C s tri thc

Chng: Logic mnh

1. nh ngha:
a. I nterpretation (din dch) l php gn gi tr cho cc sysmbol
b. Model (m hnh) din dch lm cng thc ng
c. Satisfiable: kh tha mn; tn ti 1 din dch m cng thc ng
d. Valid: ng vi mi din dch
e. Entailment (ko theo, h qu lun l) nu & ch nu mi
m hnh ca KB l m hnh ca . l h qu ca KB
f. Equivalence(tng ng) nu & ch nu v
g. Theorems(nh l)
_ nu & ch nu => l ng. c l:
+ ko theo
+ l h qu lun l ca
_ nu & ch nu l sai hay ng
2. Lut suy din:
_ Modus Ponens:
,

_ -Elimination:

1

2

_ Introduction:

1
,
2
,

1

2

;
1

2

_ Double-negation elimination:

_ Unit resolution:

1

1

+1

_ Full resolution:

,
1

1
. .
1

+1
. .

1
. .
1

+1
. .

3. Phn gii:
a. Conjunction normal form (CNF):

11

1
(
1

)
b. K-CNF: mi mnh c nhiu nht l k lng t
c. Sentence bt k u c th vit di dng CNF.
4. I nferenceAlgorithms(gii thut suy din) rt ra kt lun t c s tri
thc cho trc.
a. I nferenceAlgorithms =I nferencerules +a search algorithm
b. Soundness(ng) tt c cc cu tr li ca h thng u ng
=> c th c cu tr li ng khc na m h thng ko tr li

c. Completeness(y ) cc cu tr li ca h thng gm tt c
cu ng & c th c cu sai.

d. VD:
_ PL-Resolution l sound & complete
_ Modus Ponens l sound nhng vi bt k gii thut search u
not complete
KB = {P=>Q, Q=>R}, = P=>R ???
_ Horn clause: tuyn cc n t c nhiu nht 1 n t dng.

1

2

Hay
1

2

5. Satisfiability Problem(SAT problem) xc nh nu 1 mnh l kh
tha mn. (xc nh 1 m hnh)
a. DPLL algorithm(vc cn thng minh) ng + y
_ quy theo chiu su: lit k cc m hnh c th c
_ Kt lut sm: mnh ng nu n t ca n ng/sai.
( ) l ng nu A ng, ko quan tm B, C
+ K hiu thun khit (Puresymbol) k hiu ch xut hin 1
dng duy nht trong mnh (l A hay ) => gn k hiu
ny bng True.
+ Mnh n v (unit clause) l mnh ch c 1 k hiu.
Tha mn clause ny s sinh ra cc unit clause mi.
b. Local search algorithm: gii thut cc b tm kim, chp nhn ko
y & ko ti u. Hm lng gi m s lng mnh cha
tha mn.
c. Randomness to escapelocal minima: mi ln tun t flipping
cc k hiu xc nh m hnh.
d. WalkSAT:
Algorithm WalkSAT(Clauses, p, max_flips)
input: p is flipping probability, max_flips is number of flips allowed
output: a model or failure
Model = a random assignment of truth values to the symbols
for i = 1 to max_flips do
if Model satisfies Clauses then return Model
C = a randomly selected clause from Clauses that is false in Model
with probability p flip the value in Model of a symbol from C
else flip whichever symbol in C to maximizes no. of satisfied clauses
return failure
_ phc tp ph thuc vo t l s mnh /k hiu. T l ny
cng ln (4.3)th kh nng mnh kh tha mn cng thp
(cng kha tha mn).
_ WalkSAT nhanh hn DPLL.
6. Tnh n iu trong suy din (I nferenceMonotonicity)
a. n iu(monotonicity) Tp hp entailed sentences ch c th
tng ln khi thng tin c thm vo KB.
If
1
then (
1

