,
dur i ng excavati on ver sus after compacti on, the same mater i al wei ght wi l l
occupy di ffer ent vol umes (Figure 1-1). Mater i al vol ume can be measur ed i n
one of thr ee states:
Bank cubic yard (BCY). A BCY i s 1 cubi c yard of materi al as i t l i es
i n i ts natur al /undi sturbed state.
Loose cubic yard (LCY). A LCY i s 1 cubi c yard of mater i al after i t
has been di stur bed by an excavati on process.
Compacted cubic yard (CCY). A CCY i s 1 cubi c yard of materi al
after compacti on.
Production rate
unit of work done
unit of time
-------------------------------------------------- =
Time required
unit of time
unit of work done
-------------------------------------------------- =
FM 5-434
Figure 1-1. Material-Volume Changes Caused by Construction Processes
1-7. When mani pul ati ng the mater i al i n the constr ucti on pr ocess, i ts vol ume
changes. (Tables 1-1 and 1-2, page 1-4, gi ve mater i al -vol ume conver si on and
l oad factor s.) The pr i me questi on for an earthmover i s about the natur e of the
mater i al s ph ysi cal pr oper ti es; for exampl e, how easy i s i t to move? For
ear thmovi ng oper ati ons, mater i al i s pl aced i n thr ee categor i esr ock, soi l
(common earth), and uncl assi fi ed.
Rock. Rock i s a mater i al that ordi nary earthmovi ng equi pment
cannot r emove. Fr actur i ng r ock r equi r es dr i l l i ng and bl asti ng. After
bl asti ng, use excavator s to l oad the r ock fragments i nto haul uni ts for
removal .
Soil. Soi l s ar e cl assi fi ed by parti cl e-si ze di str i buti on and cohesi veness.
For i nstance, gr avel and sands have bl ocky-shaped par ti cl es and ar e
noncohesi ve, whi l e cl ay has smal l , pl aty-sh aped par ti cl es and i s
cohesi ve. Al though r i ppi ng equi pment may be necessar y to l oosen
consol i dated deposi ts, soi l removal does not requi re usi ng expl osi ves.
Unclassified. The uncl assi fi ed (rock-soi l ) combi nati on i s the most
common mater i al found thr oughout the wor l d. I t i s a mi xture of rock
and soi l materi al s.
SOIL PROPERTIES
1-8. I n an ear th mov i n g oper ati on , th or ou gh l y an al y ze th e mater i al 's
pr op er ti e s (l oa da bi l i ty , moi s tu r e con ten t, p er cen ta ge of s wel l , a n d
compactabi l i ty) and i ncor porate thi s i nfor mati on i nto the constr ucti on pl an.
Soi l preparati on and compacti on requi rements are di scussed i n Chapter 11.
Loadability
1-9. Loadabi l i ty i s a gen er al mater i al pr oper ty or char acter i sti c. I f the
mater i al i s easy to di g and l oad, i t has hi gh l oadabi l i ty. Conver sel y, i f the
materi al i s di ffi cul t to di g and l oad, i t has l ow l oadabi l i ty. Cer tai n types of cl ay
and l oam are easy to doze or l oad i nto a scraper fr om thei r natural state.
1.25 cubic yards after
digging (LCY)
1 cubic yard in natural
conditions (BCY)
0.9 cubic yards after
compaction (CCY)
FM 5-434
Moisture Content
1-10. Moi stur e content i s a ver y i mpor tant factor i n earthmovi ng wor k si nce
moi stur e affects a soi l s uni t wei ght and handl i ng pr oper ti es. Al l soi l i n i ts
natur al state contai ns some moi stur e. The amount of moi stur e r etai ned
depends on the weather , the dr ai nage, and the soi l s r etenti on pr oper ti es.
Mechan i cal or ch emi cal tr eatment can s ometi mes chan ge th e moi s tur e
content of a soi l . Refer to Chapter 11 for i nfor mati on about i ncr easi ng and
decreasi ng the soi l s moi sture content.
Table 1-1. Material Volume Conversion Factors
Converted To
Material Type Converted From Bank (In Place) Loose Compacted
Sand or gravel Bank (in place)
Loose
Compacted
0.90
1.05
1.11
1.17
0.95
0.86
Loam
(common earth)
Bank (in place)
Loose
Compacted
0.80
1.11
1.25
1.39
0.90
0.72
Clay Bank (in place)

Loose
Compacted
0.70
1.11
1.43
1.59
0.90
0.63
Rock (blasted) Bank (in place)

Loose
Compacted
0.67
0.77
1.50
1.15
1.30
0.87
Coral
(comparable
to lime rock)
Bank (in place)
Loose
Compacted
0.67
0.77
1.50
1.15
1.30
0.87
Table 1-2. Material Weight, Swell Percentages, and Load Factors

Material Type
Loose
(Pounds Per
Cubic Yards)
Swell
(Percent) Load Factor
Bank
(Pounds Per
Cubic Yard)
Cinders
Clay, dry
Clay, wet
Earth (loam or silt), dry
Earth (loam or silt), wet
Gravel, dry
Gravel, wet
Sand, dry
Sand, wet
Shale (soft rock)
Trap rock
800 to 1,200
1,700 to 2,000
2,400 to 3,000
1,900 to 2,200
2,800 to 3,200
2,700 to 3,000
2,800 to 3,100
2,600 to 2,900
2,800 to 3,100
2,400 to 2,700
2,700 to 3,500
40 to 55
40
40
15 to 35
25
10 to 15
10 to 15
10 to 15
10 to 15
65
50
0.65 to 0.72
0.72
0.72
0.74 to 0.87
0.80
0.87 to 0.91
0.87 to 0.91
0.87 to 0.91
0.87 to 0.91
0.60
0.66
1,100 to 1,860
2,360 to 2,780
3,360 to 4,200
2,180 to 2,980
3,500 to 4,000
2,980 to 3,450
3,080 to 3,560
2,860 to 3,340
3,080 to 3,560
4,000 to 4,500
4,100 to 5,300
NOTE: The above numbers are averages for common materials. Weights and load
factors vary with such factors as grain size, moisture content, and degree of
compaction. If an exact weight for a specific material must be determined, run a test
on a sample of that particular material.
FM 5-434
Percentage of Swell
1-11. Most ear th and r ock mater i al s swel l when r emoved fr om thei r natur al
r esti ng pl ace. The vol ume expands because of v oi ds cr eated dur i ng the
excavati on pr ocess. After establ i shi ng the gener al cl assi fi cati on of a soi l ,
esti mate the per centage of swel l . Expr ess swel l as a per centage i ncr ease i n
vol ume (Table 1-2). For exampl e, the swel l of dr y cl ay i s 40 per cent, whi ch
means that 1 cubi c yar d of cl ay i n the bank state wi l l fi l l a space of 1.4 cubi c
yar ds i n a l oosened state. Esti mate the swel l of a soi l by r efer ri ng to a tabl e of
materi al pr oper ti es such as Table 1-2.
Compactability
1-12. I n earthmovi ng wor k, i t i s common to compact soi l to a hi gher densi ty
than i t was i n i ts natural state. Thi s i s because ther e i s a cor rel ati on between
hi gher densi ty and i ncr eased str ength, reduced settl ement, i mproved bear i ng
capaci ty, and l ower per meabi l i ty. The pr oject speci fi cati ons wi l l state the
densi ty r equi rements.
SOIL WEIGHT
1-13. Soi l wei ght affects the per for mance of the equi pment. To esti mate the
equi pment r equi r ements of a job accur atel y, the uni t wei ght of the mater i al
bei ng moved must be known. Soi l wei ght affects how dozer s push, gr ader s
cast, and scraper s l oad the mater i al . Assume that the vol umetr i c capaci ty of a
scr aper i s 25 cubi c yar ds and that i t has a r ated l oad capaci ty of 50,000
pounds. I f the mater i al bei ng car r i ed i s r el ati vel y l i ght (such as ci nder ), the
l oad wi l l exceed the vol umetr i c capaci ty of the scr aper befor e r eachi ng the
gr avi metr i c capaci ty. Conversel y, i f the l oad i s gr avel (whi ch may wei gh more
than 3,000 pounds per cubi c yar d), i t wi l l exceed the gr avi metr i c capaci ty
befor e r eachi ng the vol umetr i c capaci ty. See Table 1-2 for the uni t wei ght of
speci fi c materi al s.
NOTE: The same material weight will occupy different volumes in
BCY, LCY, and CCY. In an earthmoving operation, the basic unit of
comparison is usually BCY. Also, consider the material in its loose
state (the volume of the load). Tabl e 1-1 gives average material conver-
sion factors for earth-volume changes.
LOAD FACTOR
1-14. Use a l oad factor (see Table 1-2) to convert the vol ume of LCY measured
to BCY mea s u r ed ( ). U s e s i mi l ar f actor s wh en
converti ng materi al to a compacted state. The factor s depend on the degree of
compacti on. Compute the l oad factor as fol l ows:
I n thi s case, the l oad factor for dry cl ay i s 0.72. Thi s means that i f a scraper i s
carryi ng 25 LCY of dry cl ay, i t i s carryi ng 18 BCY (25 x 0.72).
LCY load factor BCY =
If 1 cubic yard of clay (bank state) 1.4 cubic yards of clay (loose state),
then 1 cubic yard of clay (loose state)
1
1.4
-------- or 0.72 cubic yard of clay (bank state). =
=
FM 5-434
ZONES OF OPERATION
1-15. The r el ati onsh i p of speci fi c zones of oper ati on to v ar i ous ty pes of
earthmovi ng equi pment i s si gni fi cant when sel ecti ng ear thmovi ng equi pment.
A mass di agr am gr aphi cal l y depi cts how mater i al s shoul d be moved and i s a
good tool for deter mi ni ng the zones of operati on. Mass di agr ams are expl ai ned
i n FM 5-430-00-1. Ther e ar e th r ee zon es of oper ati on to con si der on a
constr ucti on project.
POWER ZONE
1-16. I n the power zone, maxi mum power i s r equi r ed to over come adverse si te
or job condi ti ons. Such condi ti ons i ncl ude r ough ter rai n, steep sl opes, pi oneer
oper ati ons, or extr emel y h eav y l oads. The wor k i n these ar eas r equ i r es
crawl er tr actor s that can devel op hi gh drawbar pul l at sl ow speeds. I n these
adver se condi ti ons, the mor e tracti on a tractor devel ops, the mor e l i kel y i t wi l l
reach i ts ful l potenti al .
SLOW-SPEED HAULING ZONE
1-17. The sl ow-speed haul i ng zone i s si mi l ar to the power zone si nce power ,
mor e than speed, i s the essenti al factor . Si te condi ti ons ar e sl i ghtl y better
than i n the power zone, and the h aul di s tance i s s hor t. Si n ce i mpr oved
condi ti ons gi ve the dozer mor e power , and di stances ar e too shor t for most
scr aper s to bui l d up suffi ci ent momentum to shi ft i nto hi gher speeds, both
machi nes achi eve the same speed. Consi der ati ons that deter mi ne a sl ow-
speed haul i ng zone are as fol l ows:
The ground condi ti ons do not permi t r api d tr avel and the movement
di stance of the mater i al i s beyond economi cal dozi ng operati ons.
The haul di stances are not l ong enough to permi t scr apers to travel at
hi gh speeds.
HIGH-SPEED HAULING ZONE
1-18. I n the hi gh-speed haul i ng zone, constr ucti on has pr ogr essed to wher e
gr ound condi ti ons ar e good, or wher e l ong, wel l -mai ntai ned haul r oads ar e
establ i shed. Achi eve thi s condi ti on as soon as possi bl e. Pr oducti on i ncr eases
when the scr aper i s wor k i ng at i ts maxi mum speed. Consi der ati ons that
determi ne a hi gh-speed haul i ng zone are as fol l ows:
Good haul i ng condi ti ons exi st on both grade and haul -r oad surfaces.
Haul di stances ar e l ong enough to permi t accel er ati on to maxi mum
travel speeds.
Push tractors (al so referr ed to as pusher s) ar e avai l abl e to assi st i n
l oadi ng.
CAUTION
Operate equipment at safe speeds to prevent personal
i nj ury or premature f ai l ure of the machi nes maj or
components. Accomplish hauling operations safely as well
as efficiently.
Dozers 2-1
Chapter 2
Dozers
Dozers (trackl ayi ng crawl ers or wheel tr actor s equi pped wi th a bl ade) ar e
per h a ps th e mos t ba s i c a n d v er s a ti l e i tems of equ i pmen t i n th e
constr ucti on i ndustr y. Dozer s ar e desi gned to pr ovi de hi gh drawbar pul l
and tr acti on effor t. They ar e the standar d equi pment for l and cl ear i ng,
dozi ng, and assi sti ng i n scraper l oadi ng. They can be equi pped wi th rear -
mounted wi nches or r i pper s. Cr awl er tr actor s exer t l ow gr ound-bear i ng
pressure, whi ch adds to thei r versati l i ty. For l ong moves between projects
or wi thi n a pr oject, tr anspor t dozers on heavy trai l ers. Movi ng them under
thei r own power , even at sl ow speeds, i ncr eases tr ack wear and shor tens
the machi nes oper ati onal l i fe.
DESCRIPTION
2-1. A cr awl er dozer consi sts of a power pl ant (typi cal l y a di esel engi ne)
mounted on an under car r i age, whi ch r i des on tr acks. The tr acks extend the
ful l l ength of the dozer . There ar e two cl assi fi cati ons of mi l i tar y dozers, based
on wei ght and pounds of dr awbar pul l . The l i ght cl ass (about 16,000 pounds
oper ati ng wei gh t) i ncl udes the depl oyabl e uni ver sal combat ear thmover
(DEUCE) (Figure 2-1). The medi um cl ass i ncl udes dozer s havi ng an oper ati ng
wei ght of 15,000 to 45,000 pounds (Figure 2-2, page 2-2).
Figure 2-1. DEUCE, Light-Class Dozer
FM 5-434
2-2 Dozers
Figure 2-2. Medium-Class Dozer
BLADES
2-2. A dozer bl ade consi sts of a mol dboard wi th repl aceabl e cutti ng edges and
si de bi ts. Ei ther the push ar ms and ti l t cyl i nder s or a C-fr ame ar e used to
connect the bl ade to the tr actor . Bl ades var y i n si ze and desi gn based on
speci fi c wor k appl i cati ons. The hardened-steel cutti ng edges and si de bi ts are
bol ted on because they recei ve most of the abrasi on and wear out rapi dl y. Thi s
al l ows for easy r epl acement. Machi ne desi gns al l ow ei ther edge of the bl ade to
be r ai sed or l ower ed i n the ver ti cal pl ane of the bl ade (ti l t). The top of the
bl ade can be pi tched for war d or backwar d varyi ng the angl e of attack of the
cutti ng edge (pi tch). Bl ades mounted on a C-fr ame can be tur ned fr om the
di r ecti on of tr avel (angl i ng). These featur es ar e not appl i cabl e to al l bl ades,
but any two of these features may be i ncor porated i n a si ngl e mount.
STRAIGHT BLADE
2-3. Use strai ght bl ades for pushi ng mater i al and cutti ng di tches. Thi s bl ade
i s mounted i n a fi xed posi ti on, per pendi cul ar to the l i ne of tr avel . I t can be
ti l ted and pi tched ei ther for war d or back war d wi thi n a 10 ar c. Ti l ti ng the
bl ade al l ows concentr ati on of dozer dr i vi ng power on a l i mi ted l ength of the
bl ade. Pi tchi ng the bl ade pr ovi des i ncr eased penetr ati on for cutti ng or l ess
penetrati on for back draggi ng.
ANGLE BLADE
2-4. Angl e bl ades, whi ch ar e 1 to 2 feet wi der than str ai ght bl ades, are used
most effecti vel y to si de cast materi al when backfi l l i ng or when maki ng si dehi l l
cuts. Use an angl e bl ade for r ough gr adi ng, spr eadi ng pi l es, or wi ndr owi ng
FM 5-434
Dozers 2-3
ma te r i a l . I t ca n be a n gl ed u p to a max i mu m of 25 l e ft or r i gh t of
perpendi cul ar to the dozer or used as a strai ght bl ade. When angl ed, the bl ade
can be ti l ted but i t cannot be pi tched.
SPECIAL-PURPOSE BLADE
2-5. There ar e speci al bl ades (Figure 2-3), such as the Rome K/G, desi gned for
cl ear i ng br ush and tr ees but not for ear thmovi ng. The Rome K/G bl ade i s
per manentl y fi xed at an angl e. On one end of the bl ade i s a sti nger . Thi s
sti nger consi sts of a ver ti cal spl i tter and sti ffener and a tr i angul ar -shaped
hor i zontal par t cal l ed the web. One si de of the tr i angul ar web abuts the
bottom of the verti cal spl i tter, and the other si de abuts the cutti ng edge of the
bl ade. The abutti ng si des of the web are each about 2 feet i n l ength, dependi ng
on how far the sti nger pr otrudes fr om the bl ade. Thi s bl ade i s desi gned to cut
down br ush and tr ees at, or a few i nches above, gr ound l evel r ather than
upr ooti ng them. When cutti ng a l ar ge-di ameter tr ee, fi r st use the sti nger to
spl i t the tr ee to weak en i t; then, cut the tr ee off and push i t over wi th the
bl ade. Keep both the sti nger and the cutti ng edge sharp. The operator must be
wel l -trai ned to be effi ci ent i n thi s oper ati on. Ther e ar e other speci al -purpose
bl ades not di scussed i n thi s manual whi ch can be mounted on dozers.
Figure 2-3. Special-Purpose Clearing Blade
CLEARING AND GRUBBING OPERATIONS
2-6. Cl ear i ng vegetati on and tr ees i s usual l y necessar y befor e movi ng and
shapi ng the gr ound. Cl ear i ng i ncl udes r emovi ng sur face boul der s and other
materi al s embedded i n the ground and then di sposi ng of the cl ear ed mater i al .
Ensur e that envi r onmental -pr otecti on consi der ati ons ar e addr essed befor e
conducti ng cl ear i ng oper ati ons. Speci fi cati ons may al l ow shear i ng of the
vegetati on and trees at ground l evel , or i t may be necessary to grub (r emovi ng
Web
Cutting
edge
Guide bar
Stinger
Splitting point
FM 5-434
2-4 Dozers
stumps and r oots fr om bel ow the gr ound). Pr oject speci fi cati ons wi l l di ctate
the pr oper cl ear i ng techni ques. Pl an cl ear i ng oper ati ons to al l ow di sposal of
debr i s i n one handl i ng. I t i s best to tr avel i n one di r ecti on when cl ear i ng.
Changi ng di r ecti on tends to ski n and scr ape the tr ees i nstead of upr ooti ng
them or al l owi ng a cl ean cut. Cl ear i ng tech ni qu es var y wi th the type of
vegetati on bei ng cl ear ed, the gr oun ds soi l type, and the soi l s moi s tur e
condi ti on. Table 2-1 shows aver age cl ear i ng r ates for nor mal ar ea-cl ear i ng
jobs. I ncr ease the Table 2-1 val ues by 60 per cent i f the pr oject r equi res str i p-
type cl ear i ng (common i n tacti cal l and cl ear i ng). Engi neer s per for m tacti cal
l an d cl ear i n g as a combat s u ppor t fu n cti on i n ten ded to en h an ce an d
compl ement mobi l i ty, fi r epower , survei l l ance, and tar get acqui si ti on.
BRUSH AND SMALL TREES
2-7. Movi ng the dozer , wi th the bl ade sl i ghtl y bel ow ground l evel , wi l l usual l y
r emove smal l tr ees and br ush. The bl ade cuts, br eaks off, or uproots most of
the tr ee and bends the rest for r emoval on the retur n tr i p. A medi um tr actor
wi th a dozer bl ade can cl ear and pi l e about 0.25 acres of br ush or smal l tr ees
per hour .
MEDIUM TREES
2-8. To r emove a medi um-si ze tr ee (7 to 12 i nches i n di ameter), r ai se the bl ade
as hi gh as possi bl e to gai n added l ever age and then push the tree over sl owl y.
As the tr ee star ts to fal l , back the dozer qui ckl y to avoi d the ri si ng roots. Then
l ower the bl ade and dr i ve the dozer forward, l i fti ng out the roots. The average
ti me for a medi um tractor wi th a dozer bl ade to cl ear and pi l e medi um trees i s
2 to 9 mi nutes per tree.
LARGE TREES
2-9. Removi ng l ar ge tr ees (12 to 30 i nches i n di ameter ) i s much sl ower and
mor e di ffi cul t than cl ear i ng br u sh and smal l er tr ees. Fi r st, gen tl y an d
cauti ousl y probe the tr ee for dead l i mbs that coul d fal l . Deter mi ne the trees
natur al di recti on of l ean, i f any; thi s i s the best di recti on for pushi ng the tree
over . Then, posi ti on the bl ade hi gh and center i t on the tr ee for maxi mum
Table 2-1. Quick Production Estimates for Normal Area Clearing
Equipment
Equipment (Hours Per Acre)
Light
(12 Inches or Less*)
Medium
(12 to 18 Inches*)
Heavy
(18 Inches*)
Bulldozer:
Medium tractor
Heavy tractor
2.5
1.5
5.0
3.0
10.0
8.0
Shear blade:
Medium tractor
Heavy tractor
0.4
0.3
0.8
0.5
1.3
0.8
*Maximum tree size
NOTE: These clearing rates are average for tree counts of 50 trees per acre. Adverse
conditions (slopes, rocks, soft ground) can reduce these rates significantly.
FM 5-434
Dozers 2-5
l everage. I f possi bl e, push the tr ee over the same as a medi um tree. However,
i f the tr ee has a massi ve, deepl y embedded r oot system, use the fol l owi ng
method (Figure 2-4):
Figure 2-4. Four Steps for Removing a Large Tree With a Massive,
Deeply Embedded Root System
Step 1. Start on the si de opposi te the proposed di r ecti on of fal l , and make a cut
deep enough to sever some of the l arge roots. Make the cut l i ke a V-di tch, ti l ted
downward l ateral l y toward the roots.
Step 2. Cut si de two.
Step 3. Cut si de three.
Step 4. Bui l d an earth r amp on the same si de as the ori gi nal cut to obtai n
greater pushi ng l everage. Then push the tree over and, as the tree starts to fal l ,
reverse the dozer qui ckl y to avoi d the ri si ng r oot mass. After fel l i ng the tree, fi l l
the stump hol e so that i t wi l l not col l ect water.
1. Cut roots on side one.
2. Cut side two.
3. Cut side three.
4. Build ramp on side one.
Push tree over.
Average clearing time:
5 to 20 minutes per tree
FM 5-434
2-6 Dozers
The average ti me for a medi um tractor wi th a dozer bl ade to cl ear and pi l e l arge
trees i s 5 to 20 mi nutes per tree. The ti me requi red to cl ear and pi l e massi ve
trees requi ri ng thi s four-step procedure wi l l often be more than 20 mi nutes
each.
NOTE: The roots on the fourth side may also need to be cut.
ROOTS
2-10. Mount a r ake on the dozer i n pl ace of the bl ade to r emove r oots and
smal l stumps. As the dozer moves for war d, i t for ces the teeth of the r ake
bel ow the gr ounds sur face. The teeth wi l l catch the bel owgr ound r oots and
the sur face br ush l eft fr om the fel l i ng oper ati on, whi l e the soi l r emai ns or
passes through.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
2-11. Never oper ate cl ear i ng tr actor s too cl ose together . Do not fol l ow a tr ee
too cl osel y when pushi ng i t, because when i t begi ns to fal l , i ts stump and r oots
may catch under the fr ont of the dozer . Cl ean out accumul ated debr i s i n the
dozer s bel l y pan often to prevent fi r es i n the engi ne compartment.
2-12. The two methods for esti mati ng pr oducti on for cl ear i ng and gr ubbi ng
projects are the qui ck method and the tr ee-count method.
Quick Method
2-13. Table 2-1, page 2-4, shows qui ck esti mates for normal ar ea cl ear i ng. Use
the qui ck method onl y when a detai l ed r econnai ssance and a tr ee count ar e
not possi bl e.
Step 1. Determi ne the si ze of the area to cl ear (i n acres).
Step 2. Determi ne the si ze and number of dozers avai l abl e.
Step 3. Determi ne the maxi mum si ze of the trees to cl ear.
Step 4. Determi ne the ti me requi red (hours per acre) for cl eari ng, based on
dozer si ze and tree si ze (see Table 2-1).
Step 5. Determi ne the effi ci ency factor for the work. Operators requi re breaks,
and there are al ways secondary del ays for mi nor equi pment repai rs. Therefore,
actual producti on ti me per hour i s somethi ng l ess than 60 mi nutes. I n the case
of a wel l -managed job, expect 50 mi nutes of pr oducti on ti me per hour.
Acres to be cleared
width (feet) length (feet)
43,560 square feet per acre
----------------------------------------------------------------------------- =
Efficiency factor
actual working minutes per hour
60-minute working hour
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- =
FM 5-434
Dozers 2-7
Step 6. Determi ne the operator factor usi ng Table 2-2.
Step 7. Determi ne the total ti me (i n hours) requi red to compl ete the mi ssi on.
where
D = time required, in hours per acre
A = total area, in acres
E = efficiency factor
O = operator factor
N = number of dozers available
Table 2-2. Operator Factors for Track Dozers
Operator Ability Daylight Night
Excellent
Average
Poor
1.00
0.75
0.60
0.75
0.56
0.45
NOTE: These factors assume good visibility and a
60-minute working hour efficiency.
Total time (hours)
D A
E O N
------------------------- =
EXAMPLE
Determine the time required to clear an area that is 500-feet wide by 0.5 mile long. Two
medium bulldozers are available for the task. The largest trees in the area are 14 inches
in diameter, and the ground is fairly level. The operators are of average ability and will do
all work during daylight hours. Expected efficiency is 50 minutes per hour.
Step 1.
Step 2. Dozer size = medium
Number of dozers available = 2
Step 3. Maximum tree size = 14 inches
Step 4. Time required = 5 hours per acre (Table 2-1, page 2-4)
Step 5.
Step 6. Operator factor = 0.75 (Table 2-2)
Step 7.
Total area in acres
width (feet) length (feet)
43,560 square feet per acre
----------------------------------------------------------------------------- =
500 feet 0.5 mile 5,280 feet per mile ( )
43,560
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- = 30.3 acres =
Efficiency factor
50 minutes per hour
-------------------------------------------------------------------- 0.83 = =
Total time (hours)
5 hours per acre 30.3 acres
0.83 0.75 2
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 121.6 or 122 hours = =
FM 5-434
2-8 Dozers
Tree-Count Method
2-14. Use thi s method when a detai l ed r econnai ssance and a tr ee count ar e
possi bl e. The tr ee-count method al l ows for a better pr oducti on esti mate.
Step 1. Determi ne the si ze of the ar ea to cl ear (i n acres). Refer to step 1 of the
qui ck method.
Step 2. Determi ne the si ze and number of dozers avai l abl e.
Step 3. Determi ne the average number of each si ze of tree per acre. Thi s wi l l
requi re a fi el d reconnai ssance.
Step 4. Determi ne the basi c producti on factors (hours per acre) based on the
dozer si ze and the si ze of the trees to cl ear (Table 2-3).
Step 5. Determi ne the ti me requi red to cl ear one acre.
where
D = clearing time of one acre, in minutes
H = hardwood factor affecting total time
H = 1.3 if hardwoods are 75 to 100 percent
H = 1 if hardwoods are 25 to 75 percent
H = 0.7 if hardwoods are 0 to 25 percent
A = tree-density and presence-of-vines factor affecting total time
A = 2 if density is more than 600 trees per acre (dense)
A = 1 if density is 400 to 600 trees per acre (medium)
A = 0.7 if density is less than 400 trees per acre (light)
A = 2 if heavy vines are present
B = base time per acre determined from dozer size, in minutes
M = time required per tree in each diameter range, in minutes
N = number of trees per acre in each diameter range, from
reconnaissance
I = sum of diameter of all trees per acre greater than 6 feet in
diameter at ground level (in foot increments), from reconnaissance
F = time required per foot of diameter for trees greater than 6 feet in
diameter, in minutes
NOTE: When it is necessary to grub roots and stumps, increase the
time per acre by 25 percent.
Table 2-3. Production Factors for Felling With a Clearing Blade
Tractor
Base Minutes
Per Acre
B
Tree Diameter Range
1-2 Feet
M
1
2-3 Feet
M
2
3-4 Feet
M
3
4-6 Feet
M
4
More Than 6 Feet
F

Medium 23.48 0.5 1.7 3.6 10.2 3.3
Heavy 18.22 0.2 1.3 2.2 6.0 1.8
NOTE: These times are based on working on reasonably level ground with good footing and an
average mix of soft and hardwoods.
D H A B [ ] M
1
N
1
[ ] M
2
N
2
[ ] M
3
N
3
[ ] M
4
N
4
[ ] I F [ ] + + + + + ( ) =
FM 5-434
Dozers 2-9
Step 6. Determi ne the total ti me (i n hours) requi red to compl ete the mi ssi on.
where
D = time required to clear one acre (from step 5), in hours
A = total area
N = number of dozers
NOTE: The tree-count method has no correction factor for efficiency or
operator skill. The values in Tabl e 2-3 are based on normal efficiency
and average operator skill.
SIDEHILL EXCAVATIONS
2-15. One of a dozer s mor e i mpor tant uses i s mak i ng si dehi l l cuts, whi ch
i ncl udes pi oneer i ng r oad cuts al ong hi l l si des. An angl e bl ade i s pr eferr ed for
thi s operati on because of i ts si de-casti ng abi l i ty.
CREATING A SLOPE
2-16. I t i s best to star t the cut at the top of the hi l l , cr eati ng a bench sever al
dozer l engths l ong. Do thi s by worki ng up and down the sl ope perpendi cul ar to
the l ong di recti on of the pr oject (Figure 2-5[A], page 2-10). Desi gn the benches
to ensure that water r uns off wi thout damagi ng the sl ope. I f possi bl e, start the
bench on the uphi l l extr eme of the cut (the hi ghest poi nt of the cut) and then
wi den and deepen the cut unti l the desi red r oad pr ofi l e i s achi eved. Be sure to
star t the bench far enough up the sl ope to al l ow r oom for both the i nner sl ope
and the roadway.
NOTE: When working on extremely steep slopes, a winch line may be
necessary to stabilize the dozer (see paragraph 2-37).
2-17. Because the perpendi cul ar passes ar e shor t, the dozer usual l y i s not abl e
to devel op a ful l bl ade l oad. Ther efor e, after constr ucti ng the i ni ti al bench,
tur n the dozer and wor k i n the l ong di r ecti on of the pr oject (Fi gure 2-5[B],
page 2-10). Devel op a ful l bl ade l oad and then tur n the dozer to push the
mater i al over the si de. After devel opi ng the bench, use ei ther a dozer or a
scr aper to compl ete the cut. Keep the i nsi de (hi l l si de) of the r oadway l ower
than the outsi de. Thi s al l ows the dozer to wor k effecti vel y on the edge and
decr eases the er osi on of the outer sl ope. Mak e sur e to mai ntai n the pr oper
sl ope on the i nsi de of the cut. I t i s very di ffi cul t to change the cut sl ope after
constr ucti on. Mai ntai n the pr oper bench sl ope by movi ng out from the i nsi de
sl ope on each successi ve cut. Deter mi ne the sl ope r ati o fr om the di stance
moved away fr om the sl ope for each successi ve cut and the depth of each cut.
When cutti ng the r oads cr oss sl ope, wor k fr om the toe of the bench to the
roads outsi de edge.
Total time (hours)
D A
N
-------------- =
FM 5-434
2-10 Dozers
Figure 2-5. Sidehill Cut
FINISHING A SIDE SLOPE
2-18. Ther e ar e two methods for fi ni shi ng a si de sl opewor ki ng per pendi cul ar
to the sl ope and wor ki ng di agonal l y up the sl ope.
Working Perpendicular to the Slope
2-19. The dozer shown i n Fi gure 2-6 i s fi ni shi ng a si de sl ope by wor k i ng
perpendi cul ar to the sl ope. Start the dozer at the top of the embankment and,
on each pass, earth wi l l fal l to the l ower si de of the bl ade for mi ng a wi ndr ow.
On succeedi ng passes, pi ck up thi s wi ndrow and use i t to fi l l hol es and other
i r r egul ar i ti es i n the ter r ai n. Be car eful to pr event the bl ade cor ner fr om
di ggi ng i n too deep; thi s woul d steepen the sl ope beyond job speci fi cati ons.
Figure 2-6. Finishing a Side Slope Working Perpendicular to the Slope
FM 5-434
Dozers 2-11
Working Diagonally Up the Slope
2-20. The dozer shown i n Figure 2-7 i s fi ni shi ng the si de sl ope by star ti ng at
the bottom and wor ki ng di agonal l y up the sl ope. The wi ndr ow that for ms i s
conti nual l y push ed to one si de, wh i ch tends to fi l l l ow s pots, hol es, and
i rr egul ari ti es. Thi s i s one of the few i nstances wher e a dozer wor ks effecti vel y
pushi ng uphi l l .
Figure 2-7. Finishing a Side Slope Working Diagonally up the Slope
OPERATION TECHNIQUES
2-21. Dozers wor k best when the gr ound i s fi r m and wi thout pothol es, shar p
ri dges, or r ocks. Uneven surfaces make i t di ffi cul t to keep the bl ade i n contact
wi th the gr ound. Thi s tends to bury vegetati on i n hol l ows r ather than r emove
i t. To save ti me and i ncr ease output, use the fol l owi ng techni ques when
condi ti ons permi t.
DOZING
2-22. When str ai ght dozi ng, i f the bl ade di gs i n and the r ear of the machi ne
r i ses, r ai se the bl ade to conti nue an even cut. I f movi ng a heavy l oad causes
the tr avel speed to dr op, shi ft to a l ower gear and/or r ai se the bl ade sl i ghtl y.
When fi ni shi ng or l evel i ng, a ful l bl ade handl es easi er than a parti al l y-l oaded
bl ade.
Side-by-Side Dozing
2-23. Si de-by-si de dozi ng wi l l i ncr ease pr oducti on 15 to 25 per cent when
movi ng mater i al 50 to 300 feet (Figure 2-8, page 2-12). When the di stance i s
l ess than 50 feet, the extra ti me needed to maneuver and posi ti on the dozer s
wi l l offset the i ncreased producti on.
FM 5-434
2-12 Dozers
Figure 2-8. Side-by-Side Dozing
Slot Dozing
2-24. Sl ot dozi ng uses spi l l age fr om the fi rst few passes to bui l d a wi ndrow on
each si de of a dozer s path (Figure 2-9). Thi s forms a trench, pr eventi ng bl ade-
si de spi l l age on subsequent passes. To i ncrease pr oducti on, al i gn cuts par al l el ,
l eavi ng a nar row uncut secti on between sl ots. Then, r emove the uncut secti on
by nor mal dozi ng. When gr ade and soi l condi ti ons ar e favor abl e, sl ot dozi ng
can i ncrease output by as much as 20 percent.
Figure 2-9. Slot Dozing
FM 5-434
Dozers 2-13
Downhill Dozing
2-25. Pi l e sever al l oads at the br i nk of the hi l l , and then push them to the
bottom i n one pass. When dozi ng downhi l l , travel to the bottom of the hi l l wi th
each l oad. U s e down h i l l dozi n g wh en ev er pos s i bl e s i n ce i t i n cr eas es
producti on.
Hard-Materials Dozing
2-26. Use th e dozer bl ade to l oosen h ar d mater i al wh en r i pper s ar e not
avai l abl e. Ti l t the bl ade to force one cor ner i nto the mater i al . Ti l ti ng i s done
thr ough bl ade contr ol , by dr i vi ng one tr ack onto a r i dge of materi al bl aded up
for thi s pur pose or by pl aci ng a rock or l og under the tr ack. To maxi mi ze the
dri vi ng for ce of the bl ade, hook onl y the ti l ted end under the mater i al . Break a
thi n l ayer by tur ni ng on i t wi th a dozer . Tur ni ng causes the tr ack gr ouser s
(cl eats) to break through the top l ayer. Wi th a thi n l ayer of frozen materi al , i t
i s best to break through at one poi nt. By l i fti ng and pushi ng, the bl ade br eaks
thr ough the top frozen l ayer as shown i n Figure 2-10.
Figure 2-10. Dozing Hard Materials or Frozen Ground Layers
Rock Dozing
2-27. Use a rake to remove smal l rocks. The rake l ets the soi l remai n, or pass
thr ough, whi l e di ggi n g th e r ock s fr om th e ear th. When r emovi ng l ar ge,
par ti al l y bur i ed boul der s, ti l t the dozer bl ade and di g the ear th out fr om
ar ound thr ee si des of the boul der . Lower the bl ade enough to get under the
four th si de. Li ft the bl ade as the dozer moves for war d to cr eate a l i fti ng,
r ol l i ng acti on of the boul der . I f the dozer cannot push the boul der , l i ft i t
upwar d wi th the bl ade and have someone pl ace a l og or some other object
under the boul der s o the dozer can get another hol d. The r ol l i n g acti on
r emoves the boul der as the dozer moves for war d. Dozer wor k i n r ocky ar eas
i ncreases tr ack wear . I f possi bl e, i nstal l rock shoes or r ock pads to cut down on
thi s wear.
Frozen top layer
FM 5-434
2-14 Dozers
Wet-Materials Dozing
2-28. Wet materi al i s di ffi cul t to move wi th a dozer. Al so, the wet gr ound may
be too soft to support the wei ght of the dozer . I f so, make each successi ve pass
the ful l depth of the wet materi al . Thi s wi l l pl ace the dozer on a fi r mer footi ng.
I f avai l abl e, use wi der tr acked shoes for better fl otati on. When wor ki ng i n
mud, push the mud back far enough that i t wi l l not fl ow back i nto the cut.
Make provi si ons for r ecovery oper ati ons i n case the dozer becomes stuck. Try
to use machi nes equi pped wi th a wi nch.
DITCHING
2-29. Shal l ow di tches ar e best accompl i shed usi ng a gr ader , but dozer s can
accompl i sh r ough di tchi ng. Ti l t the dozer bl ade to cut shal l ow V-di tches
(Fi gure 2-11). For l ar ger di tches, push the mater i al per pendi cul ar to the
center l i ne of the di tch. After r eachi ng the desi r ed depth, push the mater i al
the l ength of the di tch to smooth the si des and bottom. Many ti mes i t i s
necessar y to cor rect i rr egul ari ti es i n a di tch. Attempt to r emove humps or fi l l
hol es i n a si ngl e pass. Use mul ti pl e passes to cor rect the grade.
Figure 2-11. Tilt Dozer Ditching
CONSTRUCTING A STOCKPILE
2-30. A dozer i s a good machi ne for cr eati ng stock pi l es of mater i al that can
then be easi l y l oaded i nto haul uni ts by ei ther a l oader or a hydr aul i c hoe
excavator . Use the fol l owi ng steps to constr uct a stockpi l e:
Step 1. Push the materi al from the begi nni ng of the excavati on to the stockpi l e
area on the fi rst pass. Thi s di stance shoul d be no more than 75 feet from the
start poi nt. Do not excavate deeper than 6 to 8 i nches, whi l e mai ntai ni ng a
smooth cut.
WARNING
Before putting the machine in reverse, and while
backing, the operator must be satisfied that no one
will be endangered.
FM 5-434
Dozers 2-15
Step 2. Begi n to rai se the bl ade one dozer l ength from the stockpi l e, l etti ng the
materi al dri ft under the bl ade formi ng a ramp upon r eachi ng the stockpi l e area.
Step 3. Push the materi al on successi ve cuts i n the same manner, worki ng the
dozer from the start poi nt al l the way around the work area whi l e stockpi l i ng.
Overl ap cuts about one-thi rd of the bl ades wi dth to pi ck up wi ndrows.
NOTE: Do not stop the forward motion or cause the tracks to spin
while pushing material.
Step 4. Make successi ve cuts the same as i n step 2, constructi ng the stockpi l e
hi gher on each pass unti l i t reaches the desi red hei ght.
SPREADING A STOCKPILE
2-31. Lar ge pi l es shoul d be worked from the si de, cutti ng materi al away fr om
the stockpi l e, usi ng one-thi r d of the bl ade. Use the fol l owi ng steps to spr ead a
stockpi l e:
Step 1. Lower the bl ade to the desi red hei ght whi l e movi ng forward.
Step 2. Adjust the bl ade hei ght and move the dozer i nto the si de of the pi l e
maki ng the cut wi th onl y one-thi rd of the bl ade.
NOTE: When using the left side of the blade, continue working to the
left. When using the right side of the blade, continue working to the
right.
Step 3. Cut i nto the stockpi l e. The bl ade shoul d be as ful l as possi bl e wi thout
stal l i ng the dozer or spi nni ng the tr acks. Rai se and l ower the bl ade to mai ntai n
a smooth pass.
Step 4. Spread the bl ade l oad after cutti ng the pi l e by conti nui ng to move for-
ward and sl owl y rai si ng the bl ade unti l al l mater i al i s evenl y feathered.
Step 5. Feather the bl ade l oad and reverse the dozer. Rai se the bl ade about 12
i nches off the ground, back the dozer to the stockpi l e, and reposi ti on for another
cut.
Repeat the above steps unti l the stockpi l e has been l evel ed and spread over the
desi gnated area. Do not back bl ade to l evel the stockpi l e.
CAUTION
Keep the dozer under control at all times. Do not put the
transmission into neutral to allow the machine to coast.
Select the gear range necessary before starting down the
grade. Do not change gears while going downhill.
WARNING
When spreading materials that are higher than the
midpoint of the rollover protective structure (ROPS),
adjust the height of the cut to eliminate the danger from
collapsing material.
FM 5-434
2-16 Dozers
BACKFILLING
2-32. Backfi l l i ng can be effecti vel y accompl i shed by dri fti ng materi al si deways
wi th an angl e bl ade. Thi s al l ows for war d moti on par al l el to the excavati on.
Wi th a str ai ght bl ade, appr oach the excavati on at a sl i ght angl e and then, at
the end of the pass, tur n i n towar d the excavati on. No par t of the tr ack s
sh ou l d han g over th e edge. Adj us t the l ength of the pu sh based on s oi l
condi ti ons. For exampl e, when wor k i ng i n soft mater i al or on an unstabl e
sl ope, l et the second bl adeful push the fi r st bl adeful over the edge. Be careful
to keep over si ze materi al s out of the backfi l l .
RIPPING
2-33. Figure 2-12 shows vari ous r i ppi ng oper ati ons. Use fi r st gear for ri ppi ng
oper ati ons. When per formi ng one-shank ri ppi ng, al ways use the center shank.
Use addi ti onal shanks, where practi cal , to i ncr ease producti on. When r i ppi ng
for scr aper l oadi ng, r i p i n the same di r ecti on that the scr aper s ar e l oadi ng,
wh en ever pos si bl e. I t i s u s ual l y desi r abl e to r i p as deepl y as pos si bl e.
However, i t i s someti mes better to r i p the materi al i n i ts natur al l ayer s even i f
thi s i s l ess than ful l -shank depth. Use the r i pped mater i al on top of the
unr i pped for mati on to cushi on the machi ne and pr ovi de tr acti on. When the
fi nal mater i al si ze must be rel ati vel y smal l , space passes cl ose together . Cross
r i p onl y when necessar y to obtai n the r equi r ed br eakage. Use the fol l owi ng
steps to r i p materi al :
Step 1. Posi ti on the dozer on the uphi l l si de i f operati ng on a sl ope, about hal f
the l ength of the dozer from the start of the area to be ri pped.
Step 2. Pl ace the tr ansmi ssi on shi ft l ever i n forward, fi rst gear.
Step 3. Lower the ri ppers to the ri ppi ng depth as the dozer begi ns to cross the
area to be ri pped.
Step 4. Rai se the ri pper s out of the ground and then stop at the end of the pass.
Step 5. Pl ace the tr ansmi ssi on i n reverse and back the dozer to the start poi nt.
Step 6. Posi ti on the dozer to overl ap the previ ous ri ppi ng pass.
Repeat steps 1 through 6 unti l the area i s compl etel y ri pped.
Packed Soil, Hardpan, Shale, and Cemented Gravel
2-34. Thr ee-shank ri ppi ng works wel l i n these materi al s. Use as many shanks
as possi bl e to break materi al to the desi red si ze.
WARNING
Maintain a straight line while ripping. Turning the
dozer with the rippers in the ground wil l cause
damage to the dozer.
FM 5-434
Dozers 2-17
Figure 2-12. Ripping Operations
Rock with Fractures, Faults, and Planes of Weakness
2-35. Use two shank s for r i ppi ng wher e r ocks br eak out i n smal l pi eces and
the machi ne can handl e th e j ob easi l y. Use onl y th e cen ter shank i f the
machi ne begi ns to stal l or the tracks spi n.
Asphalt. Rai se the ri pper shank to l i ft out and br eak the mater i al .
Concrete. Use one-shank ri ppi ng to sever r ei nforci ng rods or wi re
mesh effecti vel y.
Solid Rock, Granite, and Hard-to-Rip Material
2-36. Use one shank i n har d-to-r i p mater i al or mater i al that tends to br eak
out i n l ar ge sl abs or pi eces.
WINCHING
2-37. Wi nchi ng i s hoi sti ng or haul i ng wi th a wi nch, usi ng a cabl e. When
wi nchi ng, mak e sur e per sonnel ar e cl ear of the cabl e. Cabl es can br eak and
cause sever e i nj ur y. Exer ci se cauti on wi th suspended l oads. I f the engi ne
revol uti ons (speed) ar e too l ow, the wei ght of the l oad may exceed the engi ne
Three-shank ripping
Single-shank ripping Cross ripping
Two-shank ripping
FM 5-434
2-18 Dozers
capaci ty causi ng the l oad to dr op, even though the wi nch i s i n the r eel -i n
posi ti on.
DOZER PRODUCTION ESTIMATES
2-38. Dozer pr oducti on curves gi ve maxi mum-pr oducti on val ues (i n LCY per
hour ) for strai ght and uni ver sal bl ades based on the fol l owi ng condi ti ons:
A 60-mi nute wor ki ng hour (100 percent effi ci ency).
Power-shi ft machi nes wi th 0.05-mi nute fi xed ti mes are bei ng used.
The dozer cuts 50 feet, then dr i fts the bl ade l oad to dump over a hi gh
wal l .
The soi l densi ty i s 2,300 pounds per LCY.
The coeffi ci ent of tr acti on equal s 0.5 or better for cr awl er machi nes
and 0.4 or better for wheel machi nes.
Hydraul i c-contr ol l ed bl ades ar e bei ng used.
2-39. Use the fol l owi ng steps to esti mate dozer pr oducti on:
Step 1. Determi ne the maxi mum producti on. Determi ne the esti mated maxi -
mum producti on from ei ther Figure 2-13 or 2-14, based on the type of dozer
bei ng used. Fi nd the dozi ng di stance on the bottom hori zontal scal e i n the
proper fi gure. Read up verti cal l y unti l i ntersecti ng the producti on curve for the
dozer bei ng consi dered then read the verti cal scal e on the l eft to determi ne the
maxi mum producti on i n LCY per hour.
Use Figure 2-13 to determi ne the esti mated maxi mum pr oducti on for
D3 thr ough D6 tr actor s wi th str ai ght bl ades. The DEUCE has the
same producti on capabi l i ty as the D5.
Use Figure 2-14 to determi ne the esti mated maxi mum pr oducti on for
D7 or D8 tr actor s wi th uni versal or strai ght bl ades.
CAUTION
Always keep the winch cable in a straight line behind the
machine. For safety and maximum service life of the
winch component, decelerate the engine before moving
the winch control lever. After shifting, control the cable
speed by varying the engine speed. Winch loads at low
engine speed with the machine stationary. When moving
away from a load, operate the machine in low gear to
prevent overspeeding of winch components. Do not
operate the winch for extended durations.
FM 5-434
Dozers 2-19
Figure 2-13. Estimated Maximum Production for D3 Through D6 Tractors
With Straight Blades
Figure 2-14. Estimated Maximum Production for D7 or D8 Tractors
With Universal or Straight Blades
S = straight blade Average dozing distance (feet)
S = straight blade Average dozing distance (feet)
1,600
1,400
1,200
1,000
FM 5-434
2-20 Dozers
Step 2. Determi ne the grade correcti on factor(-) favorabl e or (+) unfavorabl e.
Fi nd the percent grade on the top hori zontal scal e of Figure 2-15. Read down
verti cal l y and i ntersect the grade correcti on curve, then read to the ri ght hori -
zontal l y and l ocate the grade correcti on factor on the verti cal scal e.
Figure 2-15. Dozer-Production Grade Correction Factors
Step 3. Determi ne the materi al -wei ght correcti on factor. I f the actual uni t
wei ght of the materi al to be pushed i s not avai l abl e from soi l i nvesti gati ons, use
the average val ues found i n Table 1-2, page 1-4. Di vi de 2,300 pounds per LCY
by the materi al s LCY wei ght to fi nd the correcti on factor. Soi l densi ty of 2,300
pounds per LCY i s a constant that was assumed i n determi ni ng the maxi mum
producti on.
where
2,300 = standard material unit weight per LCY
Step 4. Determi ne the materi al -type correcti on factor. Dozer bl ades are
desi gned to cut materi al and gi ve i t a rol l i ng effect i n front of the bl ade. Thi s
resul ts i n a producti on factor of 1. Table 2-4 gi ves the correcti on factors to
account for how di fferent materi al s behave i n front of the bl ade.
Note:
(-) Favorable
(+) Unfavorable
Material-weight correction factor
2,300 pounds per LCY (standard material unit weight)
actual material LCY weight
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- =
FM 5-434
Dozers 2-21
.
Step 5. Determi ne the operator correcti on factor (see Table 2-2, page 2-7).
Step 6. Determi ne the operati ng-techni que correcti on factor fr om Table 2-5.
Step 7. Determi ne the effi ci ency factor. I n the case of a wel l -managed job,
expect 50 mi nutes of producti on ti me per hour.
Step 8. Determi ne dozer producti on.
Step 9. Determi ne the materi al conversi on factor, i f requi red. To fi nd the total
ti me (step 10) and the total number of dozers requi red to compl ete a mi ssi on
wi thi n a gi ven ti me (step 11), adjust the vol ume of mater i al that i s bei ng moved
and the equi pment producti on rate per hour so that they both represent the
same materi al state. Refer to materi al and producti on states as LCY, BCY, and
CCY. I f necessary to convert, use Table 1-1, page 1-4, to fi nd the materi al con-
versi on factor. Mul ti pl y the conversi on factor by the producti on per hour to fi nd
the producti on per hour i n a di fferent state.
NOTE: This conversion will not change the dozer production effort.
Table 2-4. Material-Type Correction Factors
Material State Factor for Crawler Tractors
Loose, stockpile 1.2
Hard to cut; frozen, with tilt cylinder
Hard to cut; frozen, without tilt cylinder
0.8
0.7
Hard to drift; dead (dry, noncohesive)
material or very sticky material
0.8
Rock (ripped or blasted) 0.6 to 0.8
Table 2-5. Operating-Technique Correction Factors
Operating Technique Factor for Crawler Tractors
Slot dozing 1.2
Side-by-side dozing 1.15 to 1.25
Efficiency factor
actual working minutes per hour
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- =
Production (LCY per hour) maximum production the product of the correction factors =
FM 5-434
2-22 Dozers
Step 10. Determi ne the total ti me requi red i n hours.
where
Q = quantity of material to be moved
P = hourly production rate per dozer
N = number of dozers
EXAMPLE
Determine the average hourly production (in CCY) of a straight-blade D7 (with tilt
cylinder) moving hard-packed clay an average distance of 200 feet, down a 10 per-
cent grade, using slot dozing. Estimated material weight is 2,500 pounds per LCY.
The operator is of average ability and will work during daylight hours. Expected effi-
ciency is 50 minutes per hour.
Step 1. Uncorrected maximum production = 300 LCY per hour (Figure 2-14, page
2-19)
Step 2. Grade correction factor = 1.15 (Figure 2-15, page 2-20)
Step 3. Material-weight correction factor
Step 4. Material-type correction factor (a hard-to-cut material) = 0.8 (Table 2-4,
page 2-21)
Step 5. Operator correction factor = 0.75 (Table 2-2, page 2-7)
Step 6. Operating-technique correction factor = 1.2 (Table 2-5, page 2-21)
Step 7.
Step 8. Dozer production
Step 9. Material conversion factor = 0.63
2,300 pounds per LCY (standard material unit weight)
2,500 pounds per LCY (actual material unit weight)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
0.92 =
=
Efficiency factor
50 working minutes per hour
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 0.83 = =
300 LCY per hour 1.15 0.92 0.8 0.75 1.2 0.83
190 LCY per hour per dozer =
=
Dozer production in CCY 0.63 190 LCY per hour 120 CCY per hour = =
Total time (hours)
Q
P N
-------------- =
EXAMPLE
Determine the total time required to move 3,000 CCY of hard-packed clay, using one D7
dozer with a production rate of 120 CCY per hour.
3,000 CCY
120 CCY per hour 1 dozen
------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 25 hours =
FM 5-434
Dozers 2-23
Step 11. Determi ne the total number of dozers requi red to compl ete the mi ssi on
wi thi n a gi ven ti me.
where
Q = quantity of material to be moved
P = hourly production rate per dozer
T = maximum allowable duration, in hours
RIPPING PRODUCTION ESTIMATES
2-40. The best method to esti mate r i ppi ng pr oducti on i s by wor k i ng a test
s ecti on an d r ecor di n g the ti me r equ i r ed an d th e pr odu cti on achi ev ed.
However , the oppor tuni ty to conduct such i nvesti gati ons i s often nonexi stent
and, ther efor e, esti mates ar e usual l y based on hi stor i cal pr oducti on char ts.
Ri ppi ng appl i cati ons wi l l i ncrease the machi nes mai ntenance r equi r ements
by 30 to 40 per cent.
QUICK METHOD
2-41. A qui ck method to determi ne an approxi mate pr oducti on r ate i s to ti me
sever al passes of a r i pper over a measur ed di stance. The ti med dur ati on
shoul d i ncl ude the tur nar ound ti me at the end of the pass. Deter mi ne an
aver age cycl e ti me fr om the ti med cycl es. Deter mi ne the quanti ty (vol ume)
fr om the measured l ength mul ti pl i ed by the wi dth of the r i pped ar ea and the
depth of penetr ati on. I f measur ements are i n feet, di vi de the number of feet by
27 to conver t cubi c feet to cubi c yards.
where
27 = factor used to convert cubic feet to cubic yards
2-42. Exper i ence has shown that the pr oducti on r ate cal cul ated by thi s qui ck
method i s about 20 per cent hi gher than an accur atel y cr oss-secti oned study.
Ther efor e, the for mul a for esti mati ng r i ppi ng producti on i s
where
V = measured volume in BCY
T = average time in hours
1.2 = method correction factor
Total number of dozers
Q
P T
------------- =
EXAMPLE
Determine how many D7 dozers (with a production rate of 120 CCY per hour) would be
needed to move 3,000 CCY of clay in seven hours.
3,000 CCY
120 CCY per hour 7 hours
------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 3.6 D7 dozers (round up to 4 dozers) =
Volume BCY
length (feet) width (feet) penetration depth (feet)
27
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- =
Ripping production (BCY per hour)
V
T 1.2
------------------ =
FM 5-434
2-24 Dozers
SEISMIC-VELOCITY METHOD
2-43. Most ri ppi ng-producti on charts are based on the rel ati onshi p between the
r i pabi l i ty and the sei smi c-wave vel oci ty response of a mater i al . The Figure 2-16
r i ppi ng per for mance char t, whi ch i s for a 300-hor sepower dozer , al l ows the
esti mator to make a deter mi nati on of the machi nes per for mance capabi l i ty
based on sei smi c vel oci ty and general rock cl assi fi cati ons. After establ i shi ng a
sei smi c vel oci ty, esti mate producti on from the producti on chart i n Figure 2-17.
Thi s char t pr ovi des a band of pr oducti on r ates r epr esenti ng i deal -to-adverse
r ock condi ti ons based on the fol l owi ng assumpti ons:
The effi ci ency factor i s 100 per cent (60-mi nute wor ki ng hour).
The power-shi ft machi nes used have si ngl e-shank r i pper s.
The machi ne r i ps ful l -ti me, no dozi ng.
The upper l i mi t of the band r efl ects ri ppi ng under i deal condi ti ons
onl y. I f condi ti ons such as thi ck l ami nati ons, ver ti cal l ami nati ons, or
other r ock str uctur al condi ti ons exi st whi ch woul d adver sel y affect
pr oducti on, use the l ower l i mi t.
2-44. Regardl ess of the sei smi c vel oci ty, tooth penetrati on i s the key to r i ppi ng
s u cces s . Th i s i s par ti cu l ar l y tr u e for h omogen eou s mater i al s s u ch as
mudstone, cl ay stone, and fi ne-grai ned cal i ches.
Figure 2-16. Ripping Performance for a 300-Horsepower Dozer
With a Single- or Multishank Ripper
Velocity in meters
per second 1,000
Velocity in feet
per second 1,000
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Topsoil
Clay
Glacial till
Igneous
Granite
Basalt
Trap rock
Sedimentary rocks
Shale
Sandstone
Siltstone
Claystone
Conglomerate
Breccia
Caliche
Limestone
Metamorphic rock
Schist
Slate
Minerals and ores
Coal
Iron ore
Ripable Marginal Nonripable
1 2 3 4 0
FM 5-434
Dozers 2-25
Figure 2-17. Estimated Ripping Production for a 300-Horsepower
Dozer With a Single-Shank Ripper
where
P = maximum production for a 300-horsepower dozer (Figure 2-17)
NOTE: Before referring to Fi gure 2-17 for determining a probable pro-
duction rate, refer to Fi gure 2-16 to verify the ripability with the equip-
ment available.
3,250
3,000
2,750
2,500
2,250
2,000
1,750
1,500
1,250
1,000
750
500
250
P
r
o
d
u
c
t
i
o
n

(
B
C
Y

p
e
r

h
o
u
r
)
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Seismic velocity (in feet per second 1,000)
Ideal
Adverse
Production (BCY per hour per dozer) P E =
EXAMPLE
Determine how many 300-horsepower dozers are needed to rip 9,000 BCY of limestone
having a seismic velocity of 4,000 feet per second in 7 hours. The limestone is bedded
in thin laminated layers. Efficiency will be a 45-minute working hour.
Maximum production for ideal conditions (thin layers) is 1,700 BCY per hour (Figure
2-17).
Efficiency-adjusted production
1,700 BCY per hour
45
60
------
1,275 BCY per hour =
=
9,000 BCY
1,275 BCY per hour 7 hours
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1,300-horsepower dozer =
FM 5-434
2-26 Dozers
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
2-45. Li sted bel ow are some speci fi c safety pr ecauti ons for dozer oper ators:
Never car ry per sonnel on the tr actor dr awbar.
Never tur n ar ound on steep sl opes; back up or down i nstead.
Keep the machi ne i n l ow gear when towi ng a heavy l oad downhi l l .
Al ways l ower the bl ades when the machi ne i s parked.
Ensur e that onl y one per son i s on the machi ne whi l e i t i s i n oper ati on.
However , i n some tr ai ni ng si tuati on s i t i s n ecessar y to have two
peopl e on a dozer whi l e i t i s i n oper ati on.
Scrapers 3-1
Chapter 3
Scrapers
The desi gn of scr aper s (tr actor scr aper s) al l ows for l oadi ng, haul i ng,
dumpi ng, and spreadi ng of l oose materi al s. Use a scraper for medi um-haul
ear thmovi ng oper ati ons and for movi ng r i pped mater i al s and shot r ock.
The haul di stance (zone of oper ati on), the l oad vol ume, and the type and
gr ade of sur face tr av el ed on ar e the pr i mar y factor s i n deter mi n i ng
whether to use a scraper on a par ti cul ar job. The opti mum haul di stance
for smal l - and medi um-si ze scraper s i s 3,000 feet or l ess.
DESCRIPTION
3-46. Fi gure 3-1, page 3-2, shows a CAT621B si ngl e-power ed-axl e wheel
scr aper . The CAT 621 i s desi gned to oper ate usi ng a push tr actor for l oadi ng
assi stance. The ai r-dr oppabl e CAT 613B wheel scr aper has a chai n-el evator
l oadi ng mechani sm that al l ows i t to l oad wi thout the assi stance of a push
tractor . The basi c operati ng par ts of a scr aper ar e these:
Bowl. The bowl i s the l oadi ng and car ryi ng component. I t has a
cutti ng edge, whi ch extends acr oss the fr ont bottom edge. Lower the
bowl unti l the cutti ng edge enters the gr ound for l oadi ng, r ai se i t for
car r yi ng, and l ower i t to the desi r ed l i ft thi ck ness for dumpi ng and
spreadi ng.
Apron. The apr on i s the front wal l of the bowl . I t i s i ndependent of
the bowl and, when r ai sed, i t pr ovi des an openi ng for l oadi ng and
spreadi ng. Lower the apr on dur i ng haul i ng to pr event spi l l age.
Ejector. The ejector i s the rear wal l of the bowl . Keep the ejector i n
the r ear posi ti on when l oadi ng and haul i ng mater i al s. Acti vate the
ejector to move for war d dur i ng spreadi ng to provi de posi ti ve di schar ge
of mater i al s.
CAPACITY
3-47. Struck capaci ty means the bowl has a ful l l oad of mater i al that i s l evel
wi th i ts si des. Heaped capaci ty means the materi al i s heaped i n the bowl and
sl opes down on a 1:1 repose sl ope to the si des of the bowl . I n pr acti ce, these
wi l l be LCY of mater i al because of how a scraper l oads. Ther efor e, l oad vol ume
i n ter ms of BCY moved depends on both the bowl si ze and the mater i al type
bei ng l oaded. The r ated vol umetr i c capaci ty of the Ar my 621B scr aper i s 14-
cubi c-yar ds str uck and 20-cubi c-yards heaped. The capaci ty of the CAT 613B
scr aper i s 11-cubi c-yar ds heaped. El evati ng scr apers, l i ke the Ar my 613, ar e
not gi ven struck capaci ty r ati ngs.
FM 5-434
3-2 Scrapers
Figure 3-18. CAT 621B Wheel Scraper
OPERATING RANGE
3-48. The opti mum haul di stance for the smal l - and medi um-si ze scr aper s i s
300 to 3,000 feet. Ther e ar e l ar ger scraper s that ar e effecti ve up to 5,000 feet.
SELECTION
3-49. A scraper i s a compr omi se between a machi ne desi gned excl usi vel y for
ei ther l oadi ng or haul i ng. For medi um-di stance movement of mater i al , a
scr aper i s better than a dozer because of i ts travel -speed advantage and i t i s
better than a truck because of i ts fast l oad ti me, typi cal l y l ess than a mi nute.
Another advan tage of th e scr aper i s that i t can spr ead i ts own l oad and
qui ckl y compl ete the dump cycl e.
PRODUCTION CYCLE
3-50. The pr oducti on cycl e for a scr aper consi sts of si x oper ati onsl oadi ng,
haul travel , dumpi ng and spr eadi ng, tur ni ng at the dump si te, retur n travel ,
and tur ni ng and posi ti oni ng to l oad. Fi gure 3-2 shows the functi ons of the
apron, bowl , and ejector dur i ng l oadi ng, haul i ng, and dumpi ng.
LOADING
3-51. The CAT 621 l oads wi th push-tractor assi stance. Thi s scraper can l oad
to a l i mi ted extent wi thout assi stance, but r equi r es push l oadi ng to achi eve
maxi mum pr oducti on. Pusher assi stance i s necessary to r educe l oadi ng ti me
and wheel spi nni ng. Reduci ng scr aper wheel spi nni ng i ncreases ti r e l i fe. The
scraper shoul d not depend on the pusher to do al l the wor k. Conver sel y, do not
spi n the scraper's wheel s to pul l away from the pusher. Use pusher assi stance
for ei ther str ai ght, downhi l l , or str addl e l oadi ng. Al ways l oad the scr aper i n
th e di r ecti on of h a u l . Do n ot tu r n th e s cr aper at th e s ame ti me i t i s
Radiator
Engine
compartment
Cab (ROPS)
Hitch Draft frame
Ejector Push block
(extends out
behind wheels)
Tractor
Apron
Bowl
FM 5-434
Scrapers 3-3
accel er ati ng fr om the l oadi n g oper ati on. Th e CAT 613 i s a sel f-l oadi ng
machi n e, and pu shi ng dur i ng l oadi ng wi l l damage the scr aper s l oadi ng
el evator .
Figure 3-19. Functions of the Apron, Bowl, and Ejector
Downhill Loading
3-52. Downhi l l l oadi ng enabl es a scr aper to obtai n l ar ger l oads i n l ess ti me.
Each 1 percent of favorabl e gr ade i s equi val ent to i ncr easi ng the l oadi ng for ce
by 20 pounds per ton of gross scraper wei ght.
Straddle Loading
3-53. Str addl e l oadi ng (Fi gure 3-3, page 3-4) r equi r es thr ee cu ts wi th a
scraper. The fi rst two cuts shoul d be paral l el , l eavi ng a ri dge between the two
cuts. The scr aper str addl es thi s r i dge of ear th to make the fi nal cut. The r i dge
shoul d be no wi der th an the di stan ce between a s cr aper 's wheel s . Wi th
str addl e l oadi ng, ti me i s gai ned on ever y thi r d tr i p because the center str i p
l oads wi th l ess r esi stance than a ful l cut.
Direction of travel
Direction of travel
Direction of travel
Apron raised
Apron lowered
Apron raised
Ejector back in rear position during loading
Bowl lowered to desired cutting depth
Loading
Bowl raised to permit free travel
Ejector back
Carrying the
load (hauling)
Ejector moves forward to empty bowl
Bowl lowered to desired spreading
Carrying the
load (hauling)
Spreading the
load
Ejector back
FM 5-434
3-4 Scrapers
Figure 3-20. Straddle Loading With Pusher Assistance
Push-Loading
3-54. Back-Track. Use the back -tr ack push-l oadi ng techni que (Fi gure 3-4)
wher e i t i s i mpr acti cal to l oad i n both di r ecti ons. However , thi s method i s
i neffi ci ent due to the ti me spent i n backi ng up and r eposi ti oni ng for the next
l oad.
3-55. Chain. Use the chai n push-l oadi ng techni que (Figure 3-4) where the cut
i s fai rl y l ong, maki ng i t possi bl e to pi ck up two or mor e scraper l oads wi thout
backtr acki ng. The pusher pushes one scr aper , then moves behi nd another
scraper that i s movi ng i n the same di r ecti on i n an adjacent l ane.
Figure 3-21. Push-Loading Techniques
Make cuts 1 and 3, leaving a center strip (2) one-half blade width.
Back-track
loading
Chain
loading
Shuttle
loading
Push-tractor (dozer)
Loading
Scraper
Loaded
Scraper
Loading
Loaded Scraper
Loading
Loaded
Scraper
Loading
Loading
FM 5-434
Scrapers 3-5
3-56. Shuttle. Use the shuttl e push-l oadi ng techni que (Figure 3-4) for shor t
cuts wher e i t i s possi bl e to l oad i n both di r ecti ons. The pusher pushes one
scraper, then turns and pushes a second scr aper i n the opposi te di r ecti on.
Cut-and-Load Sequence
3-57. The scraper l oadi ng sequence i s as fol l ows:
Step 1. Use the servi ce br ake to reduce scraper travel speed when cl ose to the
cut (l oadi ng l ane), and downshi ft to fi rst gear for l oadi ng.
Step 2. Move the ejector to the rear.
Step 3. Open the apron partway.
Step 4. Lower the bowl to an effi ci ent cut depth after the scraper enters the cut.
Conti nue movi ng forward unti l the dozer contacts the scraper and begi ns push-
i ng. I f the scraper ti res spi n before the dozer makes contact, stop and al l ow the
dozer to assi st. When the dozer makes contact, push down both the di fferenti al
l ock and the transmi ssi on hol d pedal and proceed i n second gear. The cut shoul d
be as deep as possi bl e, but i t shoul d al l ow the scraper to move forward at a con-
stant speed wi thout l uggi ng the engi ne. Decrease the cut depth i f the scr aper or
pusher l ugs or i f the dri ve wheel s sl i p. Use the router bi ts on the verti cal si de of
the bowl to gauge the depth of cut. Once an effi ci ent depth of cut i s determi ned,
use that same depth on successi ve passes.
Step 5. Mar k the cut. When cutti ng
Regul ate the apron openi ng to pr event mater i al from pi l i ng up i n front
of the l i p or fal l i ng out of the bowl .
Keep the machi ne movi ng i n a str ai ght l i ne whi l e mai ntai ni ng pusher
and scraper al i gnment.
Do not over l oad the scr aper. Overl oadi ng l owers effi ci ency and pl aces
unnecessary stresses on the machi ne.
Rai se and l ower the bowl r api dl y when l oadi ng l oose materi al such as
sand.
NOTE: When a push tractor is used, it should be waiting about 45 off
of the lane to be cut. This allows the loading unit to come in with the
least delay and difficulty.
Step 6. Rai se the bowl sl owl y when ful l , whi l e at the same ti me cl osi ng the
apron to prevent spi l l age.
Step 7. Al l ow the pusher to hel p the machi ne out of the cut area, i f necessary.
NOTE: When exiting the cut, release the transmission hold and/or the
differential lock, if in use. Accelerate to travel speed as quickly as pos-
sible. Travel a few feet before lifting the bowl to the carrying position.
This spreads any loose material piled up in front of the bowl and
allows the following scraper to maintain speed.
Materials
3-58. Loam and Clay. . Loam and most cl ay soi l s cut easi l y and rapi dl y wi th
mi ni mum effor t. However , l oosen ver y har d cl ay wi th a dozer r i pper befor e
l oadi ng.
FM 5-434
3-6 Scrapers
3-59. Sand. Si nce sand has l i ttl e or no cohesi on between i ts par ti cl es, i t has a
tendency to r un ahead of the scraper bl ade and apr on. The condi ti on i s wor se
for fi ner and dri er parti cl es. When l oadi ng sand, the best method i s as fol l ows:
Step 1. Enter the l oadi ng area fast, l oweri ng the bowl sl owl y, and pi ck up as
much materi al as possi bl e usi ng the momentum of the scraper uni t. Thi s wi l l
fi l l the hard-to-reach rear area of the bowl .
Step 2. Shi ft to a l ower gear once the momentum i s l ost, and al l ow the pusher
to assi st.
Step 3. Pump the bowl up and down (Figure 3-5). For best pumpi ng resul ts,
drop the bowl as the scrapers rear wheel s rol l i nto the depr essi on of the previ -
ousl y pumped area and rai se the bowl as the wheel s are cl i mbi ng out of the
depressi on.
Step 4. Drop the bowl sharpl y two or three ti mes at the end of the l oadi ng area
to top out the l oad. Then cl ose the apron, rai se the bowl , and exi t the cut ar ea.
Figure 3-22. Pumping a Scraper Bowl to Load Sand
3-60. Rock and Shale. Loadi ng r ock and shal e wi th a scr aper i s a di ffi cul t
task that causes sever e wear and tear on the equi pment. Ri ppi ng wi l l ease
thi s probl em. Ri ppi ng depth shoul d exceed the depth of the scraper cut. When
l oadi ng the scr aper , l eave a l oose l ayer of r i pped mater i al under the ti r es to
provi de better tracti on and to reduce both tr ack and ti r e wear . Some soft r ock
and shal e can be l oaded wi thout ri ppi ng.
3-61. Star t th e scr aper s cutti n g edge i n di r t (i f poss i bl e) when l oadi ng
str ati fi ed r ock. Move i n to catch the bl ade i n pl anes of l ami nati on. Thi s forces
mater i al i nto the bowl . Pi ck up l oose rock or shal e on the l evel or on a sl i ght
upgr ade, wi th the bl ade fol l owi ng the l ami nati on pl anes.
Load Time
3-62. Loadi ng ti me i s cr i ti cal for obtai ni ng maxi mum scraper pr oducti on. Push
l oadi ng shoul d nor mal l y take l ess than one mi nute wi thi n a di stance of 100
feet (ti me and di stance change wi th the mater i al bei ng l oaded). Studi es of l oad
vol ume ver sus l oadi ng ti me i ndi cate that for a nor mal oper ati on, about 85
percent of scr aper l oad capaci ty i s achi eved i n the fi rst 0.5 mi nute of l oadi ng.
Another 0.5 mi nute wi l l onl y pr oduce about another 12 per cent i ncr ease i n
FM 5-434
Scrapers 3-7
l oad vol ume. Ther efor e, extr a l oadi ng ti me (past about one mi nute) i s not
worth the effect because i ncr eased total cycl e ti me wi l l decrease producti on.
Borrow-Pit Operation
3-63. I t i s essenti al to have hi ghl y competent per sonnel i n the bor row-pi t area.
Tr affi c contr ol wi thi n the bor r ow-pi t ar ea r educes wai ti ng ti me and excess
tr avel of ear th mov i n g s u ppor t u n i ts . Mai n tai n i n g adequ ate dr ai n age
thr oughout the bor row pi t wi l l reduce downti me caused by bad weather .
HAULING
3-64. Haul i ng, or tr avel ti me, i ncl udes the haul ti me and the r etur n ti me.
Her e the power an d tr acti on char acter i sti cs of the scr aper become ver y
i mportant. The fol l owi ng factor s can gr eatl y effect tr avel ti me.
Haul-Route Location
3-65. Lay out the haul r outes to el i mi nate unnecessary maneuveri ng. Pl an the
j ob to av oi d adv er s e gr ades th at cou l d dr as ti cal l y r edu ce pr odu cti on .
Remember , wher e grades permi t, the shortest di stance between two poi nts i s
al ways a str ai ght l i ne.
Road Maintenance
3-66. Keep haul roads i n good condi ti on. A wel l -mai ntai ned haul road permi ts
travel i ng at hi gher speeds, i ncr eases safety, and r educes oper ator fati gue and
equi pment wear.
Ruts and rough surfaces. Use a grader or dozer to el i mi nate r uts
an d r ou gh (was h boar d) s u r faces . (See Chapter 4 for h au l -r oad
mai ntenance wi th a gr ader.)
Dust. Use water di str i butor s to reduce dust. Reduci ng the amount of
du st hel ps al l evi ate addi ti onal mechani cal wear , pr ovi des better
vi si bi l i ty, and l essens the chance of acci dents. Keepi ng r oads moi st
(bu t n ot wet) a l l ows th em to pack i n to h ar d, s mooth s u r faces
permi tti ng hi gher travel speeds.
Travel Conditions
3-67. Once on the haul r oad, the scraper shoul d travel i n the hi ghest safe gear
appropri ate for r oad condi ti ons. When possi bl e, car r y the scr aper bowl fai r l y
cl ose to the ground (about 18 i nches). Thi s l ower s the center of gravi ty of the
scraper and r educes the chance of overturni ng.
Lugging. Avoi d unnecessar y l uggi ng of the engi ne. Downshi ft when
l osi ng momentum. Luggi ng the engi ne usual l y r esul ts i n a sl ower
speed than the top range of the next l ower gear. Al though the machi ne
can mak e i t, i t i s best to downshi ft and accel er ate faster . Luggi ng
causes a decr ease i n engi ne r evol uti ons per mi nute (r pm) ther eby
r educi ng hydr aul i c pr essur e. Thi s wi l l r esul t i n a l oss of steer i ng
control .
Coasting. Never coast on a downgrade. When appr oachi ng a
downgr ade, sl ow down and downshi ft the tr ansmi ssi on. To pr event
unwanted upshi fti ng, use the transmi ssi on hol d on a downgr ade i f i t i s
avai l abl e. Al so, use i t when appr oachi ng an upgr ade or i n r ough
FM 5-434
3-8 Scrapers
underfooti ng. To control speed on a downgr ade, use the r etar der and
ser vi ce br akes. Engi ne speed shoul d not exceed the manufactur er s
recommended rpm.
DUMPING AND SPREADING
3-68. When dumpi ng, l ower the bowl to the desi r ed l i ft hei ght and open the
apr on at the begi nni ng of the dump ar ea. Dump and spr ead i n the hi ghest
gear per mi tted by haul -r oad condi ti ons and fi l l -mater i al char acter i sti cs.
Constant speed, al ong wi th bowl hei ght, wi l l hel p to mai ntai n a uni for m depth
of l i ft. Sl owl y dr i bbl i ng the l oad at l ow speed sl ows down the cycl e.
Dumping Procedure
Step 1. Move steadi l y across the spreadi ng area.
Step 2. Open the apron ful l y as the scraper reaches the l ocati on to begi n dump-
i ng. Move the ejector forward to push the materi al out of the bowl .
Step 3. Mai ntai n a strai ght path through the spread area.
Step 4. Cl ose the apron when al l the materi al i s out of the bowl , and return the
ejector to the rear of the bowl .
Step 5. Rai se the bowl sl owl y to cl ear obstacl es (12 to 18 i nches) duri ng the
return tri p to the l oadi ng area.
Spreading Sequence (Fi gur e 3-6)
Step 1. Dump and spread the fi rst l oad at the front of the fi l l .
Step 2. Travel wi th subsequent l oads over the previ ous fi l l , provi ded the l i fts
are shal l ow.
Step 3. Start each fol l owi ng dump at the end of the previ ous fi l l .
Step 4. Fi ni sh dumpi ng and spreadi ng one ful l l ane before starti ng a new one
so that rol l ers can star t compacti on.
Step 5. Repeat thi s method i n the next l ane. Do not waste ti me on the fi l l . The
scraper shoul d return to the cut area as fast as possi bl e after dumpi ng the l oad.
Pl an the egress from the fi l l area to avoi d soft ground or detours ar ound trees or
other obstacl es.
NOTE: Route the scrapers to compact the fill. Overlap wheel paths to
aid in compaction of the entire area and to reduce compaction time for
rollers.
CAUTION
Do not try to force wet or sticky material out of the bowl
too fast. This will cause the material to roll up in front,
which can damage the hydraulic system.
FM 5-434
Scrapers 3-9
Figure 3-23. Spreading Sequence
Fill Slope
3-69. To mai ntai n the desi r ed fi l l sl ope, mak e the fi l l hi gh on the outsi de
edges. Thi s wi l l prevent the scr aper fr om sl i di ng over the sl ope and damagi ng
the sl ope. I f ther e i s r ai n, bui l d up the l ow center for drai nage, or use a grader
to cut the outsi de edge down, cr eati ng a cr own i n the mi ddl e of the ar ea.
Materials
3-70. Di ffe r e n t ma ter i a l s r equ i r e di ffer en t du mp i n g an d s pr ea di n g
procedures.
3-71. Sand. Spr ead sand as thi n as possi bl e to al l ow better compacti on and to
make tr avel i ng over the fi l l easi er.
3-72. Wet or Sticky Material. Wet or sti ck y mater i al may be di ffi cul t to
unl oad or spr ead. When operati ng i n these mater i al types
Do not try to spr ead the mater i al too thi n.
Keep the bowl hi gh enough to al l ow the materi al to pass under the
scr aper . Mater i al not havi ng enough r oom to pass under the scr aper
wi l l r ol l up i nsi de the bowl i nto a sol i d mass that i s di ffi cul t to eject.
Bri ng the ejector for war d about 12 i nches at a ti me.
Back the ejector about 6 i nches after each forward movement. Thi s
breaks the sucti on between the materi al and the bowl .
Repeat thi s procedure unti l the bowl i s empty.
3-73. Fol l owi ng i s an expl anati on of producti on esti mati ng based on a step-by-
s tep meth od u s i n g th e CAT 621B s cr aper . Wh en dev el opi n g data for
producti on esti mates, consi der al l factor s that i nfl uence pr oducti on. Consi der
the scr apers wei ght, the wei ght of the l oad, and the average grade and r ol l i ng
resi stance of both the haul and return routes i n ar ri vi ng at a cycl e ti me. The
8
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2
3
4
5
6
7
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FM 5-434
3-10 Scrapers
same steps ar e appl i cabl e to other mak es and model s of scr aper s, usi ng the
appropri ate tabl es and charts for those scr aper s.
Step 1. Determi ne the vehi cl e wei ght, empty and l oaded.
Empty vehicle weight (EVW), in tons. Usi ng Table 3-1, fi rst
determi ne the EVW fr om the EVW col umn based on the speci fi c make
and model of the scr aper.
Weight of load, in tons. Determi ne the wei ght of the l oad i n pounds
by determi ni ng the scr aper l oad vol ume i n cubi c yards (thi s i s i n LCY
of the materi al ) and the mater i al uni t wei ght (i n pounds per LCY). I f
no speci fi c mater i al -wei ght data i s avai l abl e, use the i nfor mati on i n
Table 1-2, page 1-4, as an esti mate. Mul ti pl y the scraper l oad vol ume
by the uni t wei ght i n pounds per LCY of the materi al to be excavated.
Then, conver t the r esul ti ng wei ght i nto tons by di vi di ng the amount
by 2,000.
Loaded or gross vehicle weight (GVW). Determi ne the GVW by
addi ng the EVW (tons) and the wei ght of l oad (tons).
Table 3-6. Scraper Specifications
Make and Model
Heaped Capacity
(Cubic Yards) EVW (Tons)
CAT 613B 11 15.6
CAT 621B 20 33.3
Weight of load (pounds) scraper load volume (LCY) material unit weight (pounds per LCY) =
Weight of load (tons)
weight of load (pounds)
2 000 ,
------------------------------------------------------------------- =
GVW (tons) EVW (tons) weight of load (tons) + =
EXAMPLE
Determine the GVW of a CAT 621B single-powered scraper with a 20 LCY load of dry
loam.
From Table 1-2, dry loam is 1,900 to 2,200 pounds per LCY. Use an average value of
2,050 pounds per LCY.
Weight of load (tons)
20 LCY 2,050 pounds per LCY
2,000 pounds per ton
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 20.5 tons = =
EVW 33.3 tons =
GVW 33.3 tons 20.5 tons + 53.8 tons = =
FM 5-434
Scrapers 3-11
Step 2. Determi ne the average grade (i n percent) and the di stance (i n feet) for
both the haul and return routes. Uphi l l grades ar e posi ti ve (+) and downhi l l
grades are negati ve (-). Obtai n thi s i nformati on from a mass di agram or a haul -
route profi l e.
Step 3. Determi ne the rol l i ng resi stance (i n pounds). Rol l i ng resi stance i s the
force resi sti ng the movement of a vehi cl e on l evel ground. Thi s i s pri mari l y
caused by the ti res penetrati ng the r oads surface, the ti res fl exi ng, and i nternal
gear fri cti on (Figure3-7, page 3-12). Express the rol l i ng resi stance for a gi ven
road surface i n pounds per ton of vehi cl e wei ght. Table 3-2, page 3-12, gi ves
some r epr esentati ve rol l i ng-resi stance val ues for var i ous types of road surfaces.
I f the expected ti re penetrati on i s known, determi ne the rol l i ng resi stance for
the haul and the return usi ng the fol l owi ng formul as:
where
40 = constant that represents the flexing of the driving mechanism, in
pounds per ton
30 = constant that represents the force required to climb out of the rut, in
pounds per ton per inch
TP = tire penetration, in inches (may be different for the haul and the
return)
EXAMPLE
The project mass diagram indicates that there is a 5 percent downhill grade from cut
to fill and that the one-way distance is 800 feet. The same route will be used for both
the haul and the return.
Haul:
Average grade = -5 percent
Distance = 800 feet
Return:
Average grade = +5 percent
Distance = 800 feet
RR
Haul
40 30 TP [ ] + ( ) GVW =
RR
Return
40 30 TP [ ] + ( ) EVW =
RR
Haul
haul rolling resistance, in pounds =
RR
Return
return rolling resistance, in pounds =
EXAMPLE
Determine the rolling resistance (haul and return) for a CAT 621B scraper carrying a
20.5-ton load if the tire penetration during the haul is 3 inches and the tire penetration
on the return is 1 inch.
RR
Haul
40 30 3 inches [ ] + ( ) 53.8 tons 6,994 pounds = =
RR
Return
40 30 1 inch [ ] + ( ) 33.3 tons 2,331 pounds = =
FM 5-434
3-12 Scrapers
Figure 3-24. Rolling Resistance
Step 4. Determi ne the grade resi stance or the grade assi stance. Grade r esi s-
tance i s the opposi ng force of gravi ty that a vehi cl e must overcome to move
uphi l l . Grade assi stance i s the hel pi ng for ce of gravi ty that pul l s a vehi cl e down-
hi l l . For uphi l l (adverse) grades, the vehi cl e needs more power to move as i t
must overcome both rol l i ng and grade r esi stance. For downhi l l (favorabl e)
grades, the hel pi ng force of gravi ty produces addi ti onal pounds of pul l to propel
the vehi cl e. I ndi cate adverse grades by a pl us (+) and favorabl e grades by a
mi nus (-). I n earthmovi ng, measure grades i n percent of sl ope. Thi s i s the rati o
between the verti cal ri se or fal l , and the hori zontal di stance i n whi ch the ri se or
fal l occurs. For i nstance, a ri se of 1 foot i n a 20-foot hori zontal di stance i s a +5
Table 3-7. Representative Rolling-Resistance Values
Road Condition
Resistance Value
(Pounds Per Ton)
Hard, smooth surface with no tire penetration (well
maintained)
40
Firm, smooth surface, flexing slightly under load
(well maintained)
65
Flexible dirt roadway (irregular surface):
With about 1 inch of tire penetration
With up to 4 inches of tire penetration
100
150
Soft, muddy roadway (irregular surface or sand)
with over 6 inches of tire penetration
220 to 400
Hard ground
Low penetration
Low rolling resistance
Soft ground
High penetration
High rolling resistance
FM 5-434
Scrapers 3-13
percent grade ( ). Use the fol l owi ng formul a to determi ne the grade
resi stance or gr ade assi stance:
Therefore
where
GR(+) = grade resistance, in pounds
GA(-) = grade assistance, in pounds
20 = constant that represents 20 pounds per ton of vehicle weight per
degree of slope
NOTE: Enter the percent grade as a percent not as a decimal.
Step 5. Determi ne the ri mpul l requi red. Ri mpul l r equi r ed i s a measure of the
force needed (i n pounds) to overcome the vehi cl es rol l i ng resi stance and grade
assi stance/grade resi stance. Use the fol l owi ng formul a to determi ne the ri mpul l
requi red:
where
RPR = rimpull required, in pounds
RR = rolling resistance, in pounds
GA(-) = grade assistance, in pounds
GR(+) = grade resistance, in pounds
1 20 100
GR(+) or GA(-) 20 percent grade vehicle weight (tons) =
GR(+)
Haul
or GA(-)
Haul
20 percent grade GVW (tons) =
GR(+)
Return
or GA(-)
Return
20 percent grade EVW (tons) =
EXAMPLE
Determine the grade resistance and grade assistance for a CAT 621B scraper carry-
ing a 20.5-ton load on a -5 percent grade from cut to fill.
GA(-)
Haul
20 (-5 percent) 53.8 tons (GVW) -5,380 pounds = =
GR(+)
Return
20 (+5 percent) 33.3 tons (EVW) +3,330 pounds = =
RPR RR GA(-) or GR(+) + =
EXAMPLE
Determine the rimpull required on the haul and return based on the following data:
RR
Haul
= 6,994 pounds; GA(-) = -5,380 pounds
RR
Return
= 2,331 pounds; GR(+) = +3,330 pounds
RPR
Haul
6,994 pounds (-5,380) pounds + 1,614 pounds = =
RPR
Return
2,331 pounds (+3,330) pounds + 5,661 pounds = =
FM 5-434
3-14 Scrapers
Avai l abl e r i mpul l i s the amount of force that can actual l y be devel oped as l i m-
i ted by tracti on. The engi ne may be abl e to devel op the ri mpul l , but the ri mpul l
must be abl e to be transferred at the poi nt where the ti re touches the ground.
Therefore, requi red ri mpul l must al ways be l ess than avai l abl e ri mpul l , or there
wi l l be ti re sl i ppage and the work wi l l not be accompl i shed.
Step 6. Determi ne the travel speed.
The tr avel speed of a pi ece of equi pment i s the maxi mum speed at
whi ch the vehi cl e can devel op the r i mpul l r equi r ed to over come the
opposi ng for ces of gr ade and r ol l i ng r esi stance. The manufactur er
nor mal l y pr ovi des thi s i nformati on i n tabl es or char ts. Figures 3-8 and
3-9 show r i mpul l charts for the CAT 621B and the CAT 613B.
To determi ne the travel speed, l ocate the r i mpul l r equi r ed for ei ther
the haul or return on the l eft si de of the char t. Read to the r i ght unti l
i nter secti ng the l i ne repr esenti ng the hi ghest gear whi ch can achi eve
th at amou n t of r i mpu l l . Read down fr om th e gear i n ter s ect to
determi ne the maxi mum travel speed.
NOTE: Determine the travel speed for both the haul and the return.
Figure 3-25. Speed Chart for the CAT 621B
Speed (mph)
FM 5-434
Scrapers 3-15
Figure 3-26. Speed Chart for the CAT 613B
NOTE: If computed travel speed (either haul or return) exceeds the
units standing operating procedure (SOP) maximum allowable speed,
determine the travel time based on the maximum allowable speed in
the SOP.
Speed (mph)
EXAMPLE
Determine the maximum travel speed for a CAT 621B scraper, based on the following
data.
RPR
Haul
= 1,614 pounds
RPR
Return
= 5,661 pounds
First, determine the travel speed for the haul. Refer to Figure 3-8 and locate 1,614
pounds on the scale. This is below the lowest scale number of 2,000 pounds so use
the bottom line on the rimpull scale. Read right to determine travel gear (eighth gear)
and down to determine travel speed (31 miles per hour [mph]).
Second, determine the travel speed for the return. Refer to Figure 3-8 and locate
5,661 pounds (interpolate between 5,000 and 6,000 on the rimpull scale). Read right
to determine travel gear (seventh gear) and down to determine travel speed (17 mph).
FM 5-434
3-16 Scrapers
Step 7. Determi ne the total travel ti me. Total tr avel ti me i s the sum of the ti me
i t takes the vehi cl e to compl ete one haul and one return.
where
TT = travel time
Fi rst, determi ne the haul tr avel ti me.
where
TT = travel time, in minutes
88 = conversion factor used to convert mph into feet per minute (fpm)
Second, deter mi ne the return travel ti me (i n mi nutes).
where
TT = travel time, in minutes
88 = conversion factor used to convert mph into fpm
NOTE: The haul and return routes are not always the same. Be sure to
use the correct haul distance for each computation.
Step 8. Determi ne the cycl e ti me.
The cycl e ti me i s the sum of the total travel ti me and the ti me
requi red for l oadi ng, dumpi ng, tur ni ng at the dump si te, and tur ni ng
and posi ti oni ng to l oad, pl us the ti me to accel er ate/decel erate duri ng
the haul and return.
The aver age dump ti me for scraper s havi ng a heaped capaci ty of l ess
than 25 cubi c yards i s 0.3 mi nute. The type or si ze of the scraper does
not si gni fi cantl y affect the tur ni ng ti me. Average tur ni ng ti me i n the
cut i s 0.3 mi nute and 0.21 mi nute on the fi l l . The cut turni ng ti me i s
sl i ghtl y hi gher because of congesti on i n the ar ea and the necessi ty of
spotti ng for l oadi ng. Therefore, for both the CAT 613 and the CAT 621
scr aper s, al l ow 0.81 mi nute for dumpi ng, tur ni ng at the dump si te,
Total TT TT
Haul
TT
Return
+ =
TT
Haul
average haul distance (feet)
88 travel speed
Haul
------------------------------------------------------------------------------- =
TT
Return
average return distance (feet)
88 travel speed
Return
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ =
EXAMPLE
Determine the total travel time for a CAT 621B based on a haul speed of 31 mph, a
return speed of 17 mph, and a haul distance of 800 feet. The units SOP limits scraper
travel speed to 25 mph.
Determine the haul and the return travel time.
Determine the total travel time.
TT
Haul
800 feet
88 25 mph
---------------------------------- 0.36 minute = =
TT
Return
800 feet
88 17 mph
---------------------------------- 0.54 minute = =
Total TT 0.36 minute 0.54 minute + 0.9 minute = =
FM 5-434
Scrapers 3-17
and turni ng at the l oad si te. The questi on of the ti me for l oadi ng i s the
consequenti al var i abl e.
A good aver age ti me for l oadi ng the CAT 621 wi th a D8 or equi val ent-
si ze push tr actor i s 0.85 mi nute. Modi fy the ti me for l oadi ng or the
assumed l oad vol ume i f usi ng a smal l er push tr actor . Wi th a D7,
expect l oad ti mes appr oachi ng 1 mi nute. The sel f-l oadi ng CAT 613
requi r es 0.9 mi nute to l oad i n good materi al . Good means l oam, l oose
cl ay, or sandy materi al . Encounteri ng ti ght mater i al s wi l l i ncrease the
l oadi ng dur ati on. To determi ne the turn-and-dump ti me and the l oad
ti me for a speci al pi ece of equi pment, ti me the equi pment as i t goes
thr ough a few cycl es.
where
CT = total scraper cycle time, in minutes
TT = travel time
TD = total turn and dump time
LT = load time
Step 9. Determi ne the tri ps per hour. To determi ne the number of tri ps per
hour, di vi de the worki ng mi nutes per hour by the cycl e ti me. Normal l y there are
about 50 mi nutes per hour of producti ve ti me on a wel l -managed scraper job.
However, i f the cut i s i n a ti ght area such as a di tch or i f the embankment i s a
narrow bri dge header, the esti mator shoul d consi der l oweri ng the producti ve
ti me to a 45-mi nute worki ng hour.
where
TPH = trips per hour
CT total TT TD LT + + =
EXAMPLE
Determine the cycle time for a CAT 621B scraper with a D7 push tractor based on a
travel time of 0.9 minute and an average turn and dump and load time.
CT (minutes) = 0.9 minute + 0.81 minute + 1 minute = 2.71 minutes
TPH
working minutes per hour
CT
------------------------------------------------------------------------- =
EXAMPLE
Determine how many trips per hour a CAT 621B can make based on a 50-minute
working hour and a cycle time of 2.71 minutes per trip.
TPH
50 minutes
2.71 minutes per trip
---------------------------------------------------------- 18.5 trips = =
FM 5-434
3-18 Scrapers
Step 10. Determi ne the hourl y pr oducti on rate. To determi ne the hourl y pro-
ducti on rate, the average si ze of the l oad (i n LCY) and the number of tri ps per
hour must be known. The capaci ty of the scraper, the materi al type, and the
method of l oadi ng wi l l determi ne the average si ze of l oad.
where
P = hourly production rate, in LCY per hour
TPH = trips per hour
NOTE: To convert from LCY to either BCY or CCY, multiply the pro-
duction rate by a soil conversion factor from Tabl e 1-1, page 1-4.
where
P = hourly production rate
Step 11. Determi ne the total ti me i n hours requi red to compl ete the mi ssi on. To
determi ne the total ti me requi red to compl ete a mi ssi on, the total vol ume to
move, the hourl y producti on rate, and the number of scr apers to be used on the
job must be known.
where
Q = total volume to move, in BCY
P = hourly production rate, in BCY per hour
N = number of scrapers
P TPH average LCY per load =
P (BCY per hour or CCY per hour) P (LCY per hour) conversion factor =
EXAMPLE
Determine the hourly production rate in BCY per hour for a CAT 621B working in
loam, making 18.5 trips per hour, with an average load of 20 LCY.
P (LCY per hour) 18.5 TPH 20 LCY per load 370 LCY per hour = =
P (BCY per hour) 370 LCY per hour 0.8 296 BCY per hour = =
Total time (hours)
Q
P N
-------------- =
EXAMPLE
Determine how many hours it would take to move 19,440 BCY, using three CAT 621B
scrapers, each with an hourly production rate of 296 BCY per hour.
Total time (hours)
19 440 ,
296 BCY per hour 3
------------------------------------------------------------- 22 hours = =
FM 5-434
Scrapers 3-19
I f i t i s necessary to compl ete the job i n a speci fi ed ti me, use the same basi c for-
mul a to deter mi ne the requi red number of scrapers.
where
Q = total volume to move, in BCY
P = hourly production rate, in BCY per hour
H = required number of hours
Step 12. Determi ne the number of push tractors requi r ed. The number of push
tractors requi red i s a rati o of the scraper cycl e ti me to the push-tractor cycl e
ti me. The sel f-l oadi ng CAT 613 does not use a push tractor, so thi s part of the
anal ysi s i s not necessary when usi ng sel f-l oadi ng scrapers.
where
N = number of push tractors required
PT = total pusher cycle time, in minutes
Load ti me (di scussed i n step 8). A CAT 621B l oadi ng wi th a D7 push
tr actor r equi r es about 1 mi nute to l oad. Thi s i s the ti me the push
tractor i s i n contact wi th the scr aper.
Push-tractor cycl e ti me. Once a scr aper l oad ti me has been
deter mi ned, use the fol l owi ng for mul a to deter mi ne the push-tr actor
cycl e ti me.
PT = (1.4 x LT) + 0.25
where
PT = total push-tractor cycle time
1.4 = constant that represents scraper load time and push-tractor
travel time between scrapers
LT = load time
0.25 = constant that represents push-tractor positioning time
At thi s poi nt, the number of scrapers that a si ngl e push tractor wi l l support can
be determi ned.
Number of scrapers required
Q
P H
-------------- =
N
CT
PT
-------- =
EXAMPLE
Determine how many CAT 621B scrapers a single push tractor can support if the
scraper cycle time is 2.71 minutes and the scraper load time is 1 minute.
PT 1.4 1 ( ) 0.25 1.65 minutes = + =
Number of scrapers
2.71 minutes
1.65 minutes
------------------------------------ 1.64 scrapers = =
FM 5-434
3-20 Scrapers
Thi s exampl e shows that the push-tractor cycl e ti me wi l l control the producti on
when usi ng onl y one push tr actor and more than one scraper on the project. The
push-tractor producti on formul a i s
where
P = hourly production rate, in LCY per hour
PT = total push-tractor cycle time, in minutes
As was done i n step 10, convert the producti on i nto BCY or CCY by usi ng the
Table 1-1, page 1-4, soi l conversi on factors.
NOTE: If the incorrect assumption was made that one pusher could
handle two scrapers, the production would have been calculated at 590
BCY per hour.
where
P = hourly production rate
Once the number of scrapers that one push tractor can support has been deter-
mi ned, use the fol l owi ng for mul a to determi ne how many push tr actors are
needed to support the job i f usi ng addi ti onal scrapers.
P
working minutes per hour
PT
------------------------------------------------------------------------- scraper load (LCY) =
EXAMPLE
Determine what the production will be in BCY if a single push tractor, with a cycle time
of 1.65 minutes supports two CAT 621B scrapers hauling 20 LCY of loam. Assume a
50-minute working hour. The scrapers have a cycle time of 2.71 minutes.
Therefore, if using only one push tractor, the pusher cycle time will control production.
Number of scrapers one pusher can support
2.71 minutes
1.65 minutes
------------------------------------ 1.64 scrapers = =
P (BCY per hour)
50
1.65
----------- 20 LCY 0.8 485 BCY per hour = =
P (BCY per hour)
50 minutes
2.71 minutes
------------------------------------ 2 scrapers 20 LCY 0.8 590 BCY per hour = =
Number of push tractors required
number of scrapers on job
number of scrapers a push tractor can support
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- =
EXAMPLE
Determine how many push tractors are required on a job that has nine 621B scrapers,
if a single push tractor can support 1.64 scrapers.
Number of push tractors required
9 scrapers
1.64 scrapers per push tractor
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 6 push tractors = =
Graders 4-1
Chapter 4
Graders
Gr ader s ar e mul ti pur pose machi nes used for gr adi ng, shapi ng, bank
sl opi ng, and di tchi ng. They ar e used for mi xi ng, spr eadi ng, si de casti ng,
l ev el i ng and cr own i ng, gener al cons tr u cti on , and r oad an d r u nway
ma i n ten a n ce. Gr a der s ca n n ot per for m dozer wor k beca u s e of th e
str uctur al str ength and l ocati on of i ts bl ade. However , they can move
smal l amounts of materi al . They are capabl e of worki ng on sl opes as steep
as 3:1. Gr ader s ar e capabl e of pr ogr essi vel y cutti ng di tches to a depth of
3 feet.
GRADER COMPONENTS
4-1. The components of the gr ader that do the work ar e the bl ade and
the scar i fi er . The bl ades posi ti on and pi tch ar e adjustabl e and ar e
determi ned by the type of oper ati on bei ng performed.
BLADE
4-2. The maj or component of a gr ader bl ade i s a hydr aul i cal l y contr ol l ed
mol dboar d to whi ch the cutti ng edges ar e bol ted. Use the bl ade (Figure 4-1,
page 4-2) to si de cast materi al . The ends of the bl ade can be rai sed or l owered
together or i ndependentl y of one another .
Blade Position
4-3. The bl ade can be angl ed per pendi cul ar to the l i ne of tr avel or paral l el to
the di r ecti on of tr avel . I t can al so be shi fted to ei ther si de or r ai sed i nto a
verti cal posi ti on (Figure 4-2, page 4-3).
Blade Pitch
4-4. The bl ade can be pi tched for war d or back war d (Fi gure 4-3, page 4-3).
Keep the bl ade near the center of the pi tch adjustment; thi s keeps the top of
the mol dboar d di r ectl y over the cutti ng edge of the bl ade. Pi tchi ng the bl ade
for war d decr eases the bl ades cutti ng abi l i ty and i ncr eases the dr aggi ng
acti on. The bl ade wi l l tend to ri de over the materi al rather than cut and push,
and i t has l ess chance of catchi ng on sol i d obstructi ons. Use a for war d pi tch to
make l i ght, r api d cuts and to bl end mater i al s. When the bl ade i s pi tched to
the rear , i t cuts readi l y but the materi al tends to boi l over i tsel f.
SCARIFIER
4-5. Use a scari fi er (see Figure 4-1) to break up materi al too har d for the bl ade
to cut. A scar i fi er has 11 r emov abl e teeth that can be adj u sted to cut a
maxi mum depth of 12 i nches. When oper ati ng i n har d mater i al , i t may be
necessar y to r emove some of the teeth from the scari fi er . Do not remove more
FM 5-434
4-2 Graders
than fi ve teeth because the for ce agai nst the r emai ni ng teeth coul d shear
th em off. Wh en r emovi ng teeth , tak e the center on e ou t fi r s t an d then
al ter natel y r emov e the other four teeth. Thi s bal an ces the scar i fi er and
di str i butes the l oad evenl y. Wi th the top of the scar i fi er pi tched to the r ear ,
the teeth l i ft and tear the mater i al bei ng l oosened. Use thi s posi ti on for
breaki ng up asphal t pavement. Adjust the pi tch of the scari fi er for the type of
materi al bei ng ri pped.
ROAD AND DITCH CONSTRUCTION
4-6. Road gr adi ng, embankment fi ni sh wor k, and shal l ow-di tch constr ucti on
are basi c grader operati ons.
MARKING FOR A DITCH CUT
4-7. For better grader control and str ai ghter di tches, make a 3- to 4-i nch-deep
mar ki ng cut on the fi r st pass (Figure 4-4, page 4-4) at the outer edge of the
bank sl ope (usual l y i denti fi ed by sl ope stakes). The toe of the bl ade shoul d be
i n l i ne wi th the outsi de edge of the l ead wheel . Thi s mar ki ng cut pr ovi des a
gui de for subsequent operati ons.
Figure 4-1. Grader
Articulation pin
Scarifier
Circle
Blade
(cutting edges
bolted to the
moldboard)
Moldboard
Centershift
FM 5-434
Graders 4-3
Figure 4-2. Blade Positions
Figure 4-3. Blade Pitch
V-ditch cut
Flat-bottom ditch cut
Wide-side reach
High-bank cut
L
i
g
h
t