2
)
b. Mnh logic l n iu
Chng: Logic v t
1. Logic v t (First-order logic)
a. Logic mnh ko biu din & x l c objects
b. First-order logic biu din, suy lun objects & quan h of chng
c. High-order logic biu din c quan h ca cc quan h
d. First-order logic gm:
_ K hiu hng: (a, b, c, John, ) biu din primitive objects
_ K hiu bin: (x, y, x) biu din unknown objects
_ V t: biu din relations. Ex: married(John), love(John, Mary)
_ Hm(function symbol) biu din simple objects.
Ex: love(father(John), mother(John))
_ Terms: biu din complex objects:
+ k hiu hng
+ nu f l function symbol & t1, t2,, tn l cc terms th
f(t1, t2,, tn) l term.
_ Sentences:
+ Atomic sentences: p(t1, t2,, tn)
+ Nu l 1 sentence, th v () l sentence
+ Nu & l sentences th , , ,
+ Nu l sentence th & l sectences
2. Th gii c th (Possibleworld):
a. Set of objects
b. Constants objects: hng nh x vo i tng no
c. Hm nh x t objects vo objects
d. V t: quan h gia cc objects
Chng: Suy lun
1. Substitution (thay th):
SUBST(, ) = vi = {x1/t1, x2/t2, , xn/tn}
Vd: SUBST(x/John,y/mother(x),love(x, y))=love(John, mother(John))
2. Lut thay th vi php lng ha (Inference Rules with
Quantifiers)
a. Universal instantiation:
:
({/ }, )

ngha: x th ng => ng vi 1 gi tr x c th no
(ground-term)
Vd: : () () ()
Suy ra: () () ()
b. Existential instantiation:
:
({/ }, )

ngha: x ng => tm 1 hng mi (cha c trong KB) lm
cho ng
Vd: : ,
Suy ra: ,
c. Reduction to propositional inference: (thu gim mnh ) vd:
Vd: : ; ; ()
Suy ra: ()
3. Hp nht (Unification):
, = , = ,
a. Chun ha(standardization) i cc bin trng nhau thnh
b. Hp nht tng qut nht (most generalized unifier) tng qut
hn khi t rng buc bin thnh hng hn (nhiu bin thnh bin)
4. Generalized Resolution:

,
1

1

+1

1

1

+1

5. Cc bc ca Generalized Resolution:
a. Eliminate implications: b =>

b. Move inwards: a vo trong





c. Standardize variables: chun ha cc bin khc tn nhau
( ) ( )
d. Move quantifiers left: dy chuyn lng t ra u
( )
e. Skolemize (to remove ): kh lng t tn ti

, (, )
f. Distribyte over: CNF
( )
g. Flatten nested conjunctions & disjunctions:

( ) ( )
6. Prolog:
a. Unsound: the occur-check is omitted from the unification (kim
tra bin ang rng buc xut hin trong i s ca hm).
b. I ncomplete: backward chaining with deapth-first search;unsafe cut
Chng: Sematic net
1. Logic notations:
a. Freges Begriffsschrift:
_ P ng: P
_ P sai: P
_ Nu P th Q: Q
P
_ , ():
_ V d:
+ Every ball is red:
+ Some ball is red:
b. Algebraic notation- Peirce:
_ Lng t :

_ Lng t :

_ V d:
+ Every ball is red:

< red

)
+ Some ball is red:

red

)
c. Peanos and later notation:
+ Every ball is red: ( ())
+ Some ball is red: ( ())
d. First-order logic:
+ Every ball is red: ( ())
+ Some ball is red: ( ())
e. Existential graph: ( th tn ti) tn ti , v , ph nh ~.
_ Phn loi:
+ -graphs: propositional logic
+ -graphs: first-order logic
+ -graphs: high-order and modal logic
_ Cc lut suy din:
+ Erasure: trong ng cnh dng, c th xa bt k graph
+ I nsertion: trong ng cnh m, c th thm vo bt k graph
+ Iteration: 1 bn copy ca graph c th c vit trong cng ng
cnh hay ng cnh con.
+ Deiteration: bt k graph c th xa nu 1 copy ca n xut
hin trong cng ng cnh hay ng cnh ang cha n.
+ Doublenegation: 2 ph nh m ko c g gia th c quyn
xa hay thm vo.
_ Biu din P => Q l:
_ Vd: I f a farmer owns a donkey, then hebeats it

c trong vng trn l:
, :
,
,
c c th l:
, : ( , ) ,
Tng ng vi cu cn biu din
_ Vd: chng minh (( ) ( ))

2. Sematic Networks:
a. Main ideas:
_ Biu din tri thc dng kin trc
_ ngha ca 1 khi nim l s kt hp cc khi nim khc
_ Cc khi nim c biu din bng cc node. Cung biu din
quan h gia 2 node, cung ni cc node. Node & cung c t
tn (nhn) th hin ngha ca n.
b. Vd:
_ The dog bit the mail carrier

_ Every dog has bitten a mail carrier

_ Every dog has bitten the mail-carrier in town

_ Every dog has bitten every mail-carrier.

3. Conceptual Graphs = Perice EGs + Sematic networks.
a. Php chiu(Projection):

b. S nimlng nhau:
_ Ex: It is not true that cat Tuna is on a mat.