c
u
t
s

a
n
d

b
l
e
n
d
i
n
g

m
a
t
e
r
i
a
l
s
M
a
x
i
m
u
m

c
u
t
N
o
r
m
a
l

c
u
t
The pitch changes the cutting-edge angle of attack.
Direction of travel
FM 5-434
4-4 Graders
Figure 4-4. Starting a Ditch
MAKING A DITCH CUT
4-8. Make each di tch cut as deep as possi bl e wi thout stal l i ng or l osi ng contr ol
of the gr ader . Nor mal l y, make di tchi ng cuts i n second gear at ful l thr ottl e.
Star t wi th the bl ade posi ti oned so that the toe i s i n l i ne wi th the center of the
l ead wheel . Br i ng each successi ve cut i n fr om the edge of the bank sl ope so
that the toe of the bl ade wi l l be i n l i ne wi th the di tch bottom on the fi nal cut.
Fi gure 4-5 shows the steps of the V-di tchi ng method. The steps shown i n
Figure 4-5 ar e for a si ngl e r oadsi de di tch. Repeat the steps on the opposi te si de
of the road. The machi nes frame shoul d be ar ti cul ated when per formi ng steps
4 and 7.
Marking the Cut
Step 1. Begi n the di tch by establ i shi ng a marki ng cut as fol l ows (di tchi ng i s
normal l y done on the ri ght-hand si de of the grader):
Ensur e that the mol dboard i s hi gh enough off the surface to al l ow
unrestr i cted movement.
Ensur e that the bl ade i s pi tched hal fway.
Center shi ft unti l the l eft l i ft cyl i nder (heel ) i s str ai ght up and down.
Rotate the mol dboard so that the toe i s just behi nd the outsi de edge of
the ri ght front wheel (about a 45 angl e to the fr ame).
Si de shi ft the bl ade i f necessary to extend the edge of the mol dboard to
the outsi de edge of the ri ght front wheel .
Rai se the l eft l i ft cyl i nder al l the way.
Lean the front wheel s to the l eft. The gr ader i s now i n the di tchi ng
posi ti on.
Step 2. Move the grader forward. As the ri ght front wheel passes over the start-
i ng poi nt of the di tch, l ower the toe of the mol dboard. Appl y enough pressure on
the toe to penetrate the ground's surface about 3 to 4 i nches.
Marking cut
First cut
Final
cut
FM 5-434
Graders 4-5
Figure 4-5. V-ditching Method
1. Ditch line: light cut 8. Spread to center
2. Second cut: heavy
9. Slope and bank
3. Third cut: heavy 10. Clean bottom of ditch
4. Clear the shoulder 11. Ditching pass (to clean and
shape inside slope)
5. Level to center
12. Ditching pass (to shape inside
slope)
6. Fourth cut: heavy 13. Finishing shoulder pass
7. Clear shoulder 14. Level and finish
FM 5-434
4-6 Graders
Step 3. Feather the materi al and rai se the mol dboard toe cl ear of the ground at
the compl eti on of the marki ng cut. Conti nue movi ng forward unti l the rear
wheel s pass over and off the marki ng cut.
NOTE: Feathering is accomplished by raising the moldboard in 1/2- to
1-inch increments while moving forward. Two or three seconds are
recommended between each upward adjustment until all the material
in front of the moldboard passes under it.
Step 4. Strai ghten the front wheel s and steer the grader to the ri ght (about a
45 angl e to the di tch).
Step 5. Back the grader al ong the outsi de edge of the wi ndrow.
Step 6. Reposi ti on the grader at the start poi nt.
Step 7. Lean the front wheel s to the l eft.
Establishing the Depth of the Ditch
Step 1. Pl ace the grader i n forward moti on and appl y as much downward pres-
sure to the toe of the bl ade that the grader wi l l handl e.
Step 2. Conti nue al ong the di tch l i ne unti l the grader has reached the fi ni shi ng
poi nt, and then fol l ow the exi t procedures previ ousl y di scussed under marki ng
the cut.
NOTE: When making ditch cuts, windrows form between the heel of
the blade and the left rear wheel. Move or level these windrows when
either the ditch is at the planned depth or the windrow becomes
higher than the road clearance of the grader. This material will form
the shoulder of the road.
Establishing the Shoulder of the Ditch
4-9. Thi s task i s accompl i shed by pl aci ng the gr ader i n the wi de-si de r each
posi ti on.
Step 1. Adjust the mol dboard as fol l ows:
Rotate the mol dboar d to a 90 angl e (per pendi cul ar ) wi th the fr ame
(str ai ght acr oss) and adjust the hei ght of the bl ade to about 4 to 6
i nches above the surface.
Center shi ft the bl ade al l the way to the ri ght.
Readjust the hei ght of the bl ade to about 2 i nches above the sur face.
Si de shi ft the bl ade al l the way to the ri ght.
Lean the fr ont wheel s to the l eft.
Ci rcl e the mol dboar d countercl ockwi se unti l the toe i s about 12 to 15
i nches from the outsi de edge of the front r i ght wheel .
NOTE: Do not adjust the moldboard height, especially the left lift cylin-
der.
Step 2. Move the grader forwar d and mai ntai n a posi ti on and course so that the
toe of the mol dboard passes di rectl y over the center of the di tch.
Step 3. Appl y enough downward pressure to ski m the materi al from the shoul -
der; do not cut the shoul der.
FM 5-434
Graders 4-7
Step 4. Conti nue forward as the grader passes the fi ni shi ng poi nt of the di tch
unti l al l the materi al i n front of the mol dboard passes under i t or i s wi ndr owed
off the heel .
Step 5. Conti nue forward unti l enough space i s avai l abl e to posi ti on the grader
to back up and straddl e the wi ndrow.
NOTE: Place the grader in the right-hand general grade position and
the moldboard will be positioned to execute the next maneuver. Do not
back the grader in the wide-side reach position.
Step 6. Ensure that the fr ont wheel s are strai ght up and down befor e backi ng
the grader.
Step 7. Back the grader to the starti ng poi nt of the project and, after stoppi ng,
l ean the wheel s to the l eft.
Step 8. Lower the toe and heel of the mol dboard to the surface.
Step 9. Rai se the heel about 2 to 3 i nches and ensure that the toe i s just touch-
i ng the surface. Wi th the heel rai sed about 3 i nches, the l oose materi al fr om the
di tch shoul d pass under and off the heel of the mol dboar d.
Step 10. Move the gr ader forward. Mai ntai n a strai ght course by keepi ng the
grader centered on the wi ndrow.
Step 11. Ski m the shoul der of the road wi th the toe and spread the wi ndrow to
form the surface of the road.
Step 12. Ensure that the mater i al i s feathered at the end of the pass before
stoppi ng the grader.
Step 13. Strai ghten the front wheel s and r ai se both l i ft cyl i nders al l the way.
Step 14. Reposi ti on the grader at the fi ni shi ng end of the project. The grader
shoul d be posi ti oned to establ i sh a V-di tch (goi ng the opposi te di recti on) on the
other si de of the project area.
NOTE: Sometimes ditch cuts produce more material than is needed for
the roadbed and shoulders. Use this excess material as fill at other
locations throughout the project. Blade the excess material into a
windrow and haul it to the appropriate location.
CREATING A BANK SLOPE
4-10. Sl opi ng the bank on a r oad cut prevents sl ope-sl oughi ng fai l ur es. I t al so
pr events excessi ve er osi on of the bank, whi ch coul d fi l l the r oadsi de di tch.
I ni ti al l y, cast the mater i al cut from the outer sl ope i nto the bottom of the di tch
and r emove i t l ater. Figure 4-6, page 4-8, shows a gr ader sl opi ng a hi gh-bank
cut.
CLEANING A DITCH
4-11. To r emove unwanted mater i al that was pushed i nto the di tch duri ng the
bank sl ope oper ati on, pl ace the bl ade i n the same posi ti on as used for the
di tchi ng cuts. Thi s casts the mater i al onto the shoul der.
FINISHING A SHOULDER
4-12. Move the wi ndr ow (for med by cl eani ng the di tch) onto the r oad at the
same ti me the shoul der i s bei ng fi ni shed to the desi r ed sl ope.
FM 5-434
4-8 Graders
FINISHING A CROWN OR A CROSS SLOPE
4-13. The fi nal oper ati on i s to spr ead al l the materi al brought fr om the di tch
onto the roadway. Use thi s materi al to bri ng the roadway to the desi red crown
or a cross sl ope.
Figure 4-6. Sloping a High Bank
EARTH- AND GRAVEL-ROAD MAINTENANCE
LEVELING AND MAINTAINING SURFACES
4-14. Ordi nari l y, l evel and mai ntai n a sur face by wor ki ng the materi al across
the r oad or r un way fr om one si de to the other . Howev er , to mai ntai n a
sati sfactor y sur face i n dr y weather , wor k tr affi c-er oded mater i al fr om the
edges and shoul der s of the r oad towar d the center . Tr affi c or wi nd can cause
l oss of bi nder mater i al , so be cauti ous when di stur bi ng dry road sur faces. The
surface i s easi er to work i f i t i s damp; ther efor e, after a r ai n i s a good ti me to
perform surface mai ntenance. A water tr uck may be necessar y to dampen dry
materi al .
Step 1. Rotate the mol dboard so that the toe i s on the ri ght si de of the grader at
about a 50 to 60 angl e to the frame.
Step 2. Ensure that the bl ade i s pi tched hal fway.
Step 3. Center shi ft the bl ade unti l the l eft l i ft cyl i nder i s strai ght up and down.
Step 4. Lean the front wheel s to the l eft.
Step 5. Lower the mol dboar d unti l the toe and heel sl i ghtl y touch the ground.
Step 6. Pl ace the grader i n moti on and, as the mol dboard crosses the project
start l i ne, appl y enough downward pressure on both the heel and the toe to pen-
etrate the surface on a l evel pl ai n about 1/2 i nch.
For heavier cut, lean wheels toward slope.
For lighter cut, lean wheels away from slope.
FM 5-434
Graders 4-9
Step 7. Mai ntai n a strai ght course, adjusti ng the mol dboard sl i ghtl y to carry
the materi al the l ength of the project.
Step 8. Feather the materi al at the end of the pass.
Step 9. Stop the grader and strai ghten the front wheel s after the materi al i s
feathered to a smooth termi nati on.
Step 10. Rai se both l i ft cyl i nders al l the way.
Step 11. Posi ti on the grader to straddl e the wi ndrow just made, and back the
grader to the starti ng poi nt whi l e ensuri ng the wi ndr ow i s between the wheel s
(do not dri ve on top of the wi ndr ow).
Step 12. Stop the grader just outsi de of the project boundary l i ne.
Repeat thi s pr ocess unti l the enti re area i s l evel ed.
SMOOTHING PITTED SURFACES
4-15. When bi nder i s pr esent and moi stur e content i s appr opr i ate, r ough or
badl y-pi tted sur faces may be cut smooth. The cut sur face mater i al i s then
r espr ead over the smooth base. Agai n, the best ti me to r eshape ear th and
gr avel r oads i s after a rai n. Dry r oads shoul d be moi stened by usi ng a water
di str i butor . Thi s ensur es that the mater i al wi l l have suffi ci ent moi stur e
content to r ecompact r eadi l y.
CORRECTING CORRUGATED ROADS
4-16. When cor recti ng cor rugated r oads, be car eful not to make the si tuati on
wor se. Deep cuts on a washboar d sur face wi l l set up bl ade chatter , whi ch
emphasi zes rather than corr ects corr ugati ons. Badl y-corr ugated sur faces may
requi r e scari fyi ng. Wi th proper moi stur e content, l evel the sur face by cutti ng
acr oss the cor rugati ons. Al ternate the bl ade angl e so that the cutti ng edge wi l l
not fol l ow the rough surface. Cut the sur face to the bottom of the cor rugati ons,
and then r eshape the sur face by spr eadi ng the wi ndr ows i n an even l ayer
acr oss the r oad. After r eshapi ng the road, the traffi c wi l l compact i t. However,
rol l i ng the surface after shapi ng wi l l gi ve better and l onger-l asti ng resul ts.
SCARIFYING ROADS OR AREAS
Step 1. Posi ti on the grader outsi de the worki ng area.
Step 2. Ensure that the mol dboard i s hi gh enough off the ground to al l ow unre-
str i cted movement.
Step 3. Rotate the mol dboard so that i t i s perpendi cul ar wi th the frame, and
adjust the hei ght to 12 i nches off the surface (l evel ).
Step 4. Center shi ft the bl ade unti l the l i ft cyl i nders are centered on the grader.
Step 5. Pi tch the bl ade hal fway.
Step 6. Ensure that the front wheel s are verti cal .
Step 7. Move the grader forward.
Step 8. Lower the scari fi er as i t crosses the starti ng poi nt and penetrate the
surface.
Step 9. Scari fy the enti re l ength of the area to a mi ni mum depth of about
6 i nches.
FM 5-434
4-10 Graders
Step 10. Rai se the scari fi er at the fi ni sh poi nt.
Step 11. Exi t the project area and stop the grader.
Step 12. Rotate the mol dboard to a 50 angl e, and adjust the center shi ft to
str ai ghten the heel cyl i nder.
Step 13. Return to the starti ng poi nt, and reposi ti on the grader for a second
scar i fyi ng pass.
SNOW REMOVAL
4-17. Gr ader s r emove snow i n much the same way as snowpl ows. Be sur e to
rai se the bl ade 0.5 to 1 i nch when r emovi ng snow fr om uneven pavements or
por tabl e r unway sur faces. I mpr oper adjustment can damage the grader and
gouge the surface.
ASPHALT MIXING
4-18. As ph al t can be mi xed i n pl ace or mi xed wi th i mpor ted aggr egate.
Chapter 12 pr ovi des addi ti onal i nfor mati on on asphal t mi xi ng.
MIXED-IN-PLACE ASPHALT
4-19. For mi xed-i n-pl ace asphal t, spr ead the asphal t di r ectl y on the r oad
sur face, ei ther befor e or after scar i fyi ng the sur face. After appl yi ng the
asphal t, mi x i t wi th the surface soi l by scar i fyi ng and/or wi ndr owi ng wi th the
bl ade.
IMPORTED AGGREGATE
4-20. When usi ng i mported aggr egate for a pavement
Step 1. Shape the exi sti ng base and prepare i t by bl adi ng, r ol l i ng, and curi ng as
necessary.
Step 2. Dump the aggregate mi x and bl ade i t i nto uni form wi ndrows. I f the
aggregate i s too wet, bl ade the wi ndrows to al l ow evaporati on of the excess
moi sture.
Step 3. Fl atten the wi ndrow and appl y the asphal t.
Step 4. Mi x the asphal t wi th the aggregate usi ng the grader. Move the wi ndrow
from si de to si de across the road by maki ng successi ve passes wi th the bl ade.
Several graders can operate, one behi nd another (tandem), on the same wi nd-
row. I f rai n moi stens the mi xture, conti nue mi xi ng unti l dry.
Step 5. Bl ade the mater i al back i nto a wi ndrow after mi xi ng and before spread-
ing.
LARGE-AREA MIXTURES
4-21. Set stak es to mar k the edges of the spr ead wi dth for each wi ndr ow.
When spr eadi ng mi xtur es over l arge areas, dri ve bl ue-top hubs (bl ue tops) to
i ndi cate fi nal pavement el evati on. The bl ue tops ar e usual l y pl aced i n a gr i d
patter n 20 feet apar t. Remove the bl ue tops befor e r ol l i ng the pavement.
Usual l y, one pass of the gr ader wi l l fl atten the wi ndr ow after whi ch i t can be
spread to each si de i n i ncrements. Thi s produces a l ayer of uni form thi ckness
wi th pr oper l ater al and l ongi tudi nal sl opes. A sk i l l ed gr ader oper ator i s
essenti al at thi s phase.
FM 5-434
Graders 4-11
OPERATION TECHNIQUES AND TIPS
4-22. Gr ader s can be used for spr eadi ng, l evel i ng, si de casti ng, and pl ani ng
materi al s. Di ffer ent procedures ar e r equi r ed to achi eve a desi r ed resul t.
SPREADING AND LEVELING
4-23. Use a gr ader to spr ead wi ndr ows of l oose mater i al (Figure 4-7). I f ther e
i s space to work around the si des of the wi ndr ows, extend the bl ade wel l to the
si de and r educe the wi ndrow, usi ng a seri es of si de cuts. Spread the wi ndrows
as much as possi bl e. The power and tracti on of the grader wi l l l i mi t the l oad to
be pushed. Gr ader s have l ess power and tr acti on than dozer s, but gr ader s
move the l oad faster. Al though the grader bl ade i s l ow, i t i s mor e concave than
the dozer bl ade. Thi s gi ves i ncreased r ol l i ng acti on to the l oad so that a l ar ge
quanti ty can be pushed wi thout spi l l i ng over the top. Level i ng l arge wi ndrows
may requi re two or more si decuts wi th a gr ader (Figure 4-8).
Figure 4-7. Spreading Windrowed Material
Figure 4-8. Leveling Large Windrows
Spread section 1.
Spread section 2.
Straddle section 3 and spread.
FM 5-434
4-12 Graders
SIDE CASTING
4-24. Set the bl ade at an angl e so that the l oad bei ng pushed wi l l dr i ft off the
trai l i ng end (Figure 4-9). Rol l i ng acti on caused by the bl ade cur ve assi sts thi s
si de movement. As the bl ade i s angl ed mor e sharpl y, the speed of the si de dr i ft
i ncreases (whi ch does not car ry the materi al as far for war d) and deeper cuts
can be made. To shape and mai ntai n most roads, set the bl ade at a 25 to 30
angl e. Decrease the angl e for spr eadi ng wi ndr ows; i ncrease the angl e for har d
cuts and di tchi ng.
NOTE: A blade that is angled straight across (perpendicular to the
direction of movement) is at 0.
Figure 4-9. Backfilling a Ditch by Side Casting
PLANING
4-25. Set the bl ade at an angl e to pl ane off i r r egul ar sur faces; us e that
materi al to fi l l the hol l ows. Cut enough materi al to al ways keep some i n front
of the bl ade. Move the l oosened materi al forward and si dewar d to di stri bute i t
evenl y. On the next pass, pi ck up the wi ndr ow that was l eft at the tr ai l i ng
edge of the bl ade. On the fi nal pass, mak e a l i ghter cut and l i ft the tr ai l i ng
edge of the bl ade enough to al l ow the surpl us materi al to go under r ather than
around the end. Thi s wi l l avoi d l eavi ng a r i dge. Do not pi l e wi ndrows i n front
of the r ear wheel s because i t wi l l adver sel y affect tr acti on and grader contr ol .
Blade
Windrow of ditch material
used to backfill ditch
Hand filled
1. Angle blade toward ditch.
2. Travel forward and side cast
material into ditch. (Fill should be
compacted in layers.
The lift thickness will depend on
project specifications.)
Pipe
FM 5-434
Graders 4-13
WORKING SPEEDS
4-26. Al ways oper ate the gr ader as fast as the oper ator s ski l l and the r oad
condi ti ons per mi t. Oper ate at ful l thr ottl e i n each gear . Use a l ower gear i f
l ess speed i s r equi r ed, r ather than operate at l ess than ful l thr ottl e. Table 4-1
l i sts the pr oper gear r anges for var i ous gr ader oper ati ons u nder nor mal
condi ti ons. Table 4-2 l i sts the r oad speeds for the Armys 130G grader .
BLADE SETTING AND GRADER SPEED
4-27. Each job requi res a speci fi c bl ade setti ng and grader speed for opti mum
pr oducti on. Devi ati ons fr om these setti ngs and speeds wi l l cause machi ne
i neffi ci ency.
TURNING
4-28. When maki ng a number of passes over a short di stance (l ess than 1,000
feet), backi ng the gr ader to the star ti ng poi nt i s normal l y mor e effi ci ent than
tur ni ng i t ar ound and conti nui ng the wor k fr om the far end. Never mak e
tur ns on a newl y-l ai d bi tumi nous r oad or r unway surface.
NUMBER OF PASSES
4-29. Gr ader effi ci ency i s di r ectl y pr oporti onal to the number of passes made.
Oper ator sk i l l , coupl ed wi th pl an ni n g, i s most i mpor tan t i n el i mi nati ng
unnecessar y passes. For exampl e, i f four passes wi l l compl ete a j ob, ever y
addi ti onal pass i ncreases the ti me and cost of the job.
Table 4-1. Proper Gear Ranges for Grader Operations
Operation Gear
Maintenance Second to third
Spreading Third to fourth
Mixing Fourth to sixth
Ditching First to second
Bank sloping First
Snow removal Fifth to sixth
Finishing Second to fourth
Table 4-2. Road Speeds for the Armys 130G Grader
Model
Road Speed: mph at Rated rpm
Forward Gears Reverse Gears
First Second Third Fourth Fifth Sixth Low High
130G 2.3 3.7 5.9 9.7 15.5 24.5 Same as forward
FM 5-434
4-14 Graders
TIRE INFLATION
4-30. Keep the ti r es properl y i nfl ated to get the best r esul ts. Overi nfl ated ti r es
resul t i n l ess contact between the ti r es and the road sur face, causi ng a l oss of
tr acti on. Ai r -pr essur e di ffer ences i n the r ear ti r es cause ti r e sl i ppage and
gr ader bu ck i n g. Th e oper ator s man ual gi v es th e cor r ect ti r e i nfl ati on
pressure.
WET AND MUDDY CONDITIONS
4-31. Wet and muddy condi ti ons cause poor tr acti on, whi ch may decr ease
gr ader effi ci ency. However , i n spi te of r educed effi ci ency, the gr ader i s the
best machi ne to use under these condi ti ons. One exampl e of thi s woul d be
casti ng sur face mud to the si de on a haul r oad.
HAUL-ROAD MAINTENANCE
4-32. Keep haul r oads i n good condi ti on. Thi s wi l l i ncr ease the effi ci ency of
scr aper s or dump tr uck s on l ar ge ear thmovi ng oper ati ons. Gr ader s ar e the
best machi nes for mai ntai ni ng haul r oads. The most effi ci ent method of r oad
mai ntenance i s to use enough gr aders to compl ete one si de of a road wi th one
pass of each gr ader (tandem oper ati on). I n thi s method, mai ntenance of one
si de of the road i s compl eted whi l e the other si de i s open to tr affi c.
TANDEM OPERATIONS
4-33. Usi ng gr ader s i n tandem expedi tes such oper ati ons as l evel i ng, mi xi ng,
spreadi ng, and haul -road mai ntenance.
4-34. Use the fol l owi ng for mul a to pr epar e esti mates of the total ti me (i n
hour s or mi nutes) requi red to compl ete a grader operati on.
where
P = number of passes required
D = distance traveled in each pass, in miles or feet
S = speed of grader, in mph or fpm (multiply mph by 88 to convert to
fpm)
Number of passes. Esti mate the number of passes (based on the
project r equi r ements) before constructi on begi ns.
Distance traveled. Deter mi ne the requi red tr avel di stance per pass
befor e constructi on begi ns.
Speed of the grader. Speed i s the most di ffi cul t factor i n the formul a
to esti mate accur atel y. As wor k pr ogr esses, condi ti ons may r equi r e
that speed esti mates be i ncr eased or decr eased. Compute the wor k
output for each rate of speed used i n an oper ati on. The speed depends
l ar gel y on the ski l l of the oper ator and the materi al type.
Efficiency factor. For grader operati ons the effi ci ency factor i s
usual l y no better than 60 percent.
Total time
P D
S E
-------------- =
FM 5-434
Graders 4-15
SAFETY
4-35. Li sted bel ow are speci fi c safety rul es for grader operator s:
Al ways di spl ay a r ed fl ag or a fl ashi ng l i ght on a staff at l east 6 feet
above the l eft r ear wheel when operati ng a gr ader sl owl y on a hi ghway
or roadway.
Never al l ow other per sonnel to ri de on the bl ade or r ear of the gr ader.
Al ways engage the cl utch gentl y, especi al l y when goi ng uphi l l or
pul l i ng out of a di tch.
Al ways reduce speed befor e maki ng a turn or appl yi ng the br akes.
Al ways keep the grader i n l ow gear when goi ng down steep sl opes.
Al ways take extra car e when wor ki ng on hi l l si des to dr i ve sl owl y and
to be obser vant of hol es or di tches.
Never use gr aders to pul l stumps or other heavy l oads.
Al ways keep the bl ade angl ed wel l under the machi ne when i t i s not i n
use.
Never al l ow more than one per son on a gr ader whi l e i t i s i n oper ati on.
I f i t has a buddy seat, ensure that no mor e than two peopl e are on the
machi ne whi l e i t i s i n operati on.
EXAMPLE
Time estimate based on the number of miles of construction.
Maintenance of a 5-mile gravel road requires cleaning the ditches and leveling
and reshaping the road. Use a CAT 130G grader and a 0.6 efficiency factor.
Cleaning the ditches requires two passes in first gear, leveling the road requires
two passes in second gear, and final shaping of the road requires three passes in
fourth gear.
Speeds (from Table 4-2, page 4-13):
First gear = 2.3 mph
Second gear = 3.7 mph
Fourth gear = 9.7 mph
Total time
2 5
2.3 0.6
----------------------
2 5
3.7 0.6
----------------------
3 5
9.7 0.6
---------------------- + + 7.3 4.5 2.6 + + 14.4 hours = = =
EXAMPLE
Time estimate based on the number of feet of construction.
A 1,500-foot gravel road requires leveling and reshaping. Use a CAT 130G grader
with a 0.6 efficiency factor. The work requires two passes in second gear and
three passes in third gear.
Speeds (from Table 4-2):
Second gear = 3.7 mph
Third gear = 5.9 mph
Total time
2 1,500
88 3.7 ( ) 0.6
----------------------------------------
3 1,500
88 5.9 ( ) 0.6
---------------------------------------- + 15.4 14.4 + 29.8 minutes = = =
FM 5-434
4-16 Graders
Loaders 5-1
Chapter 5
Loaders
Loader s ar e used extensi vel y i n constr ucti on oper ati ons to handl e and
tr an s por t ma ter i a l , to l oad h a u l u n i ts , to ex ca v a te, a nd to ch ar ge
aggr egate bi ns at both as ph al t an d con cr ete pl ants . The l oader i s a
ver sati l e pi ece of equi pment desi gned to excavate at or above wheel or
tr ack l ev el . The hydr aul i c-acti vated l i fti n g s ys tem ex er ts max i mum
br eakout for ce wi th an upwar d moti on of the bucket. Lar ge rubber ti res on
wheel model s pr ovi de good tr acti on and l ow gr ound-bear i ng pr essur e. A
wheel l oader can attai n hi gh speeds, whi ch per mi ts i t to tr avel fr om one
job si te to another under i ts own power.
DESCRIPTION
5-1. Mi l i tar y l oader s ar e di esel -dr i ven, r ubber -ti r ed machi nes (Fi gure 5-1,
page 5-2). They ar e avai l abl e i n var i ed si zes and capaci ti es. A power -shi ft
tr an smi s si on wi th a tor qu e con ver ter gi v es th e l oader s fast-mov emen t
capabi l i ty i n both for ward and rever se, wi th a mi ni mum of shock. Thi s l ets the
machi nes mai ntai n a hi gh pr oducti on r ate. The hydr aul i c system gi ves the
oper ator posi ti ve contr ol of mounted attachments and assi sts wi th steer i ng.
Most l oader s have pi ntl es or towi ng hooks for towi ng smal l tr ai l er s or l i ght
l oads.
ATTACHMENTS
5-2. The most common l oader attachments ar e a shovel -type buck et or a
for k l i ft (Fi gure 5-2, page 5-3). The l oader s hydr aul i c system pr ovi des the
power necessary for oper ati ng these attachments. Hooks (desi gned for l i fti ng
and movi ng sl i ng l oads) and snowpl ows are other avai l abl e attachments.
BUCKET
5-3. Buckets may be general-purpose (one-pi ece, conventi onal ) or multipurpose
(two-pi ece, hi nged-jaw) (Figure 5-2). The bucket attaches to the tractor uni t by
l i ft ar ms. Buckets ar e made of heavy-duty, al l -wel ded steel and var y i n si ze
fr om 2.5 to 5 cu bi c y ar ds . Th e bu ck et teeth ar e bol ted or wel ded on to
r epl aceabl e cu tti n g edges . Bol t-on , r epl aceabl e teeth ar e pr ov i ded for
excavati on of medi um-type mater i al s. The mul ti pur pose bucket pr ovi des the
capabi l i ty to use the l oader as a dozer and to gr ab materi al .
FORKLIFT
5-4. A forkl i ft can be attached to the tr actor uni t i n pl ace of a bucket. Desi gned
for mater i al handl i ng, the for k attachment i s made of steel wi th two movabl e
ti nes.
FM 5-434
5-2 Loaders
Figure 5-1. Wheel Loader
Multipurpose
bucket
Cab
(ROPS)
FM 5-434
Loaders 5-3
Figure 5-2. Loader Attachments
USE
5-5. Typi cal uses for a l oader are l oadi ng trucks; stockpi l i ng materi al s; di ggi ng
basements or gun empl acements; back fi l l i ng di tches; l i fti ng and movi ng
constr ucti on mater i al s; and, wh en equ i pped wi th r ock -type-tr ead ti r es,
oper ati n g i n and ar ound r ock quar r i es. They may al so be used for many
mi scel l an eous constr u cti on tas k s . Th es e i ncl ude str i ppi n g over bur den,
char gi ng hopper s and sk i ps, l i fti ng and movi ng for ms for concr ete wor k ,
movi ng l ar ge concr ete and steel pi pes, assi sti ng wi th pl ant er ecti on and
mai ntenance, and towi ng smal l trai l er s and l i ght l oads.
SELECTION
5-6. Two cr i ti cal factor s to consi der i n sel ecti ng a l oader ar e the type and
vol ume of mater i al bei ng h an dl ed. Loader s ar e ex cel l en t mach i n es for
excavati ng soft to medi um-har d mater i al . Loader pr oducti on r ates decr ease
rapi dl y when excavati ng medi um to hard materi al . Another factor to consi der
i s how hi gh the mater i al must be rai sed. To be of val ue i n l oadi ng tr ucks, the
l oader must be abl e to dump over the si de of the trucks dump bed. A l oader
attai ns i ts hi ghest pr oducti on r ate when wor ki ng on a fl at, smooth sur face
wi th enough space to maneuver . I n poor underfoot condi ti ons or when there i s
a l ack of space to oper ate effi ci entl y, other equi pment may be mor e effecti ve.
OPERATION
LOADING THE BUCKET
5-7. When l oadi ng the bucket, i t shoul d be par al l el wi th the gr ound so i ts
cutti ng edge can ski m the tr avel surface and r emove r uts, obstacl es, and l oose
mater i al on the for war d pas s. As the cutti ng edge con tacts th e bank or
stock pi l e, move the l oader for war d at a sl ow speed and i ncr ease the power .
Multipurpose
bucket
General-purpose bucket
Forklift
FM 5-434
5-4 Loaders
Whi l e penetr ati ng the materi al , r ai se the bucket. Cr owd the materi al i nto the
bucket and rol l the bucket back to prevent spi l l i ng. Mai ntai n the bucket i n an
upward posi ti on whi l e backi ng away, to pr event spi l l i ng.
POSITIONING OF HAUL UNITS
5-8. Pr oper posi ti oni ng of the equi pment that wi l l recei ve mater i al fr om the
l oader i s necessar y for maxi mum pr oducti on. Thi s cuts down on maneuver
ti me.
LOADING METHOD
5-9. When l oadi ng trucks fr om a bank or a stockpi l e wi th a si ngl e l oader , use
the V-l oadi ng method. Use the fol l owi ng steps for the V-l oadi ng method
(Figure 5-3).
Step 1. Wi th the bucket l owered 1 to 2 i nches off the ground, head the l oader
toward the bank or stockpi l e i n l ow gear .
Step 2. Move the l oader i nto the stockpi l e and mani pul ate the l i ft and ti l t con-
trol l evers, si mul taneousl y curl i ng back the bucket and rai si ng the boom
sl i ghtl y unti l the bucket i s ful l and compl etel y rol l ed back. Mai ntai n power
wi thout spi nni ng the ti r es.
Step 3. Hol d the bucket i n the upri ght and curl ed posi ti on, and back away from
the stockpi l e or bank.
Step 4. Approach the haul uni t at a 90 angl e, l i fti ng the bucket hi gh enough to
cl ear the haul uni t.
Step 5. Proceed sl owl y forward unti l the bucket i s over the haul uni t. Do not
touch the haul uni t wi th the fr ont ti r es.
Step 6. Dump the bucket by r ol l i ng the bucket sl owl y forward. Do not l et the
bucket hi t the haul uni t.
Step 7. Back away from the haul uni t whi l e si mul taneousl y l oweri ng the boom
and l evel i ng the bucket.
Repeat the above steps unti l the haul uni t i s l oaded.
NOTE: While these machines are flexible and can dig under very awk-
ward conditions, the best production is achieved by keeping both the
angle of turn and the travel distance to a minimum.
CLAM LOADING
5-10. Thi s pr ocedur e can be used wi th the mul ti pur pose buck et for handl i ng
rocks, ti mber s, or stockpi l es of l oose mater i al .
Step 1. Center the front of the bucket on the mi ddl e of the fi rst l oad to be pi cked
up. When about 5 feet from the l oad, begi n to open the bucket.
Step 2. Move the l oader forward and make contact wi th the l oad. About two-
thi rds of the opened bucket shoul d penetrate i nto the materi al to be l oaded.
Step 3. Cl ose the bucket to secure the l oad.
FM 5-434
Loaders 5-5
Step 4. Posi ti on the l oad 10 to 14 i nches above the ground.
Step 5. Maneuver the l oader to the desi red l ocati on for l oad pl acement.
Step 6. Open the bucket ful l y.
Step 7. Rai se the bucket hi gh enough to cl ear any previ ousl y dumped mater i al .
Ensure that al l of the materi al i s out of the bucket.
Figure 5-3. Loading Trucks With a Loader (V-Loading Method)
CAUTION
Keep the loader bucket as low as possible. A low bucket
position provides better balance and operator visibility.
When traveling with a full bucket over rough terrain or
terrain that can cause the loader to slide, always operate
at low speed. Failure to do so can result in loss of control,
causi ng seri ous i nj ury or l oss of l i f e and property
damage.
Make a frontal approach
to the tank or stockpile.
Lift the bucket and back
away from the stockpile.
Approach the haul unit
(truck) at a 90
o
angle to
load the truck.
FM 5-434
5-6 Loaders
Step 8. Cl ose the bucket.
Step 9. Pl ace the bucket i n the travel i ng posi ti on (10 to 14 i nches above the
ground).
Repeat the above steps unti l the task i s compl ete.
EXCAVATING BASEMENTS AND GUN EMPLACEMENTS
5-11. A l oader can di g excavati ons such as basements or gun empl acements i f
the mater i al i s not too har d. The oper ator shoul d fi rst construct a r amp i nto
the excavati on (Fi gure 5-4). Because the l oader wor ks best when excavati ng
above wheel l evel , the r amp al l ows the l oader to wor k i n that manner and
l ater pr ovi des egress to bri ng out the mater i al . The fol l owi ng procedur es ar e
used to construct a ramp.
Step 1. Determi ne a starti ng poi nt for the ramp.
Step 2. Posi ti on the bucket so i t i s pi tched forward.
Step 3. Move the l oader forward, gradual l y penetrati ng the earth by l oweri ng
the l i ft control l ever.
Keep the l oader i n as hi gh a gear as possi bl e wi thout causi ng the ti r es
to spi n excessi vel y.
Regul ate the depth of cut usi ng the l i ft contr ol l ever .
Step 4. Retract the bucket ful l y.
Step 5. Pl ace the l i ft control l ever i n the rai sed posi ti on unti l the bucket i s hi gh
enough to cl ear the surroundi ng area.
Step 6. Dump the l oaded bucket onto a stockpi l e or i nto a haul uni t.
Repeat the above steps unti l the excavati on i s compl ete.
WORKING IN DIFFICULT MATERIAL
5-12. The mul ti pur pose bucket handl es sti cky mater i al (whi ch has a tendency
to cl i ng to the bucket) better than the gener al -pur pose bucket. A cl am-type
di ggi ng moti on wor k s best i n thi s mater i al type. When di ggi ng medi um to
har d mater i al , a gr eater effi ci ency can be achi eved by fi r st br eak i ng or
l ooseni ng the materi al .
Figure 5-4. Constructing a Ramp into an Excavation
FM 5-434
Loaders 5-7
BACKFILLING
5-13. When backfi l l i ng trenches, l ower the bucket to gr ade l evel and use the
for ward movement of the machi ne to push the stockpi l ed earth i nto the tr ench
(Figure 5-5). Thi s type of wor k i s i deal for the l oader as l ong as the bucket i s as
wi de as, or wi der than, the l oader s wheel s or tr acks. Nar r ow buck ets cause
the wheel s to r i de up the stockpi l e. Thi s r ai ses one cor ner of the bucket and
r equ i r es mor e pas s es . U s e th e f ol l owi n g s teps to per for m back fi l l i n g
oper ati ons.
Step 1. Al i gn the l oader wi th the stockpi l e (ei ther to the l eft or ri ght si de) whi l e
appr oachi ng at a 45 angl e so that one-thi rd of the bucket wi l l contact the stock-
pi l e.
NOTE: This technique will not work when pushing a large stockpile. In
this case, work from the edges.
Step 2. Adjust the bucket by movi ng the l i ft contr ol l ever to l ower the bucket to
just off of the natural gr ound. I f usi ng a mul ti purpose bucket, move the bucket
control l ever to open the bucket to the cl am posi ti on.
Step 3. Move the l oader forward and gradual l y move the materi al . Keep the
l oader i n as hi gh a gear as possi bl e wi thout causi ng the ti res to spi n excessi vel y.
Step 4. Move the l i ft control l ever to l ower or rai se the bucket to cut and spread
the materi al the l ength of the trench.
Step 5. Move the l i ft control l ever to rai se the bucket 10 to 14 i nches off the
ground before reversi ng di recti on.
Step 6. Reverse the l oader and return to the stockpi l e.
Repeat the above steps unti l the operati on i s compl ete.
Figure 5-5. Backfilling a Trench With a Loader
FM 5-434
5-8 Loaders
CONSTRUCTING A STOCKPILE
5-14. A stockpi l e can be constructed from the materi al excavated i n any of the
pr ev i ou s l y des cr i bed oper ati on s . U s e th e f ol l owi n g du mp s teps wh en
constr ucti ng a stockpi l e:
Step 1. Move the l oader forward unti l the front ti res contact the bank.
Step 2. Move the l i ft control l ever to rai se the bucket al l the way.
Step 3. Move the ti l t control l ever to sl owl y ti l t the bucket to the dump posi ti on.
Step 4. Pul l the ti l t control l ever to ti l t the bucket back to the standard bucket
posi ti on.
Step 5. Back the l oader from the stockpi l e and l ower the bucket to about 10 to
14 i nches off the gr ound.
Step 6. Back the l oader to the start of the work area.
Repeat the above steps unti l al l of the materi al i s stockpi l ed.
5-15. Many factor s affect l oader pr oducti on: oper ator ski l l , extent of pr i or
l ooseni ng of the materi al , sl ope of the operati ng ar ea, hei ght of the mater i al ,
cl i mate, and haul -uni t posi ti oni ng. Tabl e 5-1 shows buck et fi l l factor s for
converti ng r ated heaped-bucket capaci ty to LCY vol ume based on the type of
materi al bei ng handl ed. Table 5-2 gi ves aver age cycl e ti mes for wheel l oader s
to excavate and l oad wi th no extra tr avel r equi r ed. Use the fol l owi ng for mul as
and step-by-step method for esti mati ng l oader producti on.
Table 5-1. Bucket Fill Factors for Wheel Loaders
Table 5-2. Average Cycle Times for Wheel Loaders
Material Wheel Loader Fill Factor
Loose material:
Mixed moist aggregates
Uniform aggregates:
up to 1/8 inch
1/8 to 3/8 inch
1/2 to 3/4 inch
1 inch and over
0.95 to 1.00
0.95 to 1.00
0.90 to 0.95
0.85 to 0.90
0.85 to 0.90
Blasted rock:
Well blasted
Average
Poor
0.80 to 0.95
0.75 to 0.90
0.60 to 0.75
Other:
Rock-dirt mixtures
Moist loam
1.00 to 1.20
1.00 to 1.10
Soil 0.80 to 1.00
Decimal of heaped-bucket capacity, for adjustment to LCY
Loader Size,
Heaped-Bucket Capacity
(Cubic Yards)
Wheel-Loader
Cycle Time (Minutes)
1.00 to 3.75 0.45 to 0.50
4.00 to 5.50 0.50 to 0.55
NOTE: Includes load, maneuver with four reversals of direction (minimum travel), and dump.
FM 5-434
Loaders 5-9
CUBIC-YARD ESTIMATES
Step 1. Deter mi ne the materi al type and the rated heaped-bucket capaci ty of
the l oader.
Step 2. Sel ect the bucket fi l l factor from Table 5-1 based on the materi al type.
Step 3. Determi ne the average cycl e ti me from Table 5-2 based on the si ze of
wheel l oader.
NOTE: If necessary, add any round-trip travel time to the cycle time
found in Tabl e 5-2 (as would be the case when charging aggregate bins
at a plant). Determine the total travel time using the same formula
found in Chapter 3, paragraph 3-28, step 7. Base the speed on the gear
capabilities of the loader matched to the sites travel conditions. For
travel distances of less than 100 feet, a wheel loader (with a loaded
bucket) should be able to travel at about 80 percent of its maximum
speed in low gear and return (with an empty bucket) at about 60 per-
cent of its maximum speed in second gear. Expect slightly higher
speeds for longer travel distances.
Step 4. Determi ne the maxi mum producti on rate usi ng the fol l owi ng for mul a.
Step 5. Determi ne an effi ci ency factor. Effi ci ency depends on both the job condi -
ti ons and management. A good, average l oader effi ci ency i s 50 mi nutes of wor k
per hour. However, the esti mator must al ways subjecti vel y eval uate al l of the
condi ti ons whi ch i mpact effi ci ency, such as
Wor k-si te di mensi ons, the depth of cut, and the amount of movement
requi red.
Sur face condi ti ons and weather , i ncl udi ng the season of the year and
drai nage.
Equi pment condi ti on.
Step 6. Determi ne the net producti on rate i n LCY per hour. Mul ti pl y the maxi -
mum producti on rate (LCY per hour) by the effi ci ency factor.
Maximum production rate (LCY per hour)
heaped-bucket capacity bucket fill factor 60 minutes
loader cycle time (minutes)
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- =
Net production rate (LCY per hour) maximum production rate (LCY per hour) efficiency factor =
EXAMPLE
What is the net production rate (LCY per hour) for a 2.5-cubic-yard wheel loader
loading moist loam? Assume average working conditions.
Material type = moist loam
Rated heaped-bucket capacity = 2.5 cubic yards
Bucket fill factor for moist loam (Table 5-1) = 1 to 1.1, use an average of 1.05
Cycle time for a 2.5-cubic-yard wheel loader (Table 5-2)
= 0.45 to 0.5 minute, use an average of 0.475 minute
Maximum production rate (LCY per hour)
2.5 1.05 60 minutes
0.475 minute
---------------------------------------------------------------- 332 LCY per hour = =
Net production rate (LCY per hour) 332 LCY per hour
50 minutes
60 minutes
------------------------------- 277 LCY per hour = =
FM 5-434
5-10 Loaders
TONNAGE ESTIMATES
5-16. Deter mi ne the net pr oducti on r ate i n tons per hour . Mul ti pl y the net
producti on rate (LCY per hour) by the materi al wei ght (tons per LCY). Di vi de
the mater i al wei ght by 2,000 to convert pounds per LCY to tons per LCY.
OTHER ESTIMATES
Determi ne a soi l conversi on factor i f necessary (see Table 1-1, page 1-4).
Deter mi ne the total ti me r equi r ed. The for mul a used to determi ne
dozer pr oducti on (Chapter 2, paragraph 2-39, step 10) i s appl i cabl e.
Deter mi ne the total number of wheel l oaders requi red to compl ete the
mi s s i on i n a gi v en ti me. Th e for mu l a u s ed to deter mi n e dozer
producti on (Chapter 2, paragraph 2-39, step 11) i s appl i cabl e.
SAFETY
5-17. Oper ate wheel l oader s car eful l y because they ar e easy to overtur n. Do
not ex tend any por ti on of your body between the cab an d th e l i ft ar ms.
Operators shoul d adhere to the fol l owi ng safety pr acti ces:
Bl ock the bucket when worki ng on the machi ne.
Use cauti on when r emovi ng and r epl aci ng the l ock ri ngs.
Do not wor k between the wheel s and the fr ame whi l e the engi ne i s
runni ng.
Use cauti on when operati ng cl ose to the edge of a trench or when
worki ng under over hangs created by di ggi ng i nto banks or stockpi l es.
Travel wi th the bucket at or bel ow axl e hei ght.
Do not car ry or l i ft personnel i n the bucket.
Gr ound the bucket and set the par ki ng br ake before l eavi ng the
machi ne.
Material weight (tons per LCY)
weight (pounds per LCY)
----------------------------------------------------------------------- =
Net production rate (tons per hour) net production rate (LCY per hour) material weight (tons per LCY) =
EXAMPLE
What is the net production rate in tons per hour of a wheel loader working in loam
(2,200 pounds per LCY) with a net production rate of 263 LCY per hour?
Material weight (tons per LCY)
2,200 pounds per LCY
--------------------------------------------------------------- 1.1 tons per LCY = =
Net production rate (tons per hour) 253 LCY per hour 1.1 tons per LCY 289 tons per hour = =
Forklifts 6-1
Chapter 6
Forklifts
For kl i fts are effecti ve over unprepared or unstabi l i zed surfaces. They wor k
wel l i n r ough ter r ai n wher e hi gh-fl otati on ti r es ar e necessar y . Most
for kl i fts ar e four -wheel -steer i ng machi nes. The Ar my uses for kl i fts for
l oa di n g, u n l oa di n g, a n d tr a n s por ti n g cr a tes a n d pal l eti zed l oads .
Exampl es of such si tuati ons woul d be over a beach; i n a surf; and i n deep
sand, snow, or mud. Wi thout a l oad, a for k l i ft can move at hi gh speeds
between constr ucti on si tes.
USE
6-1. For k l i fts (Fi gure 6-1) wer e on ce r estr i cted to use i n war eh ou ses or
termi nal s. The Ar my now uses them for vari ous acti vi ti es, i ncl udi ng
Loadi ng and unl oadi ng fl atcars, trucks, fl at trai l ers, ai rcraft, and
naval l andi ng cr aft.
Stocki ng and tr anspor ti ng heavy crates and pal l eti zed l oads.
Figure 6-1. Forklift
POSITIONING TO LOAD
6-2. When posi ti oni ng a forkl i ft to pi ck up a l oad, bri ng i t i n square to the l oad.
Then use the si de shi ft to al i gn the for ks rather than tryi ng to al i gn the enti re
vehi cl e. Extend the boom as necessar y when l i fti ng a l oad, and r etr act the
boom agai nst the fr ame when tr anspor ti ng l oads. Use osci l l ati on to pi ck up
l oads easi l y at an angl e.
FM 5-434
6-2 Forklifts
TRANSPORTING A LOAD
6-3. When tr anspor ti ng a l oad, ti l t the mast as far back as the l oad wi l l permi t
and r ai se the l oad onl y hi gh enough (4 to 6 i nches) to cl ear obstr ucti ons.
Al ways change speed gradual l y, as sudden star ts and stops wi l l cause the l oad
to sh i ft. Gr adu al s tar ts and stops al so pr ev en t r api d wear of mach i n e
components. Use four -wheel steer i ng for nor mal mater i al handl i ng and two-
wheel steer i ng for hi gh-speed r uns.
OPERATING IN SAND OR MUD
6-4. Lower the ti r e pr essur e when oper ati ng i n sand or mud. Ch eck the
oper ators manual for appr opri ate pressur es.
TRANSPORTING ON RAMPS AND GRADES
6-5. When usi ng a forkl i ft to transport cargo up r amps or other gr ades, car ry
the l oad on the upgrade end of the machi ne. When carr yi ng car go downgrade,
back the for kl i ft down the grade wi th the l oad on the upgrade end. Carr y al l
l oads wi th the ti nes ti pped back.
OPERATING IN WATER
6-6. For oper ati ng i n water , di sconnect the fan and use four -wheel dr i ve.
(Check the oper ator s manual for ser vi ci ng r equi r ements after oper ati ng i n
sal t water.)
SAFETY
6-7. Oper ator s must al ways face i n the di r ecti on of tr avel . Carr y the l oad so
that i t does not obstruct the oper ator s vi si on i n the di r ecti on of tr avel . When
for kl i fts ar e not i n oper ati on, l ower the for ks and r est them fl at on the ground
or fl oor .
OVERHEAD SAFETY GUARDS
6-8. Equi p for k l i fts of al l types wi th steel over head safety guar ds. Per mi t
excepti ons onl y when the over head safety guar ds ei ther i ncr ease the over al l
hei ght of the forkl i ft or restri ct the operator's fr eedom of movement.
LOAD CAPACITY
6-9. Stenci l the machi nes l oad capaci ty and gr oss wei ght on the machi ne i n
pl ai n vi ew of the oper ator. Never exceed thi s capaci ty. Do not counter wei ght
the machi ne to i ncr ease l i fti ng capaci ty. The capaci ty r ati ng i s based on the
l oad posi ti oned 24 i nches fr om the fork's heel .
HOISTING PERSONNEL
6-10. Use a for k l i ft to hoi st per sonnel onl y after obtai ni ng a super vi sor 's
approval and under the fol l owi ng condi ti ons:
Al l ow onl y ski l l ed personnel to per for m tasks requi ri ng el evati on of
personnel by for kl i ft.
Use speci al personnel pallets (guar drai l s on al l four si des).
Face al l personnel away from the mast wi th thei r hands cl ear of the
hoi sti ng mechani sm duri ng the actual r ai si ng and l oweri ng.
Cranes 7-1
Chapter 7
Cranes
Cranes ar e used to hoi st and pl ace l oads. They ar e mounted i n one of three
waystr uck , cr awl er , or r ough-ter r ai n (wheel ). The tr uck and r ough-
ter r a i n mou n ts do n ot pr ov i de the s ta bi l i ty of th e cr a wl er mou n t.
Attachi ng accessor y equi pment to the cr anes super str uctur e and boom
al l ows use of the basi c machi ne for pi l e dri vi ng or as an excavator .
BASIC CRANE UNIT
7-1. The basi c cr ane uni t (Figure 7-1) consi sts of a substr uctur e mount and a
fu l l r ev ol v i n g s u per s tr u ctu r e. Th e u pper r ev ol v i n g s u per s tr u ctu r e i s
substanti al l y the same wi thout r egar d to the substr uctur e mount. I nstal l i ng
attachments al l ows use of the machi ne for tasks other than hoi sti ng. Figure 7-
2, page 7-2, shows sever al cr ane attachmentshook bl ock, cl amshel l , pi l e
dri ver , and dr agl i ne.
Figure 7-1. Basic Crane Unit
Revolving
superstructure
Truck mounting Crawler mounting
Rough-terrain mounting
FM 5-434
7-2 Cranes
Figure 7-2. Crane Attachments
SUBSTRUCTURE
7-2. The substr uctur e can be a tr uck, a cr awl er , or a r ough-ter r ai n mount.
Each mount has di ffer ent stabi l i zati on and ter rai n capabi l i ti es.
Truck Mount
7-3. Tr uck cr anes have speci al l y-desi gned heavy-duty tr uck mounts. Thi s
mounti ng pr ovi des good between-pr oject mobi l i ty. The 20- and 25-ton tr uck
cr anes can oper ate a hook bl ock, a 0.75-cubi c-yar d cl amshel l , a 7,000-foot-
pounds-per -bl ow di esel pi l e dr i ver , or a dr agl i ne. Figure 7-3 shows a 25-ton
truck cr ane wi th a hydraul i c tel escopi c boom.
Stability. These cranes have outr i gger s on each si de. Al ways empl oy
the outri gger s when operati ng the crane or attachments. Ful l y extend
the outr i gger s and secur e the j ack s on the base pl ates so that the
cr ane i s compl etel y off of the ti r es. Some model s ar e equi pped wi th
hydr aul i c outr i ggers.
Terrain capability. Because of i ts l i mi ted stabi l i ty, the tr uck mount
restri cts the effi ci ent movement of these cr anes to fi r m, l evel terr ai n.
7-4. Towing. A pi ntl e hook (towi ng connecti on) i s on the r ear of the tr uck,
and towi ng eyes ar e on the fr ont. The pi ntl e hook enabl es the tr uck to tow an
attachment trai l er for tr anspor ti ng associ ated attachments to the job si te. I f
the truck becomes i noper abl e or stuck, use the towi ng eyes to attach the truck
to a towi ng vehi cl e. The towi ng eyes wi l l wi thstand twi ce the dead-wei ght pul l
of the vehi cl e.
Hook block Clamshe
ll
Dragline Pile driver
FM 5-434
Cranes 7-3
Figure 7-3. Truck Crane (25-ton) With a Hydraulic Telescopic Boom
7-5. Operating Hints.
Be sure the cr ane i s l evel pri or to oper ati ng.
Do not hoi st l oads over the fr ont. Gener al l y, perform al l heavy
hoi sti ng over the r ear of the tr uck si nce the tr ucks cab and engi ne
pr ovi de addi ti onal counter wei ght for the l oad. When usi ng a l oad
char t, ensur e that the capaci ty r efl ects the quadr ant of the proposed
hoi st. For exampl e, over the si de, over the r ear of the mount, or over
the front of the mount.
Use the outri gger s.
Check the base pl ates per i odi cal l y to ensure that good soi l beari ng i s
bei ng mai ntai ned.
Pl ace the tr uck's tr ansmi ssi on i n neutral when operati ng the
super str uctur e. Thi s pr events possi bl e damage to the gear s by any
rocki ng movement of the tr uck.
Crawler Mount
7-6. Move crawl er cr anes fr om project to pr oject on tr ansport trucks. Crawl er
cr anes have r el ati vel y l ow tr avel speeds, and l ong tr avel causes excessi ve
tr ack wear . Cr awl er cr anes ar e best sui ted for l onger dur ati on j obs. The
cr awl er mount provi des excel l ent maneuverabi l i ty on the job si te and has l ow
gr ound-bear i ng pr essur e. The 40-ton cr awl er crane can oper ate a hook bl ock, a
Boom-tip
assembly
Boom
fly
section
Boom
mid-
section
Boom
main
section
Counterweight
Left rear
outrigger
Boom
lift
cylinder
Left front
outrigger
Swing-away
boom extension
Floodlights
FM 5-434
7-4 Cranes
2-cubi c-yar d cl amshel l , a 24,000-foot-pounds-per -bl ow di esel pi l e dr i ver , or a
dragl i ne. The mi l i tary nor mal l y uses the 40-ton cr ane i n quarr y oper ati ons.
Stability. The crawl er mounti ng provi des a stabl e base for oper ati ng
the r evol vi ng super str uctur e. Because of the wi dth and l ength of the
cr awl er tracks, the wei ght of the machi ne spr eads over a l arge ar ea.
Terrain capability. Crawl er cranes ar e desi gned to operate on l evel
gr ound. A 3 out-of-l evel condi ti on can r esul t i n a 30 per cent l oss i n
hoi s ti n g capaci ty . Cr awl er cr an es l ow gr oun d-bear i ng pr es sur e
enabl es them to travel over soft gr ound. I n l ocati ons wher e the ground
i s extr emel y soft or unstabl e, use ti mber mats to provi de a fi rm footi ng
(Figure 7-4). When not handl i ng a l oad, the machi ne can cl i mb sl i ght
gr ades.
Figure 7-4. Timber Mats Supporting a Crawler Crane on Soft Material
7-7. Cr awl er cr anes can be l ashed on bar ges to oper ate over water . They can
oper ate i n shal l ow water as l ong as the water does not enter the r evol vi ng
super str uctur e. Befor e movi ng the machi ne i nto the water , check the water
depth an d th e u nder -foot condi ti ons . Th or oughl y cl ean an d ser v i ce th e
machi ne after wor ki ng i n sal t water.
Rough-Terrain Mount
7-8. The two model s of rough-ter rai n cr anes ar e the 22- and the 7.5-ton (Type
I , general purpose, and Type I I , ai rbor ne/ai rmobi l e). The 22-ton rough-ter rai n
cr ane can oper ate a hook bl ock, a 0.75-cubi c-yar d cl amshel l , a 7,000-foot-
pou nds -per -bl ow di es el pi l e dr i v er , or a dr agl i n e. The mai n di ffer ences
between the r ough-terr ai n cr ane and the tr uck crane ar e the l ar ge ti r es and
the hi gh gr ound cl earance, whi ch enabl es the rough-ter rai n cr ane to wor k i n
areas i naccessi bl e to the truck cr ane.
7-9. Rough-Terrain Crane (22-Ton). Th e r ou gh te r r a i n cr an e h a s th e
capabi l i ty of l ong-di stance hi ghway travel and good job-si te maneuverabi l i ty.
The mount pr ovi des four -wheel -dr i ve capabi l i ty, conventi onal two-wheel
steer i ng, four -wheel steer i ng, and cr ab steer i ng. The tr avel speed of the
machi ne i s 55 mph on the hi ghway. Thi s cr ane has dual cabs, a l ower cab for
FM 5-434
Cranes 7-5
hi ghway tr avel , and a super str uctur e cab that has both the dr i ve and the
cr an e con tr ol s . A pi n tl e h ook on th e r ear of th e mou n t l ets i t tow an
attach men t tr ai l er . H owev er, towi n g th e tr ai l er cr os s -cou n tr y i s n ot
recommended.
Stability. Si nce the mount i s not suspended on spr i ngs, the front axl e
must osci l l ate. Thi s osci l l ati on pr events the mount fr om ti ppi ng or
r ol l i ng over i f on e of th e fr ont wh eel s dr ops i nto a h ol e. Use the
outr i gger s to r ai se the machi ne off the gr ound and to l evel i t befor e
extendi ng the boom. I f usi ng outr i gger s to stabi l i ze the machi ne,
posi ti on safety wedges on the fr ont axl e to pr event osci l l ati on. The
outr i gger s oper ate i ndi vi dual l y, al l owi ng the super str uctur e to be
l evel ed. Load rati ngs ar e based on the assumpti on that the crane i s i n
a l evel posi ti on for the ful l 360 of swi ng.
Terrain capability. The machi ne's l ow ground-beari ng pr essur e l ets
i t tr avel over r el ati vel y soft ter r ai n. I t can tr aver se sl opes up to 48
percent i f the ground i s fi r m and dr y.
7-10. Rough-Terrain Crane (7.5-Ton). Th e bas i c 7.5-ton r ou gh -ter r ai n
cr ane (Type I ) has a di esel engi ne, pneumati c ti r es, two- and four -wheel -dr i ve
capabi l i ty, and two- and four -wheel -steeri ng capabi l i ty. The cab i s l ocated on
th e mou nt i n stead of on the ful l 360 r otati ng super str u ctu r e. I t has a
hydr aul i c boom that i s extendi bl e fr om 28 feet to a maxi mum of 35 feet. Thi s
cr ane can per for m l i fti ng and car r yi ng oper ati ons (desi r abl e wi th standar d
Nor th Atl anti c Treaty Organi zati on [NATO] pal l ets). The r ough-terr ai n, 7.5-
ton ai rborne cr ane (Type I I ) (Figure 7-5) i s a modi fi cati on of the basi c 7.5-ton
uni t, maki ng i t sui tabl e for ai r borne and ai r mobi l e oper ati ons.
Stability. The r ough-terr ai n mount has four i ndependentl y oper ated
outr i gger s (two on each si de).
Terrain capability. Thi s crane can safel y traver se typi cal
constr ucti on terr ai n, l ongi tudi nal gr ades of 30 to 50 percent, and si de
sl opes of 15 to 30 per cent i n four -wheel dr i ve. Thi s crane can be used
on fi rm terr ai n because of i ts hi gh ground-beari ng pressure ti r es.
Figure 7-5. Rough-Terrain, 7.5-Ton Airborne Crane
FM 5-434
7-6 Cranes
SUPERSTRUCTURE
7-11. The r evol vi ng super str uctur e r ests on the mount an d i ncl u des the
counter wei ght, the engi ne, the operati ng mechani sm, the boom, the cab, and
someti mes a separate engi ne.
Counterweight
7-12. The counter wei ght i s nor mal l y a cast-steel member attached to the rear
of the superstructure to produce a counter moment to the wei ght and r adi us of
the l oad. Thi s counter moment prevents the cr ane from ti ppi ng.
Operating Mechanisms
7-13. Two i n dependent cabl e dr ums contr ol th e oper ati on of the var i ous
attachments. The dr ums ar e mounted paral l el to each other or one behi nd the
other. Refer to them by thei r r el ati ve mounti ng (right or left, front or rear) or
by thei r functi on (drag cable drum dur i ng dragl i ne oper ati ons or closing-line
cabl e drum du r i n g cl a ms h el l oper ati on s ). Wh en u s i n g th e dr u ms i n
conjuncti on wi th a hook bl ock, refer to them as the rear or main hoist drum.
7-14. A thi r d cabl e dr um, the boom hoi st drum, contr ol s the r ai si ng and
l ower i ng of the boom for those cr anes havi ng a l atti ce boom. Some model s
have a two-pi ece, gr ooved l aggi ng for qui ck attachment to the dr um shaft. The
di ameter s of the gr ooved l aggi ng di ffer dependi ng on the make and model of
the machi ne. Di ffer ences i n l aggi ng di ameter pr ovi de di ffer ent operati ng l i ne
speeds. For exampl e, the l aggi ng used for dragl i ne operati ons may be smal l er
to pr ovi de a sl ower l i ne that gi ves gr eater power.
7-15. Cl utches and br ak es may be power ed mechani cal l y, hydr aul i cal l y, or
pneumati cal l y. Some makes and model s have an i nter nal l y mounted cl utch
that, when actuated, expands to engage the dr um. Other makes and model s
have exter nal contr acti ng cl utches.
Boom
7-16. Lattice Boom. The l atti ce boom i s a l atti ced structure consi sti ng of four
mai n chor ds connected wi th l aci ng. The basi c boom consi sts of a base secti on
suppor ted on the r evol vi ng super structur e and an upper secti on wi th a boom
head. The secti ons ar e fastened together by one of two methodsbol ted butt-
pl ate (fl ange) connecti ons or pi n and cl evi s connecti ons. The l ength of a l atti ce
boom can be i ncreased i n one of two waysi nserti ng an i ntermedi ate secti on
between the upper and base secti ons (the most common way) or addi ng a boom
ti p extensi on cal l ed a ji b. A j i b i s a l i ghter str uctur al secti on. An offset j i b
per mi ts gr eater l oad r adi us than an equi val ent l ength of standar d boom.
Cr an e booms n ot equ i pped wi th j i b-boom an ch or pl ates can on l y u s e
i nter medi ate secti ons for extendi ng the boom. When l engtheni ng l atti ce
booms, extend the gantr y or A-frame to pr ovi de the r equi r ed l i fti ng angl e for
the boom l i nes.
7-17. Hydraulic Telescopic Boom. Th i s boom con s i s ts of two or mor e
tel escopi ng boxes made of steel pl ates. The acti on of hydr aul i c cyl i nder s
extends or r etr acts the boxes. Onl y cer tai n attachments can be used wi th
these booms. Thi s boom type i s used on some r ough-ter rai n cr anes and tr uck
cr anes (Figure 7-3, page 7-3).
FM 5-434
Cranes 7-7
HOISTING OPERATIONS
7-18. The hook bl ock (Fi gure 7-2, page 7-2) used for hoi sti ng oper ati ons i s
appl i cabl e on ei ther a l atti ce or a tel escopi ng boom. Basi c cr ane equi pment
i ncl u des hoi st dr ums , h ook bl ock s to pr ovi de th e r equi r ed par ts of l i ne
(reevi ng), and boom-suspensi on and hoi st cabl es.
FACTORS AFFECTING HOISTING CAPACITY
7-19. Boom l ength, oper ati ng r adi us or boom angl e, type of mount, stabi l i ty
(us e of outr i gger s), amou nt of coun ter wei gh t, h ook -bl ock si ze, hoi s ti ng
posi ti on, and mai ntenance deter mi ne the cr anes safe hoi sti ng capaci ty.
Boom Length
7-20. I ncr eased boom l ength r educes a cr anes hoi sti ng capaci ty. Use of a ji b
attachment wi l l fur ther r educe the hoi sti ng capaci ty. The i ncr eased l oad
momen t at th e gr eater oper ati n g r adi u s an d th e added wei gh t of th e
addi ti onal boom secti ons decrease the hoi sti ng capaci ty.
Operating Radius
7-21. Oper ati ng (wor k i ng) r adi u s (Fi gure 7-6) i s th e h or i zontal di stance
measur ed fr om the axi s of r otati on of the super str uctur e to a ver ti cal l i ne
extendi ng down fr om the outsi de edge of the cr anes boom-ti p (head) sheave.
Cr anes ar e r ated accor di ng to hoi sti ng capaci ti es at var i ous r adi i , based on
ei th er ti ppi n g or s tr u ctu r al con str ai n ts . Swi n gi n g th e boom cau s es a
centr i fugal for ce (Figure 7-7, page 7-8), whi ch i n effect i ncreases the operati ng
r adi us. Hi gh wi nds can al so push the l oad, whi ch i ncr eases the oper ati ng
r adi us (Table 7-1, page 7-8). As the wor k i ng r adi us i ncr eases, the hoi sti ng
capaci ty decreases. I t i s essenti al to know the wei ght of a l oad befor e hoi sti ng.
Figure 7-6. Operating Radius of a Boom
Centerline
of crane
Boom
centerline
Boom-tip
sheave
Center
pivot
Boom angle (horizontal
at boom-foot center)
Working radius of boom
B
o
o
m
-
t
i
p

h
e
i
g
h
t
B
o
o
m
-
t
i
p

h
e
i
g
h
t
B
o
o
m
-
t
i
p

h
e
i
g
h
t

(
c
e
n
t
e
r
l
i
n
e
)
FM 5-434
7-8 Cranes
Figure 7-7. Effects of Centrifugal Force on the Operating Radius
Mount Type
7-22. The basi s of a cr anes hoi sti ng-capaci ty r ati ng concer ni ng ti ppi ng i s as
fol l ows (check the operator 's manual for the cor rect tabl e):
Crawler mounted. Power Cr ane and Shovel Associ ati on (PCSA)
standar ds l i mi t the l oad capaci ty concer ni ng ti ppi ng to 75 per cent of
the maxi mum l oad.
Truck and rough-terrain mounted. PCSA standards l i mi t the l oad
capaci ty con cer n i n g ti ppi n g to 85 per cent of the maxi mum l oad
whether on ti r es or outri ggers.
Table 7-1. Effects of Wind on Crane Operations
Approximate Wind Speed
Weather Conditions Effects mph kph
0-1 0-1.5 Calm Smoke rises straight up
1-3 1.5-5 Light air Smoke drifts
4-7 6-11 Slight breeze Leaves rustle
8-12 12-19 Gentle breeze Leaves and small twigs move
13-18 20-29 Moderate breeze Dust and papers fly; small branches move
19-24 30-39 Fresh breeze Small trees sway
25-31 40-50 Strong breeze Large branches move
32-38 51-61 High wind Walking is difficult; tree trunks bend
39-46 62-74 Gale Twigs break off
47-54 75-87 Strong gale Shingles are blown away
55-63 88-100 Whole gale Trees may be uprooted
NOTE: When a crane swings,
centrifugal force causes the load to
move to an increase radius. (If lifting at
maximum rated load, this could cause
overturning.)
Legend
H = Boom-tip height
R
N
= Lift radius
R
I
= Increased operating radius
CF = Centrifugal force
W = Load weight
H
R
N