_ Ex: Every cat is on a mat

_ Ex: Julian could not fly to Mars.

_ Ex: Tom believes that Mary wants to marry a sailor.

c. Vd: Mo tuna nm trn thm no

4. Ontology: nghin cu v s tn ti
Chng: Default Reasoning
1. H qu mc nh (default consequence):

Iff is true in every preferred model (m hnh a thch) of KB
2. Possible world (th gii c th) cc lut mc nh c th mu thun
nhau => to ra nhiu possible world.
3. M hnh a thch (Preferred model) l mt th gii c th nhng c
chn l th gii mc nh (u thch nht). T Preferred model s suy
ra cc h qu, cc h qu ny c gi l h qu mc nh.
4. Uncertain reasoning:
car(x) => wheel-num(x, 4) [I1, u2]
bird(x) => fly(x) [I3, u4]
=> [I, u]: l nhng khong xc sut hay kh nng
Chng: Xc sut Probability
1. Nhng tht bi ca FOL trong 1 min l do:
a. Laziness: ko th lit k ht lut c th sinh ra hay kh c th dng
lng ln lut to ra kt qu
b. Theoretical ignorance: ko hiu bit ht cc lut ca domain
c. Practical ignorance: ko thc tin do vn thi gian, ti nguyn
2. Probability: l mc ca nim tin.
a. Xc sut bt ngun t:
_ Frequentist: kinh nghim thng k
_ Objectivist: kha cnh thc t
_ Subjectivist: mt cch ch quan
b. Decision theory = Probability + Utility theory
c. Tin xc sut (Prior probability) xc sut ko c iu kin
Vd: P(Dice = 2) = 1/6
_ Random Variable: Dice
_ Domain = <1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6>
_ Probability distribution: P(Dice) = <1/6,1/6,1/6,1/6,1/6,1/6>
d. Xc sut c iu kin:
=

; = ()
e. Cng thc:
_ 0 P(A) 1 P(A) = 1 P(A)
_ P(true) = 1 P(false) = 0
_ P(AB) = P(A) + P(B) P(AB)
_ P(U) = P(A1) + P(A2) + + P(An)
+ U = A1 A2 An
+ Ai Aj = false Ai, Aj c lp & ph ht U
3. Bayes theorem:

=
(

)
()
=

. (

)
|

. (

)

Vi Hi ph kn U & c lp. T y ta c th suy ra:
= |

. (

)
a. Full joint probability distribution (phn b xc sut lin kt y
): P(X1, X2, , Xn) l y cho vic tnh ton xc sut of Xi.
Vn : s lng cc lin kt xc sut l hm m.
b. c lp:
_ c lp ko iu kin:
( ) = (). ()
= (|)
_ c lp c iu kin:
= .
| = (| )
_ A, B c lp ph thuc vo bin c, c bin c vo th c th
ko cn c lp na.
4. Bayesian Networks:
a. Syntax:
_ 1 tp hp cc bin ngu nhin to thnh cc node
_ 1 tp hp cc lin kt c hng ni cc cp node
_ Mi node c 1 bng xc sut c iu kin m b chi phi bi
cc node cha n.
_ th ko c chu trnh c hng (chu trnh c 1n cnh)
b. Semantics: xp cc node theo th t Xi l node trc (cha, ni,
) ca node Xj th i<j.

1
,
2
, ,

= (

|(

))

Vi:

{
1
, ,
1
}
5. General Conditional Independence:
a. Khi bit cc cha node X th node X l c lp c iu kin vi
cc node ko phi con ca n
b. Khi bit cc node cha, node con & cc node cha ca node con ca
X th X c lp vi tt c cc node khc.
c. X & Y l c lp c iu kin khi bit E:

6. Network Construction:
a. Wrong ordering:
_ To ra mt mng phc tp
_ Cn xc nh nhiu xc sut
_ To ra cc quan h yu => tnh x/sut kh khn & ko t nhin
_ Tht bi trong vic biu din tt c quan h c lp c kin
=> nhiu xc sut ko cn thit
b. Model:
_ Diagnostic: symptoms to causes
_ Causal (nguyn nhn): causes to symptoms
7. Dempster-Shafer Theory (l thuyt nim tin):
a. Belief: Bel: 2
D
[0, 1] Bel(S) = m(X)
XS

b. Plausibility: () = 1 () : [, ()]
c. Ignorance: + 1
d. Combination rules: m1 v m2.
=

1
.
2
()
=
1
1
.
2
()
=