W
CF
R
I

FM 5-434
Cranes 7-9
Capaci ty at short radi i i s usual l y l i mi ted by the structural capaci ty of the
machi nes components. I n the case of hydraul i c cranes, the hydraul i c capaci ty
someti mes l i mi ts the l i fti ng capabi l i ty.
Stability
7-23. I t i s extr emel y i mpor tant that the cr ane be posi ti oned on a fi r m, l evel
footi ng and, i f outr i gger s ar e avai l abl e, th at they be ful l y exten ded and
bear i n g. I f n eces s ar y , pr epar e th e cr an e's oper ati n g s i te i n adv an ce.
Adher ence to a machi nes l oad-char t r ati ngs ensures that the crane i s stabl e
i n ter ms of a moment bal ance between l oad wei gh t and r adi us an d the
machi nes counter wei ght. A cr anes hoi sti ng abi l i ty as pr esented i n the l oad
chart assumes that the machi ne i s posi ti oned on sol i d, l evel ground. Take care
not to posi ti on the cr anes tr acks or outri gger s over under gr ound uti l i ti es or
r ecompacted tr ench excavati ons or cl ose to excavati on edges, al l of whi ch
coul d gi ve way when hoi sti ng a l oad.
Counterweight
7-24. Do not add addi ti onal counter wei ght or anchor the crane to a deadman
i n an attempt to i ncr ease hoi sti ng capaci ty. These pr ocedur es coul d cause
str uctur al damage to the crane.
Hook-Block Size
7-25. The hook bl ock on the crane shoul d be the si ze pr escri bed for the cr ane.
Lack of pr oper r i ggi ng and hook capaci ty may damage the bl ock and the
sheave system. Tabl es of hoi sti ng capaci ti es ar e based on gr oss capaci ty;
therefor e, the wei ght of the hook bl ock and sl i ngs must be consi dered as part
of the l oad.
Hoist Position
7-26. The l oad capaci ty of a cr ane depends on the quadr ant posi ti on of the
boom wi th r espect to the machi nes under car r i age. I n the case of a cr awl er
cr ane, consi der thr ee quadr ants; over the si de, over the dr i ve end of the
tracks, and over the i dl er end of the tracks. Usual l y, i magi nar y l i nes from the
super str uctur es center of r otati on thr ough the posi ti on of the outr i gger s
defi ne th e quadr an ts for mobi l e cr an es . Al way s con si der th e mi n i mu m
condi ti on based on swi ngi ng the l oad fr om poi nt of pi ck up to fi nal pl acement.
Maintenance
7-27. Pr oper cr ane mai ntenance wi l l hel p to achi eve r ated, safe hoi sti ng
capaci ty. Check the fol l owi ng i tems to ensur e that the cr ane can attai n i ts
rated hoi sti ng capaci ty:
Type, si ze, and condi ti on of the wi r e ropes.
Type, si ze, and condi ti on of the hook bl ock.
Str uctur al condi ti on of the boom.
Mechani cal condi ti on of the engi ne.
Adjustments and functi onal qual i ti es of the cl utches and brakes.
FM 5-434
7-10 Cranes
SAFE HOISTING-CAPACITY CALCULATION
Step 1. Determi ne the requi red cl earance (Figure 7-8), whi ch i ncl udes the
Load hei ght.
Hoi sti ng hei ght.
Hook-bl ock hei ght.
Mi ni mum, esti mated safe di stance between the boom-ti p sheave and
the hook-bl ock sheave. (Thi s i s a j udgment cal l ; nor mal l y, a 2-foot
cl ear ance i s sati sfactory.)
Hei ght of the sl i ngs fr om the l oads top to the hook.
Figure 7-8. Required Clearance
Step 2. Determi ne the total wei ght to hoi st, whi ch i ncl udes the
Load wei ght.
Hook-bl ock wei ght.
Sl i ng wei ght.
Stowed ji b wei ght (i f mounted on the boom).
Step 3. Determi ne the worki ng radi us. Thi s i s the di stance from the crane's
center of rotati on to the l oads center. Al ways consi der the maxi mum radi us
that resul ts when swi ngi ng the l oad fr om poi nt of pi ck up to fi nal pl acement.
NOTE: Remember that centrifugal force (caused by swinging the boom
or from the wind) can increase the radius. Refer to Fi gure 7-7, page 7-8,
and Tabl e 7-1, page 7-8, respectively.
Safety
Hook-block
height
Sling height
Load height
Height the load
has to be lifted
Required
clearance
FM 5-434
Cranes 7-11
Step 4. Determi ne i f the crane wi l l hoi st the l oad. Use the appropri ate equi p-
ment-hoi sti ng charts and the fol l owi ng i nformati on:
Boom l ength.
Boom angl e.
Boom-ti p hei ght.
Total hoi sted wei ght.
OPERATION TIPS
Try to posi ti on the cr ane to el i mi nate swi ngi ng over wor ker s.
Ensur e that the supporti ng gr ound has adequate str ength.
Posi ti on the cr ane for the shortest possi bl e boom swi ng and swi ng the
l oad sl owl y when per formi ng repeti ti ve hoi sti ng.
Ensur e that the machi ne i s al ways l evel .
Use tag l i nes on l oads to pr event excessi ve swayi ng of the l oad.
Use adequate hoi st-l i ne l engths to ensur e ful l tr avel of the bl ock to the
l owest poi nt r equi r ed.
Or gani ze the wor k for mi ni mum tr avel ti me. When possi bl e, compl ete
al l needed hoi sts i n one area befor e movi ng to a new posi ti on.
Use the power -down devi ce on the equi pment (i f avai l abl e) when
performi ng preci se l oad handl i ng.
Do not use excessi ve counterwei ght or ti e-down devi ces to i ncr ease
stabi l i ty.
Check weather reports or use the i ndi cators gi ven i n Table 7-1, page 7-8,
to determi ne approxi mate wi nd speed. Wi nd can affect crane operati ons
and even cause over tur ni ng when hoi sti ng cl ose to or at maxi mum
hoi sti ng capaci ty. Cease work i f wi nd speed exceeds 30 mph.
PILE DRIVER
DESCRIPTION
7-28. The pi l e dri ver attachment (see Figure 7-2, page 7-2) consi sts of adapter
pl ates, l eads, a catwal k , a hammer , and a pi l e cap. The adapter pl ates ar e
bol ted to the top secti on of the l eads and fastened to the boom ti p. The l eads
are fastened bel ow the base of the boom. Pi l e l eads cannot be attached to a ji b
boom. The hammer may be di esel or dr op type.
Diesel Hammers
7-29. Di esel -dr i ven, pi l e-dr i vi ng hammer s come i n two typesopen-top or
cl osed-end. Both types have sel f-contai ned, fr ee-pi ston engi nes, operati ng on a
two-cycl e compr essi on-i gni ti on pr i nci pl e. Di esel hammers el i mi nate the need
for ai r compr essor s or steam boi l er s to power the hammer . Do not use these
hammer s to pul l pi l es. They are sui tabl e for use on ei ther l atti ce or tel escopi c
booms. When dr i vi ng a pi l e i n soft soi l , a di esel hammer may not fi re because
th er e i s i ns uffi ci en t soi l r es i stance to su ppor t fuel i gn i ti on . Wh en thi s
happens, r ever t to a dr op hammer unti l the pi l e r eaches suffi ci ent dr i vi ng
resi stance.
FM 5-434
7-12 Cranes
Drop Hammers
7-30. Gr avi ty-oper ated dr op hammer s ar e best for dr i vi ng ver ti cal pi l i ng.
When pi l i ng i s angl ed, part of the dr i vi ng force i s l ost i n fri cti on wi th the pi l e
l eads. Dr op hammer s are r el ati vel y sl ow compar ed to other types of hammer s.
Use a hammer that i s at l east as heavy as the pi l e bei ng dr i ven; for best
resul ts, the hammer shoul d be twi ce as heavy as the pi l e. I t i s better to use a
heavi er hammer wi th a smal l er dr op. Rai se and drop the hammer at a steady
r ate of speed. Typi cal dr op r ates ar e four to ei ght bl ows per mi nute. The
r ecommended dr op hei ght var i es wi th the type of pi l e; for ex ampl e, the
r ecommended dr op hei ght i s 15 feet for ti mber pi l es and 8 feet for concr ete
pi l es.
DRIVING RATE
7-31. Dr i vi ng ti me vari es gr eatl y dependi ng on the terr ai n, the weather , the
soi l condi ti ons, the type of pi l e, and the type of hammer used. The onl y way to
determi ne the dr i vi ng r ate i s to dr i ve a pi l e under project condi ti ons. A r ul e of
thumb to use for pl anni ng i s 30 mi nutes to dr i ve a 12-i nch di ameter pi l e 20
feet. Thi s i ncl udes the ti me for setti ng the pi l e i n the l eads.
OPERATION TIPS
7-32. Use the fol l owi ng gui del i nes when operati ng a pi l e dr i ver :
Posi ti on the cr ane so that i t wi l l r equi r e the mi ni mum ti me to move
between pi l e l ocati ons. Pl acement i s gener al l y par al l el to the l ong axi s
of the pi l e group.
Pl ace the pi l es cl ose to the dr i vi ng l ocati ons so that the crane onl y
needs to swi ng to pi ck up the next pi l e.
Make shal l ow, conti nuous bl ows wi th the hammer . Hi gh, i nfr equent
bl ows cause pi l e fai l ur es.
CLAMSHELL
DESCRIPTION
7-33. The cl amshel l (see Figure 7-2, page 7-2) consi sts of a cl amshel l bucket,
hoi st dr um l aggi ngs, a tag l i ne, and wi r e r opes for the boom. The cl amshel l
bucket consi sts of two scoops hi nged together. A cl amshel l cannot be oper ated
off of a ji b. Cl amshel l dr um l aggi ngs may be the same as those used for the
cr ane, or they may be changed to meet the speed and pul l r equi r ements of the
cl amshel l . Thi s r equi r ement may change wi th the desi gn of the equi pment
(check the oper ator 's manual ). Usual l y, the same wi r e ropes used for hoi sti ng
oper ati ons can be used for cl amshel l oper ati ons. However , two addi ti onal l i nes
must be addeda secondary hoi st l i ne and a tag l i ne. The tag l i ne i s a smal l -
di ameter cabl e wi th a spr i ng-tensi on wi nder that i s used to pr event the
cl amshel l bucket fr om twi sti ng duri ng oper ati on. The tag l i ne and wi nder , l i ke
the cl amshel l buck et, ar e i nter changeabl e wi th any make or model i n the
same si ze r ange. The spr i ng-l oaded tag l i ne does not requi r e oper ator contr ol
and does not attach to the cr anes oper ati ng dr ums. The wi nder i s usual l y
mounted on the l ower par t of the boom.
7-34. The cl amshel l i s a verti cal l y-oper ated attachment capabl e of worki ng at,
above, and bel ow gr ound l evel . Attach the cl amshel l bucket to the cr anes
hoi st l i ne. A cl amshel l can di g i n l oose to medi um-sti ff soi l s. The l ength of the
FM 5-434
Cranes 7-13
boom deter mi nes the hei ght a cl amshel l can r each. The l ength of wi r e r ope the
cabl e dr ums can accommodate l i mi ts the depth a cl amshel l can r each. A
cl amshel l s hoi sti ng capaci ty var i es greatl y. Factors such as the boom l ength,
the operati ng r adi us, the si ze of the cl am bucket, and the uni t wei ght of the
materi al excavated deter mi ne a cl amshel l s safe hoi sti ng capaci ty. Refer to the
cr anes l oad-capaci ty tabl e i n the operator 's manual .
USE
7-35. The cl amshel l i s best for j obs such as excavati ng ver ti cal shafts or
footi ngs or for char gi ng aggr egate bi ns or hopper s. The hol di ng, cl osi ng, and
tag l i nes contr ol the bucket movement. At the star t of the di ggi ng cycl e, the
buck et i s dr opped on the mater i al to be dug wi th the shel l s open. As the
cl osi ng l i ne i s r eeved i n, the shel l s ar e dr awn together causi ng them to di g
i nto the materi al . The wei ght of the bucket, whi ch i s the onl y crowdi ng acti on
avai l abl e, hel ps the bucket penetr ate the mater i al . The hol di ng and cl osi ng
l i nes then r ai se the bucket. Rel ease the tensi on on the cl osi ng l i ne to open the
bucket and dump the mater i al .
Excavating Vertical Shafts or Footings
7-36. Si nce the di mensi ons of thi s type of excavati on may vary, i t i s di ffi cul t to
gi ve the most effi ci ent di ggi ng posi ti on for the cl amshel l . Two i mportant facts
to consi der ar e the amount of wi r e r ope on the machi ne and the need to keep
the outsi de edge of the cut l ower than the center (thi s keeps the bucket fr om
dr i fti ng towar d the center and causi ng a V-shaped excav ati on). I n deep
excavati ons, a buck et spotter or si gnal man usual l y gui des the oper ator ,
especi al l y when the bucket i s out of the oper ator 's si ght. Spotter s may al so
need to use hand tag l i nes to gui de the bucket.
Charging Aggregate Bins or Hoppers
7-37. Posi ti on the cr ane to avoi d havi ng to r ai se and l ower the boom when
swi ngi ng between the aggr egate stockpi l es and the bi ns or hopper s.
7-38. The fol l owi ng factors make i t di ffi cul t to arr i ve at dependabl e cl amshel l
producti on rates:
The di ffi cul ty of l oadi ng the bucket i n di ffer ent soi l types.
The hei ght to hoi st the l oad.
The sl ow swi ng requi red.
The method of di sposi ng of the l oad.
For exampl e, when l oadi ng materi al i nto a truck, the ti me requi red to spot the
bucket over the truck and dump the l oad i s greater than when dumpi ng the
materi al onto a spoi l pi l e. The best method for esti mati ng producti on i s to
observe the equi pment on the job and measure the cycl e ti me. Use the formul as
i n steps 1 through 5 shown i n the fol l owi ng exampl e when cycl e-ti me data i s
avai l abl e.
FM 5-434
7-14 Cranes
OPERATION TIPS
Posi ti on the uni t on l evel ground.
Posi ti on the uni t so di ggi ng oper ati ons are at the same radi us as the
du mpi ng oper ati on. Thi s wi l l avoi d wasted pr oducti on caused by
rai si ng and l oweri ng the boom.
Sel ect the cor rect bucket si ze for the machi ne. Effi ci ent use of the
cl amshel l means an effi ci ent di ggi ng, hoi sti ng, swi ngi ng, and dumpi ng
cycl e. Lar ge buckets may i ncr ease the cycl e ti me.
Remove the bucket teeth when worki ng i n soft mater i al s.
EXAMPLE
Determine the number of hours it will take to load 450 LCY of aggregate from a
stockpile into haul units with a clamshell.
Bucket size = 0.75 cubic yard
Average cycle time = 40 seconds
Efficiency factor = 50-minute working hour
Step 1. Determine the bucket size.
Bucket size = 0.75 cubic yard
Step 2. Determine the working time (in seconds per hour). Convert working
minutes per hour to working seconds per hour.
Step 3. Determine the production rate.
where
B = bucket size
T = working time
CT = cycle time
Step 4. Determine the soil conversion factor, if needed.
Soil conversion factor = not applicable
Step 5. Determine the total time required to complete the job.
Working time (seconds per hour)
working minutes per hour 60 seconds per minute
50 working minutes per hour 60 seconds per minute
3,000 seconds per hour
=
=
=
Production rate (LCY per hour)
B T (seconds per hour)
CT (seconds)
----------------------------------------------------------------------
0.75 cubic yard 3,000 seconds per hour
40-second cycle
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
56 LCY per hour
=
=
=
Total time (hours)
quantity of material moved (LCY)
production rate (LCY per hour)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
450 LCY
56 LCY per hour
---------------------------------------------- 8 hours = = =
FM 5-434
Cranes 7-15
DRAGLINE
7-39. Dr agl i ne components consi st of a dr ag bucket and a fai r l ead assembl y.
Wi r e r opes ar e used for the dr ag, the bucket hoi st, and the dump l i nes. The
fai rl ead gui des the drag cabl e onto the drum when the bucket i s bei ng l oaded.
The hoi st l i ne, whi ch operates over the boom-poi nt sheave, r ai ses and l ower s
the bucket. I n the di ggi ng operati on, the dr ag cabl e pul l s the bucket through
the mater i al . When the bucket i s r ai sed and moved to the dump poi nt, i t i s
empti ed by rel easi ng the tensi on on the drag cabl e. Dragl i ne buckets ar e r ated
by type and cl ass, as fol l ows:
Bucket types. Type I (l i ght duty), Type I I (medi um duty), and Type
I I I (heavy duty). The Ar my usual l y uses Type I I buckets.
Bucket classes. Cl ass P (perforated pl ate) and Cl ass S (sol i d pl ate).
The Ar my usual l y uses Cl ass S buckets.
USE
7-40. The dragl i ne (see Figure 7-2, page 7-2) i s a versati l e attachment capabl e
of a wi de r ange of operati ons at or bel ow gr ound l evel . I t can handl e materi al
rangi ng fr om soft to medi um-hard. The gr eatest advantage of a dr agl i ne over
other machi nes i s i ts l ong reach for di ggi ng and dumpi ng. A dragl i ne does not
have the posi ti ve di ggi ng for ce of a shovel or back hoe. Br eak out for ce i s
der i ved stri ctl y fr om bucket wei ght. The bucket can bounce, ti p over , or dr i ft
s i dewa r d wh e n i t en cou n ter s h a r d ma te r i al . Th es e weak n es s es ar e
parti cul arl y noti ceabl e wi th l i ghtwei ght buckets.
7-41. Use a dragl i ne for tr enchi ng, stri ppi ng overburden, cl eani ng and di ggi ng
r oadsi de di tch es , an d sl opi ng emban k men ts . Th e dr agl i ne i s th e mos t
pr acti cal attachment to use when handl i ng mud. The dr agl i nes reach al l ows
i t to excavate an extensi ve ar ea fr om one posi ti on. The sl i di ng acti on of the
bucket decr eases sucti on pr obl ems.
NOTE: Do not use the dragline attachment with hydraulic cranes.
CAPACITY
7-42. The dr agl i ne boom may be angl ed r el ati vel y l ow when operati ng. Boom
angl es of l ess than 35 from the hori zontal pl ane ar e sel dom advi sabl e because
of the possi bi l i ty of ti ppi ng the machi ne. When excavati ng wet, sti cky materi al
and casti ng i t onto a spoi l bank, the chance of ti ppi ng i ncr eases because of
materi al sti cki ng i n the bucket.
Casting Material
7-43. The thr ow or cast of the bucket i ncreases the dr agl i ne's operati ng radi us,
whi ch can be up to one-hal f of the boom hei ght (Figure 7-9, page 7-16).
WARNING
Onl y experi enced oper at ors shoul d per f orm
extended casting because of the possible damage to
the cables or the boom or the possibility of tipping
the machine.
FM 5-434
7-16 Cranes
Figure 7-9. Dragline Throw
Excavating a Trench
7-44. The dr agl i ne car r i age shoul d be i n l i ne wi th the tr ench center l i ne. Thi s
i s cal l ed the i n-li ne approach (Fi gure 7-10). The dr agl i ne excavates to the
fr ont whi l e movi ng backwar ds and dumpi ng on ei ther si de of the excavati on.
To ensure drai nage duri ng constr ucti on, al ways star t at the l ower end of the
trench.
Sloping an Embankment
7-45. An effecti ve use of a dragl i ne i s to dr ess the face of an embankment by
wor ki ng fr om the bottom to the top. Posi ti on the machi ne on the top of the
embankment wi th the tr acks par al l el to the wor ki ng face. Thi s i s cal l ed the
parallel approach (Figure 7-11). Thi s posi ti oni ng enabl es the machi ne to move
the ful l l ength of the job wi thout excessi ve turni ng.
Digging Underwater (Dredging) or in Wet Materials
7-46. A dr agl i ne i s i deal for r emovi ng mater i al s fr om ar eas such as water -
fi l l ed tr enches, canal s, gr avel pi ts, or di tches. Di ggi ng under water or i n wet
mater i al s i ncr eases th e mater i al s wei gh t and fr equ entl y pr ev ents th e
hoi sti ng of heaped bucket l oads. Pl an oper ati ons so that the mater i al bei ng
handl ed i s as dry as possi bl e. Al ways provi de good pr oject drai nage. Dr ai nage
pr oj ects i nv ol vi ng di tch excavati on thr ough swamps or s oft ter r ai n ar e
common. Under these condi ti ons, cast the excavated mater i al onto a l evee or
spoi l bank, whi ch el i mi nates the pr obl em of constr ucti ng r oads for haul i ng-
type equi pment. I t may be necessary to construct rudi mentary servi ce roads to
suppor t the constructi on effort and to get fuel to the machi ne.
Throw
Clear
dump
height
Drainage
Finished grade line
FM 5-434
Cranes 7-17
Figure 7-10. In-Line Approach With a Dragline
Figure 7-11. Parallel Approach With a Dragline
FM 5-434
7-18 Cranes
Loading Haul Units
7-47. Wher e job condi ti ons r equi r e l oadi ng excavated mater i al i nto haul i ng
uni ts, pl an the excavati on so that the l oaded trucks can tr avel on dry gr ound
and over mi ni mum gr ades when exi ti ng the l oadi ng ar ea. Spot tr ucks for
mi ni mum boom swi ng. I f possi bl e, spot the tr uck bed under the boom ti p wi th
the trucks l ong axi s par al l el to the l ong axi s of the boom. However , i t i s more
common to have to spot the tr uck at a r i ght angl e to the boom. Spotti ng the
haul uni ts i n the excavati on bel ow the dr agl i ne wi l l r educe hoi st ti me and
i ncrease producti on. The dr agl i ne, not bei ng a r i gi d attachment, wi l l not dump
i ts mater i al as accur atel y as other excavator s. Ther efor e, the oper ator wi l l
need mor e ti me to spot the dr ag bucket before dumpi ng.
7-48. Tabl e 7-2 gi ves the hour l y pr oducti on r ates for cr anes wi th a dr agl i ne
attachment. These r ates ar e based on the opti mum cutti ng depth, a 90 swi ng
angl e, the soi l type, and the maxi mum effi ci ency. Table 7-3 gi ves cor r ecti on
factor s for di ffer ent depths of cut and swi ng angl es. Refer to Table 1-1, page 1-
4, for s oi l con v er s i on factor s . Deter mi n e ov er al l effi ci en cy fr om pas t
experi ences.
Table 7-2. Dragline Hourly Output in BCY
Dragline Bucket Size (Cubic Yards)
Material 3/8 1/2 3/4 1 1 1/4 1 1/2 1 3/4 2 2 1/2
Clay or loam (light
and moist)
5.0
70.0
5.5
95.0
6.0
130.0
6.6
160.0
7.0
195.0
7.4
220.0
7.7
245.0
8.0
265.0
8.5
305.0
Sand or gravel
5.0
65.0
5.5
90.0
6.0
125.0
6.6
155.0
7.0
185.0
7.4
210.0
7.7
235.0
8.0
255.0
8.5
295.0
Good common earth
(soil)
6.0
55.0
6.7
75.0
7.4
105.0
8.0
135.0
8.5
165.0
9.0
190.0
9.5
210.0
9.9
230.0
10.5
265.0
Clay (hard and tough)
7.3
35.0
8.0
55.0
8.7
90.0
9.3
110.0
10.0
135.0
10.7
160.0
11.3
180.0
11.8
195.0
12.3
230.0
Clay (wet and sticky)
7.3
20.0
8.0
30.0
8.7
55.0
9.3
75.0
10.0
95.0
10.7
110.0
11.3
130.0
11.8
145.0
12.3
175.0
NOTE: The top figures give the optimum depth of cut (in feet). The bottom figures give the estimated
BCY per hour.
Table 7-3. Depth-of-Cut and Swing-Angle Correction Factors for Dragline Output
Depth of Cut Swing Angle (Degrees)
(in Percent
of Optimum) 30 45 60 75 90 120 150 180
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
1.06
1.17
1.24
1.29
1.32
1.29
1.25
1.20
1.15
1.10
0.99
1.08
1.13
1.17
1.19
1.17
1.14
1.10
1.05
1.00
0.94
1.02
1.06
1.09
1.11
1.09
1.06
1.02
0.98
0.94
0.90
0.97
1.01
1.04
1.05
1.03
1.00
0.97
0.94
0.90
0.870
0.930
0.970
0.990
1.000
0.985
0.960
0.930
0.900
0.870
0.81
0.85
0.88
0.90
0.91
0.90
0.88
0.85
0.82
0.79
0.75
0.78
0.80
0.82
0.83
0.82
0.81
0.79
0.76
0.73
0.70
0.72
0.74
0.76
0.77
0.76
0.75
0.73
0.71
0.69
FM 5-434
Cranes 7-19
OPERATION TIPS
Posi ti on the machi ne to el i mi nate unnecessar y casti ng and hoi sti ng,
al though the dr agl i ne bucket can easi l y be cast beyond the l ength of
the boom.
Use heavy ti mber mats for work on soft ground. Keep the mats as
l evel and cl ean as possi bl e.
EXAMPLE
Determine the hourly output for a 3/4-cubic-yard crawler dragline.
Bucket size = 3/4 cubic yard
Material = good common earth
Angle of swing = 45
Depth of cut = 9 feet
Step 1. Determine the ideal production from Table 7-2.
Ideal production = 105 BCY per hour at an optimum depth of cut of 7.4 feet
Step 2. Determine the ratio of the actual depth of cut to the optimum depth of
cut, expressed as a percent.
Step 3. Determine the depth-of-cut/swing-angle correction factor from Table 7-3.
In some cases it may be necessary to interpolate between Table 7-3 values.
Correction factor = 1.17
Step 4. Determine an overall efficiency factor based on the job conditions. Drag-
lines seldom work at better than a 45-minute working hour.
Step 5. Determine the production rate. Multiply the ideal production by the
depth-of-cut/swing-angle correction factor and the efficiency factor.
Step 6. Determine the soil conversion factor, if needed.
Soil conversion factor = not applicable
Cut ratio (percent)
actual depth of cut
optimum depth of cut
------------------------------------------------------------- 100
9 feet
7.4 feet
-------------------- 100
122 percent of optimum
=
=
=
Efficiency factor
45 minutes
60 minutes
------------------------------- 0.75 = =
Production rate 105 BCY per hour 1.17 0.75 92.1 BCY per hour = =
WARNING
Do not guide the dragline bucket by swinging the
superstructure while digging. This puts side stress
on the boom, which can cause the boom to collapse.
Raise the bucket clear of the ground before swinging
the boom.
FM 5-434
7-20 Cranes
SAFETY
OPERATOR RESPONSIBILITIES
7-49. Thor oughl y tr ai n oper ator s i n cr ane safety befor e al l owi ng them to
oper ate a cr ane. Oper ator s ar e r esponsi bl e for knowi ng the l i mi tati ons and
capabi l i ti es of cr anes and how to r ead a l oad char t pr oper l y. Oper ators must
not oper ate an unsafe cr ane. They must be abl e to i denti fy and pr omptl y
report any equi pment mal functi on or defect. Oper ator s have the authori ty to
stop and refuse to handl e l oads unti l safety has been assured.
HAND SIGNALS
7-50. Use a si gnal per son whenever the poi nt of oper ati on i s not i n ful l and
di r ect vi ew of the equi pment oper ator . When usi ng hand si gnal s, desi gnate
onl y one per son to gi ve the si gnal s to the operator. The si gnal per son must be
total l y dependabl e and ful l y qual i fi ed. The si gnal per son must use a uni for m
system of si gnal s and must be cl ear l y vi si bl e to the oper ator at al l ti mes.
Figure 7-12 shows the hand-si gnal system r ecommended for di r ecti ng crane-
shovel oper ati ons. Check the oper ator s manual for other equi pment si gnal s.
Ens ur e that oper ator s and si gnal men have a ful l u nder stan di n g of the
meani ng of al l si gnal s. See Chapter 13 for addi ti onal crane-safety precauti ons.
ACCIDENT PREVENTION
7-51. Common hazar ds associ ated wi th oper ati ng hook bl ocks, cl amshel l s, pi l e
dri ver s, and dr agl i nes are
The boom contacti ng hi gh-vol tage el ectri c wi r es. Thi s i s the most
hazardous aspect of cr ane oper ati on.
The cabl es br eaki ng.
The cl utch or br ake sl i ppi ng, al l owi ng the boom radi us to i ncrease.
Obstructi on of the free passage of the boom or the l oad.
Operati on on uneven ground.
Not knowi ng the actual wei ght of the l oad bei ng hoi sted.
Bent or dented chor d member s on the boom.
7-52. Common operator er rors associ ated wi th cr ane oper ati ons are
Dr oppi ng or sl i ppi ng the l oad.
Not usi ng outr i gger s.
Not usi ng mousi ng or safety-type hooks.
Not bei ng fami l i ar wi th the equi pment.
Not r efer ri ng to l oad char ts when usi ng di ffer ent boom l engths.
Usi ng the crane hoi st cabl e for towi ng. The boom i s desi gned for
handl i ng verti cal l oads onl y.
7-53. Per sonnel shoul d never attempt to cl i mb on or off of a cr ane when i t i s
oper ati ng. No per sonnel except the oper ator s and, on occasi on, exami ner s,
su per v i s or s , tr ai n ees , or r epai r er s , s hou l d be on a cr an e wh i l e i t i s i n
oper ati on.
FM 5-434
Cranes 7-21
.
Figure 7-12. Hand Signals for Crane-Shovel Operations
Raise the
load
Raise the
load slowly
Lower the
load
Raise the
boom
Raise the
boom and
hold the load
Raise the
boom and
lower the load
Lower the
boom slowly
Lower the
boom and
hold the load
Lower the
boom and
raise the load
Swing the load
in the direction
the finger
points
Travel both
crawler belts in the
direction indicated
by the revolving
fists
Raise the
boom slowly
Right
turn
Lock the crawler
belt on the side
indicated by the
raised fist; travel
the opposite
crawler belt in the
direction indicated
by the revolving
fist.
Left
turn
Dog
everything
Stop
Open the
clamshell
pocket
Close the
clamshell
pocket
NOTE: It is essential that the operator and signalman coordinate and agree on the meaning of each
signal prior to starting operations.
Lower the
load slowly
Lower the boom
Dog
everything
Stop Left
turn
FM 5-434
7-22 Cranes
7-54. When hoi sti ng a l oad fr om bel ow water , the cr ane takes on the added
l oad i mposed by the di spl aced water as the l oad i s hoi sted out of the water .
Never hoi st unknown wei ghts fr om the water . Consi der the water contai ned
i n the l oad or i n a water l ogged str uctur e as par t of the l oads wei ght. Never
h a n dl e water l ogged l oa ds or l oads f r om wate r or mu d wi th ou t f i r s t
deter mi ni ng whether the wei ght of the l oad and the water ar e wi thi n the
cr ane's hoi sti ng capaci ty.
7-55. When handl i ng a heavy l oad, r ai se i t a few i nches to determi ne whether
ther e i s undue str ess on any par t of the sl i ng and to ensur e that the l oad i s
bal anced. I f anythi ng i s wr ong, l ower the l oad at once and do not attempt to
move i t unti l the necessary adjustment or r epai r has been made.
7-56. Befor e hoi sti ng a near -capaci ty l oad, mak e sur e the hoi sti ng l i ne i s
ver ti cal . Move the cr ane i nstead of l ower i ng the boom, si nce swi ngi ng a
capaci ty l oad i ncreases the chance of ti ppi ng.
7-57. When l ower i ng a boom under l oad, use extreme cauti on. Check the l oad
chart wi th attenti on to r adi us changes and observe the radi us i ndi cator . These
char ts are posted i n the oper ator s cab. Never l ower the hoi sti ng l i ne and the
boom si mul taneousl y.
7-58. When l oweri ng l oads, use a l ow speed not to exceed the hoi sti ng speed of
the equi pment for the same l oad. The or di nar y hoi sti ng speed of a 30-ton,
motor -oper ated cr ane i s about 18 feet per mi nute wi th a r ated l oad. Stoppi ng
the l oad at such speeds i n a shor t di stance may doubl e the str ess on the sl i ngs
and cr ane.
7-59. Be car eful to guar d wor kers, bui l di ngs, or scaffol ds agai nst i njury fr om
swi ngi ng l oads. Do not swi ng l oads over wor ker s. I f i t i s necessar y to move
l oads over occupi ed areas, gi ve adequate war ni ng (by bel l or si ren) so wor ker s
can move i nto safe l ocati ons.
7-60. Do not attempt dual l i fts unl ess absol utel y necessar y and onl y wi th
competent super vi si on thr oughout the oper ati on. Dual l i fts ar e extr emel y
danger ous. Shi fti ng of the l oad can cause overl oadi ng and fai l ure of one cr ane.
Thi s thr ows the enti r e l oad onto the second cr ane causi ng i t to fai l . Befor e
maki ng a dual l i ft, car eful l y deter mi ne the posi ti on for the cr anes and the
l ocati on of the sl i ngs to bal ance the l oad pr oper l y.
7-61. After r epai r or al ter ati on of a cr ane or der r i ck i nvol vi ng i ts hoi sti ng
capaci ty or stabi l i ty, have a competent per son determi ne i ts safe worki ng l oad.
Have thi s person i ssue a wr i tten statement speci fyi ng the safe worki ng l oad.
7-62. Test the br akes at the begi nni ng of each new shi ft, after a r ai nstorm, or
at any other ti me when br ake l i ni ngs may have become wet. When hoi sti ng a
capaci ty l oad, check the br akes by stoppi ng the hoi st a few i nches above the
gr ound and hol di ng i t wi th the brake.
7-63. Equ i p al l cr an es wi th appr opr i ate f i r e ex ti n gu i s h er s . Keep th e
exti ngui sher s mai ntai ned and ready for use.
7-64. Never attempt to pul l pi pes or other objects out of the gr ound.
FM 5-434
Cranes 7-23
PILE-DRIVER SAFETY
7-65. When posi ti oni ng a cr ane to dr i ve pi l es, pr epar e a l evel wor k pl atfor m
and use outri gger s to mai ntai n crane stabi l i ty. When i n operati on, use safety
l ashi ngs for al l hose connecti ons to pi l e dri vers, pi l e ejectors, or jet pi pes. Use
tag l i nes to contr ol pi l es and hammer s. When hoi sti ng steel pi l i ng, use a
cl osed shack l e or other posi ti ve means of attachment. Onl y the pi l e-dr i vi ng
cr ew member s shoul d be per mi tted i n the wor k areas when dri vi ng pi l es. Pi l e-
dri ver oper ators shoul d be aware of the fol l owi ng safety pr ecauti ons:
Repairs. Never repai r any di esel or ai r equi pment whi l e i t i s i n
oper ati on or under pressure.
Air hoses. Make frequent i nspecti ons of ai r hoses to l ocate defects
and promptl y r epl ace any defecti ve ai r hoses.
Power lines. Make sure that machi nes or equi pment do not come too
cl ose to el ectr i c power l i nes. The machi ne does not actual l y have to
contact a power l i ne for the machi ne to be energi zed.
Hammer and driving heads. When a pi l e dri ver i s not i n use, use a
cl eat or ti mber to hol d the hammer i n pl ace at the bottom of the l eads.
Secur e the dri vi ng heads when usi ng the r i g to shi ft cri bbi ng or other
mater i al . Never pl ace your head or other par ts of your body under
suspended hammers that are not dogged or bl ocked i n the l eads.
Drums, brakes, and leads. Keep hoi sti ng drums and br akes i n the
best condi ti on possi bl e and shel ter them fr om the weather. Keep l eads
wel l gr eased to provi de smooth hammer travel .
FM 5-434
7-24 Cranes
Hydraulic Excavators 8-1
Chapter 8
Hydraulic Excavators
Hydr aul i c excavators ar e desi gned to excavate bel ow the gr ound sur face
on whi ch the machi ne r ests. These machi nes have good mobi l i ty and ar e
excel l ent for general -purpose work, such as excavati ng tr enches and pi ts.
Because of the hydr aul i c acti on of thei r sti ck and bucket cyl i nder s, they
exert posi ti ve forces crowdi ng the bucket i nto the mater i al to be excavated.
The major components of the hydr aul i c hoe are the boom, the sti ck (ar m),
and the bucket.
DESCRIPTION
8-1. Fast-acti ng, var i abl e-fl ow hydr aul i c systems and easy-to-operate contr ol s
gi v e hydr au l i c ex cavator s h i gh i mpl ement s peed and br eak ou t for ce to
excavate a var i ety of mater i al s. The hydr aul i c hoe i s i deal for excavati ng
bel ow the gr ounds sur face on whi ch the machi ne r ests. A l ar ge var i ety of
booms, sti cks, buckets, and attachments gi ve these excavators the versati l i ty
to excavate trenches, l oad tr ucks, cl ean di tches, break up concrete, and i nstal l
pi pes. The smal l empl acement excavator (SEE) wi th i ts hoe attachment
(Figure 8-1) can wor k i n ti ght pl aces and has good mobi l i ty.
Figure 8-1. Small Emplacement Excavator
Loader-bucket
frame assembly
Loader bucket
ROPS
Backhoe
controls
Backhoe
bucket
Loader-boom cylinder
Backhoe stabilizers
Ripper shank
Boom
Stick
FM 5-434
8-2 Hydraulic Excavators
EXCAVATION TECHNIQUES
8-2. The hoe i s nor mal l y associ ated wi th two types of excavati onstr enchi ng
(l i near -type) and basement (ar ea-type). The oper ator shoul d judge the l ength
and depth of cut to pr oduce a ful l bucket wi th every pass (Figure 8-2).
Figure 8-2. Hoe-Bucket Operating Dimensions
TRENCHES
8-3. Figure 8-3 shows par al l el and per pendi cul ar trenchi ng usi ng a SEE hoe
attachment.
Figure 8-3. A SEE Digging Trenches With a Hoe Attachment
Dumping height
Digging reach
Maximum digging depth
Maximum depth for level bottom
Perpendicular
Parallel
FM 5-434
Parallel
8-4. Wi th the paral l el method, center the hoe on the trench, whi l e keepi ng the
tractor i n l i ne wi th the tr ench center l i ne. As the di ggi ng progr esses, move the
machi ne away fr om the excavati on and l oad the mater i al i nto haul uni ts or
stockpi l e i t al ong the si de of the tr ench for l ater use as backfi l l .
Perpendicular
8-5. When usi ng the per pendi cul ar method, di g the tr enches i n two or mor e
cuts or l i fts. To excavate the top 35 to 45 percent of the tr ench depth, make the
fi r st cu t wi th th e boom car r i ed h i gh. To fi n i s h th e cut an d r emove th e
r emai nder of the mater i al , move for war d about one-hal f the l ength of the
machi ne wi th the boom car r i ed l ow. Al though thi s method i nvol ves more and
shor ter moves, i t has better bu ck et di ggi n g angl es and shor ter hoi sti ng
di stance on the top l i fts.
BASEMENTS
8-6. Many var i ati ons of the two basement-excavati on sequences shown i n
Figure 8-4 are possi bl e. The procedures vary wi th the desi gn and shape of the
excavati on, the r estr i cti ons of sur roundi ng pr oper ti es, and the r equi r ements
for di sposi ng of the spoi l . The fi rst cut i s a tr ench wi th verti cal outsi de wal l s.
To mi ni mi ze handwor k or cl eanup, di g al l outsi de wal l faces ver ti cal l y. Pl an
the starti ng poi nt and the di ggi ng sequence so that the machi ne conveni entl y
works i tsel f out of the excavati on. Di g trenches for servi ce pi pes l ast; di g them
from the basement outwar d. Straddl e the machi ne over the outer edge and di g
over the end and si de of the tr actor . Move the machi ne as the ar rows i n the
fi gure i ndi cate.
Figure 8-4. Two Methods of Excavating Basements
UNDERGROUND UTILITIES
8-7. Sur vey the area for under ground hazards as wel l as for sur face obstacl es
befor e di ggi ng. Thi s appl i es par ti cul ar l y to popul ated ar eas wi th mul ti pl e
under gr ound uti l i ti es.
FM 5-434
CONFINED QUARTERS
8-8. Wor k i n g i n con fi n ed qu ar ter s i s n ot effi ci en t fr om a pr odu cti on
standpoi nt. I f expecti ng consi der abl e cl ose-quar ter wor k, pl an to use smal l
machi nes that can operate effi ci entl y wi th a mi ni mum wor k r adi us.
DRAINAGE DITCHES
8-9. I f the job i s to conti nue dur i ng wet seasons or i n wet ar eas, gi ve pr i me
consi derati on to drai nage. Begi n di tch excavati ons at the l ower end and work
towar d the upgr ade.
HARD MATERIALS
8-10. A hoe wi l l di g i nto fai r l y har d mater i al s. However , bl asti ng or r i ppi ng
may be mor e effi ci ent than br eak i ng thr ough har dpan and r ock str ata wi th
the bucket. Once the trench i s open, br eak the l edge rock by pul l i ng the bucket
up under the l ayer s. Remove the top l ayer s fi r st, l i fti ng onl y one or two l ayer s
at a ti me.
SMALL EMPLACEMENT EXCAVATOR WITH A LOADER BUCKET
8-11. The SEE i s a l i ghtwei ght, al l -wheel -dr i ve, di esel -engi ne, hi gh-mobi l i ty
machi ne. I t i s equi pped wi th a hoe, a l oader buck et, and other hydr aul i c
attachments, whi ch nor mal l y i ncl ude a hammer dr i l l , a chai nsaw, and a
pav emen t br eak er . Ch eck th e oper ator 's man u al for u s i n g th e SEEs
hydr aul i c-mounted attachments. The SEE wei ghs l ess than 16,000 pounds, i s
ai r -tr anspor tabl e, can tr avel mor e than 50 mph on i mpr oved r oads, and has
excel l ent off-road mobi l i ty.
EXCAVATING
8-12. Under aver age condi ti ons, smal l hoesbuck et si ze l ess than 1 cubi c
yar dcan compl ete an excavati on cycl e i n 14 seconds. An excavati on cycl e
consi sts of l oadi ng the buck et, swi ngi ng the l oaded buck et, dumpi ng the
bucket, and swi ngi ng the empty bucket. Average condi ti ons woul d be a depth
of cut between 40 and 60 per cent of the machi nes r ated maxi mum di ggi ng
depth and a swi ng angl e of between 30 to 60. The aver age cycl e ti me for
buck et si zes fr om 1 cubi c yar d to l ess than 2.5 cubi c yar ds i s 15 seconds.
Greater di ggi ng depths or swi ng angl es i ncr ease the cycl e ti me.
8-13. Make sure the hoe i s l evel before operati ng. Lower the fr ont l oader bucket
to the gr ound (fl at) so that the machi nes front wheel s are not i n contact wi th
the sur face. Move the gear shi ft and the r ange-shi ft l ever s to thei r neutr al
posi ti ons, and l ower the outr i gger s. Use the outr i gger s to l evel the machi ne
and to rai se the rear wheel s sl i ghtl y above the ground. Al ways operate wi th the
l east amount of bucket-arm swi ng.
8-14. For eval uati ng heaped capaci ty, hoe buckets are rated wi th an assumed
mater i al r epose angl e of 1:1. Therefor e, actual bucket capaci ty depends on the
type of materi al bei ng excavated as al l materi al s have thei r own natur al repose
angl e. Table 8-1 provi des bucket fi l l factors for hoe buckets based on mater i al
type.
FM 5-434
Table 8-1. Bucket Fill Factors for Hoe Buckets
8-15. Bucket Cylinder. When usi ng the bucket cyl i nder to excavate, fol l ow
these steps (Figure 8-5):
Step 1. Put pressure on the boom to force the bucket teeth or cutti ng edge i nto
the ground.
Step 2. Rol l the bucket toward the machi ne unti l i t i s ful l .
Step 3. Rai se the bucket, i n a smooth operati on, hi gh enough above the trench
to cl ear the spoi l pi l e or the haul i ng uni t, and dump the excavated mater i al .
Figure 8-5. Bucket-Cylinder Operation
8-16. Stick Cylinder. The maxi mum di ggi ng force i s devel oped by oper ati ng
the sti ck cyl i nder per pendi cul ar to the sti ck. As a r ul e, the opti mum depth of
cut for a hoe i s 30 to 60 per cent of the machi nes maxi mum di ggi ng depth
(Figure8-2, page 8-2). When usi ng the sti ck cyl i nder to excavate, fol l ow these
steps:
Step 1. Lower the bucket i nto the di ggi ng posi ti on (Figure 8-6 [A]).
Step 2. Rol l the bucket unti l the bucket teeth or the cutti ng edge i s fl at on the
ground (Figure 8-6 [B]).
Material Fill Factor (Percent)
Moist loam or sandy clay 100 to 110
Sand and gravel 95 to 110
Rock (poorly blasted) 40 to 50
Rock (well blasted) 60 to 75
Hard, tough clay 80 to 90
FM 5-434
Step 3. Use the sti ck cyl i nder to move the bucket toward the machi ne unti l i t i s
hal f ful l (Figure 8-6 [C]).
Step 4. Rai se the sti ck and rol l the bucket unti l i t i s ful l (Figure 8-6 [D]).
Figure 8-6. Hoe Digging Technique
Loader Bucket
8-17. When di ggi ng wi th a l oader bucket
Use the bucket cyl i nder s to hel p br eak the gr ound l oose i nstead of
dependi ng on the for war d movement of the machi ne, as i n the l oader
cr owdi ng techni que.
Do not rai se the bucket hi gher than necessary to dump the mater i al .
Use as fl at a r amp as possi bl e when starti ng an excavati on. Pl an the
job so that most of the haul i ng from the excavati on can be done when
dr i vi ng the uni t for war d. A steeper r amp can be used when dr i vi ng
for ward than when dri vi ng i n rever se.
Keep the worki ng ar ea l evel .
LOADING
8-18. To excavate and l oad, a hoe buck et must r ai se thr ough the di ggi ng
moti on and above the haul uni t. I f possi bl e, spot the truck on the pi t fl oor. The
bucket wi l l then be above the haul uni t when the di ggi ng i s compl ete. At that
poi nt i t i s not necessar y to r ai se the buck et fur ther befor e swi ngi ng and
dumpi ng. Thi s arr angement wi l l save about 12 per cent of the total excavati on-
l oadi ng cycl e ti me. When l oadi ng dump tr ucks wi th a hoe
Pl an and l ay out the ar ea of oper ati on.
Spot the truck so that the hoe does not have to tur n (revol ve) more
than 90 (V-posi ti oni ng, di scussed i n Chapter 10, i s often appr opri ate).
FM 5-434
Rotate the bucket over the r ear of the dump bed, rather than over the
cab of the truck.
Keep the worki ng ar ea smooth.
Rai se the bucket whi l e movi ng towar d the tr uck.
Lower the bucket whi l e movi ng away from the truck.
Shake the bucket onl y when necessar y to l oosen di r t stuck i n the
bottom of the bucket.
LEVELING AND GRADING
8-19. Use the l oader bucket for l evel i ng and gr adi ng, as fol l ows:
Fi l l al l hol es and hol l ows and l oosen up any hi gh spots before
attempti ng to fi ni sh the grade (Figure 8-7).
Spread the di rt evenl y by hol di ng the bucket cl ose to the gr ade (ti pped
sl i ghtl y for war d) and l etti ng the di rt spi l l .
Level and pack the di rt wi th the l oader bucket i n a l owered posi ti on.
To fi ni sh, oper ate the machi ne i n r ever se wi th the buck et dr aggi ng
(back bl adi ng) on the ground.
Figure 8-7. Leveling the Ground With a Loader Bucket
TRENCH BACKFILLING
8-20. Use the l oader bucket for tr ench backfi l l i ng as fol l ows:
Posi ti on the machi ne at approxi matel y a 45 angl e to the l ength of the
trench and i ts spoi l pi l e.
Wi th the bucket rai sed about 2 i nches above the natural ground, use i t
l i k e a dozer bl ade to push the mater i al i nto the tr ench. Keep the
bucket l evel whi l e pushi ng the mater i al ; do not cr owd/cur l .
FM 5-434
After the materi al fal l s i nto the trench, rever se the machi ne and move
al ong the pi l e to r epeat pushi ng.
After the l ast pass, dump the mater i al r emai ni ng i n the bucket i nto
the tr ench.
I f the materi al i n the spoi l pi l e al ong the trench i s hi gher than 2 feet or i s wet,
attack the pi l e i n two passes. Take off the upper hal f wi th the fi rst pass and the
remai nder wi th a second cl eanup pass.
TRACK-MOUNTED EXCAVATOR
8-21. Tr ack-mounted excavators (Figure 8-8) ar e di esel -engi ne machi nes that
have a maxi mum di ggi ng depth of approxi matel y 20 feet and an approxi mate
dumpi ng hei ght of 22 feet. These excavator s can tr avel ar ound a job si te at a
maxi mum speed of about 3 mph i n hi gh r ange. They must be tr anspor ted for
l ong-di stance tr avel between pr ojects. They ar e used for excavati ng pi pel i ne
tr enches, dr ai nage di tches, bui l di ng footi ngs, and hasty forti fi cati ons and for
l oadi ng tr ucks.
Figure 8-8. Track-Mounted Excavator
EXCAVATING
8-22. These excavators can be equi pped wi th buckets rangi ng i n si ze from 1 to
2.5 cubi c yar ds. The excavati on cycl e for thi s machi ne i s about 15 seconds
based on aver age condi ti ons, a depth of cut between 8 and 12 feet, and a swi ng
angl e of 30 to 60.
LIFTING
8-23. On uti l i ty jobs the excavator many need to l i ft and swi ng heavy secti ons
of pi pe i nto a tr ench. Someti mes these machi nes are used to hoi st and unl oad
mater i al s fr om tr uck s. The wei ght an excavator can l i ft depends on the
di stance the l oad i s fr om the center of gravi ty of the machi ne. Al ways refer to
the curr ent speci fi cati on sheets before attempti ng a l i ft. Posi ti on the machi ne
as cl ose to the l oad as possi bl e. The other cri ti cal el ement to consi der i s swi ng
and posi ti on. The l i fti ng capabi l i ty i s 65 to 70 percent gr eater over the front of
the machi ne than over the si de. These machi nes ar e desi gn ed to handl e
15,000 pounds (at a swi ng radi us of 15 feet) over the si de.
8-24. Factors that affect hoe pr oducti on are the
Wi dth of the excavati on.
Depth of the cut.
FM 5-434
Mater i al type.
Wor ki ng r adi us for di ggi ng and dumpi ng.
Requi r ed bucket dumpi ng hei ght.
EXAMPLE
Use a hoe equipped with a 0.25-cubic-yard bucket to excavate hard clay. The
depth of cut will average about 50 percent of the machines maximum digging
depth and the swing angle should be less than 60. What is the expected produc-
tion, in BCY per hour, assuming 50 working minutes per hour?
Step 1. Determine the bucket fill factor based on the material type (Table 8-1,
page 8-5).
Fill factor for hard clay = 80 to 90 percent
Lacking any other information, use an average of 85 percent.
Step 2. Use a hoe cycle time based on past performance data if available or use
the average cycle time given in paragraph 8-12.
Average cycle time = 14 seconds
Step 3. Determine the ideal production rate (LCY per hour).
Step 4. Determine the production rate (LCY per hour) by adjusting for efficiency.
Step 5. Convert the production rate from LCY per hour to BCY per hour. Deter-
mine the soil-volume correction factor from Table 1-1, page 1-4 (LCY to BCY for
hard clay).
Ideal production rate (LCY per hour)
3,600 seconds per hour
backhoe cycle time (seconds)
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- bucket size (cubic yards) fill factor (from step 1)
=
Ideal production rate
3 600 ,
14
---------------- 0.25 0.85 55 LCY per hour = =
Production rate ideal production rate (LCY per hour) efficiency factor =
Production rate (LCY per hour) 55
50 minutes
60 minutes
------------------------------- 45 LCY per hour = =
Soil conversion factor for clay (loose to bank) 0.7 =
Production rate 45 LCY per hour 0.7 32 BCY per hour = =
FM 5-434
Air Compressors and Pneumatic Tools 9-1
Chapter 9
Air Compressors and Pneumatic Tools
When ai r i s compr essed, i t r ecei ves ener gy fr om the compr essi on. Thi s
energy i s tr ansmi tted through a pi pe or a hose to the operati ng equi pment,
wher e a por ti on of the en er gy i s con v er ted i nto mech an i cal wor k . A
compressed-ai r system consi sts of one or mor e compressor s together wi th a
di str i buti on system to carry the ai r to the poi nts of use. Engi neer uni ts use
compressed ai r to i nfl ate r ubber equi pment, to spray materi al s, to oper ate
pneu mati c tool s , to cl ean equi pment, and to per for m cer tai n j obs i n
mai ntenance shops. A pneumati c tool uses the energy of compressed ai r as
the power for i ts oper ati on.
AIR COMPRESSORS
9-1. Portabl e ai r compressors are commonl y used on constructi on si tes wher e
i t i s necessar y to meet fr equentl y changi ng j ob demands. Fi gure 9-1 and
Figure 9-2, page 9-2, show two types of ai r compressor s. The capaci ty of an ai r
compr essor i s determi ned by the amount of fr ee ai r that i t can compr ess to a
speci fi ed pr es su r e i n one mi nu te, u nder standar d con di ti ons (abs ol ute
pressure of 14.7 pounds per square i nch [psi ] at 60F). Thi s amount of free ai r
i s usual l y expressed i n cubi c feet per mi nute (cfm). The number of pneumati c
tool s th at can be oper ated fr om on e ai r compr es sor depends on th e ai r
requi rements of the speci fi c tool s.
Figure 9-1. Trailer-Mounted, 250-cfm Air Compressor
FM 5-434
9-2 Air Compressors and Pneumatic Tools
Figure 9-2. Wheel-Mounted, 750-cfm Air Compressor
EFFECTS OF ALTITUDE
9-2. When a gi ven vol ume of free ai r i s compr essed, the ori gi nal pr essure wi l l
aver age 14.7-psi absol ute pr essure at sea l evel . I f the same vol ume of fr ee ai r
i s compr essed to the same gauge output pr essur e at a hi gher al ti tude, the
vol u me of th e ai r after bei n g compr ess ed wi l l be l es s than th e vol u me
compr essed at sea l evel . Thus, whi l e a compr essor may compr ess ai r to the
same di schar ge pr essur e at a hi gher al ti tude, the vol ume suppl i ed i n a gi ven
ti me i n ter v al wi l l be l es s at th e h i gh er al ti tu de. Tabl e 9-1 sh ows th e
per centage of vol umetr i c effi ci ency at di ffer ent al ti tudes based on a 100-psi
gauge output pressur e.
Table 9-1. Efficiency of Air Compressors at Various Altitudes (100-psi Gauge Output Pressure)
CAPACITY OF COMPRESSORS
9-3. On a typi cal job, some tool s oper ate al most conti nuousl y, whi l e other s
oper ate i nfr equentl y. An anal ysi s shoul d be made to determi ne the pr obabl e
actual need before determi ni ng the compr essor r equi r ements. I f ten r ock dri l l s
ar e nomi nal l y dr i l l i ng, gener al l y no mor e than fi ve or si x of the dr i l l s wi l l be
consumi ng ai r at a gi ven ti me. Addi ti onal l y, the amount of ai r used wi l l vary
consi der abl y i n di ffer ent appl i cati ons. Tabl e 9-2 pr ovi des data on the ai r
r equi r ements of speci fi c tool s. After consi der i ng the number of wor ki ng tool s
and thei r ai r r equi r ements, i ncr ease the total amount of ai r demanded by 10
percent to compensate for l eakage.
Single-Stage Reciprocating
Compressor
Two-Stage Reciprocating
Compressor Rotary Compressor
Altitude (Feet) Percent of Efficiency Percent of Efficiency Percent of Efficiency
2,000 98.7 99.4 100.0
5,000 92.5 98.5 100.0
7,000 100.0
8,000 87.3 97.6 99.9
10,000 84.0 97.0
12,000 98.6
FM 5-434
Table 9-2. Description and Operating Data for Pneumatic Tools
NUMBER OF COMPRESSORS
9-4. The number of compr essor s r equi r ed wi l l depend on the si zes avai l abl e.
Normal l y, i f 1,400 cfm of fr ee ai r were requi red for a speci fi c job, two 750-cfm
uni ts woul d be suffi ci ent. Ai r compr essor s ar e stur dy machi nes, but l i k e al l
mechani cal equi pment they requi r e mai ntenance. Therefor e, i n some cases a
standby uni t wi l l be requi red.
LOCATION OF COMPRESSORS
9-5. I f possi bl e, centr al l y l ocate al l compr essor s on the job. Thi s arr angement
has the advantage of uni fi ed oper ati on and better super vi si on. I t i s possi bl e
that a centr al l ocati on i s not advi sabl e due to a l ack of pi pi ng, too l ar ge a
fri cti on l oss, or obstr ucti ons on the job si te. I n thi s case, i t woul d be necessary
to l ocate compr essor s at appr opr i ate poi nts. Al l ai r compr essor s must be
l evel ed and shoul d be pl aced as cl ose to the ai r -oper ated devi ces as condi ti ons
wi l l permi t.
Air
Requirements
Air-Line
Hose
Tool psi cfm Hourly Work Output Diameter
Paving breaker
(jackhammer) (80-lb)
Attachments: chisel point, moil
point, 8" diameter tamper,
sheeting driver
80-100 65 15 sq ft of 6" asphalt paving with chisel point;
12 to 50 sq ft of 6" to 8" nonreinforced concrete
with moil point depending upon width of cut (12
sq ft for narrow cut, 50 sq ft for wide cut);
maximum lift of 8" with tamper; driving wood or
up to 2" thick steel sheeting with sheeting driver
3/4"
Paving breaker
(clay digger) (25-lb)
Attachments: moil point, pick,
spade, drum opening tool
80-90 35 Loosen 1.2 cubic yards of tough clay with
spade; open 20 to 30, 55-gallon drums with a
drum-ripping tool
1/2"
Nail driver
Attachments: 1/2" and 3/4"
head driving sets, rivet buster
90 30 250, 80d nails (after the nails have been started
with a hammer or a sledge)
1/2"
Circular saw
Attachments: woodworking,
12" blade (Special abrasive
disks available for cutting other
materials.)
80-100 75 Cuts 4" x 4" lumber in 30 seconds 1/2"
Chain saw
Attachments:
24" blade, Type I, Size 1
80-100 90 Cuts 12" diameter hardwood log in 50 seconds.
(Under 25: 5/8", 25 to 100: 3/4", over 100: 1")
5/8" to 1/2"
Wood drill
Attachments:
2" diameter capacity. Ship
augers range from 7/16" to 2"
in 1 and 3 lengths.
80-100 60 Using largest size auger, 125 holes 36" deep 3/4"
Sump pump (3" discharge,
175-GPM capacity)
80-90 100 175 GPM at 25 head
150 GPM at 150 head
3/4"
Steel drill (Number 3 Morse
taper chuck, 1 1/4" capacity)
90-100 27 30 each 1" diameter holes in 1" thick steel plate
(lead holes of 1/4" diameter drilled previously)
1/2"
Handheld rock drill
(dry-type, 55-lb)
Attachments: 2, 4, 6, and 8
hollow-steel drill rods and 1 5/8",
1 3/4", 1 7/8", and 2" drill bits
80-100 95
Soft rock:
Medium rock:
Hard rock:
1 3/4" Hole
15-20'
10-15'
5-10'
3/4"
FM 5-434
OPERATION OF COMPRESSORS
9-6. Ai r compressor s shoul d al ways be l ocated upwi nd from the wor k to keep
for ei gn materi al out of the ai r i ntake. When oper ati ng under extr emel y dusty
con di ti on s, tak e pr ecau ti on s to pr otect the u ni ts fr om as mu ch du st as
possi bl e. Other factors to consi der are as fol l ows:
Open al l dr ai n cocks to dr ai n condensati on after each 8 hours of
oper ati on, thus el i mi nati ng the possi bi l i ty of rusti ng or fr eezi ng.
Cl ose the si de panel s of the compr essor housi ng when i t i s bei ng
oper ated i n col d weather .
Bl ock the wheel s and engage the hand br ake of the tr ai l er mount
befor e operati on.
Ensur e that the r ecei ver tank i s drai ned of ai r when oper ati ons are
compl ete.
COMPRESSED-AIR USES
9-7. Compr essed ai r i s used extensi vel y on constr ucti on pr oj ects. I n many
i n s tances , compr es sed ai r i s th e mos t con v en i en t method of oper ati ng
equi pment and tool s.
ASPHALT PLANTS
9-8. Ai r compr essors ar e fr equentl y used i n asphal t pl ants for fuel atomi zati on
of the dryer bur ner . Compressor s are al so used to cl ean up the pl ant, to power
var i ous tool s at the pavi ng si te, and to dedrum.
CONCRETE OPERATIONS
9-9. At the batch pl ant, vi br ator s may be used on the aggr egate hopper to
pr event br i dgi ng. Ai r -dr i ven pi n dr i ver s and cl eani ng devi ces for cl eani ng
sawed joi nts are used at the pavi ng si te.
PNEUMATIC TOOLS
9-10. The mi l i tar y uses pneumati c pavi ng br eakers, nai l dr i ver s, saws, dr i l l s,
pumps, an d a var i ety of other pneu mati c tool s. Pneumati c tool s can be
powered by ei ther a reci procati ng-per cussi on or a rotary-vane ai r motor.
Reciprocating-percussion air motor. The reci procati ng-per cussi on
ai r motor i s used when a hammer i ng acti on i s desi r ed. I t empl oys a
free-fl oati ng pi ston movi ng i n a cyl i nder . When the throttl e i s opened,
a set of val ves i ntr oduce ai r al ter natel y to the ends of the cyl i nder ,
dr i v i n g th e pi s ton ba ck a n d f or th . Th e f or ce of th e p i s ton i s
transmi tted to the tool , whi ch does the wor k.
Rotary-vane air motor. The rotary-vane ai r motor i s empl oyed
when a rotar y moti on i s desi red. The motor empl oys a cyl i nder havi ng
an eccentr i cal l y mounted sl otted r otor , wi th each sl ot contai ni ng a
spr i ng-l oaded vane. When th e thr ottl e i s opened, compr essed ai r
enter s a smal l compartment. Pr essure on the vanes causes the r otor to
turn i n the di recti on of a l arger compar tment. A gear trai n transmi ts
the rotati on to the attachment, whi ch does the work.
FM 5-434
9-11. Two i mportant factor s that affect the condi ti on of a pneumati c tool ar e
l ubr i cati on and ai r pr essure.
Lubrication. To check for proper l ubri cati on of a pneumati c tool ,
pass a pi ece of paper i n fr ont of the tool exhaust port. I f a thi n fi l m of
oi l accumul ates on the paper , the tool i s bei ng pr oper l y l ubri cated. I f
dr ops of oi l appear on the paper or i f oi l foams ar ound the exhaust
por t, the tool i s over -l ubr i cated. I f no oi l appear s, the l ubr i cati on
devi ce shoul d be checked i mmedi atel y.
Air pressure. Each tool requi res a speci fi ed vol ume of ai r at a speci fi c
pr es s u r e. I f th e v ol u me of a i r or pr es s u r e i s a l l owed to dr op
excessi vel y, consi derabl e damage wi l l r esul t. Check for ai r l eaks i n the
hose and ar ound the ai r connecti ons. Li sten to and obser ve the tool
when i t i s oper ati ng. I f a tool appear s to be oper ati ng sl uggi shl y or
appears to be surgi ng (er rati c operati on), i t has ei ther too much or too
l i ttl e pr essur e. The tool s shoul d never be operated wi th l ess than 70-
or more than 100-psi pr essur e at the tool . I f the ai r-pressur e gauge on
the ai r compr es sor conti n ual l y r emai ns bel ow 70 psi , the uni t i s
overl oaded (too l i ttl e pressur e at the tool ).
9-12. Most pneumati c tool s ar e heavy and cr eate a consi der abl e amount of
vi br ati on. A di ffi cul ty someti mes encounter ed wi th thei r use i s oper ator
fati gue. Thi s i s a par ti cul ar pr obl em wi th i nexper i enced oper ator s. Car eful
attenti on shoul d be gi ven to the sel ecti on of operator s to ensure that they are
i n good physi cal condi ti on and str ong enough to oper ate the equi pment.
AIR MANIFOLDS
9-13. Many constr ucti on jobs r equi r e mor e compr essed ai r per mi nute than
any one compr essor wi l l pr oduce. An ai r mani fol d i s a l ar ge-di ameter pi pe
used to tr ansport compressed ai r from one or mor e ai r compr essor s wi thout a
detri mental fri cti on-l i ne l oss.
CONSTRUCTION
9-14. Mani fol ds can be constr ucted of any dur abl e pi pe. Compr essor s ar e
connected to the mani fol d wi th fl exi bl e hoses. A one-way check val ve must be
i nstal l ed between the compr essor and the mani fol d. Thi s val ve k eeps the
mani fol ds back pr essur e fr om possi bl y for ci ng ai r back i nto a compr essor s
r ecei ver tank . The compr essor s that ar e gr ouped to suppl y an ai r mani fol d
may be of di fferent capaci ti es, but the fi nal di schar ge pr essure of each shoul d
be coordi nated at 100 psi . Compressor s of di ffer ent types shoul d not be used
on the same ai r mani fol d. The di ffer ence i n the pressure control systems of a
rotar y and a r eci pr ocati ng compressor coul d cause one compr essor to become
over l oaded whi l e the other compr essor i dl es. The Ar my commonl y constr ucts
ai r mani fol ds of 6-i nch-di ameter invasion pi pi ng. Ai r may be used at any poi nt
al ong the mani fol d by i nstal l i ng outl et val ves for connecti ng ai r l i nes and
pneumati c tool s.
COMPRESSED-AIR DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
9-15. The pur pose of i nstal l i ng a compr essed-ai r di str i buti on system i s to
pr ovi de a suffi ci ent vol ume of ai r to the wor k si te at pr essur es adequate for
effi ci ent tool oper ati on. Any dr op i n pressure between the compr essor and the
poi nt of use i s an i r r etr i evabl e l oss. Therefor e, the di str i buti on system i s one
FM 5-434
of the most i mpor tant el ements of the total system. Obser ve the fol l owi ng
gener al rul es i n pl anni ng a compressed-ai r di str i buti on system:
Pi pe si zes shoul d be l ar ge enough so that the pr essure drop between
the compr essor and poi nt of use does not exceed 10 per cent of the
i ni ti al pressure.
Each header or mai n l i ne shoul d be pr ovi ded wi th outl ets as cl ose as
possi bl e to the poi nt of use. Thi s per mi ts shor ter hose l engths and
avoi ds l ar ge pr essure drops thr ough the hose.
Condensate dr ai ns shoul d be l ocated at appropri ate pl aces al ong the
headers or mai n l i nes.
FRICTION LOSSES
9-16. The hose or pi pe connecti ng the tool to the ai r compr essor r esi sts the
fl ow of ai r. Consequentl y, the pr essure at the tool end of the l i ne i s l ess than at
the compr essor end. The ai r -l i ne fri cti on i ncreases as the di ameter of the hose
or pi pe decr eases or as the l ength of the hose or pi pe i ncr eases. Thr ough
pr acti ce, i t has been determi ned that a 200-foot-l ong, 3/4-i nch-di ameter hose
i s th e max i mu m l en gth an d di ameter to wh i ch a han dh el d tool can be
connected and oper ated effi ci entl y. Standar d tabl es (Tables 9-3 and 9-4) ar e
avai l abl e for cal cul ati ng the fri cti on l oss i n a pi pe or hose.
AIR-LINE HOSE
9-17. Ai r -l i n e h os e i s a r u bber -cov er ed, pr es s u r e-ty pe h os e u s ed for
tr ansmi tti ng compr essed ai r . Hose wi th a 3/4-i nch i nsi de di ameter i s used
wi th hand-operated tool s and hose wi th a 2-i nch i nsi de di ameter i s used wi th
a cr awl er -mounted dr i l l . Hose i s usual l y fur ni shed i n 50-foot l engths and
equi pped wi th qui ck-acti ng fi tti ngs (for attachi ng a tool , a compr essor , or
another hose). Leader hose i s made of oi l -resi stant neopr ene r ubber and has
end attachments. I t i s used between the ai r-l i ne oi l er and an ai r tool . Secti ons
of l eader hose ar e usual l y 12 or 25 feet l ong and 1/2 or 3/4 i nch i n di ameter.
AIR-LINE OILER
9-18. The ai r-l i ne oi l er i s a r eservoi r whi ch i s pl aced i n the ai r l i ne di r ectl y i n
fr ont of the ai r tool for the pur pose of l ubr i cati ng the tool . As the ai r passes
th r ough th e oi l er , i t pi ck s u p th e oi l wh i ch i s car r i ed i n to th e tool . An
adjustabl e needl e contr ol s the amount of oi l enteri ng the ai r stream. Ther e are
both di recti onal and nondi r ecti onal oi l ers. The ar row shoul d be poi nted i n the
di recti on of the ai r fl ow when i t i s connected to the ai r l i ne.
PNEUMATIC TOOLS
9-19. Pneumati c tool s ar e si mpl er i n desi gn than si mi l ar gasol i ne or el ectr i c-
power ed tool s an d r equ i r e l es s ma i n ten an ce. A pn eu ma ti c tool wi th
nonspar k i ng attachments can be oper ated ar ound petr ol eum pr oducts or
expl osi ve mater i al s wi thout pr esenti ng a fi r e hazard.
FM 5-434
Table 9-3. Loss of Air Pressure Due to Friction in a Pipe
1
(in psi per 1,000 Feet of Pipe With 100-Pound-Gauge Initial Pressure)
Table 9-4. Loss of Air Pressure Due to Friction in a Hose
1
(in psi per 50 Feet of Hose With 100-Pound-Gauge Initial Pressure)
Cubic Feet
of Free Air
Per Minute
Nominal Pipe Diameter (Inches)
1 1 1/4 1 1/2 2 2 1/2 3 3 1/2 4 4 1/2
100 27.9 6.47 2.86 0.77 0.30
125 48.6 10.20 4.49 1.19 0.46
150 62.8 14.60 6.43 1.72 0.66 0.21
175 19.80 8.72 2.36 0.91 0.28
200 25.90 11.40 3.06 1.19 0.37 0.17
250 40.40 17.90 4.78 1.85 0.58 0.27
300 58.20 25.80 6.85 2.67 0.84 0.39 0.20
350 35.10 9.36 3.64 1.14 0.53 0.27
400 45.80 12.10 4.75 1.50 0.69 0.35 0.19
450 58.00 15.40 5.98 1.89 0.88 0.46 0.25
500 71.60 19.20 7.42 2.34 1.09 0.55 0.30
600 27.60 10.70 3.36 1.56 0.79 0.44
700 37.70 14.50 4.55 2.13 1.09 0.59
800 49.00 19.00 5.89 2.77 1.42 0.78
900 62.30 24.10 7.60 3.51 1.80 0.99
1,000 76.90 29.80 9.30 4.35 2.21 1.22
1,500 67.00 21.00 9.80 4.90 2.73
1
Compressed Air Handbook, Compressed Air and Gas Institute, 1947.
Cubic Feet of Free
Air Per Minute
Nominal Hose Diameter (Inches)
1/2 3/4 1 1 1/4 1 1/2
20 0.6 0.2
30 2.0 0.4 0.1
40 4.3 0.6 0.2
50 7.6 1.0 0.2
60 12.0 1.4 0.4
70 17.6 2.0 0.5 0.1
80 24.6 2.7 0.6 0.2
90 33.3 3.5 0.8 0.2
100 44.5 4.4 1.0 0.3
110 5.4 1.2 0.4
120 6.6 1.5 0.4 0.1
130 7.9 1.8 0.5 0.2
140 9.4 2.1 0.6 0.2
150 11.1 2.4 0.7 0.2
1
Compressed Air Handbook, Compressed Air and Gas
Institute, 1947.
FM 5-434
PAVING BREAKER (J ACKHAMMER) (80-POUND)
9-20. The pneumati c pavi ng br eaker (80-pound wei ght cl ass) (Figure 9-3) i s
u s ed for h eav y -du ty demol i ti on wor k on con cr ete, br i ck , as ph al t, an d
macadam. I t i s al s o u s ed f or demol i s h i n g wal l s , col u mn s , pi er s , a n d
foundati ons and for gener al r ock breaki ng. A var i ety of attachments may be
used wi th thi s tool , dependi ng on the type of wor k. Thi s tool i s a member of
the r eci procati ng per cussi on fami l y of ai r tool s. I t wei ghs 87.5 pounds, uses a
3/4-i nch-di ameter hose, and r equi r es 65 cfm of ai r at 80 to 100 psi . I t i s
constr ucted so that i t may be separated i nto thr ee major gr oups of parts: the
back head, the cyl i nder, and the fr ont head. The back-head gr oup contai ns the
ai r contr ol s, the oi l r eser voi r , and the handl e. The cyl i nder group consi sts of
the cyl i nder , the pi ston, and the automati c val ve assembl y. The fr ont-head
gr oup pr ovi des the means for hol di ng the tool steel or any attachment.
Figure 9-3. Paving Breaker (80-Pound)
Attachments
9-21. Four pri mar y attachments ar e i ssued wi th thi s pavi ng br eaker . They are
the moi l poi nt, the chi sel poi nt, the tamper, and the sheeti ng dri ver .
The moi l poi nt i s a 20-i nch-l ong pi ece of 1 1/4-i nch-di ameter hexagonal
tool steel that i s poi nted at one end and has a r etai ner col l ar 6 i nches
fr om the opposi te end. I t i s used to break through concr ete, stone, or
other mater i al hav i ng a s i mi l ar hi gh-abr as i ve and h i gh -den si ty
character .
The chi sel poi nt i s si mi l ar to the moi l poi nt except that i t has a 3-i nch-
wi de wor k i ng edge that i s used to cut macadam, fr ozen gr ound, or
extr emel y har d ear th. I t can be used for maki ng a mar k i ng l i ne to
serve as a gui de when cutti ng concrete.
The tamper i s a 5- to 7-i nch-di ameter steel pad, mounted on a 1 1/4-
i n ch -di ameter hexagon al tool s teel . I t i s u s ed to compact l oos e
materi al .
The sheeti ng dr i ver i s made of two steel angl es and an i mpact pad
that tr ansmi ts the bl ow to the wood or metal sheeti ng that i s bei ng
dri ven.
FM 5-434
Production
9-22. Si n ce j ob-si te condi ti ons an d th e mech an i cal con di ti on of th e ai r
compr essors and the pneumati c tool s var y on each pr oject, i t i s not possi bl e to
predi ct the wor k output of pneumati c tool s on al l jobs. I n nonr ei nfor ced, 6- to
8-i nch-deep concr ete usi ng a moi l poi nt, the aver age wor k output wi l l r ange
fr om 50 squar e feet per hour i n l ar ge ar eas to 12 squar e feet per hour i n
nar row cuts. I n r ei nforced concr ete, producti on may drop to 50 square feet per
8-hour shi ft.
Operation
9-23. Hol d down the pavi ng br eaker whi l e i t i s i n oper ati on, but use onl y
suffi ci ent pr essur e to gui de the tool and keep i t i n pl ace. Leani ng heavi l y on
the pavi ng breaker wi l l shor ten the stroke of the tool attachment and resul t i n
l ess work output. Breakers can best be oper ated i n tandem. Onl y smal l bi tes
(4 to 8 i nches behi nd the wor ki ng face) shoul d be taken when br eaki ng har d
mater i al s. I f a moi l poi nt becomes stuck , use a second br eaker to br eak the
mater i al bi ndi ng the poi nt. I f the poi nt becomes stuck when usi ng a si ngl e
breaker, take the pavi ng br eaker off and use another poi nt to br eak the stuck
poi nt free. Other i mportant oper ati ng precauti ons are as fol l ows:
Wear doubl e heari ng protecti on.
Wear goggl es to protect eyes fr om chi ps and dust.
Ensur e that the shank of each attachment i s the cor rect si ze.
I mproper shank si zes wi l l r educe the effecti veness of the bl ow and wi l l
cause damage to the pavi ng br eaker .
Keep the poi nts of the attachments sharp.
Keep al l nuts ti ght. The ai r hose to the pavi ng-br eaker connecti ons
shoul d be checked fr equentl y to ensur e that no ai r i s escapi ng.
Provi de a cl ear wor k ar ea for effi ci ent tool oper ati on.
Maintenance
9-24. Mai ntenance probl ems i nher ent wi th the pavi ng br eaker ar e caused by
i mproper use of the attachments. Too often, attempts ar e made to dri l l hol es
wi th the moi l poi nt. The moi l poi nt i s a br eaki ng devi ce. Attempti ng to dr i l l
hol es wi th i t wi l l br eak the poi nt. The chi sel poi nt i s desi gned for cutti ng
asphal t and soft materi al s. I f i t i s used for br eaki ng concrete, the poi nt wi l l be
damaged beyond repai r. A frequent source of troubl e wi th the pavi ng br eaker
i s breakage of the tool -l atch retai ner bol t. The cause of thi s i s the operator not
shutti ng off the tool when the moi l poi nt br eak s thr ough the mater i al . The
front head bounces on the concr ete and causes the r etai ner bol t to br eak.
PAVING BREAKER (CLAY DIGGER) (25-POUND)
9-25. The pneumati c pavi ng br eaker (25-pound wei ght cl ass) (Figure 9-4, page
9-10) i s a medi um-wei ght tool made for spadi ng, tri mmi ng, cutti ng, or pi cki ng
cl ay, har dpan, or fr ozen gr oun d. I t wei ghs 25.2 pounds, uses a 1/2-i nch-
di ameter hose, and r equi res 35 cfm of ai r at 80 to 90 psi . I t i s constr ucted so
that i t may be separ ated i nto three major gr oups of par ts: the back head, the
cyl i nder , and the fr ont head. The back-head gr oup i ncl udes the handl e. The
cyl i nder group consti tutes the mai n body of the tool . I t i ncl udes the hammer,
FM 5-434
whi ch i s dr i ven agai nst the shank of the tool by the ai r pr essur e. The fr ont-
head gr oup i s the tool retai ner.
Figure 9-4. Paving Breaker (25-Pound)
Attachments
9-26. The thr ee pr i mar y attachments nor mal l y i ssued wi th thi s br eaker ar e
the moi l poi nt, the pi ck , and the spade. A metal , dr um-r i ppi ng tool may be
i ssued for openi ng 55-gal l on dr ums.
9-27. The moi l poi nt consi sts of a 15-i nch str ai ght l ength of 1-i nch-di ameter
tool steel that i s poi nted on one end. I t i s used as a l i ght demol i ti on tool on
masonry, concrete, or other dense materi al .
9-28. The pi cks bl ade i s 3 i nches wi de by 8 i nches l ong wi th a poi nted cutti ng
end. I t i s used for di ggi ng i nto fr ozen gr ound, cemented gr avel , or other
materi al s too hard to be penetr ated by the spade.
9-29. The spade (shaped l i ke a gar den spade) i s 5 1/2-i nches wi de by 8-i nches
l ong. I t i s used for di ggi ng trenches, prepar i ng footi ngs or foundati ons, di ggi ng
cai ssons, dr i vi ng tunnel s, or doi ng any general di ggi ng that i s too di ffi cul t and
sl ow for an ordi nary hand spade.
9-30. The metal , drum-ri ppi ng tool has a 1-i nch-wi de cutti ng bl ade, topped by
a 5/8-i nch-thi ck, extended snubnose. The Ar my has the fol l owi ng two types
Type I i s used to cut heads from metal dr ums. The nose of thi s r i ppi ng
tool i s cur ved to al l ow i t to easi l y fol l ow the curvature of the head on
the drum.
Type I I i s used to spl i t metal drums l engthwi se. I t has a strai ght nose
and i s capabl e of openi ng 20 to 30, 55-gal l on drums per hour.
Production
9-31. The attachment used most frequentl y wi th the 25-pound br eaker i s the
cl ay spade. About 12 cubi c yar ds of tough cl ay can be l oosened per 10-hour
shi ft.
FM 5-434
Operation
9-32. Oper ator s shoul d merel y gui de the tool , never r i de or l ean on i t. The tool
i s desi gned for tri mmi ng or di ggi ng, not for pryi ng.
Maintenance
9-33. Gi ve par ti cul ar attenti on to the tool s r etai ner assembl y. Di r t and other
abr asi ve mater i al s wi l l enter the bottom of the r etai ner and cause excessi ve
wear . Thi s wear can be prevented i f the tool i s not al l owed to penetr ate past
the wi de por ti on of the cl ay spade.
NAIL DRIVER
9-34. The pneumati c nai l dr i ver (Fi gure 9-5) i s a l ong-str oke, pi ston-acti on
ri veti ng hammer . The nai l dri ver i s desi gned for dr i vi ng heavy dr i ft pi ns and
spi kes. I t wei ghs 24 pounds, uses a 1/2-i nch-di ameter hose, and r equi r es 30
cfm of ai r at 90 psi . The handl e i s for med to fi t the hand, wi th a thumb-
oper ated thr ottl e l ever that contr ol s the admi ssi on of ai r . The bar r el of the
dr i ver houses the val ve mechani sm, the pi ston, and the nai l set. A sl eeve on
the end of the nai l set pr events the tool fr om sl i di ng off the head of the nai l . A
safety set r etai ner screws onto the nozzl e end of the bar rel and hol ds the nai l
set i n the tool at al l ti mes.
Figure 9-5. Nail Driver
Attachments
9-35. The nai l dr i ver i s i ssued wi th 1/2- and 3/4-i nch nai l sets and a r i vet
buster.
Production
9-36. Used as a nai l dr i ver , 250 60-penny nai l s can be dri ven per hour (after
the nai l s have been star ted by hand).
Operation
9-37. Al ways star t the nai l s or spi k es wi th a handhel d hammer . The nai l
dri ver must be i n l i ne wi th the nai l or spi ke bei ng dr i ven and shoul d stri ke the
nai l or spi ke squarel y to mi ni mi ze the possi bi l i ty of bendi ng.
Maintenance
9-38. The retai ner housi ng on a nai l dr i ver often br eaks because the oper ator
fai l s to keep the nai l set agai nst the wor k. Any attempt to countersi nk a nai l
wi l l r esul t i n a br oken retai ner spr i ng.
FM 5-434
CIRCULAR SAW
9-39. The pneumati c ci r cul ar saw (Figure 9-6) may be used for r i ppi ng and
cr osscut task s. I t wei ghs 32 1/2 pounds, uses a 1/2-i nch-di ameter hose, and
r equi r es 75 cfm of ai r at 80 to 100 psi . The handl e assembl y i ncl udes a D-
shaped handl e wi th a tr i gger -type thr ottl e and a thumb-oper ated pl unger
l ock. The body contai ns a r otar y-vane ai r motor wi th a fl ybal l gover nor that
l i mi ts the motor speed to 2,400 r pm. A fi xed bl ade guard i s attached to the l eft
si de of the body to pr otect the oper ator . The top handl e (above the body) i s
used to contr ol and gui de the saw. The foot i s hi nged to the front of the upper
bl ade guar d thr ough a sector. By l ooseni ng a wi ng nut on thi s sector, the foot
can be ti l ted for bevel cuts up to 45. At the back of the foot a second sector ,
secur ed by a wi ng nut, per mi ts adjustment of the depth of cut fr om 2 3/8 to 6
i nches. Two V-shaped notches on the fr ont of the foot si mpl i fy cutti ng al ong a
l i ne. The deeper V-notch i s i n l i ne wi th the bl ade for r i ght-angl e cuts, whi l e
the smal l er V-notch i s i n l i ne wi th the bl ade for 45 bevel cuts. A r i p fence
(attached to the front of the foot by means of a wi ng screw) shoul d be used for
r i ppi ng when l ong cuts must be made. A tel escopi c bl ade guar d cover s the
l ower por ti on of the bl ade when the saw i s not bei ng used. Thi s guar d i s
spr i ng-l oaded so i t cl oses automati cal l y when the bl ade i s l i fted fr om the cut,
but fol ds i nto the fi xed bl ade guar d when the saw i s bei ng oper ated.
Figure 9-6. Circular Saw
Attachments
9-40. Thi s saw i s i ssued wi th a 12-i nch combi nati on bl ade used for r i ppi ng and
cr osscutti ng i n wood onl y. When equi pped wi th the pr oper abr asi ve di sk, the
pneumati c saw can be used to cut br i ck, stone, concrete, ti l e, asbestos cement
sheets, steel , or cast i ron. No one type of abr asi ve di sk or saw bl ade i s sui ted
for al l materi al s. Or der these i tems careful l y for each speci fi c ki nd of wor k.
Production
9-41. Usi ng the combi nati on bl ade for crosscutti ng, the saw wi l l cut a 4- by 4-
i nch board i n 30 seconds. The maxi mum depth of cut at 90 i s 4 3/8 i nches.
Operation
9-42. Al ways use the pr oper bl ade for the materi al bei ng cut. Make sur e that
the materi al to be cut i s fr ee of nai l s, spi kes, or si mi l ar objects. Never jam the
saw i nto a cut. I f the saw i s to be used upsi de down for pr ol onged per i ods of
FM 5-434
ti me, be car eful that the exhaust por t does not become cl ogged. Keep hands
away fr om the bl ades, and shut off the ai r when the tool i s not i n use.
Maintenance
9-43. I n many cases, the pneumati c ci r cul ar saw i s i nver ted and used as a
tabl e saw. When thi s i s done, the exhaust por t i s exposed to the woodcutti ngs.
An accumul ati on of these cutti ngs wi l l cl og up the ai r motor and make the saw
usel ess.
CHAIN SAW
9-44. The pneumati c chai n saw (Fi gure 9-7) i s a heavy-duty saw i ntended
pri mar i l y for cutti ng trees or ti mbers up to 24 i nches i n di ameter . I t wei ghs 45
pounds and r equi r es 90 cfm of ai r at 80 to 100 psi . The hose di ameter var i es
wi th the di stance to the ai r source (25 feet or l ess fr om sour ce, 5/8 i nch; 26 to
100 feet fr om sour ce, 3/4 i nch; mor e than 100 feet fr om sour ce, 1 i nch). The
head assembl y consi sts of a dr i ve housi ng, two handl es, a gui de br ack et, a
bumper , and an ai r connecti on. The dri ve housi ng contai ns a four -vane r otary
motor. A guar d bar made of heavy steel extends fr om the head assembl y to the
i dl er assembl y and i s sl i ghtl y ar ched so i t l i es about 3/4 i nch fr om the upper
por ti on of the chai n. I ts purpose i s to pr otect the oper ator fr om i njur y i n the
event of a br eak i n the chai n. The saw shoul d never be oper ated wi thout thi s
guard. The guard bar i ssued wi th the chai n saw i s for the 24-i nch-l ength saw;
however , guar d bars are avai l abl e through suppl y channel s for the 36- and 48-
i nch-l ength saws. Use of a 48-i nch bar requi res two oper ator s.
Figure 9-7. Chain Saw
Chains
9-45. The standar d chai n has a 3/4-i nch pi tch and a 3/8-i nch cut for gener al -
pu r pose us e on an y capaci ty s aw. I t i s us ed for fel l i n g and for cutti ng
har dwood or softwood. I t i s easy to shar pen and hol ds i ts cutti ng edge for a
r el ati vel y l ong ti me. Thi s chai n consi sts of thr ee-l i nk sets. The l i nk i n the
center of each set contai ns a r aker tooth. Raker teeth are set al ternatel y i n the
sets, to the r i ght and l eft. The fi r st and thi rd l i nks i n each set contai n a cutter
tooth. The cutter teeth al ternate on the chai n, wi th the teeth set to the r i ght
and to the l eft. The cutter teeth control the wi dth of the cut. A 76-i nch chai n i s
i ssued wi th the 24-i nch-l ength chai n saw; however , chai ns of 100 and 124
i nches ar e avai l abl e thr ough suppl y channel s for use wi th 36- and 48-i nch-
l ength saws.
FM 5-434
Production
9-46. The chai n saw can cut thr ough a 12-i nch har dwood l og i n 50 seconds.
Never for ce the saw i nto the wood, but al l ow i t to cut at i ts own speed. Be
car eful to ensur e that the saw does not twi st whi l e cutti ng.
Maintenance
9-47. Keep the chai n at the proper tensi on and properl y sharpened. The bl ade
shoul d be adjusted to mai ntai n a 1/2-i nch chai n sl ack when pul l ed up at the
center. Mor e sl ack than thi s wi l l al l ow the chai n to jump out of the saw gui de,
causi ng the bl ade to bend or br eak. I f the chai n i s too ti ght, i t wi l l bend and
cause sprocket damage.
WOOD DRILL
9-48. The pneumati c wood dr i l l i s a heavy-duty, l ow-speed tool desi gned to
dr i ve auger -type dr i l l bi ts. I t wei ghs 27 1/2 pounds, uses a 3/4-i nch-di ameter
hose, and r equi r es 60 cfm of ai r at 80 to 100 psi . I t i s used extensi vel y i n
trestl e bri dge and other ti mber constructi on work wher e i t i s necessary to dri l l
hol es for bol ts and pi ns. The dr i l l body houses a rotar y-vane ai r motor, a gear
trai n (for r educi ng the motor speed to a chuck speed of about 800 r pm), and an
oi l r eser voi r . A chuck i s pr ovi ded for 1/2-i nch-di ameter dri l l -bi t shanks and a
l ar ge Al l en-type setscr ew hol ds the shank i n pl ace. Ther e ar e two types of
chucksthe Mor se-taper and the two-screw. The shaft, on whi ch the chuck i s
mounted, i s dr i l l ed so the shank wi l l extend i nto the base of the gri p handl e. A
sl ot i n the base of thi s handl e pr ovi des for i nser ti on of a wedge agai nst the end
of the bi t to l oosen i t i f i t i s jammed i n the chuck. The ai r l i ne i s attached to
the end of the throttl e handl e.
Attachments
9-49. Auger -type dr i l l bi ts ar e i ssued i n 1- and 3-foot l engths and have 7/16-,
3/4-, 1-, and 2-i nch di ameters.
Production
9-50. The dr i l l wi l l bor e 125 36-i nch-deep hol es i n one hour usi ng a 2-i nch-
di ameter auger bi t.
Operation
9-51. The r otati on of the wood dr i l l can be r ever sed. Al ways star t the dr i l l
sl owl y unti l the scr ew i s wel l set. Hol d the dr i l l fi r ml y, but do not for ce i t.
Exer t enough effor t to counter act the tendency of the tool to r otate, and be
prepar ed to r esi st the tor que i n case the bi t becomes stuck. Dur i ng bor i ng and
wi thdrawi ng of the auger , keep i t i n l i ne wi th the hol e.
Maintenance
9-52. The auger bi t fr equentl y becomes stuck i n the chuck. Remove i t by usi ng
the auger ejector . Tr yi ng to knock i t out wi th a hammer wi l l r esul t i n damage
to the chuck and/or the auger .
FM 5-434
SUMP PUMP
9-53. The pneumati c sump pump (Figure 9-8) i s a smal l -capaci ty pump. The
sump pump wei ghs 50 pounds, uses a 3/4-i nch-di ameter hose, and r equi r es
100 cfm of ai r at 80 to 90 psi . Due to i ts si mpl e, r ugged constr ucti on i t r equi r es
l i ttl e attenti on. I t can oper ate whi l e compl etel y submer ged when an exhaust
l i ne i s used. The pump assembl y consi sts of an open-i mpel l er centr i fugal
pump. A combi nati on bottom pl ate and i nl et str ai ner cover the pump i ntake
openi ng, and a 3-i nch exhaust connecti on i s mounted on the si de of the pump
housi ng.
Figure 9-8. Sump Pump
Production
9-54. The pneumati c sump pump may be ei ther a Cl ass 1 (for tr ansfer r i ng
sewage and sl udge) or a Cl ass 2 (for tr ansfer r i ng petr ol eum pr oducts). Thi s
pump i s r ated at 175 gal l ons per mi nute (GPM) agai nst a 25-foot head or 150
GPM agai nst a 150-foot head.
Operation
9-55. To ensur e maxi mum effi ci ency, keep the i nl et strai ner cl ean and free of
debr i s. Keep the pump away fr om mud, and cl ean the str ai ner as often as i s
necessar y. Keep the exhaust-l i ne outl et above the water l evel . Use onl y water -
pump grease i n the fi tti ngs on the pump. Dr ai n the pump of water when not
usi ng i t.
Maintenance
9-56. I f si l t and di r t ar e l eft i n the pump after use, i t wi l l cause the i mpel l er to
sti ck and wi l l r equi r e di sassembl y and cl eani ng befor e i t can be used agai n.
Al l owi ng water to get i nto the pump thr ough the exhaust por t wi l l cause
fai l ur e of the gr ease seal s.
STEEL DRILL
9-57. The pneumati c steel dr i l l i s a por tabl e tool for dr i l l i ng, r eami ng, and
tappi ng i n metal s. The dr i l l wei ghs 27.5 pounds, uses a 1/2-i nch-di ameter
hose, and requi res 27 cfm of ai r at 90 to 100 psi . The chuck speed i s 425 rpm.
I t i s sui tabl e for 1 1/4-i nch dri l l i ng and 1-i nch r eami ng or tappi ng.
FM 5-434
Attachments
9-58. Bi ts for use wi th thi s dr i l l ar e 1/2-i nch i n di ameter wi th a Number 3
Morse-taper shank.
Production
9-59. Used as a dr i l l , thi r ty 1-i nch hol es can be dr i l l ed per hour i f the steel
pl ate has been prepar ed beforehand wi th 1/4-i nch l ead hol es.
Operation
9-60. The r otati on of the steel dr i l l cannot be r ever sed. I t i s i mpor tant to
ensure that the bi ts have cl ean, sharp edges, and that they are not chi pped or
damaged i n any way.
Use cutti ng oi l to cool and l ubr i cate the dri l l bi t.
Use a center punch to mark the center and to hol d the ti p of the dri l l
i n pl ace when star ti ng a hol e.
Do not use worn chucks.
Wear goggl es to protect eyes fr om steel chi ps or shavi ngs.
Cl amp al l mater i al that i s bei ng dr i l l ed to a bench. Thi s wi l l prevent
i njur i es to personnel i f the dr i l l shoul d bi nd i n the materi al .
Maintenance
9-61. The bi t wi l l be damaged due to heat i f cutti ng oi l i s not used. Too much
pr essur e appl i ed to the bi t wi l l stal l the dr i l l and cause undue wear on the
gear assembl y. Thi s can damage the feed-screw system.
HANDHELD ROCK DRILL
9-62. Th e pn eu mati c h an dh el d r ock dr i l l i s a pi s ton -acti on u n i t wi th
i ndependent ai r -motor r otati on. I t i s desi gned pr i mar i l y as a hard-rock dr i l l ;
however , i t i s al so effi ci ent i n soft and medi um for mati ons. I t wei ghs 57
pounds, uses a 3/4-i nch-di ameter hose, and r equi r es 95 cfm of ai r at 80 to 100
psi . The dri l l consi sts of a back-head gr oup, a cyl i nder uni t, and a fr ont-head
group. I t i s desi gned so that ai r may be di r ected thr ough the dr i l l , down the
dri l l steel , and i nto the bottom of the hol e to bl ow out r ock cutti ngs.
Attachments
9-63. Thi s dr i l l i s i ssued wi th dr i l l r ods i n 2-, 4-, 6-, and 8-foot l engths and
dri l l -bi ts of 1 5/8, 1 3/4, 1 7/8, and 2 i nches.
Production
9-64. The dri l l i s desi gned for ver ti cal dri l l i ng. I f l ar ge number s of hor i zontal
hol es ar e r equi r ed, some mechani cal means must be devi sed for hol di ng the
dri l l i n pl ace. I t wi l l dr i l l hol es effi ci entl y to a depth of 10 feet. See Table 9-2,
page 9-3, for pr oducti on r ates.
Operation
9-65. Bent dri l l steel s shoul d not be used. They cause damage to the dri l l and
usual l y r esul t i n a stuck bi t and l ost producti on.
FM 5-434
SAFETY
9-66. Be very car eful when wor ki ng wi th compr essed ai r. At cl ose r ange i t i s
capabl e of putti ng out eyes, bur sti ng eardr ums, causi ng seri ous ski n bl i ster s,
or even ki l l i ng an i ndi vi dual .
AIR COMPRESSORS
Ensur e that the i ntake ai r i s cool and free fr om fl ammabl e gases or
vapor s.
Do not permi t wood or other fl ammabl e materi al s to remai n i n contact
wi th the ai r-di scharge pi pe.
Shut down the compr essor i mmedi atel y i f the ai r di schar ged from any
stage r i ses undul y or exceeds 400F.
Ensur e that al l the pr essure gauges are i n good worki ng or der .
Do not ki nk a hose to stop the ai r fl ow.
Check the safety val ves, pressure val ves, and r egul ators to determi ne
i f they are wor ki ng properl y before star ti ng the ai r compr essor.
Do not l eave the compressor after starti ng i t, unl ess you are cer tai n
th at the con tr ol , un l oadi n g, an d gov er ni n g devi ces ar e wor k i ng
properl y.
Do not run an ai r compr essor faster than the manufactur ers
recommended speed.
Use onl y the pr oper gr ade of oi l as r ecommended by the manufactur er.
Use onl y oi l s whi ch have hi gh fl ash poi nts to l ubri cate the ai r
cyl i nder s.
Avoi d the appl i cati on of too much oi l .
Keep the compr essor, the tanks, and the accompanyi ng pi pi ng cl ean to
guard agai nst oi l -vapor expl osi on.
Cl ean the i ntake ai r fi l ters peri odi cal l y.
Use onl y soapy water or a sui tabl e nontoxi c, nonfl ammabl e sol uti on
for cl eani ng compr essor i ntak e fi l ter s, cyl i nder s, or ai r passages.
Never use benzene, ker osene, or other l i ght oi l s to cl ean these por ti ons
of a system. These oi l s vapor i ze easi l y and the vapor wi l l expl ode when
compr essed.
Tur n off the motor befor e maki ng adjustments and r epai rs.
Make cer tai n that the compressor i s secured and cannot be star ted
automati cal l y or by acci dent, that the ai r pr essur e i n the compr essor
i s compl etel y rel i eved, and that al l the val ves between the compressor
and the r ecei ver s ar e cl osed befor e worki ng on or r emovi ng any par t of
the compr essor.
PNEUMATIC TOOLS
Wear protecti ve cl othi ng and equi pment (such as goggl es, gl oves, and
r espi r ator s) appr opr i ate for the par ti cul ar pn eumati c tool bei ng
oper ated.
Mai ntai n a fi r m gr i p on the tool at al l ti mes.
Mai ntai n a good footi ng and pr oper bal ance at al l ti mes whi l e
oper ati ng pneumati c tool s.
FM 5-434
Rel ease the thr ottl e of the tool at the fi rst i ndi cati on that the tool i s
out of contr ol . Rel ease the tool and l et i t fal l i f i t cannot be control l ed.
Turn off the ai r and di sconnect the tool when r epai rs or adjustments
ar e bei ng made or the tool i s not i n use. When di sconnecti ng the tool ,
al l pr essur i zed ai r shoul d be di schar ged fr om the l i ne befor e the
connecti on i s broken.
I nspect the hose to ensur e that i t i s i n good condi ti on and fr ee from
obstr ucti ons befor e connecti ng a pneumati c tool . When bl owi ng out
the l i ne, make certai n the end of the hose i s poi nted i nto the ai r and i s
secur ed agai nst whi ppi ng. Mak e cer tai n al l connecti ons ar e ti ght
befor e the l i ne i s pr essuri zed.
Lay down pneumati c tool s i n such a manner that no harm can be done
i f the swi tch i s acci dental l y tr i pped. Do not l eave an i dl e tool i n a
standing posi ti on.
Keep pneumati c tool s i n good operati ng condi ti on and thoroughl y
i nspect them at r egul ar i nter val s. Gi ve par ti cul ar attenti on to the
contr ol and exhaust val ves, the hose connecti ons, the gui de cl i ps on
hammer s, and the chucks of reamer s and dri l l s.
Shut off the tool and r el i eve the pressur e from the l i ne before
di sconnecti ng the tool from the l i ne.
Remove l eaki ng or defecti ve hoses from servi ce. The ai r hose must be
sui tabl e to wi thstand the pressur e r equi r ed for the tool .
Do not l ay the hose over l adders, steps, or wal kways i n such a manner
as to create a tri ppi ng hazard.
Where a hose i s run through a doorway, pr otect the hose agai nst
damage from the door s edge.
Do not l ay the hose between the oper ator s l egs whi l e the tool i s bei ng
oper ated.
Never poi nt an ai r hose at other personnel . Do not use compr essed ai r
to cl ean cl othi ng bei ng wor n or to bl ow dust off the body.
Handheld Rock Drills
Do not (under any ci r cumstances) wear l oose or torn cl othi ng.
Exami ne the dr i l l for defects. Pay par ti cul ar attenti on to bi t fl utes,
whi ch must be ground to uni form si ze, shar pness, and l ength.
Hol d the machi ne on a str ai ght l i ne wi th the hol e bei ng bored.
Do not feed the machi ne too fast.
Establ i sh a fi rm footi ng before star ti ng the oper ati on.
Do not modi fy or bypass the handgr i p swi tch. (Al l dr i l l s are equi pped
wi th a handgr i p swi tch that wi l l shut off the ai r suppl y when the gr i p
i s rel eased.)
Paving Breakers
Wear sui tabl e goggl es when operati ng pneumati c br eaker s.
Roughen hard mater i al s or sl i ck surfaces wi th a sl edgehammer to
i mprove br eaker contr ol .
Hauling Equipment 10-1
Chapter 10
Hauling Equipment
The most common haul i ng equi pment used for Ar my constr ucti on wor k
ar e the 5- and 20-ton dump tr uck s, both of whi ch ar e or gani c to most
en gi n eer u n i ts . E qu i pmen t tr a i l er s a r e u s ed to tr a n s por t h ea v y
constr ucti on equi pment not desi gned for cr oss-countr y tr avel . They ar e
al so used to haul l ong, oversi ze i tems and packaged i tems.
DUMP TRUCKS
USE
10-1. The 5-ton fami l y of medi um tacti cal vehi cl es (FMTV) (Figure 10-1) and
the 20-ton (Figure 10-2, page 10-2) dump tr ucks can be used for a var i ety of
pur poses. Thi s manual , however , di scusses dump tr ucks used pr i mar i l y for
haul i ng, dumpi ng, and spreadi ng earth, rock, or pr ocessed aggregates.
Figure 10-1. Dump Truck (5-Ton) FMTV
CAPACITY
10-2. The capaci ty of haul i ng equi pment i s expr essed i n one of thr ee ways:
gravi metri cal l y by the wei ght of the l oad i t wi l l car ry (i n tons), by i ts struck
r ear -dump body vol ume (i n cubi c yar ds), or by i ts heaped r ear -dump body
capaci ty (i n cubi c y ar ds). Th e haul i n g capaci ty of Ar my dump tr uck s i s
FM 5-434
10-2 Hauling Equipment
nor mal l y ex pr ess ed gr av i metr i cal l y: 5-ton an d 20-ton . Con v er s el y, th e
capaci ty of l oadi ng equi pment i s nor mal l y expr essed i n cubi c yards. The uni t
wei ght of the var i ous mater i al s to be tr anspor ted may var y fr om as l i ttl e as
1,700 pounds per LCY for dr y cl ay, to 3,500 pounds per LCY for tr ap rock (see
Table 1-2, page 1-4, for wei ghts of common materi al s). Al ways make sure that
the vol umetri c l oad does not exceed the gravi metri c capaci ty of the tr uck.
Figure 10-2. Dump Truck (20-Ton)
OPERATION
Loading
10-3. For maxi mum effi ci ency, fi l l tr u ck s as cl ose to thei r r ated haul i ng
capaci ty as practi cal . Adjust the l oad si ze i f haul roads ar e i n poor condi ti on or
i f the tr ucks must tr aver se steep gr ades. Over l oadi ng wi l l cause hi gher fuel
consumpti on, reduced ti re l i fe, and i ncreased mechani cal fai l ur es.
10-4. Use spotti ng mar ker s when trucks ar e haul i ng from a hopper , a gr i zzl y
r amp, or a stockpi l e. Spotti ng mar k er s ar e al so benefi ci al when excavator s
(such as a dragl i ne, a cl amshel l , a l oader, a backhoe, or a hoe) are used to l oad
haul i ng equi pment. They faci l i tate pr ompt and accur ate vehi cl e spotti ng
whi ch i mpr oves l oadi ng effi ci ency.
10-5. Spot tr uck s as cl ose to the bank as possi bl e when l oadi ng wi th an
ex cavator . En sur e that the tr uck s ar e wi thi n the wor k i n g r adi us of the
dr agl i ne, the cl amshel l , or the hoe bucket. When usi ng a l oader , posi ti on the
tr uck and l oader so that the two machi nes for m a V. Thi s ar r angement wi l l
reduce the l oader cycl e ti me (Figure 10-3).
FM 5-434
Figure 10-3. Truck and Loader V-Positioning for Loading
Maintaining Proper Speed
10-6. Haul at the hi ghest safe speed and i n the pr oper gear, wi thout speedi ng.
Speedi ng i s unsafe and hard on equi pment. When sever al trucks ar e haul i ng,
i t i s essenti al to mai ntai n the pr oper speed to pr event haul i ng del ays or
bottl enecks at the l oadi ng and dumpi ng si tes. Use separ ate haul r oads to and
fr om the dump si te, i f possi bl e. Keep haul r oads wel l mai ntai ned, wi th a
mi ni mum grade. Use one-way traffi c patterns to i ncr ease effi ci ency.
Dumping (Unloading)
10-7. Al ways use spotter s to contr ol dumpi ng oper ati ons. When dumpi ng
mater i al th at r equ i r es spr eadi n g, move th e tr uck for war d s l owl y wh i l e
du mpi n g the l oad. Th i s mak es s pr eadi n g easi er . Establ i sh al ter nati v e
dumpi ng l ocati ons to mai ntai n tr uck spaci ng when poor footi ng or di ffi cul t
spotti ng sl ow the dumpi ng oper ati on.
Preventive Maintenance
10-8. Keep tr uck bodi es cl ean and i n good condi ti on. Accumul ati ons of r ust,
di rt, dr i ed concr ete, or bi tumi nous mater i al s hamper producti on. Consi der the
ti me spen t cl ean i n g and oi l i ng du mp bodi es, par ti cu l ar l y for asphal t or
concr ete haul i ng, when computi ng tr ansportati on requi rements.
Cl ean tr uck bodi es thoroughl y at the end of the day. When used to
haul wet concr ete mi x, spray the dump beds wi th water befor e l oadi ng
and cl ean them thor oughl y as soon as practi cal after dumpi ng.
Coat the wal l s and si des of truck bodi es wi th di esel fuel or oi l to
prevent bi tumi nous mater i al s (pl ant-mi x asphal t) fr om sti cki ng.
Truck
Stockpile
Loader
FM 5-434
10-9. The pr odu cti on capaci ty of th e l oadi ng equi pmen t i s nor mal l y the
haul i ng operati ons contr ol l i ng factor. Never keep l oadi ng equi pment wai ti ng.
I f there are not enough trucks, there wi l l be a l oss i n pr oducti on.
Number of Trucks Required
10-10. Use the fol l owi ng formul a to esti mate the number of tr ucks requi red to
keep l oadi ng equi pment oper ati ng at maxi mum capaci ty:
The numeral 1 i n the for mul a i s a safety factor agai nst the necessi ty
for cl osi ng down l oadi ng equi pment due to l ack of haul i ng equi pment.
I f al l operati ons are on schedul e, one tr uck wi l l al ways be standi ng by
at the l oader, r eady for spotti ng.
The truck cycl e ti me i s the ti me r equi r ed for a tr uck to compl ete one
cycl e of operati on. One compl ete cycl e i s the ti me a l oaded tr uck takes
to tr avel to the dump si te, unl oad, r eturn to the l oadi ng uni t, and be
rel oaded.
The l oader cycl e ti me i s the ti me i t takes the l oadi ng equi pment to
l oad the tr uck , pl us any ti me l ost by the l oadi ng equi pment whi l e
wai ti ng for the tr uck to be spotted.
NOTE: After the job has started, the number of trucks required may
vary because of changes in haul road conditions, reductions or
increases in haul length, or changes in conditions at either the loading
or unloading areas.
Number of Standby Trucks Required
10-11. I denti fy, based on the normal cycl e ti me, the number of standby tr ucks
that shoul d be avai l abl e to r epl ace tr ucks that devel op mechani cal tr oubl e.
The number of standby tr ucks needed depends l ar gel y on the mechani cal
condi ti on of the acti ve trucks as wel l as the si ze and i mportance of the job. I n
the case of a smal l fl eet and a si ngl e l oadi ng uni t, the rati o of standby tr ucks
to acti ve tr ucks may be as hi gh as 1:4. On l ar ger jobs, the r ati o i s smal l er .
Standby tr ucks need not be i dl e; use them on l ower pr i ori ty tasks from whi ch
they can easi l y be di ver ted.
Number of trucks required 1
truck cycle time (minutes)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------- + =
FM 5-434
EXAMPLE
How many 5-ton FMTV trucks (hauling 3 LCY per load) will it take to support a
wheel loader having a 2-cubic-yard heaped-bucket capacity? The haul-unit cycle
time is 20 minutes excluding loading time. The loader cycle time per bucket load
is 0.5 minute. Consider a 60-minute working hour.
Step 1. Determine the number of bucket loads required to fill a truck.
Using only one bucket load would mean that the truck would only haul 2 LCY per
trip. Using two bucket loads would mean that the truck would haul 4 LCY per trip
and the extra material would spill out during the loading process.
Step 2. Determine the loading time per haul unit.
Loading time per haul unit = bucket cycle time x number of bucket loads
Considering one bucket load per truck
Loading time per haul unit = 0.5 minute x 1 = 0.5 minute
Considering two bucket loads per truck
Loading time per haul unit = 0.5 minute x 2 = 1 minute
Step 3. Determine the number of hauling units needed to support the loading unit.
Considering one bucket load per truck
Considering two bucket loads per truck
Step 4. Determine the production based on the number of hauling units used.
The loader will control the production because of the one extra truck added to the
formula. Therefore, there is always a truck waiting at the loader.
Using one bucket load per truck will require 42, 5-ton FMTV dump trucks.
Using two bucket loads per truck will require 22, 5-ton FMTV dump trucks.
With an understanding of the effect of the different choices, determine the number
of trucks to use on the haul and how many bucket loads to place on each truck.
This illustrates that the capacity of both the loader and the trucks are set num-
bers. Therefore, there is a relationship between bucket loads and haul-unit capac-
ity, which in practice must be an integer number.
Bucket loads
haul-unit capacity
bucket capacity
---------------------------------------------------
3 LCY
2 LCY
----------------- 1.5 bucket loads = = =
Truck cycle time 20 minutes 0.5 minute + 20.5 minutes = =
----------------------------------------------------------------------------- + 1
20.5 minutes
0.5 minute
------------------------------------ + 42 trucks = = =
Truck cycle time 20 minutes 1 minute + 21 minutes = =
----------------------------------------------------------------------------- + 1
21 minutes
1 minute
------------------------------- + 22 trucks = = =
Production haul-unit load
minutes per working hour
loader cycle time in minutes
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- =
Production 2 LCY
60
0.5
-------- 240 LCY per hour = =
Production 3 LCY
60
1
------ 180 LCY per hour = =
FM 5-434
EQUIPMENT TRAILERS
USE
10-12. Use equi pment tr ai l er s (Fi gure 10-4) to tr anspor t heavy constr ucti on
equi pment such as cr anes, dozer s, or any equi pment not desi gned for l ong-
di stance movement by thei r own power . Al so use the tr ai l er s to haul l ong
i tems such as pi pes or l umber , or packaged i tems such as l andi ng mats or
bagged cement.
Figure 10-4. Equipment Trailers
Semitrailer, low-bed,
60-ton, heavy-equipment
transporter, M747
25-ton, 4-wheel, M172A1
40-ton, heavy-equipment
transporter (gooseneck),
M870
FM 5-434
OPERATION
Loading
10-13. For maxi mum effi ci ency, l oad tr ai l er s as cl ose as possi bl e to thei r r ated
l oadi ng capaci ty. When l oadi ng, al ways stati on a spotter on the tr ai l er to
di rect the equi pment operator and to keep the machi ne centered on the ramps
and tr ai l er.
10-14. Wi th r ear -l oadi ng tr ai l er s, use l ow bank s or bui l t-up ear th r amps
wher e possi bl e. Some tr ai l er s car r y l oadi ng r amps for l oadi ng fr om l evel
gr ound. When usi ng l oadi ng r amps to l oad a dozer , run the machi ne sl owl y up
the r amps (wi th the bl ade r ai sed) and as the bal ance poi nt i s reached, reduce
speed or stop, then l ower the bl ade and al l ow the fr ont of the tr acks to settl e
gentl y onto the trai l er bed. Then move the dozer sl owl y ahead onto the tr ai l er.
Some l ow-bed tr ai l ers ar e desi gned for fr ont-end l oadi ng.
10-15. I n ar eas that r estr i ct r ear l oadi ng, l oad the tr ai l er fr om the si de. Take
car e not to damage the tr ai l er bed.
NOTE: Refer to the units SOP or to the appropriate technical manual
for proper techniques for loading and securing equipment.
Positioning and Securing
10-16. After posi ti oni ng the equi pment on the trai l er bed, bl ock and chock i t
and chai n i t to the trai l er. Pr oper l y di str i bute the wei ght of l arge equi pment
on the trai l er. Trai l ers have thei r l oad-wei ght centeri ng posi ti on mar ked.
Unloading
10-17. Unl oad heavy equi pment sl owl y to pr event damage to the tr ai l er or the
equi pment. Al ways use ramps to l oad and unl oad.
FM 5-434
Soil-Processing and Compaction 11-1
Chapter 11
Soil-Processing and Compaction
Hor i zon ta l con s tr u cti on pr oj ects s u ch a s r oa ds a n d a i r f i el ds a r e
constructed usi ng a vari ety of soi l types. The sui tabi l i ty of these materi al s
for con s tr u cti on appl i cati on s depen ds on th ei r gr ada ti on , ph y s i cal
char acter i sti cs, and l oad-bear i ng capaci ty. Whi l e some soi l types ar e
sui tabl e for str uctur al pur poses i n thei r natur al state, other s r equi r e
processi ng such as adjusti ng the moi sture content by mi xi ng and bl endi ng.
Because ther e i s a di r ect r el ati onshi p between i ncr eased densi ty and
i ncr eased str ength and bear i ng capaci ty, the engi neer i ng pr oper ti es of
most soi l s can be i mpr oved si mpl y by compacti on. Soi l pr oper ti es and
compacti on requi rements are di scussed i n FM 5-410.
SOIL PROCESSING
11-1. Th e amou n t of water pr es en t i n a s oi l mas s affects th e ea s e of
compacti on oper ati ons and the achi evabl e soi l densi ty. The water -content
r ati o i s the standar d measur e of water i n a soi l mass. The water -content
r ati o compar es the wei ght of the water pr esent i n a soi l mass to the wei ght of
th e soi l s ol i ds i n the s ame mas s. Each soi l h as i ts par ti cul ar opti mu m
moi stur e content (OMC) at whi ch a cor r espondi ng maxi mum densi ty can be
obtai ned for a gi ven amount of compacti ve i nput energy. Tryi ng to compact a
soi l at a water content ei ther hi gher or l ower than opti mum can be ver y
di ffi cul t. The OMC var i es fr om about 12 to 25 per cent for fi ne-gr ai ned soi l s
and fr om 7 to 12 per cent for wel l -gr aded gr anul ar soi l s. Si nce i t i s di ffi cul t to
attai n and mai ntai n the exact OMC, nor mal pr acti ce i s to wor k wi thi n an
acceptabl e moi s tu r e r an ge. Thi s r ange, whi ch i s us u al l y 2 per cen t of
opti mum, i s based on attai ni ng the maxi mum densi ty wi th the mi ni mum
compacti ve effor t. Deter mi nati on of the OMC i s a l abor ator y test pr ocedur e.
For a detai l ed descr i pti on of the moi stur e-densi ty r el ati onshi ps of var i ous
soi l s, refer to FM 5-410.
INCREASING THE MOISTURE CONTENT
11-2. I f the moi stur e content of a soi l i s bel ow i ts opti mum moi stur e r ange,
add water to the soi l before compacti on. When i t i s necessar y to add water, the
project offi cer must consi der the fol l owi ng:
The amount of water requi r ed.
The r ate of water appl i cati on.
The method of appl i cati on.
The effects of the weather.
FM 5-434
11-2 Soil-Processing and Compaction
Add water to the soi l at the borrow pi t or i n pl ace (at the constructi on si te).
When processi ng granul ar mater i al s, addi ng water i n pl ace usual l y gi ves the
best resul ts. After addi ng water, thoroughl y and uni forml y mi x i t wi th the soi l .
Amount of Water Required
11-3. I t i s essenti al to deter mi ne the amount of water r equi r ed to achi eve a
soi l water content wi thi n the acceptabl e moi stur e range. Compute the amount
of water to add or r emove i n gal l ons per stati on (100 feet of l ength). Use the
fol l owi ng formul a, based on the compacted vol ume, to compute the amount of
water to add or r emove fr om the soi l . The vol ume i n thi s for mul a i s for onl y
one stati on of pr oject l ength. The computati on i s based on the dr y wei ght of
the soi l .
where
8.33 = the weight of a gallon of water
NOTE: Normally, it is a good practice to adjust the desired moisture
content to OMC +2 percent, but this depends on the environmental
conditions (temperature and wind) and the soil type. A negative
answer indicates that water removal from the borrow material is nec-
essary before compacting the material on the fill.
NOTE: If the road width is constant, determine the total amount of
water required for the job by multiplying the gallons per lift times the
number of lifts, times the road length (in stations).
Gallons per station for one lift desired dry density of soil in pounds per cubic foot (pcf)
desired moisture content (percent) moisture content of borrow (percent)
100
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
compacted volume of soil (cubic foot)
8.33 pounds per gallon
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
=
EXAMPLE
Prepare to place soil in 6-inch (compacted) lifts. The desired dry unit weight of the
embankment is 120 pcf. The OMC (desired moisture content) of the soil is 12 per-
cent, but the soils technician has determined that the moisture content of the bor-
row material is only 5 percent. The roadway section to be placed is 40 feet wide.
Compute the amount of water (in gallons) to add per station for each lift of mate-
rial.
Gallons per station for one lift 120 pcf
12 percent (OMC) 5 percent (borrow)
100
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
40 feet 100 feet 0.5 foot
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
120 pcf 0.07
2,000 cubic feet
-----------------------------------------------------------------
2,017 =
=
=
FM 5-434
Rate of Water Application
11-4. After deter mi ni ng the total amount of water r equi r ed, deter mi ne the
r ate of appl i cati on . U s e th e fol l owi n g for mal to deter mi n e th e water
appl i cati on rate i n gal l ons per square yar d.
where
9 = factor used to convert square feet to square yards
8.33 = the weight of a gallon of water
Method of Application
11-5. After cal cu l ati n g th e appl i cati on r ate, deter mi n e th e meth od of
appl i cati on. Regar dl ess of the method of appl i cati on, i t i s i mportant to achi eve
the proper appl i cati on rate and the uni form di stri buti on of water.
11-6. Water Distributor. The most common method of addi ng water i s wi th
a water di str i butor . Water di str i butor s ar e desi gned to di stri bute the cor r ect
amount of water evenl y over the fi l l . The tr uck-mounted, 1,000-gal l on water
di str i bu tor (Fi gure 11-1, page 11-4) can di s tr i bute water under var i ou s
pressures or by gravi ty feed. I t di stri butes the water thr ough a 12-foot fol di ng,
r ear -mounted spr ay bar . The spr ay bar i s adjustabl e, i n 1-foot i ncr ements,
from 4 to 24 feet. The water appl i cati on rate can be mai ntai ned by contr ol l i ng
the for war d speed of the vehi cl e and the water di str i buti on pr essur e. A cab-
mounted odometer shows the vehi cl e speed i n fpm. The project offi cer shoul d
provi de the water-di str i butor oper ator wi th the appl i cati on r ate i n gal l ons per
s qu ar e y ar d. Wi th th i s i n f or mati on , th e oper ator can deter mi n e th e
appropri ate spray-bar l ength, pumpi ng pr essure, and vehi cl e speed to achi eve
the r equi r ed appl i cati on r ate. Refer to the vehi cl es techni cal manual for
speci fi c i nformati on regar di ng appl i cati on r ates.
Gallons per square yard desired dry density of soil (pcf)
percent of moisture added or removed
100
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- lift thickness (feet)
9 square feet per square yard
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
=
EXAMPLE
Using the data from the previous example, determine the required application rate
in gallons per square yard.
Gallons per square yard 120 pcf 0.07 0.5 foot
9 square feet per square yard
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4.5 gallons per square yard
=
=
FM 5-434
Figure 11-1. Truck-Mounted, 1,000-Gallon Water Distributor
Water tank
Operators
platform
Vertical
adjustment
crank
Engine
Water
pump
Discharge pressure gauge
Tank gauge Manhole
Hoses
Foot valve
and strainer
Spray-bar
assembly
Spray-bar
extension
(both sides)
FM 5-434
11-7. Ponding. I f ti me i s avai l abl e, add water by pondi ng the ar ea unti l
ach i evi ng th e desi r ed depth of penetr ati on . I t i s di ffi cul t to contr ol the
appl i cati on r ate wi th thi s method. Pondi ng usual l y r equi r es sever al days to
achi eve a uni form moi sture di str i buti on.
Effects of the Weather
11-8. Weather substanti al l y affects the soi l s moi stur e content. Col d, r ai ny,
cl oudy, or cal m weather wi l l cause a soi l to r etai n water or even i ncr ease i ts
moi stur e content. Hot, dr y, sunny, or wi ndy weather i s conduci ve to dr yi ng
the soi l by evapor ati ng the moi stur e. I n a desert cl i mate, evaporati on cl ai ms a
l ar ge amount of water i ntended for the soi l l i ft. Thus, for a deser t pr oject the
engi neer mi ght go as hi gh as 6 per cent above the OMC as a tar get for al l
water appl i cati on cal cul ati ons. Thi s al l ows the actual moi stur e content to fal l
very near to the desi red content when pl aci ng and compacti ng the mater i al .
REDUCING THE MOISTURE CONTENT
11-9. As pr evi ousl y stated, soi l that contai ns mor e water than desi r ed (above
the opti mum moi sture r ange) i s cor r espondi ngl y di ffi cul t to compact. Excess
water makes achi evi ng the desi r ed densi ty ver y di ffi cul t. I n these cases, take
acti on to r educe the moi stur e content to wi thi n the requi red moi stur e r ange.
Dr yi ng acti ons may be as si mpl e as aerati ng the soi l . However, they may be as
compl i cated as addi ng a soi l stabi l i zati on agent that changes the physi cal
pr oper ti es of the soi l . Li me or fl y ash ar e the typi cal stabi l i zati on agents for
fi ne-gr ai ned soi l s. Excess moi stur e, caused by a hi gh water tabl e, wi l l r equi re
some for m of subsur face dr ai nage to r educe the soi l 's moi stur e content. The
most common method of r educi ng the moi stur e i s to scar i fy the soi l pr i or to
compacti on. Accompl i sh thi s by usi ng the scar i fyi ng teeth on a gr ader or a
stabi l i zer mi xer or by di ski ng the soi l . Another method i s to use the grader s
bl ade to toe the soi l over i nto fur rows to expose mor e mater i al for dr yi ng.
MIXING AND BLENDING
11-10. Whether addi ng water to i ncrease the soi l s moi sture content or addi ng
a dr yi ng agent to r educe i t, i t i s essenti al to mi x the water or dr yi ng agent
thor oughl y and uni for ml y wi th th e soi l . Even i f addi ti onal water i s not
necessar y, mi xi ng may sti l l be essenti al for a uni for m di str i buti on of the
exi sti ng moi stur e. Accompl i sh mi xi ng by usi ng gr ader s, stabi l i zer mi xer s, or
farm di sks.
Grader
11-11. Use conventi onal gr ader s to mi x or bl end a soi l addi ti ve (water or
stabi l i zi ng agent) by wi ndr owi ng the mater i al fr om one si de of the wor k i ng
l ane to the other . For a detai l ed descr i pti on of gr ader oper ati on, r efer to
Chapter 4.
Stabilizer Mixer
11-12. The stabi l i zer mi xer i s an extr emel y ver sati l e pi ece of equi pment
desi gned speci fi cal l y for mi xi ng, bl endi ng, and aer ati ng materi al s (Figure 11-2,
page 11-6). The stabi l i zer consi sts of a rear-mounted, r emovabl e-ti ne, rotati ng
ti l l er bl ade covered by a r emovabl e hood. I n pl ace, the hood creates an encl osed
mi xi ng chamber, whi ch enhances thorough bl endi ng of the soi l (Figure 11-3,
page 11-6). The ti l l er bl ade l i fts the mater i al i n the di r ecti on of tr avel and
FM 5-434
thr ows i t agai nst the l eadi ng edge of the hood. The mater i al defl ecti ng off of
the hood fal l s back onto th e ti l l er bl ades for th or ough bl en di ng. As the
stabi l i zer moves for war d, i t ejects the mater i al fr om the r ear of the mi xi ng
chamber . As the materi al i s ejected, i t i s struck off by the trai l i ng edge of the
hood, r esul ti ng i n a fai r l y l evel worki ng surface. Wi th the trai l i ng edge of the
hood ful l y opened, churned soi l has a very hi gh voi d content, whi ch exposes the
soi l to the dryi ng acti on of the sun and wi nd. Model s equi pped wi th a spr ay bar
ar e used to add water or stabi l i zi ng agents to the soi l dur i ng the bl endi ng
process. The stabi l i zer mi xers use i s l i mi ted to mater i al l ess than 4 i nches i n
di ameter . The ti nes on the Ar mys mi xer ar e desi gned to penetr ate up to 12
i nches bel ow the exi sti ng surface. Thi s uni t i s used for scar i fyi ng and bl endi ng
i n-pl ace (i n si tu) mater i al as wel l as fi l l mater i al .
Figure 11-2. Stabilizer Mixer
Figure 11-3. Mixing Action in a Stabilizer Mixer
Strike off
Carry off mixed
materials
Deflection into
rotor for mixing
Forward spillover for
additional mixing
FM 5-434
SOIL COMPACTION
11-13. Compacti on i s the pr ocess of mechani cal l y densi fyi ng a soi l , nor mal l y
by the appl i cati on of a mov i ng (or dynami c) l oad. Thi s i s i n contr ast to
consol i dati on, whi ch i s the gradual densi fi cati on of a soi l under a stati c l oad.
When control l ed properl y, compacti on i ncr eases a soi l s l oad-beari ng capaci ty
(shear r esi stance), mi ni mi zes settl ement (consol i dati on), changes the soi l s
vol ume, and r educes the water -fl ow r ate (per meabi l i ty) thr ough the soi l .
Compacti on does not affect al l s oi l s to th e s ame degr ee. Howev er , th e
advantages gai ned by compacti on mak e i t an essenti al component of the
hor i zontal constr ucti on process.
COMPACTIVE EFFORT
11-14. Compacti ve effort i s the amount of energy used to compact a soi l mass.
Base the appr opr i ate compacti ve effor t on the physi cal pr oper ti es of the soi l ,
i ncl udi ng gr adati on (wel l or poor l y graded), the Atterber g l i mi ts (cohesi ve or
cohesi onl ess), and the requi red fi nal densi ty. Compacti on equi pment uses one
or more of the fol l owi ng methods to accompl i sh soi l densi fi cati on
Stati c wei ght (pr essure).
Kneadi ng (mani pul ati on).
I mpact (sharp bl ow).
Vi br ati on (shaki ng).
EQUIPMENT SELECTION
11-15. Compacti on equi pment r anges fr om handhel d vi br ator y tamper s
(sui tabl e for smal l or confi ned areas) to l arge, sel f-propel l ed rol l ers and hi gh-
speed compactor s (i deal l y sui ted for l ar ge, hor i zontal constr ucti on pr ojects).
Consi der the fol l owi ng factors when sel ecti ng compacti on equi pment:
Type and pr oper ti es of the soi l .
Densi ty desi r ed.
Pl acement l i ft thi ckness.
Si ze of the job.
Compacti on equi pment avai l abl e.
11-16. Soi l -compacti ng equi pment nor mal l y avai l abl e to mi l i tar y engi neer s
i ncl udes tampi ng-foot r ol l er s, pneumati c-ti r ed (r ubber -ti r ed) r ol l er s, dual -
drum vi brator y r ol l ers, and smooth-drum vi brator y rol l ers. To sel ect the most
appr opr i ate type of compacti on equi pment, a pr oject offi cer must know the
char acter i sti cs, capabi l i ti es, and l i mi tati ons of the di ffer ent types of r ol l er s.
Gener al l y, tampi ng-foot compactors that pr oduce hi gh uni t pressur es ar e best
for pr edomi nantl y fi ne-gr ai ned cohesi ve mater i al s such as cl ays and sandy
cl ays. Lar ge, steel -dr um rol l er s ar e best for l ar ger par ti cl e mater i al s such as
gr avel or cobbl e. Vi br ator y r ol l er s ar e i deal for wel l -gr aded or gap-gr aded
mater i al s because the shaki ng acti on causes the smal l er par ti cl es to fi l l voi ds
ar oun d the l ar ger gr ai ns. Tabl e 11-1, page 11-8, shows th e spectr u m of
capabi l i ti es for each type of r ol l er and the type of compacti ve effort associ ated
wi th each r ol l er . Tables 11-2 and 11-3, pages 11-9 and 11-10, show the major
s oi l -cl as s i fi cati on categor i es , th e compacti on r equ i r emen ts , an d th e
compacti ve methods compati bl e wi th each.
FM 5-434
Tamping-Foot Roller
11-17. The sel f-pr opel l ed, tampi ng-foot r ol l er (Fi gure 11-4, page 11-11) has
feet that ar e squar e or angul ar and taper down away fr om the dr um. Thi s
desi gn al l ows the r ol l er to achi eve better penetr ati on on the i ni ti al pass,
r esul ti ng i n a thor ough, uni for m compacti on thr oughout a l i ft. Thi s r ol l er
compacts the mater i al fr om the bottom of the l i ft to the top, and wal ks out
after achi evi ng the desi r ed densi ty. I t i s sui tabl e for compacti ng al l fi ned-
gr ai n ed mater i al s, bu t i s gen er al l y not su i tabl e for use on coh es i on l es s
gr anul ar materi al s. The l i ft thi ckness for the tampi ng-foot r ol l er i s l i mi ted to
8 i nches i n compacted depth. I f the materi al i s l oose and r easonabl y wor kabl e
(per mi tti ng the rol l er s feet to penetrate i nto the l ayer on the i ni ti al pass), i t i s
possi bl e to obtai n a uni for m densi ty thr oughout the ful l depth of the l i ft.
Thor oughl y l oosen mater i al that has become compacted by the wheel s of
equi pment dur i ng spr eadi ng or wetti ng befor e compacti on. The tampi ng-foot
rol l er does not adequatel y compact the upper 2 to 3 i nches of a l i ft. Therefore,
fol l ow u p wi th a pneumati c-ti r ed or smooth-dr um r ol l er to compl ete the
compacti on or to seal the sur face i f not pl aci ng a succeedi ng l i ft. The sel f-
propel l ed tampi ng-foot r ol l er can achi eve a worki ng speed of as hi gh as 8 mph.
The tampi ng-foot r ol l er compacts fr om the bottom up and i s par ti cul ar l y
appr opr i ate for pl asti c mater i al s. I t i s i deal for wor k i n g soi l s that have
moi sture contents above the acceptabl e moi sture range si nce i t tends to aer ate
the soi l as i t compacts.
Table 11-1. Compaction-Equipment Capabilities
Spectrum of Roller Capabilities
Roller Type Soil Type Compactive Effort
Sheepsfoot Fine-grained soils; sandy silts;
clays; gravelly clays
Kneading
Tamping foot All soils except pure sands and
pure clays
Kneading
Smooth-drum vibratory Sand or gravel; gravelly and
sandy soils
Vibratory (for granular-type
soils)
Pneumatic-tired Sand or gravel; fine-grained soils;
asphalt
Kneading or static (based upon
tire pressure)
Dual-drum vibratory Gravelly soils; asphalt Static
NOTE: Use a test strip to see which compactor is more efficient.
100%
fines
100%
fines
100%
sand
Rock
Sheepsfoot
Tamping foot
Smooth-drum vibratory
Pneumatic-tired
Dual-drum vibratory
FM 5-434
Table 11-2. Soil Classification
Major Soil Categories Symbol and Description
Value as a Base,
Subbase, or Subgrade
Potential
Frost Action
Coarse-
grained
soils (50%
or more
larger than
a #200
sieve
opening)
Gravel and/
or gravelly
soils
GW Well-graded gravels or
gravel-sand mixture with 5%
or less of fines
Fair to good for base; good to
excellent for subbase and
subgrade
None to very
slight
GP Poorly graded gravels or
gravel-sand mixture with little
or no fines
Fair to good for all None to very
slight
GM Silty gravel and poorly graded
gravel-sand-silt mixtures
Not suitable for base (15% or
less of fines with PI of 5 or
less); fair to excellent for
subbase and subgrade (50% or
less of fines)
Slight to
medium
GC Clayey gravel and poorly
graded gravel-sand-clay
mixture
Not suitable for base (15% or
less of fines with PI of 5 or
less); poor to good for subbase
and subgrade
Slight to
medium
Sand and/or
sandy soils
SW Well-graded sands or gravelly
sand mixture with 5% or less
of fines
Poor for base; fair to good for
subbase and subgrade
None to very
slight
SP Poorly graded sands or
gravelly sand mixture with 5%
or less of fines
Poor to not suitable for base;
poor to fair for subbase and
subgrade
None to very
slight
SM Silty sands, sand-silt mixture Not suitable for base; poor to
good for subbase and subgrade
Slight to high
SC Clayey sands, sand-clay
mixture
Not suitable for base; poor to
fair for subbase and subgrade
Slight to high
Fine-
grained
soils (more
than 50%
smaller
than a #200
sieve
opening)
Silt and
clays with
liquid limits
less than 50
ML Inorganic silt of low plasticity,
silty fine sands
Not suitable for base or
subbase; poor to fair for
subgrade
Medium to
very high
CL Inorganic clay of low to
medium plasticity, lean clays
subgrade
Medium to
high
OL Organic silt and organic silt-
clay of low plasticity
subbase; poor to very poor for
subgrade
Medium to
high
Silt and
clays with
liquid limits
greater than
50
MH Inorganic silt micaceous or
diatomaceous soil
subgrade
Medium to
very high
CH Inorganic clay of high
plasticity, fatty clays
subgrade
Medium
OH Organic clay of medium to
high plasticity
subbase; poor to very poor for
subgrade
Medium
Highly organic soils
Highly organic soils (peat) are not defined by numerical criteria; these soils are
identified by visual and manual inspection.
FM 5-434
Table 11-3. Average Compaction Requirements
Soil Classification Symbol
GW GP GM GC SW SP SM SC ML CL OL MH CH OH
Sheeps-
foot, Stan-
dard With
Ballast
(Towed by
Dozer)
Lift Thickness
Compacted
(Inches)
* * * 6 * * * 6
(Best)
6 6
(Best)
6 6 6
(Best)
6
Rolling Speed
(mph)
NA NA NA 3 NA NA NA 3 3 2 2 2 2 2
Number of
Passes
NA NA NA 10 NA NA NA 10 10 12 12 12 14 14
Self-Pro-
pelled
Vibratory
Roller
Lift Thickness
Compacted
(Inches)
18
(Best)
18
(Best)
12 12 18
(Best)
18
(Best)
12 12 8 8 * * * *
Rolling Speed
(mph/vpm)
4/1,400
or more
4/1,400
or more
4/
1,100
4/700
to none
4/1,400
or more
4/1,400
or more
4/
1,100
3/700
to none
3/700
to none
3/700
to none
NA NA NA NA
Number of
Passes
8 8 6 6 8 8 6 7 7 7 NA NA NA NA
Tamping-
Foot Roller,
Self-Pro-
pelled (Not
Recom-
mended for
Finishing
Grade)
Lift Thickness
Compacted
(Inches)
12 12 9 9 12 12 9 9 6 6 6 6 6 6
Rolling Speed
(mph)
10 10 10 8 10 10 10 8 8 4 4 4 3 3
Number of
Passes
5 5 6 7 5 5 6 6 5 5 5 6 6 6
13-Wheel
Pneumatic
Compactor
with Bal-
last (Wheel
Towed),
100 psi
Lift Thickness
Compacted
(Inches)
6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 4 4 4 4 4
Rolling Speed
(mph)
5 5 4 4 5 5 4 3 3 3 3 3 2 2
Number of
Passes
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 12 7 7 7 8 9 9
9-Wheel
Pneumatic,
Self-Pro-
pelled with
Ballast, 100
psi
Lift Thickness
Compacted
(Inches)
6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 4 4 4 4 4
Rolling Speed
(mph)
6 6 6 5 6 6 6 5 4 4 4 4 3 3
Number of
Passes
6 6 7 7 7 7 8 8 6 6 6 6 6 6
Smooth-
Drum
Vibratory
Roller
Lift Thickness
Compacted
(Inches)
12 12 9 9 12 12 9 9 6 6 * * * *
Rolling Speed
(mph/vpm)
4/1,400
or more
4/1,400
or more
4/
1,100
4/700
to none
4/1,400
or more
4/1,400
or more
4/
1,100
3/700
to none
3/700
to none
3/700
to none
NA NA NA NA
Number of
Passes
8 8 8 9 8 8 8 10 10 10 NA NA NA NA
NOTES:
This chart should be used as a planning guide when a test strip cannot be performed.
The above symbols are based on the United Soil Classification System (USCS).
*Not recommended.
FM 5-434
Figure 11-4. Self-Propelled, Tamping-Foot Roller
Pneumatic-Tired Roller
11-18. Pneumati c-ti r ed r ol l er s (towed and sel f-pr opel l ed) ar e sui tabl e for
compacti ng most gr anul ar mater i al s. They ar e not effecti ve i n compacti ng
fi n e-gr ai n ed cl ays . Pn eumati c-ti r ed r ol l er s compact u si n g two ty pes of
compacti ve effor tstati c-l oad and kneadi ng. The Army cur rentl y has a towed,
13-wheel , pneumati c-ti r ed r ol l er (Fi gure 11-5) and a vari abl e-pr essure, sel f-
pr opel l ed, ni ne-wheel , pneumati c-ti r ed r ol l er (Figure 11-6, page 11-12). The
ni ne-wheel ed model i s capabl e of var yi ng the contact pressur e to achi eve the
desi r ed compacti ve effor t. The contact pressure i s contr ol l ed by adjusti ng the
ti r e pressur e and the wheel l oad. The towed, 13-wheel model exer ts about 210
pounds of contact pr essur e per i nch of r ol l i ng wi dth. Contact pr essur e i s
affected by ti re pressur e and wheel l oad.
Figure 11-5. Towed, 13-Wheel, Pneumatic-Tired Roller
7 tires
6 tires
Tow bar
Ballast compartment
(sand, rock, water)
FM 5-434
Figure 11-6. Self-Propelled, Nine-Wheel, Pneumatic-Tired Roller
Contact pressure. The contact pressur e of these r ol l ers i s
deter mi ned pr i mar i l y by the ti r e pr essur e. Wi thi n the r ated l oad
l i mi ts, the same l oad and ti r e pr essur e gi ve about the same contact
area for any ti r e. The ti re si dewal l s carr y about 10 per cent of the l oad,
and th e tr apped ai r es senti al l y s uppor ts 90 per cent of the l oad.
Consequentl y, the ti r e wi l l defl ect unti l the contact ar ea i s adequate
and the gr ound pr essur e on the ti re i s equal to the ti r e pr essure. For
exampl e, the contact area for a ti re wi th a 50-psi i nter nal ti r e pr essure
and a 5,000-pound wheel l oad i s 100 square i nches. I f the wheel l oad i s
doubl ed to 10,000 pounds, the ti r e wi l l defl ect unti l 200 squar e i nches
are i n contact wi th the ground. Si nce the si dewal l s carr y 10 percent of
the l oad, the contact area i s
General l y, the anal ysi s of contact pressure negl ects the rai sed porti ons
of the tread. Use the gross contact areas, i ncl udi ng the areas between
the rai sed por ti on, to determi ne contact pressure.
Wheel load. The wheel l oad i s si gni fi cant for compacti ng at the
r equ i r ed depth or i n tes t r ol l i n g to detect s u bs u r face defects .
Resear cher s have bui l t test secti ons i n 6-i nch compacted l ayer s wi th
wheel l oads of 10,000; 20,000; and 40,000 pounds to deter mi ne i f
i ncr eased wheel l oads woul d i ncr ease densi ty. I n the tests, the ti r e's
i nfl ati on pr essur e was mai ntai ned at a constant 65 psi . Fi gure 11-7
shows the ver ti cal pr essur e di str i buti on for the ti r e l oadi ngs. As
shown, the effecti ve pr essur e var i es wi th the depth. However , at
shal l ow depths, the pr essure di fference among the thr ee l oads was not
2 Ballast compartments
(in rear section)
Spray bars
(located over tires)
4 Tires 2 Ballast compartments
(in front section)
5 Tires
Contact area
0.9 wheel load
tire pressure
--------------------------------------------- =
Contact pressure
wheel load
contact area
----------------------------------- =
FM 5-434
enough to pr oduce addi ti onal densi ty. These and other tests have
i n d i ca ted th a t an i n cr ea s e i n wh eel l oa d i s a dv a n ta geou s i n
compacti ng thi ck l i fts.
Figure 11-7. Vertical Pressure Distribution Beneath a Wheel Load
Surface coverage. The wheel ar rangement and the ti r e defl ecti on
deter mi ne the sur face cover age. Fi gure 11-8 shows the r esul ts of
var yi ng wheel l oads and ti r e pr essur es on si ngl e-pass cover age for a
heavy pneumati c-ti r ed r ol l er. Most of the pneumati c-ti r ed r ol l ers use
two r ows of ti r es. The ti res of one r ow offset the gaps between the ti r es
of the second r ow. Thi s ensur es compl ete cover age wi th one pass.
Heavi er r ol l er s have onl y one r ow of ti r es and r equi r e two passes for
compl ete sur face cover age. The addi ti ve effects of the pr essur e bul bs
from the wheel s on heavi er rol l er s affect the at-depth coverage and the
rol l i ng pattern. Figure 11-9, page 11-14, shows that at-depth coverage
requi res consi der abl e over l ap wi th each pass to ensure that the enti re
area has r ecei ved the same compacti ve effor t.
Figure 11-8. Varying Wheel Loads and Tire Pressures
17" 17" 17" 17" 12" 12" 12" 14.3" 14.7" 14.7" 14.7"
Roller loading box Roller loading box
Tires 150 psi: gross load 125,000 pounds
14.3"
Tire width and spacing: 50-, 90-, and 150-psi rollers
14.7" 14.3"
FM 5-434
Figure 11-9. Tire Pressures at Various Depths
Dual-Drum Vibratory Roller
11-19. The dual -drum vi bratory rol l er, wi th i ts smooth steel drum (Figure 11-10),
can compact a wi de vari ety of mater i al s from sand to cobbl e. Use thi s r ol l er to
compact asphal t pavi ng, cohesi onl ess subgrade, base course, and weari ng surfaces.
I t i s ver y effecti ve when used i mmedi atel y behi nd a bl ade to cr eate a smooth,
dense, and water ti ght subgr ade fi ni sh. Because i t has a r el ati vel y l ow uni t
pr essur e and compacts fr om the top down, i t i s nor mal l y used for r el ati vel y
shal l ow l i fts (l ess than 4 i nches). The smooth steel drum i s i deal for base- or
weari ng-course fi ni sh work. Exerci se care to prevent excess crushi ng of the base-
course materi al . Thi s i s the rol l er of choi ce for asphal t pavi ng.
90-psi Tires
(6,000-Pound Wheel Load)
120-psi Tires
(8,000-Pound Wheel Load)
Depth
(Inches)
Equivalent
Circle
Diameter
(Inches)
Area of
Stress
(Square
Inches)
Pressure
(psi)
Equivalent
Circle
Diameter
(Inches)
Area of
Stress
(Square
Inches)
Pressure
(psi)
Surface
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
9.16
11.16
13.16
15.16
17.16
19.16
21.16
23.16
25.16
27.16
29.16
66.00
97.82
136.02
176.71
231.28
288.33
351.66
421.28
497.18
579.37
667.83
90.90
61.34
44.11
33.95
25.94
20.81
17.06
18.24
12.07
10.36
8.98
9.16
11.16
13.16
15.16
17.16
19.16
21.16
23.16
25.16
27.16
29.16
66.00
97.82
136.02
176.71
231.28
288.33
351.66
421.28
497.18
579.37
667.83
121.21
81.78
58.81
45.27
34.59
27.75
22.75
18.99
16.09
13.81
11.98
Pressure in Single-Hatch Areas
5
6
7
8
9
10
41.62
34.12
28.48
24.14
20.72
17.96
55.50
45.50
37.98
32.18
27.62
23.96
Pressure in Double-Hatch Areas
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
30.90
27.65
24.90
22.55
20.50
18.75
17.15
15.80
41.20
36.90
33.20
30.05
27.35
24.95
22.90
21.05
9" 9" 9" 9" 8" 8" 8"
Tire dimensions: 10.00 x 20-tire x 14-ply
FM 5-434
Figure 11-10. Dual-drum vibratory roller
Smooth-Drum Vibratory Roller
11-20. The smooth-dr um vi br ator y r ol l er (Fi gure 11-11, page 11-16) uses a
vi br ator y acti on i n con j un cti on wi th the bal l as t wei ght of th e dr um to
r ear r ange the soi l par ti cl es i nto a dense soi l mass. Vi br ator y compacti on,
when pr oper l y contr ol l ed, can be one of the most effecti ve and economi cal
means of attai ni ng the desi red densi ty for cohesi onl ess mater i al s. Thi s r ol l er
i s ver y effecti ve i n compacti ng noncohesi ve/nonpl asti c sands and gr avel s,
whi ch ar e often used i n subbase and base-cour se appl i cati ons. Because thi s
r ol l er i s r el ati vel y l i ght, the r ecommended maxi mum l oose-l i ft depth (the fi l l
materi al measur ed before compacti on) i s 9 i nches.
NOTE: Vibration has two measurementsamplitude (the measure-
ment of the movement or throw) and frequency (the number of repeti-
tions per unit of time). The amplitude controls the depth to which the
vibration is transmitted into the soil, and the frequency determines
the number of blows or oscillations that are transmitted in a period of
time.
J ay Tamper
11-21. The j ay tamper i s a smal l , sel f-contai ned, hand-oper ated, vi br ator y
compactor. The jay tamper (Figure 11-12, page 11-16) r esembl es a power l awn
mower . The jay tamper i s i deal for compacti ng mater i al s i n confi ned spaces
such as i n a trench agai nst a pi pe or i nsi de an exi sti ng str ucture. A gasol i ne
engi ne powers the uni t, so there ar e no suppl y l i nes or other auxi l i ary i tems to
hi nder i ts oper ati ons.
FM 5-434
Figure 11-11. Smooth-Drum Vibratory Roller
Figure 11-12. Jay Tamper
EQUIPMENT TESTING
11-22. Si nce the use of sever al types of compacti on equi pment over l aps, i t i s
good to use a test str i p to make the fi nal deter mi nati on of the most effi ci ent
compactor and compacti on pr ocedur es. Locate a test str i p adjacent to the
pr oject si te. The test stri p pr ovi des an eval uati on/val i dati on of the pr oposed
constr ucti on pr ocedur es. I nformati on obtai ned from a test str i p i ncl udes the
Most effecti ve type of compacti on equi pment.
Opti mum depth of l i ft.
Opti mum compactor speed.
Number of passes requi red.
Amount of bal l ast r equi r ed.
Vi br ati on frequency r equi r ed.
11-23. To make the i ni ti al sel ecti on of compacti on equi pment, pl ace a 6-i nch
(uncompacted depth) l i ft of the mater i al and r un each pi ece of equi pment over
a speci fi c l ength of the str i p a pr edeter mi ned number of passes (usual l y
thr ee). After compacti ng al l the l engths, per for m a densi ty test to determi ne
whi ch r ol l er gi ves the best resul ts. After deter mi ni ng the most effecti ve type of
equi pment, use addi ti onal test str i ps to deter mi ne the most appr opr i ate l i ft
thi ckness, the requi red number of passes, the opti mum compactor speed and,
i f usi ng a vi bratory r ol l er , the r esonant fr equency.
Interchangeabl
e shoe
Vibrating
motor
FM 5-434
11-24. Use the fol l owi ng for mul a to deter mi ne compactor pr oducti on i n CCY
per hour .
where
16.3 = constant for converting the factors in feet, mph, and inches to
CCY
W = compacted width per pass, in feet
S = compactor speed, in mph
L = compacted lift thickness, in inches
E = efficiency
N = number of passes required
11-25. The accur acy of the compacti on es ti mate depends on th e pr oj ect
offi cer s ski l l i n esti mati ng the speed, the l i ft thi ck ness, and the number of
passes r equi red to attai n the requi r ed densi ty. Nor mal l y, thi s i nfor mati on i s
deter mi ned fr om on-si te test str i ps. The effi ci ency of a dayti me compacti on
effor t i s typi cal l y 50 mi nutes per hour. Reduce the effi ci ency to 45 mi nutes per
hour for ni ghtti me compacti on. Typi cal compactor speeds ar e gi ven i n Table
11-4. These speeds shoul d be matched wi th the data i n Tables 11-2 and 11-3,
pages 11-8 and 11-9. When cal cul ati ng pr oducti on esti mates, use the average
speed of the compactor based on the i ndi vi dual speed for each pass.
Table 11-4. Typical Operating Speeds of Compaction Equipment
Compactor Speed (mph)
Sheepsfoot, crawler, towed 3-5
Sheepsfoot, wheel-tractor, towed 5-10
Tamping foot:
First two or three passes
Walking out
3-5
8-10
Heavy pneumatic 3-5
Multitired pneumatic 5-15
Dual-drum vibratory 2-4
Smooth-drum vibratory 2-4
Vibratory:
Plate
Roller
0.6-1.2
1
Production (CCY per hour)
16.3 W S L E
N
------------------------------------------------------ =
FM 5-434
11-26. Deter mi ne the total number of compactor s r equi r ed on the pr oject,
usi ng the fol l owi ng for mul a.
NOTE: Refer to Tabl e 1-1, page 1-4, for soil conversion factors.
EXAMPLE
Use of a test strip determined that it will take five passes to achieve the required
density using a tamping-foot roller. The following speeds were achieved:
First pass = 4 mph
Second pass = 4 mph
Third pass = 5 mph
Fourth pass (walking out) = 8 mph
Fifth pass (walking out) = 9 mph
Determine the average speed.
Average speed (mph)
4 4 5 8 9 + + + +
5 passes
------------------------------------------ 6 mph = =
EXAMPLE
What is the estimated production rate (CCY per hour) for a tamping-foot roller with
a compaction width of 5 feet? The following information was obtained from a test
strip at the project:
Compacted lift thickness = 6 inches
Average speed = 6 mph
Number of passes = 5
Efficiency factor = 0.83
Production (CCY per hour)
16.3 5 6 6 0.83
5 passes
---------------------------------------------------------- 487 CCY per hour = =
Compactors required
amount of fill delivered (LCY per hour) soil conversion factor (LCY:BCY)
compactor production (CCY per hour)
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ =
EXAMPLE
How many compactors are required on the project (previous example) if 1,500
LCY of blasted rock is delivered per hour?
Compactors required
1,500 LCY per hour 0.87 (soil conversion factor)
487 CCY per hour
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2.7 compactors, round up to 3 = =
FM 5-434
HORIZONTAL CONSTRUCTION PHASES
11-27. To s ati s fy th e pr oj ects den s i ty r equ i r emen t, i t i s es s en ti al to
under stand the var i ous phases of a hor i zontal constr ucti on pr oject. These
i n cl u de pr epar i n g th e s u bgr ade; pl aci n g an d s pr eadi n g f i l l mater i al ;
compacti ng fi l l mater i al for the subgr ade and base cour ses; and per for mi ng
fi ni shi ng and sur faci ng oper ati ons (di scussed i n Chapter 12).
Preparing Subgrade
11-28. The ter m subgr ade descr i bes the i n-pl ace soi l on whi ch a r oad, an
ai r fi el d, or a hel i port i s bui l t. Subgrade i ncl udes the soi l to the depth that may
affect the str uctur al desi gn of the pr oject or the depth at whi ch the cl i mate
affects th e s oi l . Depth s u p to 10 feet may be con s i der ed s u bgr ade for
pavements car r yi ng heavy l oads. The qual i ty and natur al densi ty of thi s
mater i al di ctate what acti on(s) to take to prepar e the subgr ade. For exampl e,
a hi ghl y or gani c su bgr ade mater i al may have to be total l y r emoved and
r epl aced wi th a hi gher qual i ty, sel ect mater i al . I n most si tuati ons thi s i s not
the case. Often the i n-pl ace mater i al i s sui tabl e, but r equi res some degr ee of
compacti ve effor t to achi eve the requi red densi ty.
11-29. Heavy, pneumati c-ti red rol l er s ar e pr eferr ed for subgr ade compacti on
because of thei r capabi l i ty to compact the soi l to depths up to 18 i nches. Often
i t i s necessar y to scari fy the top 6 i nches of the materi al to adjust the moi sture
content. Then the mater i al can be recompacted to a hi gher densi ty than coul d
be achi eved at the soi l s natur al moi stur e content. Thi s pr ocess i s k nown as
scar i fy and compact i n pl ace (SCI P). The tampi ng-foot r ol l er i s good for thi s
oper ati on si nce i t l oosens the materi al , yet compacts i t as i t wal ks out of the
mater i al . The tampi ng-foot r ol l er al so hel ps to br eak up over si ze mater i al or
r ock i n the ar ea. I f usi ng a tampi ng-foot r ol l er to pr epare the subgr ade, al so
use a pneumati c-ti red or smooth-dr um r ol l er to compact the top 1 to 2 i nches
of the fi nal materi al l i ft or to seal the l i ft sur face i f expecti ng r ai n.
11-30. Shapi ng an d seal i n g the su r face pr otects the su bgr ade fr om the
damagi ng effects of water i nfi l trati on. I f a l i ft has been seal ed, scar i fy the top
1 or 2 i nches befor e pl acement of a succeedi ng l i ft. Thi s ensur es a good bond
between the l i fts. I f the subgr ade mater i al i s sand, a vi br ator y compactor
woul d provi de the most effecti ve compacti ve effor t.
Placing and Spreading Fill Material
11-31. After pr epari ng the subgrade, bri ng i n fi l l materi al to for m the subbase
and base cour ses for the pr oject. When pl aci ng fi l l , i t i s i mportant to spr ead
the mater i al i n uni form l ayer s and to mai ntai n a r easonabl y even surface. The
thi ckness of the l ayer s i s dependent on the desi r ed compacted l i ft thi ckness.
The thi ck ness of the uncompacted l i ft i s nor mal l y 1 1/2 to 2 ti mes the fi nal
compacted l i ft. For exampl e, pl ace fi l l i n 9- to 12-i nch l i fts to ach i eve a
compacted l i ft thi ckness of 6 i nches. Pl ace the fi l l mater i al wi th a scraper or a
dump truck and spr ead i t wi th a dozer or gr ader. When spr eadi ng mater i al on
a pr epar ed subgr ade, spr ead the mater i al fr om the far thest poi nt fr om the
source to the near est or vi ce versa. The advantages of spr eadi ng fi l l fr om the
farthest poi nt to the nearest ar e as fol l ows:
The haul i ng equi pment wi l l fur ther compact the subgr ade.
Previ ousl y undetected weaknesses i n the subgr ade wi l l become
apparent.
Haul i ng wi l l not hi nder spr eadi ng or compacti ng operati ons.
FM 5-434
11-32. On the other hand, spr eadi ng fr om the near est poi nt to the far thest
poi nt has the advantage of haul equi pment tr avel i ng over the newl y spr ead
mater i al . Th i s compacts th e mater i al an d gr eatl y r edu ces th e ov er al l
compacti ve effor t r equi r ed.
Compacting Fill Material
11-33. Befor e begi nni ng compacti on oper ati ons, th e pr oj ect offi cer must
deter mi ne the moi stur e content of the fi l l and compar e i t to the acceptabl e
moi s tu r e r an ge for that mater i al . I f the moi s tu r e con ten t i s bel ow th e
acceptabl e r ange, add water to the fi l l . I f the moi stur e content i s hi gher than
the acceptabl e r ange, use one of the pr evi ousl y di scussed methods to dr y the
soi l . After achi evi ng the appr opr i ate moi stur e content, begi n compacti on
oper ati ons. The base cour se functi ons as the pri mary l oad-beari ng component
of the r oad, ul ti matel y pr ovi di ng the pavement (or other sur face) str ength.
Base-cour se mater i al i s, ther efor e, hi gher qual i ty mater i al than ei ther the
subgr ade or the subbase fi l l . Base cour se nor mal l y consi sts of wel l -gr aded
gr anul ar mater i al s that have a l i qui d l i mi t l ess than 25 per cent and a pl asti c
l i mi t l ess than 6 percent. The thi ckness of the base cour se i s dependent on the
str ength of the subgr ade. Smooth-dr um vi br ator y r ol l er s ar e i deal for base-
cour s e compacti on . A dual -dr um r ol l er can al s o be used for base-cou r se
compacti on.
OPERATING HINTS
Compacting Against Structures
11-34. Jay tampers and pneumati c backfi l l tamper s ar e speci fi cal l y desi gned
for use i n confi ned ar eas such as agai nst exi sti ng str uctures. I f these tamper s
are not avai l abl e, use a rol l er to achi eve sati sfactory resul ts. I f space per mi ts,
run the r ol l er par al l el to the structure. I f i t i s necessary to work per pendi cul ar
to the str uctur e, pl ace fi l l mater i al (sl oped to the hei ght of the r ol l er axl e)
agai nst the str uctur e. Appl y compacti ve effort agai nst thi s excess fi l l mater i al .
Take car e to avoi d damagi ng the exi sti ng structure.
Aerating Materials
11-35. When usi ng the r ol l er to aer ate soi l s, tr avel at the hi ghest pr acti cal
speed. Hi gh speeds tend to ki ck up the materi al , whi ch i s the objecti ve i n thi s
case i nstead of densi ty.
Overlapping Passes
11-36. To el i mi nate noncompacted str i ps, each pass wi th the r ol l er shoul d
overl ap the precedi ng pass by at l east 1 foot.
Turning
11-37. Make gr adual tur ns at the end of each pass. Thi s pr events sur face
damage to the l i ft and el i mi nates the possi bi l i ty of damagi ng a towed r ol l er s
tongue wi th the tr acks of the towi ng tractor.
Road Surfacing 12-1
Chapter 12
Road Surfacing
Thi s chapter covers surface tr eatments and the road-surfaci ng equi pment
used to appl y these treatments. Surface treatments i ncl ude the fol l owi ng:
seal coat, spr ayed bi tumi nous mater i al wi th cover aggregate (si ngl e and
mul ti pl e sur face treatments), and asphal t emul si ons or sl urry seal . Pavi ng
and sur faci ng oper ati ons are di scussed i n FM 5-436.
SURFACE TREATMENT
12-1. The ter m surface treatment cover s a wi de r ange of appl i cati ons and
materi al s, wi th or wi thout aggregate, appl i ed to the top of a r oad or pavement.
Sur face tr eatments wi th aggregates can be
Single surface. A si ngl e sur face treatment i s a sprayed bi tumi nous
mater i al wi th an aggr egate cover that i s one stone i n depth. Use a
si ngl e sur face tr eatment as a wear i ng and water pr oofi ng tr eatment.
Thi s type of sur faci ng r equi r es a mi ni mum of equi pment, mater i al s,
and ti me.
Multiple surface. Repeati ng the si ngl e sur face-tr eatment process
r esul ts i n what i s r efer r ed to as a mul ti pl e su r face tr eatment. A
mu l t i p l e s u r f a ce tr e a tme n t p r ov i d e s a d e n s e r we a r i n g a n d
water proofi ng course and the mul ti pl e l ayers add strength to the r oad
str uctur e.
An i ni ti al si ngl e or doubl e surface treatment may, when ti me and materi al are
avai l abl e, be suppl emented by addi ti onal surface treatments or thi cker pave-
ment structures. Thi s process i s referred to as stage construction.
SURFACING EQUIPMENT
SWEEPER
12-2. A sweeper i s a tr actor -type machi n e wi th on e or mor e br ooms for
r emovi ng dust fr om the sur face of the exi sti ng r oadway befor e l ayi ng new
asphal t. Remove dust or di r t to ensur e pr oper bondi ng between the new
asphal t and the base course or ol d pavement. When surfaci ng a pr epared base
cour se, r emove the dust l ayer ei ther by sweepi ng wi th the sweeper or by
wetti ng the base cour se and r ecompacti ng. Befor e usi ng a sweeper , al ways
i nspect for excess br i stl e wear and check that the power dri ve on al l br ooms i s
oper ati ng properl y.
FM 5-434
12-2 Road Surfacing
ASPHALT DISTRIBUTOR
12-3. The Ar my asphal t di stri butor (Figure 12-1) i s a truck-mounted uni t. I t
has a 1,500-gal l on i nsul ated stor age tank wi th a l ow-pressur e heati ng system,
a hydr aul i c-power ed pumpi ng uni t mounted on the r ear , and an adjustabl e
spr ay bar for di s tr i bu ti ng bi tu mi n ou s mater i al . To pr odu ce a u n i for m
appl i cati on, an asphal t di str i butor r equi r es constant attenti on. I t i s cr i ti cal
that the asphal t heater and pump be wel l mai ntai ned. Cal i br ate al l gauges
an d meas u r i n g dev i ces pr oper l y (pu mp tach ometer , meas u r i n g s ti ck ,
ther mometer s, bi tumeter , and so on). Use cl ean spr ay bar s and nozzl es and
set them at the proper hei ght above the sur face recei vi ng the appl i cati on.
Figure 12-1. Army Asphalt Distributor
Heating System
12-4. The systems two di esel bur ner s each have an ai r bl ower that pr ovi des
l ow-pr essure ai r for atomi zi ng burner fuel . The bur ner s emi t fl ame i nto two
U-sh aped fi r e tu bes l ocated i n th e bottom of th e asphal t stor age tank .
Ma i n ta i n 3 i n ch e s of a s ph al t cov er ov er th es e fi r e tu bes to pr ev en t
Pump
tachometer
(GPM)
Material
low-level
indicator
Recording
bitumeter
Signal bell
Overflow and
vent cover
Exhaust stacks
Quadrant control lever
Tank gauge
Low-
pressure
atomizing
burners
Tachometer
(mounted on
the rear of
the
storage tank)
Spray bar
Burner fuel pump
Auxiliary hoses (2)
Hand spray gun Bitumeter wheel
Burner fuel tank
FM 5-434
Road Surfacing 12-3
over heati ng and possi bl e fi r e or expl osi on. Per for m heati ng onl y i n a wel l -
venti l ated ar ea wi th the di str i butor truck l evel and at a compl ete stop. Table
12-1, page 12-4, i s a gui de for asphal t sprayi ng temperatur es.
Spraying System
12-5. The spr ayi ng system consi sts of pi pi ng, an adj ustabl e spr ay bar , a
bi tumen-pump tachometer , and a bi tumeter . Use Table 12-2, page 12-5, to
deter mi ne the pr oper setti ngs for a desi r ed appl i cati on r ate. The appl i cati on
rate i s control l ed by
The l ength of the spray bar.
The bi tumen pump output. The pump tachometer di al i n the cab of the
tr u ck (Fi gure 12-1) r egi s ter s th e pu mp ou tput i n GPM fr om the
tachometer mounted on the rear of the stor age tank.
The for war d speed of the di stri butor truck. The bi tumeter mounted
i nsi de the tr uck cab moni tors the forward speed i n fpm.
12-6. Spray Bar. The spr ay bar may be ful l -ci r cul ati ng or nonci r cul ati ng,
dependi ng on the model of the di str i butor . The bar can be adjusted to pr ovi de
cover age from 8 to 24 feet i n wi dth. Al ong the bar ther e are a ser i es of nozzl es
wi th hand-oper ated val ves to control the fl ow of asphal t. Al though the spr ay
bar may h av e ei th er 1/8- or 3/16-i n ch n ozzl es , th e 1/8-i n ch n ozzl e i s
appr opr i ate for most appl i cati ons. For a uni for m appl i cati on, make sure that
the spray bar i s at the pr oper hei ght and that al l nozzl es are the same si ze and
free of obstr ucti ons.
Spray-bar height. To achi eve a uni form doubl e or tr i pl e overl ap for a
si ngl e-l ayer appl i cati on, the hei ght of the spr ay bar must be properl y
adjusted above the pavement. I t i s i mpor tant to mai ntai n the cor r ect
hei ght duri ng the enti r e appl i cati on. I f the spray bar i s too l ow or too
hi gh, streaki ng wi l l resul t.
Nozzle spacing. Spray bar s ar e usual l y constr ucted wi th ei ther a 4-
or 6-i n ch n ozzl e s paci n g. Wi th 4-i n ch n ozzl e s paci n g, th e bes t
appl i cati on r esul ts ar e attai ned usi ng a tr i pl e l ap of the spr ay fans
(Figure 12-2, page 12-6). To deter mi ne the proper spr ay-bar hei ght for
tri pl e-l ap coverage, open ever y thi rd nozzl e on the spray bar. Rai se the
bar unti l ther e i s si ngl e-l ayer cover age al ong the enti r e l ength of the
bar . Do a vi sual i nspecti on to determi ne thi s. When al l the nozzl es are
opened, thi s hei ght wi l l furni sh a tr i pl e l ap of the spray fans. Use the
same procedur e for doubl e-l ap coverage except onl y open ever y other
nozzl e. When u si n g 6-i nch nozzl e s paci ng, th e h ei gh t of the bar
necessar y to gi ve a tr i pl e-l ap cover age wi l l fr equentl y al l ow wi nd
di stor ti on of the spr ay fans, r esul ti ng i n a nonuni for m appl i cati on.
Ther efor e, wi th 6-i n ch n ozzl e spaci ng, on l y a dou bl e l ap may be
achi eved.
WARNING
Exercise extreme caution while heating the asphalt
to prevent damage to t he heati ng system and
possible fires and explosions.
FM 5-434
12-4 Road Surfacing
Table 12-1. Typical Pug Mill and Spraying Temperatures for Asphalts (Degrees Fahrenheit
)
Pug Mill Mixture
Temperatures
1
Spraying
Temperatures
5
Notes Type and Grade of Asphalt
Dense-
Graded
Mixes
Open-Graded
Mixes Road
Mixes
Surface
Treatments
Asphalt
cements
AC-2.5
AC-5
AC-10
AC-20
AC-40
235-280
250-295
250-315
265-330
270-340
180-250
180-250
180-250
180-250
180-250
270+
280+
280+
295+
300+
Temperatures for
asphalt cements and
cutback asphalts are
guides only.
1
Temperature of mix-
ture immediately after
discharge from the pug
mill rather than temper-
ature of asphalt
cement or cutback
asphalt.
2
Application tempera-
tures may, in some
cases, be above the
flash point of the mate-
rial. Exercise caution
to prevent fire or explo-
sion.
3
Rapid curing grades
are not recommended
for hot pug mill mix-
tures.
4
Temperature of the
emulsified asphalt in
the pug mill mixture.
5
The maximum tem-
perature (asphalt
cement and cutback
asphalt) must be below
the temperature at
which fogging occurs.
AR-1,000
AR-2,000
AR-4,000
AR-8,000
AR-16,000
225-275
275-325
275-325
275-325
300-350
180-250
180-250
180-250
180-250
180-250
275+
285+
290+
295+
200-300 pen
120-150 pen
85-100 pen
60-70 pen
40-50 pen
325-305
245-310
250-325
265-335
270-350
180-250
180-250
180-250
180-250
180-250
265+
270+
280+
295+
300+
Cutback
asphalts
(RC, MC,
SC)
2
30 (MC only) 85+
70 65+ 120+
250 135-175
3
105+ 165+
800 165-210
3
135+ 200+
3,000 180-240
3

230+
Emulsified
asphalts
RS-1
RS-2
70-140
125-185
MS-1 50-160
4
70-160
MS-2 50-160
4
70-160
MS-2h 50-160
4
70-160
SS-1 50-160
4
70-160
SS-1h 50-160
4
70-160
CRS-1
CRS-2
125-185
125-185
CMS-2 50-160
4
70-160
CMS-2h 50-160
4
70-160
CSS-1 50-160
4
70-160
CSS-1h 50-160
4
70-160
Legend:
AC = viscosity-graded asphalt cement
AR = viscosity-graded, aged-residue
asphalt cement
CMS = cationic-medium cement
CRS = cationic rapid-setting
CSS = cationic slow-setting
MC = medium curing
MS = medium setting
pen = penetration-graded asphalt
RC = rapid curing
RS = rapid setting
SS = slow setting
FM 5-434
Road Surfacing 12-5
Table 12-2. Asphalt-Distributor Application Rates
Gallons
Per
Sq Yd
Nozzle
Size
(Inch)
Bitu-
meter
Reading
Pump Tachometer Readings (GPM)
Spray-Bar Length (Feet)
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 24
0.10
1/8
3/16
900
1350
80
120
90
135
100
150
110
165
120
180
130
195
140
210
150
225
160
240
170
255
180
270
190
285
200
300
210 220 240
0.20
1/8
3/16
450
675
80
120
90
135
100
150
110
165
120
180
130
195
140
210
150
225
160
240
170
255
180
270
190
285
200
300
210 220 240
0.25
1/8
3/16
360
540
80
120
90
135
100
150
110
165
120
180
130
195
140
210
150
225
160
240
170
255
180
270
190
285
200
300
210 220 240
0.30
1/8
3/16
300
450
80
120
90
135
100
150
110
165
120
180
130
195
140
210
150
225
160
240
170
255
180
270
190
285
200
300
210 220 240
0.40
1/8
3/16
225
340
80
120
90
135
100
150
110
165
120
180
130
195
140
210
150
225
160
240
170
255
180
270
190
285
200
300
210 220 240
0.50
1/8
3/16
180
270
80
120
90
135
100
150
110
165
120
180
130
195
140
210
150
225
160
240
170
255
180
270
190
285
200
300
210 220 240
0.60
1/8
3/16
150
225
80
120
90
135
100
150
110
165
120
180
130
195
140
210
150
225
160
240
170
255
180
270
190
285
200
300
210 220 240
0.70
1/8
3/16
130
195
80
120
90
135
100
150
110
165
120
180
130
195
140
210
150
225
160
240
170
255
180
270
190
285
200
300
210 220 240
0.75
1/8
3/16
120
180
80
120
90
135
100
150
110
165
120
180
130
195
140
210
150
225
160
240
170
255
180
270
190
285
200
300
210 220 240
0.80
1/8
3/16
110
170
80
120
90
135
100
150
110
165
120
180
130
195
140
210
150
225
160
240
170
255
180
270
190
285
200
300
210 220 240
0.90
1/8
3/16
100
150
80
120
90
135
100
150
110
165
120
180
130
195
140
210
150
225
160
240
170
255
180
270
190
285
200
300
210 220 240
1.00
1/8
3/16
90
135
80
120
90
135
100
150
110
165
120
180
130
195
140
210
150
225
160
240
170
255
180
270
190
285
200
300
210 220 240
1.10
1/8
3/16
80
120
80
120
90
135
100
150
110
165
120
180
130
195
140
210
150
225
160
240
170
255
180
270
190
285
200
300
210 220 240
1.20
1/8
3/16
75
110
80
120
90
135
100
150
110
165
120
180
130
195
140
210
150
225
160
240
170
255
180
270
190
285
200
300
210 220 240
1.25
1/8
3/16
70
105
80
120
90
135
100
150
110
165
120
180
130
195
140
210
150
225
160
240
170
255
180
270
190
285
200
300
210 220 240
1.50
1/8
3/16
60
90
80
120
90
135
100
150
110
165
120
180
130
195
140
210
150
225
160
240
170
255
180
270
190
285
200
300
210 220 240
1.75
1/8
3/16
50
80
80
120
90
135
100
150
110
165
120
180
130
195
140
210
150
225
160
240
170
255
180
270
190
285
200
300
210 220 240
2.00
1/8
3/16
45
70
80
120
90
135
100
150
110
165
120
180
130
195
140
210
150
225
160
240
170
255
180
270
190
285
200
300
210 220 240
2.50
1/8
3/16
35
55
80
120
90
135
100
150
110
165
120
180
130
195
140
210
150
225
160
240
170
255
180
270
190
285
200
300
210 220 240
3.00
1/8
3/16
30
45
80
120
90
135
100
150
110
165
120
180
130
195
140
210
150
225
160
240
170
255
180
270
190
285
200
300
210 220 240
FM 5-434
12-6 Road Surfacing
Figure 12-2. Perfect Triple Lap
Nozzle angle setting. To attai n a good edge, the end nozzl es are
often set at a di ffer ent angl e (60 wi th respect to the spr ay bar ) fr om
the other nozzl es. Do not permi t thi s practi ce because i t produces a fat
str eak on the edge and r obs the adjacent spray fan of the l ap fr om thi s
nozzl e. A cur tai n on the end of the bar or a speci al end nozzl e wi th al l
nozzl es set at the same angl e gi ves mor e uni for m cover age and makes
a better edge (Figure 12-3).
Figure 12-3. Proper Nozzle Angle Setting
12-7. Bitumeter. The bi tumeter (Figure 12-1, page 12-2) has a smal l r ubber -
ti r ed wheel mounted on a r etr actabl e fr ame under the di str i butor . A cabl e
l eads fr om th e wheel to a di al i n th e tr u ck cab. Th e di al r egi s ter s th e
di str i butor s r ate of tr avel i n fpm and the tr avel di stan ce i n feet. Some
bi tumeter s, besi des pr ovi di ng tr avel di stance, cor r espondi ngl y r egi ster the
appl i cati on r ate i n gal l ons per squar e yar d. Check the bi tumeter at r egul ar
i nter val s to ensur e accur ate r egi s ter i ng of speeds. The bi tumeter check
procedure i s as fol l ows:
Step 1. Mar k off a di stance of 500 to 1,000 feet on a strai ght, l evel surface.
Step 2. Dr i ve the di str i butor at a constant speed over thi s l ength whi l e ti mi ng
the tri p wi th a stopwatch.
Step 3. Determi ne the di stri butor speed i n fpm and compare thi s cal cul ati on
wi th the bi tumeter readi ng recorded duri ng the r un.
Step 4. Repeat thi s procedure for a number of di fferent speeds, bracketi ng the
speed to be used for sprayi ng.
Step 5. Tabul ate or pl ot on a gr aph errors found at var i ous speeds so a correc-
ti on can be readi l y appl i ed when usi ng the di stri butor.
NOTE: Keep the bitumeter wheel clean to ensure accurate registering
of the trucks speed. Asphalt buildup on the wheel causes errors.
4 inches
Single lap
Double lap
Triple lap
Nozzle angle
setting
Spray bar axis
FM 5-434
Road Surfacing 12-7
AGGREGATE SPREADER
12-8. Use the towed aggr egate spr eader (Fi gure 12-4) to appl y aggr egate to
fr eshl y spr ayed asphal t sur faces. I t has a 2.5-cubi c-yar d capaci ty char gi ng
hopper, an aggregate feed r ol l er , an adjustabl e str i ke-off gate, tr acti on ti res, a
towi ng tongue, and a tr avel axl e. Dur i ng spr eadi ng oper ati ons the spr eader
connects to the dump tr uck wi th a two-poi nt, qui ck -coupl i ng hi tch but i s
suppor ted by i ts tr acti on ti r es. I t can appl y aggr egate when bei ng towed or
when pushed by the dump truck that i s suppl yi ng aggr egate to the char gi ng
hopper . Pu sh the s pr eader wi th th e du mp tr u ck for s u r face-tr eatmen t
oper ati ons. Thi s al l ows the aggr egate spreader and the dump truck to ri de on
the freshl y l ai d aggregate. As the aggr egate spreader moves al ong the pr oject,
the r otati on of the tr acti on ti r es dr i ves the aggr egate feed r ol l er. Control the
appl i cati on r ate (pounds per squar e yar d) of the aggregate wi th the adjustabl e
gate s etti n g. Th e appl i cati on wi dth r an ges fr om 4 to 8 feet, i n 1-foot
i ncr ements. Contr ol the wi dth of appl i cati on by i nstal l i ng bl ocki ng pl ates
i nsi de the chargi ng hopper. The bl ocki ng pl ates merel y bl ock off a segment of
the gate openi ng.
NOTE: It is important to spread the aggregate immediately after appli-
cation of the asphalt, before the asphalt cools.
Figure 12-4. Towed Aggregate Spreader
ROLLER
12-9. Al l rol l er s must be i n good mechani cal condi ti on and abl e to star t, stop,
and r everse smoothl y. They must have a water -spri nkl i ng system to keep the
drums or ti r es wet so that asphal t wi l l not sti ck to the drum sur face and scar
the new sur face. Oper ate the r ol l er s on the asphal t wi th the dr i ve wheel
towar d the spr eader or asphal t paver. Thi s pul l s the mi x under the r ol l er and
i mpar ts a smooth sur face. Pl aci ng the r ol l er s on the asphal t wi th the gui de
r ol l er towar d the spr eader wi l l push the hot asphal t for war d (Fi gure 12-5,
page 12-8). Thi s causes the mater i al to mound up i n fr ont of the r ol l er .
Eventual l y, the r ol l er passes over the mound, l eavi ng a bump i n the fi ni shed
pavement. I n most cases, subsequent r ol l i ng cannot corr ect thi s bump.
D
ire
c
tio
n
o
f
m
o
v
e
m
e
n
t
D
ir
e
c
tio
n

o
f
m
o
v
e
m
e
n
t
FM 5-434
12-8 Road Surfacing
Figure 12-5. Correct Roller Drive-Wheel Position
Dual-Drum Vibratory Roller
12-10. A 7- to 14-ton, dual -dr um vi br ator y r ol l er can be used for compacti ng
s u r face tr eatmen ts , n or mal l y after appl i cati on of th e s econ d l ay er of
aggr egate. However , th e r ol l er shou l d not be s o h eavy or th e v i br ati on
ampl i tude set so hi gh that i t crushes the aggregate par ti cl es.
Pneumatic-Tired Roller
12-11. A pneumati c-ti r ed r ol l er i s the pr efer r ed equi pment for compacti ng
bi tumi nous surface tr eatments. See Chapter 11 for i nfor mati on on pneumati c-
ti r ed rol l er s.
IN-PLACE MIXING EQUIPMENT
12-12. The Army has two pi eces of equi pment for i n-pl ace mi xi ng of asphal t or
other stabi l i zi ng agentsgr ader and stabi l i zer-mi xer .
GRADER
12-13. Use a grader to spread the aggregate, ei ther fr om pi l es or by scar i fyi ng
i n-pl ace materi al . After appl yi ng the l i qui d asphal t wi th the di str i butor , use
the gr ader to mi x the asphal t and aggregate thor oughl y. For mi xi ng, pi tch the
bl ade al l the way for war d and angl e i t to si de cast the wi ndr ow. Nor mal l y, i t
takes fi ve or si x passes wi th the grader to thor oughl y mi x the materi al s after
each asphal t appl i cati on. See Chapter 4 for addi ti onal i nfor mati on on asphal t
mi xi ng wi th a grader.
STABILIZER MIXER
12-14. The s tabi l i zer mi xer i s pr efer r ed ov er a gr ader for r oad mi xi ng
mater i al s. I t i s faster and pr ovi des better contr ol of the asphal t/aggr egate
r ati o, pr oduci ng a thor oughl y mi xed mater i al . Fi r st, use the mi xer to l oosen
i n-pl ace mater i al s and to bl end sel ect aggr egate. The asphal t di str i butor
suppl i es asphal t di r ectl y to the mi xer pump thr ough a fl exi bl e metal hose.
When usi ng thi s hose, connect the two uni ts wi th a safety chai n to pr event
damage to the hose. Spr ay the asphal t onto the aggr egate wi th a spr ay bar
mounted under the mi xer hood. The spr ayi ng takes pl ace whi l e the mi xer i s
T
u
r
n
i
n
g

f
o
r
c
e
Weight
Direction of laying
Pushing force
Correct position
(Drive wheel in front)
Wrong position
(Tiller wheel in front)
Weight
FM 5-434
Road Surfacing 12-9
movi ng and the ti nes ar e r otati ng. Thi s pr ocedur e compl etel y bl ends the
asphal t and aggr egate. See Chapter 11 for addi ti onal i nformati on on stabi l i zer
mi xer s.
BITUMEN HANDLING AND DEDRUMMING EQUIPMENT
ASPHALT MELTER
12-15. The asphal t mel ter (Figure 12-6) mel ts asphal t fr om 55-gal l on dr ums
and heats i t to a pr escr i bed pumpi ng temper atur e. The upper secti on of the
mel ter consi sts of dual , dedr ummi ng tunnel s; the l ower secti on consi sts of an
asphal t mel ti ng and stor age tank. I n dedr ummi ng oper ati ons, cut away one
end of each 55-gal l on dr um. Then pl ace the dr um, open end down, i n the
dedr ummi ng tunnel . Use an oi l heater i n conjuncti on wi th the asphal t mel ter.
Hot-oi l coi l s, r unni ng al ong the si des and bottom of the tunnel , pr ovi de the
heat to mel t the asphal t i n the dr u ms . Addi ti onal hot-oi l coi l s, r unn i n g
throughout the stor age tank, bri ng the asphal t to mi xi ng temper atur e. Table
12-1, page 12-4, i s a gui de for asphal t mi xi ng temper atures i n pug mi l l s.
Figure 12-6. Asphalt Melter
OIL HEATER
12-16. The oi l heater heats and then ci rcul ates the hot oi l to systems such as
an asphal t mel ter or a stor age tank. A di esel burner pr ovi des the heat to rai se
the temper atur e of the ci r cul ati ng oi l . A pump ci r cul ates the hot oi l to the
systems. Set the heati ng r equi rements on the heaters temper ature contr ol l er.
Fr om th at poi n t on , a pr ogr ammed ci r cu i t au tomati cal l y con tr ol s th e
oper a ti on wi th a ch eck -an d-bal a n ce s af ety pr ocedu r e. I f th e s y s tem
mal functi ons, safety devi ces cause the uni t to shut down. The oi l heaters come
mounted on l i qui d-asphal t storage-tank trai l er s.
FM 5-434
12-10 Road Surfacing
ASPHALT KETTLE
12-17. The 165-gal l on asphal t k ettl e (Fi gure 12-7) i s desi gned pr i mar i l y for
sur face patchi ng and mai ntenance oper ati ons. The tr ai l er -mounted tank
consi sts of an outer shel l encompassi ng a 165-gal l on capaci ty stor age and
heati ng tank. A r emovabl e di sti l l ate bur ner , mounted i nsi de the outer shel l ,
provi des heat to the kettl e. A fl ue car ri es off the exhaust gases. A smal l , two-
cyl i nder gasol i ne engi ne pr ovi des power to the asphal t pump. Asphal t i s
appl i ed to smal l patchi ng pr oj ects thr ough a fl exi bl e hose and a handhel d
spray assembl y.
Figure 12-7. Asphalt Kettle
SUPPORT EQUIPMENT
12-18. Use a r ough-ter r ai n for k l i ft to tr anspor t and l i ft asphal t dr ums and
mi ner al fi l l er . See Chapter 6 for i nfor mati on on for k l i fts. Use a l oader to
mai ntai n aggregate stockpi l es and for other materi al -handl i ng oper ati ons. See
Chapter 5 for i nfor mati on on l oaders.
Safety 13-1
Chapter 13
Safety
Super vi sor s ar e r esponsi bl e for ensur i ng that per sonnel fol l ow safety
standards. Ti me i s usual l y the control l i ng factor i n constr ucti on operati ons
i n the theater of oper ati ons. The necessi ty for economy of ti me, coupl ed
wi th the tempor ar y natur e of much of the wor k , someti mes r esul ts i n
safety pr ecauti ons that are substanti al l y l ower than those used i n ci vi l i an
pr acti ce, but thi s does not mean s afety can be i gnor ed. Constr ucti on
equi pment, except for dump tr ucks, i s desi gned to accommodate onl y the
operator .
SAFETY PROGRAM
13-1. Do not constr ue the l ack of documentati on of hazar ds as an i ndi cati on of
thei r nonexi stence or i nsi gni fi cance. Where safety pr ecauti ons are necessary
but ar e not documented, or wh er e exi sti n g pr ecauti ons ar e j udged to be
i n adequ ate, th e commandi ng offi cer mu st i ssu e new or s uppl ementar y
war ni ngs. Each job has i ts own par ti cul ar safety hazar ds. I denti fy danger s
and pr epare a safety pr ogram to r educe or el i mi nate al l hazards. Supervi sors
must conduct al l oper ati ons fol l owi ng the gui dance i n the safety program. For
hel p i n mak i ng safety deci si ons, r evi ew the safety i nfor mati on i n Uni ted
States (US) Ar my Cor ps of Engi neer s Manual (EM) 385-1-1. Addi ti onal l y,
oper ators manual s gi ve dos and donts, cauti ons, and safety war ni ngs. Check
them!
GENERAL SAFETY RULES
13-2. The appropr i ate chapter s of thi s manual i denti fy safety r ul es for speci fi c
equi pment. Al so, check appl i cabl e techni cal and oper ator manual s pr i or to
oper ati ng al l equi pment. Some general safety r ul es ar e as fol l ows:
I nspect equi pment before use, and per i odi cal l y on a regul ar basi s.
Ensur e that mechani zed equi pment i s operated by qual i fi ed and
authori zed personnel onl y.
Use seat bel ts when they are avai l abl e.
Provi de bar ri er s to pr event personnel from wal ki ng under l oadi ng
equi pment that has a hoi st or l i ft capabi l i ty.
Operate equi pment i n a manner that wi l l not endanger persons or
property.
Obser ve safe operati ng speeds.
Shut down and turn off the engi ne when equi pment i s unattended.
Stop the equi pment compl etel y (appl y the parki ng br ake i f avai l abl e)
befor e mounti ng or di smounti ng.
FM 5-434
13-2 Safety
Do not operate any machi ner y or equi pment for mor e than 10
consecuti ve hour s wi thout an 8-hour rest i nterval .
Post the safe l oad capaci ti es at the oper ator's posi ti on on al l
equi pment not r i gged to pr event over l oadi ng.
Post the safe oper ati ng speeds at the operator s posi ti on on al l
equi pment not havi ng a speed gover nor.
Mount a ROPS on equi pment whenever i t i s avai l abl e. Do not make
any modi fi cati ons to the ROPS.
Ensur e that onl y the oper ator i s on the equi pment whi l e i t i s runni ng.
Super vi sor s can author i ze excepti ons i n emer gency si tuati ons, some
trai ni ng si tuati ons, and when requi red for mai ntenance.
Shut down and tur n off the engi ne when refuel i ng motor vehi cl es and
mechani zed equi pment.
OPERATOR INDOCTRINATION
13-3. Teach oper ator safety pr acti ces dur i ng machi ne oper ati on tr ai ni ng.
I ndoctr i nate oper ators about job hazar ds and ways to r educe or avoi d them.
I nstruct operator s to observe fel l ow wor ker s and to war n them when they get
i nto danger ous si tuati ons. Per sonnel shoul d r ecei ve conti nui ng i nstr ucti on
du r i n g th e pr oj ect to en s ur e th at th ey appr eci ate the j ob h azar ds an d
under stand the objecti ves of the safety pr ogr am. Hor sepl ay and pr acti cal
jokes create ver y danger ous si tuati ons on the work si te.
OPERATOR QUALIFICATIONS AND REQUIREMENTS
13-4. Constr ucti on and mater i al -handl i ng equi pment oper ator s must be tested
and l i censed accor di ng to Ar my Regul ati on (AR) 600-55. An appr enti ce or
appl i can t can onl y oper ate equi pmen t u nder the di r ect super vi si on of a
l i censed oper ator . Do not per mi t anyone who i s not physi cal l y or mental l y
capabl e to oper ate any equi pment. Oper ator s ar e r esponsi bl e for the safe
oper ati on of thei r equi pment and for the safety of thei r passengers and cargo.
EQUIPMENT INSPECTION
13-5. Before usi ng a machi ne, a qual i fi ed, l i censed oper ator shoul d i nspect and
test the equi pment to deter mi ne i ts safe oper ati ng condi ti on. Equi pment-
oper ator mai ntenance checks, ser vi ce char ts, and common sense ensur e safe
oper ati on and pr oper mai ntenance. Tag any unsafe machi ner y or equi pment
Out Of Ser vi ce, Do Not Use at the operator 's posi ti on, to pr event i ts use unti l
repai r ed. Ensur e that the equi pments safety featur es (backup al ar ms, l i ghts,
and so on) ar e operati onal .
REPAIRS AND MAINTENANCE
13-6. Besi des the fol l owi ng i tems, check the uni ts SOP for speci al repai r and
mai ntenance pr ocedur es.
Shut down or l ock out equi pment control s whi l e a machi ne i s bei ng
repai r ed, adjusted, or servi ced.
Posi ti on the equi pment i n a pl ace, away fr om the project ar ea, that i s
safe for the mechani c to work.
FM 5-434
Safety 13-3
Cri b or bl ock suspended machi nery, equi pment, or parts, and
ma ch i n es h el d apa r t by s l i n gs , h oi s ts , or j a ck s . Do n ot wor k
under neath or between i tems not properl y bl ocked.
Lower bl ades, bowl s, hooks, buckets, and for ks to the gr ound or onto
s u i ta bl e bl ock i n g ma t e r i a l wh e n e q u i p me n t i s u n d e r goi n g
mai ntenance or r epai rs.
GUARDS AND SAFETY DEVICES
13-7. Equi pment guards, appl i ances, and si mi l ar devi ces are for the pr otecti on
of per sonnel . Do not remove these devi ces or r ender them i neffecti ve. Dur i ng
r epai r s, l ubr i cati on, or adjustments, r emove guar ds tempor ar i l y, but onl y
after shutti ng off the power . Repl ace al l guar ds and devi ces i mmedi atel y after
compl eti ng r epai r s and adj ustments. Al l equi pment shoul d have pr oper l y
worki ng war ni ng devi ces, such as backup al arms and turn si gnal s.
SIGNALS
13-8. Pr ovi de a war ni ng devi ce or a si gnal person wher ever ther e i s possi bl e
danger to fel l ow wor k er s or other s fr om movi ng equi pment. I f the tacti cal
si tuati on al l ows, the si gnal per son shoul d wear a r efl ecti ve, orange vest.
ROPES, CABLES, AND CHAINS
13-9. Table 13-1 and Tables 13-2 and 13-3, page 13-4, gi ve l oad l i mi tati ons and
safety factors for r opes, cabl es, and chai ns. Ropes, cabl es, and chai ns used i n
constr ucti on oper ati ons pr esent some of the l argest potenti al safety hazards.
To el i mi nate these hazar ds
Per form per i odi c i nspecti ons of thei r physi cal condi ti on.
Use onl y accordi ng to manufacturers' r ecommended procedures or
wi th i n the safe l i mi ts r ecommended by the manufactur er s of the
equi pment.
Wear l eather gl oves when handl i ng wi r e r ope.
Table 13-1. Breaking Strengths of 6 x 19 Standard Wire Hoisting Rope
Breaking Strength in Tons (2,000-Pound Ton)
Diameter
(Inches)
Approximate Weight
Per 100 Feet (Pounds)
Mild Plow
Steel Plow Steel
Improved Plow
Steel
1/4
3/8
1/2
5/8
3/4
7/8
1
1 1/8
1 1/4
1 1/2
10
23
40
63
90
123
160
203
250
360
2.07
5.00
8.50
13.10
18.70
25.40
33.00
41.50
57.00
72.50
2.39
5.50
9.40
14.40
20.60
28.00
36.50
46.00
56.50
80.50
2.74
6.30
10.80
16.60
23.70
32.20
42.00
53.00
65.00
92.50
NOTES:
1. A 6 x 19 rope is composed of 6 strands of 19 wires each. The strength of wire rope
varies slightly with the strand construction and the number of strands.
2. The maximum allowable load is the breaking strength divided by the appropriate
safety factor. The safety factors are shown in Table 13-3, page 13-4.
FM 5-434
13-4 Safety
Table 13-2. Breaking Strengths and Safe Loads for Manila and Sisal Rope
Table 13-3. Safety Factors for Ropes, Cables, and Chains
INSPECTION
13-10. I nspect wi re rope or cabl e at the ti me of i nstal l ati on and as par t of dai l y
oper ator mai ntenance. Remove the wi r e r ope or cabl e fr om hoi sti ng ser vi ce
when i t i s k i nk ed, or when i t has a number of br ok en wi r es i n a str and.
Remove the wi re rope or cabl e when
Three broken wi r es are found i n one strand of 6 7 wi r e r ope.
Si x br oken wi res are found i n one str and of 6 19 wi re rope.
Ei ght broken wi r es ar e found i n one strand of 8 19 wi r e r ope.
Ni ne broken wi r es are found i n one strand of 6 37 wi re r ope.
NOTE: Plainly mark defective wire rope as unsuitable for further use
and dispose of properly.
Number 1 Manila Sisal
Nominal
Diameter
(Inches)
Circumference
(Inches)
Weight Per
100 Feet
(Pounds)
Breaking
Strength
(Pounds)
Safe Load (Pounds)
(Safety Factor = 4)
Breaking
Strength
(Pounds)
Safe Load (Pounds)
(Safety Factor = 4)
1/4
3/8
1/2
5/8
3/4
7/8
1
1 1/8
1 1/4
1 1/2
1 3/4
2
2 1/2
3
3/4
1 1/8
1 1/2
2
2 1/4
2 3/4
3
3 1/2
3 3/4
4 1/2
5 1/2
6
7 1/2
9
2.00
4.10
7.50
13.30
16.70
18.60
27.00
36.00
41.80
60.00
89.50
108.00
135.00
242.00
540
1,260
2,640
4,400
5,400
7,700
9,000
12,000
13,440
18,500
26,500
31,000
46,500
64,000
140
320
660
1,100
1,350
1,920
2,250
3,000
3,360
4,620
6,620
7,750
11,620
16,000
440
1,020
2,120
3,520
4,320
6,160
7,200
9,600
10,800
14,800
21,200
24,800
37,200
51,200
120
260
530
880
1,080
1,540
1,800
2,400
2,700
3,700
5,300
6,200
9,300
12,800
NOTE: The above figures are for new rope used under favorable conditions. As rope ages or deteriorates,
progressively reduce safe load values to one-half the values given. See safety factors shown in Table 13-
3.
Type of Service
Wire Rope
(Cable)
Manila or
Sisal Rope Chain
Guy lines
Miscellaneous hoisting equipment
Haulage lines
Overhead and gantry cranes
Jib and pillar cranes
Derricks
Small, electric or air hoists
Slings
3.5
5.0
6.0
6.0
6.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
3.5
7.0
8.0
10.0
3.5
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
NOTE: To determine the safe load for a single line, divide the breaking strength
of the line by the applicable safety factor and multiply the result by an assumed
efficiency factor of 80 percent for fittings.
FM 5-434
Safety 13-5
SLINGS
13-11. Onl y qual i fi ed r i ggi ng per sonnel shoul d attach sl i ngs to a l oad. When
usi ng sl i ngs, thei r fastener s, and other r i ggi ng attachments
I nspect dai l y for evi dence of over l oadi ng, excessi ve wear, or damage.
Repl ace defecti ve sl i ngs or accessor i es.
Make al l eye spl i ces (Figure 13-1) usi ng the pr oper si ze of wi re-rope
thi mbl es.
Pl ace the U-bol t of the U-bol t cl i ps on the dead (short) end of the wi re
r ope (see Figure 13-1). Ti ghten the U-bol ts i mmedi atel y after i ni ti al
l oad appl i cati on and at fr equent i nter val s ther eafter . Tabl e 13-4
shows the number and spaci ng of cl i ps and the proper torque to appl y
to the nuts of the cl i ps (do not over tor que). The mi ni mum number of
cl i ps i s three.
Figure 13-1. Eye splice
Table 13-4. Number and Spacing of U-Bolt clips for Wire-Rope Eye Connections
Wire-Rope Diameter
Nominal
Clip Size
(Inches)
Number
of Clips
Spacing of Clips
Torque to be
Applied to Nuts of Clips
Inches Millimeters Inches Millimeters
Foot-
Pounds
(M-Kg)
(0.1383)
5/16
3/8
7/16
1/2
5/8
3/4
7/8
1
1 1/4
1 3/8
1 1/2
1 3/4
7.95
9.52
11.11
12.70
15.85
19.05
22.22
25.40
31.75
34.92
38.10
44.45
3/8
3/8
1/2
1/2
5/8
3/4
1
1
1 1/4
1 1/2
1 1/2
1 3/4
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
6
6
6
2
2 1/4
2 3/4
3
3 3/4
4 1/2
5 1/4
6
7 1/2
8 1/4
9
10 1/2
50
57
70
76
95
114
133
152
190
210
230
267
25
25
40
40
65
100
165
165
250
375
375
560
3.5
3.5
5.5
5.5
9.0
14.0
23.0
23.0
35.0
52.0
52.0
78.0
NOTE: The spacing of clips should be six times the diameter of the wire rope. For end-to-end
connections, increase the number of clips listed above by two, and apply the proper torque
listed above on all clips. Reverse U-bolts at the center of the connection, so that they are on the
dead (reduced load) end of each wire rope.
Thimble
U-bolt
Saddle
Nuts (2)
Dead end
Live end
FM 5-434
13-6 Safety
HOOKS AND SHACKLES
13-12. When usi ng hooks and shackl es
Repl ace bent, twi sted, or other wi se damaged hooks, shackl es, ri ngs,
and pad eyes and other fi tti ngs that show excessi ve wear .
Cl ose al l hooks used to suppor t human l oads or l oads that pass over
wor ker s. Wher e ther e i s danger of r el i evi ng the tensi on on the cabl e
due to the l oad or hook catchi ng or foul i ng (such as l oweri ng a l oad i n
a confi ned space), do not use open hooks.
Extend the dead end of the wi r e r ope a di stance of si x to ni ne ti mes the
wi r e r opes di ameter beyond the socket when usi ng a wedge-sock et
fastener (Figure 13-2). Cl amp the dead end of the wi r e r ope to an extr a
pi ece of shor t wi r e r ope. Pl ace the cl amp as cl ose to the wedge as
possi bl e. Never cl amp the dead end of wi r e to the l i ve end. The U-bol t
shoul d bear agai nst the tai l , and the saddl e of the cl i p shoul d bear
agai nst the short extr a pi ece.
Figure 13-2. Wedge-Socket Fastener
EQUIPMENT LOADING
13-13. When l oadi ng equi pment usi ng suspended or over head l oadi ng devi ces,
the oper ator of the tr u ck to be l oaded must l eave th e cab. When l oadi ng
equi pment for tr anspor ti ng
Di stri bute, chock, and ti e down the l oad.
Make sur e that the forward and si de vi si on ar e cl ear, and that the
l oad does not i n ter fer e i n any way wi th the safe oper ati on of the
vehi cl e.
Keep the l oad wi thi n the si des of the haul i ng equi pment. When
wor k i ng wi th over si ze l oads that extend beyond the si des or end of
haul i ng equi pment, gi v e adequate war n i n gs and pr ecauti ons to
pr event endanger i ng passi ng or opposi ng tr affi c, or damagi ng the
vehi cl e.
Wedge
FM 5-434
Safety 13-7
EQUIPMENT TRANSPORTING
13-14. Gi ve speci al consi der ati on to equi pment that i s wi der than standar d
vehi cl es or that pr otr udes past the si des or end of the haul i ng tr ai l er . When
over si ze equi pment i s tr avel i ng or bei ng tr anspor ted fr om one job si te to
another
Travel or tr anspor t duri ng dayl i ght hours.
Use warni ng fl ags and/or l i ghts.
Accompany the equi pment wi th a l ead and/or fol l ow vehi cl e wi th
war ni ng si gns whenever possi bl e, especi al l y i n congested or heavy
traffi c areas.
NIGHT OPERATIONS
13-15. When oper ati ng equi pment at ni ght
Equi p al l mobi l e equi pment wi th adequate headl i ghts and tai l l i ghts.
Keep constr ucti on r oads and worki ng ar eas wel l i l l umi nated unti l al l
wor ker s have l eft the area.
Ensur e that si gnal ers, spotter s, i nspectors, mai ntenance personnel ,
and other s who wor k i n dar k ar eas exposed to vehi cul ar tr affi c wear
r efl ector i zed vests or other such appar el i f the tacti cal si tuati on
permi ts.
EXCAVATIONS
13-16. When excavati ng
Shor e, br ace, or sl ope excavati ons that ar e more than 4 feet deep,
unl ess wor ki ng i n sol i d rock, hard shal e, hardpan, cemented sand and
gr avel , or other si mi l ar materi al s.
Desi gn shori ng and braci ng to be effecti ve al l the way to the bottom of
the excavati on.
Use sheet pi l i ng, br aci ng, shori ng, trench boxes, or other methods of
pr otecti on, i ncl udi ng sl opi ng, based upon cal cul ati on of the pressur es
exer ted by and the condi ti on an d n atu r e of the mater i al s bei ng
retai ned.
Provi de addi ti onal shori ng and br aci ng to prevent sl i des or cave-i ns
when ex cavati ng or tr en chi ng i n l ocati on s adj acent to back fi l l ed
excavati ons or when subjected to vi br ati ons fr om tr affi c, vehi cl es, or
machi ner y.
FM 5-434
13-8 Safety
Environmental Protection 14-1
Chapter 14
Environmental Protection
US mi l i tar y for ces oper ate under i ncr easi ngl y di ver se envi r onmental
r equi r ements, both domesti c and for ei gn, par ti cul ar l y dur i ng stabi l i ty
operati ons and support operati ons. Hei ghtened envi ronmental concern has
l ed al l feder al agenci es, i ncl udi ng the ar med ser vi ces, to consi der the
en v i r onmen tal con s equ en ces of pr oposed a cti ons . Compl i an ce wi th
env i r onmental l aws and r egul ati ons i s now a necessar y cost of doi ng
busi ness. The mi l i tar y must compl y wi th al l envi r onmental l aws and
regul ati ons that appl y to i nstal l ati ons or theater s of operati on. See TC 20-
401 for addi ti on al i n for ma ti on con cer n i n g mi l i tar y en v i r on men ta l
protecti on.
PREOPERATIONS CHECKLIST
14-1. Uni t l eaders must consi der the envi ronmental i mpact of uni t acti ons and
pl an to el i mi nate or mi ni mi ze negati ve effects. An exampl e of a pr eoper ati ons
checkl i st i s shown bel ow.
Has coor di nati on occurr ed wi th the i nstal l ati on and oper ati onal staffs
con cer n i n g ap pl i ca bl e e n v i r on men ta l l a ws , r egu l a ti on s , a n d
consi derati ons?
Has the operati on pl an (OPLAN)/oper ati on or der (OPORD) and or
constr ucti ve di recti ves been r evi ewed for envi r onmental requi rements
or consi derati ons?
Has the envi ronmental -pr otecti on por ti on of the uni t's SOP been
r ev i ewed, es peci a l l y th e ar eas con ce r n i n g s pi l l r es pon s e an d
reporti ng?
Have l and-use per mi ts and range cl earances been obtai ned? Have al l
other uni que, envi r onmental -rel ated requi rements been compl eted?
Has a recent ri sk assessment been performed to i denti fy
envi ronmental -rel ated r i sks?
Have ar eas of envi ronmental concern been ver i fi ed dur i ng si te
reconnai ssance?
Are r ehearsal s conducted to ensure that al l safety and envi r onmental
consi derati ons are sati sfi ed?
Are hazar dous materi al (HM) and petr ol eum, oi l s, and l ubri cants
(POL) checked to ensur e that they ar e pr oper l y l abel ed and that a
mater i al safety data sheet (MSDS) i s on hand for each substance
befor e transporti ng?
Are personnel desi gnated for the spi l l -response team(s) properl y
trai ned and awar e of thei r assi gnment?
FM 5-434
14-2 Environmental Protection
Are tool s, equi pment, and mater i al s (spi l l ki ts) avai l abl e for
envi ronmental emer genci es?
Have previ ous after acti on revi ews (AARs) been eval uated for
envi ronmental l essons l earned concerni ng the area(s) of operati on and
the mi ssi on type, and have pr eventi ve measur es been taken?
PERSONNEL-PREPARATION CHECKLIST
14-2. An exampl e of a personnel -pr epar ati on checkl i st i s shown bel ow.
Do sol di ers under stand thei r r esponsi bi l i ti es i n reduci ng the
gener ati on of hazar dous waste (HW) and mi ni mi zi ng damage to the
envi ronment?
Have al l sol di er s been br i efed on range or maneuver r estri cti ons and
endanger ed speci es, vegetati on, ar cheol ogi cal , cul tur al , and hi stor i c
resource preser vati on?
Are i denti fi ed envi r onmental r i sks di scussed dur i ng pl anni ng?
SPILL-RESPONSE PLAN
14-3. A spi l l i s defi ned as any quanti ty of petrol eum pr oduct over 5 gal l ons (or
accordi ng to l ocal l aws si nce some states ar e mor e stri ngent than 5 gal l ons) or
an y qu an ti ty of HW. Sh ou l d a s pi l l occu r , tak e th e fol l owi n g acti on s
i mmedi atel y (Figure 14-1).
14-4. Pr otect your sel f by
Evacuati ng the ar ea i n a manner appr opr i ate to the type of spi l l .
Taki ng per sonal precauti ons as detai l ed i n the MSDS for the type of
materi al spi l l ed.
Usi ng the pr oper per sonal pr otecti ve equi pment.
Exti ngui shi ng smoki ng materi al s and al l sour ces of i gni ti on.
Turni ng off power i f there i s the possi bi l i ty of fi re.
Venti l ati ng the area.
Showeri ng and changi ng cl othes (as soon as possi bl e) i f HW
contami nati on occur s.
14-5. Stop the fl ow i f i t i s possi bl e, wi thout tak i ng unnecessar y chances or
causi ng i njur y or contami nati on, by shutti ng off val ves and tur ni ng dr ums
upr i ght.
14-6. Contai n the spi l l by
Usi ng an absor bent.
Maki ng dams to keep the spi l l from spreadi ng far ther . Do not l et i t
enter stor m or sewer drai ns or other waterways.
Di ver ti ng the fl ow to prevent the spi l l fr om enter i ng any water sour ce
(i ncl udi ng drai ns) i f contai nment i s not possi bl e.
FM 5-434
Environmental Protection 14-3
Figure 14-1. Spill-Response Actions
14-7. Report the spi l l to a super i or and
Sound an al arm or gi ve a verbal war ni ng.
Conti nue to assess the si ze and sever i ty of the spi l l , whi l e havi ng
another per son cal l the i nstal l ati on fi r e depar tment.
Repor t the spi l l of any HM other than a petrol eum product (r egardl ess
of the quanti ty) to the uni t envi r onmental compl i ance offi cer or the
i nstal l ati ons envi r onmental offi ce i mmedi atel y.
14-8. Cl ean the spi l l by
Scoopi ng up the contami nated materi al and put i t i n a contai ner.
Mar k the contai ner Hazar dous Waste, Contami nated Di rt i f the spi l l
occur red on concr ete or asphal t and the spi l l was cl eaned up wi th di rt.
Checki ng wi th the uni t suppl y sergeant or the Defense Reuti l i zati on
Management Offi ce (DRMO) for pr oper di sposal procedures.
Protect yourself
Stop the flow
Contain the spill
Report the spill
Clean the spill
Replace equipment
1 2
3
4
5
6
FM 5-434
14-4 Environmental Protection
14-9. Repl ace the spi l l equi pment through the fol l owi ng pr ocedur es
I mmedi atel y after a spi l l i s cl eaned, the spi l l -response teams
noncommi ssi oned offi cer i n char ge (NCOI C) wi l l account for al l tool s
an d s u ppl i es . Th e NCOI C wi l l or der r epl acemen t con s u mabl es
(sweepi ng compound and r ags) from uni t suppl y. The NCOI C wi l l al so
i denti fy mi ssi ng property and i ni ti ate appropri ate acti on (statement of
charges or r epor t of survey) to mai ntai n accountabi l i ty.
Befor e r eseal i ng the dr ums, the spi l l -r esponse teams NCOI C wi l l
compl ete a spi l l -ki t i nventory.
Metric Conversion Chart A-1
APPENDIX A
Metric Conversion Chart
Thi s appendi x compl i es wi th curr ent Army di recti ves, whi ch state that the
metri c system wi l l be i ncorpor ated i nto al l new publ i cati ons. The fol l owi ng
tabl e i s an Engl i sh-to-metr i c conversi on chart.
Table A-1. Metric Conversion Chart
US Units
Multiplied
By
Equals
Metric Units Metric Units
Multiplied
By
Equals
US Units
Length
Inches 2.5400 Centimeters Centimeters 0.3937 Inches
Feet 0.3048 Meters Meters 3.2808 Feet
Yards 0.9144 Meters Meters 1.0936 Yards
Miles 1.6093 Kilometers Kilometers 0.6214 Miles
Area
Square inches 6.4516 Square centimeters Square centimeters 0.1550 Square inches
Square feet 0.0929 Square meters Square meters 10.7640 Square feet
Square yards 0.8361 Square meters Square meters 1.1960 Square yards
Acres 0.4047 Hectares Hectares 2.4710 Acres
Volume
Cubic feet 0.0283 Cubic meters Cubic meters 35.3144 Cubic feet
Cubic yards 0.7646 Cubic meters Cubic meters 1.3079 Cubic yards
Gallons 3.7854 Liters Liters 0.2642 Gallons
Weight
Foot-pounds 1.3830 Newton-meters Newton-meters 0.7380 Foot-pounds
Pounds 0.4536 Kilograms Kilograms 2.2046 Pounds
Foot-pounds 1.3830 Newton-meters Newton-meters 0.7380 Foot-pounds
Glossary-1
Glossary
AAR after acti on r evi ew
AFJ PAM Ai r For ce joi nt pamphl et
AFJ MAN Ai r For ce joi nt manual
aggregate a cl u ster ed mass of i ndi vi dual soi l par ti cl es var i ed i n sh ape,
r angi ng i n si ze fr om a mi cr oscopi c granul e to a smal l crumb, and
consi der ed the basi c str uctur al uni t of soi l
AR Ar my regul ati on
atomize to reduce to a fi ne spray
Atterberg limits water contents at certai n cr i ti cal stages i n soi l behavi or ; they can
be used to descri be the pl asti ci ty of a soi l and i f the soi l i s cohesi ve
or cohesi onl ess
attn attenti on
ballast a heavy substance (such as wet sand) used to i ncr ease the wei ght
of rol l ers
base course or base i mpor tant el ement i n a road structure; i t functi ons as the pr i mar y
l oad-bear i ng component of the r oad, ul ti matel y pr ovi di ng the
pavement (or sur face) str ength; ther efor e, i t i s made of hi gher
qual i ty materi al than subbase materi al
BCY bank cubi c yar d(s)
binder a ma t er i a l th a t p r od u ce s coh e s i on i n l oos e l y a s s e mbl e d
substances; for exampl e, tar , cement, and cohesi ve soi l mater i al
passi ng a Number 40 si eve
borrow pit an ar ea wher e mater i al i s excavated for use as fi l l at another
l ocati on
CCY compacted cubi c yar d(s)
cfm cubi c feet per mi nute
chock moti onl ess; for bl ocki ng the movement of a wheel
clay a cohesi ve soi l that exhi bi ts pl asti ci ty wi thi n a r ange of water
contents and whose par ti cl es ar e l ess than 0.005 mi l l i meter s i n
si ze
coefficient any of the factor s of a pr oduct consi der ed i n r el ati on to a speci fi c
factor, especi al l y a constant factor of a term as di sti ngui shed from
a vari abl e
cohesion the act or state of sti cki ng together ti ghtl y
cycle time cycl e ti me i s the ti me requi red for a machi ne to compl ete one cycl e
of oper ati on
DA Department of the Army
FM 5-434
Glossary-2
desired dry density usual l y expr essed as an acceptabl e densi ty r ange but stated as a
si ngl e val ue when used to determi ne soi l stabi l i zi ng requi rements
DEUCE depl oyabl e uni ver sal combat ear thmover
dredging method of movi ng mater i al from bel ow a body of water
DRMO Defense Reuti l i zati on Management Offi ce
efficiency factor a per centage factor (60-mi nute wor ki ng hour = 100 per cent) used
to adjust producti on esti mates for nor mal producti on del ays
EM engi neer manual
EVW empty vehi cl e wei ght
F Fahrenhei t
finishing the fi nal gr adi ng of an embankment or other ear thwor k or the
smoothi ng of a weari ng sur face after i t i s pl aced
FM fi el d manual
FMTV fami l y of medi um tacti cal vehi cl es
fpm foot, feet per mi nute
FSN federal stock number
ft foot, feet
gantry a tr i angul ar fr ame on top of a cr ane super str uctur e, whi ch carr i es
sh eaves for the boom suppor t l i nes; al so, a pl atfor m (usu al l y
suppor ted by tower s) made to car ry a tr avel i ng cr ane on par al l el
tr acks
gap graded see soi l gradati on
GPM gal l ons(s) per mi nute
gradation see soi l gradati on
granular consi sti ng of parti cl es havi ng a bul ky shape
gravel see soi l
GVW gross vehi cl e wei ght
heaped mater i al pi l ed above the si des of a r estr i cti ng contai ner (such as
an excavator bucket, a scr aper bowl , or a dump-tr uck car r yi ng
box)
HM hazar dous materi al
hopper u su al l y , a fu n nel -sh aped r eceptacl e for h ol di n g and l oadi n g
mater i al (gr ai n, sand, cr ushed r ock, or coal ); al so, any of var i ous
other receptacl es for the tempor ar y storage of materi al
HQ headquar ters
HW hazar dous waste
in situ soi l i n i ts natural (undi sturbed) state
in-place mixing mi xi ng done at the constr ucti on si te
inst i nsti tute
kph ki l ometers(s) per hour
lb pound(s)
FM 5-434
Glossary-3
LCY l oose cubi c yar d(s)
lift the depth of mater i al that may be pl aced or compacted at one ti me
load time the ti me i t takes the l oadi ng equi pment to actual l y l oad the haul
uni t, pl us any ti me l ost by the l oadi ng equi pment whi l e wai ti ng for
the haul uni t to be spotted
loam a gener al agr i cul tural term appl i ed most fr equentl y to sandy, si l ty
topsoi l s that contai n a tr ace of cl ay
M-Kg meter s to ki l ogr ams
mph mi l e(s) per hour
MSDS mater i al safety data sheet
NA not appl i cabl e
NATO Nor th Atl anti c Treaty Organi zati on
NAVFAC naval faci l i ty
NCOIC noncommi ssi oned offi cer i n charge
NSN nati onal stock number
No. number
OMC opti mum moi stur e content
OPLAN operati on pl an
OPORD operati on or der
optimum moisture
content
the moi stur e content at whi ch the soi l s hi ghest densi ty can be
obtai ned for a gi ven amount of compacti ve i nput ener gy; soi l s
compacted at moi sture contents bel ow opti mum do not compact as
compl etel y as those at opti mum moi stur e; those above opti mum
appr oach a pl asti c stage and begi n to act l i ke l i qui ds, di str i buti ng
an appl i ed force equal l y i n al l di r ecti ons and not movi ng parti cl es
i nto the voi ds
outriggers stabi l i zer s used on cranes and backhoes to pr event ti ppi ng whi l e
l oadi ng or di ggi ng
pcf pounds per cubi c foot
PCSA Power Cr ane and Shovel Associ ati on
PI pl asti ci ty i ndex
pintle a pi vot pi n (usual l y upri ght) on whi ch another par t tur ns
plasticity the abi l i ty of a soi l to defor m wi thout cracki ng or breaki ng; see also
opti mum moi stur e content
POL petr ol eum, oi l s, and l ubr i cants
psi pound(s) per squar e i nch
push loading l oadi ng a scr aper wi th dozer (push tractor) assi stance
push tractor or
pusher assistance
a dozer pushi ng a scraper duri ng ear thmovi ng operati ons
rimpull the usabl e for ce devel oped between the dri vi ng ti res and the travel
surface
FM 5-434
Glossary-4
ripping di ggi ng or tear i ng har d mater i al usi ng shanks (teeth) mounted on
a dozer, gr ader , or other machi ne; the number of shanks mounted
on the back of a dozer can usual l y be changed to engage one, two,
or three shanks
ROPS r ol l over protecti ve system
rpm r evol uti on(s) per mi nute
RPR r i mpul l r equi r ed
SCIP scar i fy and compact i n pl ace
SEE smal l empl acement excavator
shore (1) to gi ve suppor t to; br ace; (2) a pr op for pr eventi ng si nki ng or
saggi ng; (3) a pr op pl aced agai nst or beneath equi pment to restri ct
movement
shoulder th a t pa r t of th e top s u r fa ce of an appr oa ch emban k men t,
cau s eway , or cu t i mmedi atel y adj oi n i n g th e r oadwa y th a t
accommodates s topped vehi cl es i n emer genci es and l ater al l y
supports base and surface cour ses
side casting to push or thr ow to the si de, usi ng wi th the bl ade or bucket
soil soi l i s cl assi fi ed by par ti cl e si ze and type; gravel has l arge, coarse,
bl ocky-shaped par ti cl es, whi l e cl ay has smal l , fi ne, pl aty-shaped
par ti cl es; sand and si l t have par ti cl e si zes between these two
extremes; (for earthmovi ng, soi l i s pl aced i n thr ee categori es: rock,
soi l , and rock soi l )
soil gradation soi l i s ei ther wel l -gr aded or poor l y gr aded; wel l -gr aded soi l i s
capabl e of bei ng ti ghtl y compacted; i t contai ns a vari ety of parti cl e
si zes; dur i ng compacti on, smal l er par ti cl es ar e wor ked between
and ar ound l ar ger par ti cl es to r educe the per centage of voi ds,
maki ng the soi l denser and str onger ; poor l y gr aded soi l i s di ffi cul t
or i mpossi bl e to compact; i t contai ns a hi gh per centage of si mi l ar -
si ze par ti cl es (cal l ed uni for ml y gapped) or a poor r el ati onshi p of
the per cen tage of si zes (cal l ed gap -gr aded); s uch soi l h as a
r el ati vel y hi gh per centage of voi ds after compacti on; ther efor e, i t
l acks densi ty and strength
SOP standi ng oper ati ng procedure
sq squar e
STP sol di er trai ni ng publ i cati on
struck a ful l l oad of mater i al that i s l evel wi th the top of i ts contai ner ,
(such as a scraper bowl or a dump-tr uck body)
tandem a gr oup of two or mor e ar r anged one behi nd the other or used or
acti ng i n conjuncti on
TB techni cal bul l eti n
TC tr ai ni ng ci rcul ar
tine a sl ender , poi nted projecti ng par t; a prong
TM techni cal manual
FM 5-434
Glossary-5
torque a for ce that pr oduces or tends to produce rotati on or torsi on (such
as an auto engi ne del i ver s to the dr i ve shaft)
TRADOC Uni ted States Army Tr ai ni ng and Doctri ne Command
US Uni ted States
USAES Uni ted States Army Engi neer School
USCS Uni fi ed Soi l Cl assi fi cati on System
vpm vi brati ons per mi nute
windrows a l ong, l ow r i dge of mater i al scr aped to the si de, usi ng a bl ade,
when movi ng earth
yd yard(s)
FM 5-434
Glossary-6
Bibliography-1
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Testing, and Licensing). 31 December 1993.
Caterpil l ar Performance Handbook, 28th Edi ti on. Cater pi l l ar I ncor por ated, Peor i a, I l l i noi s.
October 1997.
Compressed Air Handbook. Compressed Ai r and Gas I nsti tute. 1947.
Constructi on Pl anni ng, Equipment, and Methods, 5th Edi ti on. Rober t L. Peur i foy, Wi l l i am D.
Ledbetter , and Cl i ffor d J. Schexnayder . McGr aw Hi l l Company, I ncor por ated. 1996.
EM 385-1-1. Safety and Health Requirements Manual. 3 September 1996.
FM 5-34. Engineer Field Data. 30 September 99.
FM 5-125. Rigging Techniques, Procedures, and Applications. 3 October 1995.
FM 5-134. Pile Construction. 18 Apr i l 1985.
FM 5-410. Military Soils Engineering. 23 December 1992.
FM 5-412. Project Management. 13 June 1994.
FM 5-430-00-1. Pl anni ng and Desi gn of Roads, Ai rfi el ds, and Hel i ports i n the Theater of
OperationsRoad Design. AFJPAM 32-8013, Vol ume I . 26 August 1994.
FM 5-430-00-2. Pl anni ng and Desi gn of Roads, Ai rfi el ds, and Hel i ports i n the Theater of
OperationsAirfield and Heliport Design. AFJPAM 32-8013, Vol ume I I . 29 September 1994.
FM 5-436. Paving and Surfacing Operations. To be publ i shed wi thi n si x months.
FM 5-472. Materials Testing. NAVFAC MO 330/AFJMAN 32-1221(I ). To be publ i shed wi thi n si x
months.
STP 5-62E12-SM-TG. Sol di er's Manual and Trai ner's Guide: Mil i tary Occupational Special ty
62E, Heavy Construction Equipment Operator, Skill Levels 1/ 2. 25 September 1985.
TB 43-0142. Safety I nspection and Testing of Lifting Devices. 28 February 1997.
TC 20-401. The Soldier and the Environment. To be publ i shed wi thi n si x months.
TM 5-332. Pits and Quarries. 15 December 1967.
TM 5-2330-360-14&P. Operator's, Organi zati onal , Di rect Support and General Support
Maintenance Manual, I ncluding Repair Parts and Special Tools List for Semitrailer, Low-bed:
40-Ton Construction Equipment Transporter, M870 (CCE) (CMI / Load Ki ng Model 403LF)
(NSN 2330-00-133-1731). 6 December 1984.
TM 5-2410-233-20. Organizational Maintenance Manual Tractor, Full-Tracked, Low Speed; DED;
Medium Drawbar Pull; Oscillating Track, 78-I nch Gage (Caterpillar Model D7F) with Ripper
(NSN 2410-00-177-7283); wi th Ri pper and ROPS (NSN 2410-00-185-9794); wi th Ri pper,
ROPS (CAB) Winterized (NSN 2410-00-30-6665); with Winch (NSN 2410-00-177-7284); wi th
FM 5-434
Bibliography-2
Winch and ROPS (NSN 2410-00-185-9792) and with Wi nch, ROPS (CAB) Wi nteri zed (NSN
2410-00-300-6664). 31 August 1973.
TM 5-3805-248-14&P-1. Scraper, Earthmovi ng, Motori zed; Di esel Engi ne Dr i ven (NSN
3805-01-153-1854) Operation. 19 August 1985.
TM 5-3805-261-10. Operators Manual for Grader, Heavy, Road, Motori zed, Caterpil l ar Model
130G (NSN 3805-01-150-4795). 30 Mar ch 1989.
TM 5-3810-232-12. Operator and Organizational Maintenance Manual : Crane, Wheel Mounted:
20-Ton at 10-Foot Radius, 2 Engines, Diesel Engine Driven, 4 x 4 Air Transportable, 3 Phase
with Blade, Bull dozer, Earthmoving with Block, Tackl e, 20-Ton wi th Boom Crane, 30 Foot
(Ameri can Hoi st and Derri ck Model s 2380 (NSN 3810-00-763-7728) and 2385 (3810-
00-043-5354). 10 September 1970.
TM 5-3810-294-20. Organizational Maintenance Manual for Crane-Shovel, Truck Mounted; 3/ 4
Cubic Yard, 20-Ton, wi th Clamshell , Dragl ine, and Backhoe Attachments, Gasoline Engine
Driven. (Harnischfeger Corporation Model M32OT2) (NSN 3810-00-151-4431). 5 Apri l 1974.
TM 5-3825-221-15. Operators, Organi zati onal , Di rect Support, General Support and Depot
Mai ntenance Manual : Di stri butor, Water, Tank-Type: Truck Mounted; Gasol i ne Dri ven
(MacLeod Model W15A, Nonwinterized) (NSN 3825-00-954-9033); Multifuel Driven (MacLeod
Model W15A, Winterized) (3825-00-774-9090); Multifuel Driven (MacLeod Model W15A4112)
(3825-00-077-0550) and Di esel Dri ven (MacLeod Model W15E9019) (3825-00-474-3742).
16 December 1964.
TM 5-3895-275-12. Operator and Organi zati onal Mai ntenance Manual for Pavi ng Machi ne,
Bi tumi nous Materi al , Gasol i ne Engi ne Dri ven: Crawl er Mounted, 8- to 10-Foot Wi de
(Barber-Greene Model SA-35) (NSN 3895-057-8715). 31 December 1974.
TM 5-3895-330-10. Operators Manual for Spreader, Aggregate, Towed: Force Feed, Pneumatic
Tires; 8-Foot Width (Burch Corporation, Model FF-8) (FSN 3895-130-3633). 17 May 71.
TM 5-3895-334-15. Operator, Uni t, Di rect Support, General Support, and Depot Mai ntenance
Manual for Kettle, Heating, Bituminous, Gasoline Engine; Wheel Mounted, 2 Pneumatic Tires;
165-Gallon Capacity (White Manufacturing, Model F3M-1) (NSN 3895-00-442-9741). 29 Apr i l
1970.
TM 5-3895-353-14&P. Operators, Organi zati onal , Di rect Support, and General Support
Mai ntenance Manual I ncl udi ng Repai r Parts I nformation and Suppl ementary Operati ng,
Maintenance and Repair Parts I nstructions for Roller, Vibratory, Self-Propelled (CCE) Model
SP-848 (NSN 3895-01-075-2823). 24 Apri l 1981.
TM 5-3895-371-10. Operators Manual for Bi tumi nous Di stri butor Body, M918 (Model D-63)
(NSN 3895-01-028-4390). 5 October 1979.
TM 55-2410-234-14. Hi ghway Transport Procedures: Transport of Caterpil lar Model D8K-8S-8
Tractor with Ripper or Winch on M870, 40-Ton Low-bed Semitrai ler Using the M920 Truck
Tractor. 10 August 1984.
TM 5-624. Maintenance and Repair of Surface Areas. 27 October 1995.
TM 5-822-8. Bituminous Pavements-Standard Practice. 30 Jul y 1987.
TM 9-2320-272-10. Operators Manual for Truck, 5-Ton, 6 x 6, M939, M939A1, and M939A2
Series Trucks (Diesel). 15 August 1996.
FM 5-434
Bibliography-3
TM 9-2320-361-10. Operators Manual for 2 1/ 2-Ton, 6 x 6, M44A2 Seri es Trucks (Multifuel );
Truck, Cargo: 2 1/ 2-Ton, 6 x 6, M35A2, M35A2C, M36A2; Truck, Tank, Fuel: 2 1/ 2-Ton, 6 x 6,
M49A2C; Truck, Tank, Water: 2 1/ 2-Ton, 6 x 6, M50A2, M50A3; Truck, Van, Shop: 2 1/ 2-Ton,
6 x 6, M109A3; Truck, I nstrument Repair Shop: 2 1/ 2-Ton, 6 x 6, M185A3; Truck, Tractor: 2
1/ 2-Ton, 6 x 6, M275A2; Truck, Dump: 2 1/ 2-Ton, 6 x 6, M342A2; Truck, Mai ntenance,
Pipel i ne Constructi on: 2 1/ 2-Ton, 6 x 6, M756A2; Truck, Mai ntenance, Earth Boring and
Polesetting: 2 1/ 2-Ton, 6 x 6, M764. 15 December 1988.
TM 9-2330-211-14&P. Operators, Uni t, Di rect Support, and General Support Mai ntenance
Manual (I ncl udi ng Repai r Parts and Special Tools Li st) for Semi trail er, Low-Bed: 25-Ton,
4-Wheel, M172A1 (NSN 2330-00-317-6448). 14 Jul y 1991.
TM 9-2330-294-14. Operators, Organizational, Direct Support, and General Support Maintenance
Manual : Semi trai l er, L ow-Bed, Heavy Equi pment Transporter, 60-Ton, M747 (NSN
2330-00-089-7265). 5 May 1976.
FM 5-434
Bibliography-4
Index-1
Index
A
aggregate spreader, 12-7
air compression
gauge output pressure, 9-2
air compressors, 9-1, 9-17
free air, 9-1
friction loss, 9-3
standard conditions, 9-1
air hoses, 7-23
air manifold, 9-5
air-line hose, 9-6
air-line oiler, 9-6
asphalt
distributor, 12-2
heater, 12-2
kettle, 12-10
mixing, 4-10
imported aggregate, 4-10
in-place, 4-10
asphalt melter, 12-9
Atterberg limits, 11-7
auger bit, 9-14
average grade, 3-11
B
backfilling, 2-16, 5-7
base courses, 11-19
basement-excavation sequences,
8-3
binder, 4-9
bitumeter, 12-6
bituminous material, 12-2
blades
angle, 2-9
side-casting ability, 2-9
boom, 7-6
hydraulic telescopic, 7-6
lattice, 7-6
borrow pit, 11-2
borrow-pit area, 3-7
brakes, 7-6
bucket cylinder, 8-5
C
cable drums, 7-6
cables, 13-3
capacity
heaped, 3-1
struck, 3-1
chain saw, 9-13
chains, 13-3
circular saw, 9-12
clam loading, see loader
clamshell, 7-12
bucket, 7-12
production rates, 7-13
tag line, 7-12
clay spade, 9-10. See also paving
breaker.
clearing operations, 2-3
grub, 2-3
normal area-clearing jobs, 2-4
shearing, 2-3
strip-type clearing, 2-4
tactical land clearing, 2-4
clutches, 7-6
compaction, 11-1, 11-10, 11-16
compaction equipment, 11-7
compaction operations, 11-20
aerating materials, 11-20
overlapping passes, 11-20
turning, 11-20
compactors, 11-18
production estimates, 11-17
compressed-air system, 9-1
consolidation, 11-7
counterweight, 7-3, 7-9
crane attachments, 7-1
clamshell, 7-1
dragline, 7-1
hook block, 7-1
crane maintenance, 7-9
cranes, 7-1, 10-6
crawler mount, 7-3
hook block, 7-9
load capacity, 7-9
rough-terrain (7.5 ton), 7-5
rough-terrain mount, 7-4
substructure mount, 7-1
superstructure, 7-1
cycle time, 3-16
D
deadman, 7-9
ditch cut, 4-2
moving the windrow, 4-7
sloping, 4-7
V-ditching method, 4-4, 4-5
ditching, 2-14
dozer blade
C-frame, 2-2
straight, 2-2
dozer blades, 2-2
angle, 2-2
cutting edges, 2-2
moldboard, 2-2
special, 2-3
Rome K/G, 2-3
stinger, 2-3
dozer production, 2-18
material-weight correction fac-
tor, 2-20
maximum-production values,
2-18
dozers, 2-1, 10-6
crawler, 2-1
DEUCE, 2-1
tracklaying crawlers, 2-1
wheel tractors, 2-1
dozing, 2-11
downhill, 2-13
hard-materials, 2-13
rock, 2-13
slot, 2-12
wet material, 2-14
dragline, 7-15
drag bucket, 7-15
dredging, 7-16
excavation, 7-16
fairlead assembly, 7-15
operating radius, 7-15
production rates, 7-18
use, 7-15
drills, 9-4
dual-drum vibratory roller, 11-14,
12-8
dump trucks, 10-1
5-ton, 10-1
E
environmental protection, 14-1
preoperations checklist, 14-1
equipment loading, 13-6
equipment operators, 13-2
FM 5-434
Index-2
equipment trailers, 10-6
excavating, 5-6, 13-7
excavation cycle, 8-4
eye splices, 13-5
F
FMTV, 10-1, 10-5
forklifts, 5-1, 6-1
operating in sand or mud, 6-2
operating in water, 6-2
positioning, 6-1
transporting a load, 6-2
friction losses, 9-6
G
goggles, 9-16, 9-17, 9-18
grade assistance, 3-12
grade resistance, 3-12
grader
130G, 4-13
grader blade, 4-1
moldboard, 4-1
pitch, 4-1
grader operations, 4-11
leveling, 4-11
side casting, 4-12
spreading, 4-11
graders, 4-1, 11-5
H
hand signals, 7-20, 7-21
hauling, 3-7
haul time, 3-7
return time, 3-7
hauling equipment, 10-1
dumping, 10-3
loading, 10-2
hoisting operations, 7-7
boom length, 7-7
operating radius, 7-7
required clearance, 7-10
stability, 7-9
hook block, 7-9
hooks, 13-6
horizontal construction, 11-19
fill material, 11-19
subgrade, 11-19
hot-oil coils, 12-9
hourly production rate, 3-18
hydraulic excavators, 8-1
breakout force, 8-1
excavations, 8-2
hoe, 8-1
operation techniques, 8-3
I
in-place mixing, 12-8
J
jackhammer, see pneumatic paving
breaker
jay tamper, 11-15, 11-20
jib, 7-10
L
large-area mixtures, 4-10
load factors, 1-4, 1-5
loader, 5-1
bucket fill factors, 5-8
uses, 5-3
V-loading, 5-4
loader attachments
buckets, 5-1
general-purpose, 5-1
loading, 5-3
multipurpose, 5-1, 5-6
clam loading, 5-4
forklift, 5-1
loading ramps, 10-7
M
manifolds, 9-5
flexible hoses, 9-5
material categories, 1-3
rock, 1-3
soil, 1-3
unclassified, 1-3
material properties, 1-3
compactability, 1-5
loadability, 1-3
moisture content, 1-4
percentage of swell, 1-5
material volume, 1-2
bank cubic yard (BCY), 1-2
compacted cubic yard (CCY),
1-2
conversion factors, 1-4
loose cubic yard (LCY), 1-2
material weight, 1-4
metric conversion chart, A-1
metric system, A-1
N
nail driver, 9-11
nail drivers, 9-4
nail sets, 9-11
O
oil heater, 12-9
optimum moisture content, 11-1
outriggers, 7-3
P
paving breaker, 9-4, 9-8, 9-18
chisel point, 9-8
clay digger (25-pound), 9-9
moil point, 9-10
pick, 9-10
spade, 9-10
moil point, 9-8, 9-9
sheeting driver, 9-8
tamper, 9-8
permeability, 11-7
personnel-preparation checklist,
14-2
pile driver, 7-11
adapter plates, 7-11
catwalk, 7-11
hammer, 7-11
diesel, 7-11
drop, 7-12
operation tips, 7-12
pile cap, 7-11
planing irregular surfaces, 4-12
pneumatic paving breaker, 9-8. See
also paving breaker.
pneumatic tools, 9-4, 9-6
pneumatic-tired rollers, 11-11, 11-
19, 12-8
contact pressure, 11-11, 11-12
surface coverage, 11-13
wheel load, 11-12
ponding, 11-5
production estimates, 1-1, 2-6, 3-9
production-rate formula, 1-2
quick method, 2-6
time-required formula, 1-2
tree-count method, 2-6, 2-8
project management, 1-1
basic management phases, 1-1
pumps, 9-4
R
retainer bolt, 9-9
rimpull, 3-13
ripping operations, 2-16
three-shank, 2-16
ripping production estimates, 2-23
quick method, 2-23
seismic velocity, 2-25
seismic-velocity method, 2-24
rivet buster, 9-11
road conditions, 3-7
road grading, 4-2
road-surfacing, 12-1
surface treatments, 12-1
rock drill, 9-16
rock drills, 9-18
rollers, 12-7
FM 5-434
Index-3
rolling resistance, 3-11
ropes, 13-3
S
safety factors, 13-4
safety hazards, 13-3
safety practices, 13-2
safety program, 13-1
safety rules, 13-1
safety standards, 13-1
saws, 9-4
scarifier, 4-1
scrapers, 3-1
cut-and-load sequence, 3-5
dumping, 3-8
haul distance, 3-2
loading
downhill, 3-3
materials, 3-5
loam, 3-5
rock and shale, 3-6
push, 3-4
back-track, 3-4
chain, 3-4
shuttle, 3-5
straddle, 3-3
time, 3-6
parts, 3-1
apron, 3-1
bowl, 3-1
ejector, 3-1
production cycle, 3-2
loading, 3-2
self-loading, 3-19
wheel, 3-1
SEE, 8-4
seismic velocity, see ripping
production estimates
shackles, 13-6
shallow-ditch construction, 4-2
shear resistance, 11-7
sidehill cuts, 2-9
bench, 2-9
pioneering road cuts, 2-9
signals, 13-3. See also hand signals.
slings, 7-9, 13-5
smooth-drum roller, 11-19
smooth-drum vibratory roller, 11-15
snow removal, 4-10
soil classification, 11-9
soil conversion factors, 7-18
soil processing, 11-1
soil weight, 1-5
gravimetric capacity, 1-5
volumetric capacity, 1-5
soil-compacting equipment, 11-7
spill, 14-2
spill-response plan, 14-2
spray bar, 12-3
spray fan, 12-6
spraying system, 12-3
stabilization agent, 11-5
fly ash, 11-5
stabilizer mixers, 11-5
stage construction, 12-1
steel drill, 9-15, 9-16
stick cylinder, 8-5
stockpile, 5-7, 5-8
stockpiles, 2-14
spreading, 2-15
subbase, 11-19
subgrade, 11-19
sump pump, 9-15
surface treatment, 12-1
surging, 9-5
sweeper, 12-1
brooms, 12-1
swell percentages, 1-4
T
tamping-foot roller, 11-8, 11-19
test strip, 11-16
timber mats, 7-19
total time, 3-18
track-mounted excavators, 8-8
tractor scrapers, 3-1. See also
scrapers.
travel conditions, 3-7
coasting, 3-7
lugging, 3-7
travel speed, 3-14
travel time, 3-16
trenching, 8-2
parallel method, 8-3
perpendicular method, 8-3
trips per hour, 3-17, 3-18
truck cranes, 7-2. See also cranes.
V
vehicle weight
empty, 3-10
gross, 3-10
vertical drilling, 9-16
vibration, 11-15
amplitude, 11-15
frequency, 11-15
vibrators, 9-4
vibratory compactor, 11-19
W
water distributor, 11-3
winch, 2-18
winching, 2-17
wire-rope thimbles, 13-5
wood drill, 9-14
Z
zones of operation, 1-6
high-speed hauling zone, 1-6
mass diagram, 1-6
power zone, 1-6
slow-speed hauling zone, 1-6
FM 5-434
15 JUNE 2000
By Order of the Secretary of the Army:
ERIC K. SHINSEKI
General, United States Army
Chief of Staff
Official:
JOEL B. HUDSON
Administrative Assistant to the
Secretary of the Army
0007502
DISTRIBUTION:
Active Army, Army National Guard, and US Army Reserve: To be distributed in accordance with the
initial distribution number 115166, requirements for FM 5-434.

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Earthmoving Operations

Clay Bank (in place)

Rock (blasted) Bank (in place)

Table 1-2. Material Weight, Swell Percentages, and Load Factors

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