THEORIES OF SELLING:

Selling is considered an art by some and a science by others and has produced two
contrasting approaches to the theory of selling. The first approach distilled the
experiences of successful salespeople and to a lesser extent, advertising
professionals. Many such persons succeeded because of their grasp of practical, or
learned through experience psychology and their ability to apply it in sales
situations. These selling theories emphasize the what to do and how to do
rather than the why. These theories, based on experiential nowledge
accumulated from years of living in the maret rather than on a systematic,
fundamental body of nowledge.
The second approach borrowed findings from the behavioral sciences. !ohn
". #oward of $olumbia %raduate School of &usiness was in the forefront of those
who adapted the findings of behavioral science to analysis of buying behavior' his
behavioral e(uation attempts to develop a unified theory of buying and selling.
There are four theories, the first two, the ")*"S theory and the right set
of circumstances theory, are seller oriented. The third, the buying + formula
theory of selling, is buyer oriented. The fourth, the behavioral e(uation,
emphasizes the buyer,s decision process but also taes the salesperson,s influence
process into account.
(1) AIDAS Theory of Selling
The theory- popularly nown as the ")*"S theory, after initials of the five words
express it .attention, interest, desire, action and satisfaction/ is the basis for many
sales training programs are organized. "ccording to the theory, the prospect,s mind
passes through five successive mental states0 attention, interest, desire, action, and
satisfaction so the sales presentation must lead the prospect through them in the
right se(uence if a sale is to result.
The psychological writings of 1illiam !ames support this theory. )ts construct is
based upon experimental nowledge. )t was in existence as early as 2343.
According to thi theory d!ring the !ccef!l elling inter"ie# the $ro$ect%
&ind concio!ly $'e thro!gh fi"e !ccei"e &ent'l t'te : 'ttention(
interet( deire( 'ction 'nd 'tif'ction) The 'le $reent'tion &!t le'd the
$ro$ect thro!gh te$ in the right e*!ence if ' 'le i to re!lt)
(i) Sec!ring 'ttention:
)n order to put the prospect into a receptive state of mind, the first few minutes of
the interview are crucial. The sales person has to have a reason, or an excuse for
conducting the interview.
)f he has previously made an appointment, this phase presents no problem, though
experienced sales personnel say that even with an appointment, a sales person must
possess considerable mental alertness' and be a silled conversationalist, to survive
the start of the interview. "s the prospect realizes the caller is bent on selling
something, the sales person must establish good support at once. #e needs an
ample supply of 5$onversation 6penness5. "mong other things, favorable first
impressions are assured proper attire, neatness, friendliness, amid a genuine smile
7ust before the interview. Sill sales personnel often decide up on conversation
openness so that those remars are about the prospects if they are favorable
comments about the prospect8s business. " good conversation opens causes the
prospect to relax and sets the stage for total presentation.
(ii) G'ining Interet:
Many techni(ues are used to intensify the prospect8s attention so that it evolves
into strong interest. Some sales people develop contagious enthusiasm for the
product or a sample. S'le $ortfolio( fli$ ch'rt( or other "i!'l 'id er"e the
'&e $!r$oe #hen the $rod!ct i +!l,y or technic'l)
6ne should search out the selling appeal that is most liely to be effective.
Sometimes the prospect drops hints, which the sales person then uses in selecting
the best approach. Some sales person stratagems to elicit revealing (uestions to
encourage hints by the prospects. 6thers are the prospect (uestion designed to
clarify attitudes and feelings towards the product. &ug before identifying the
strongest appeal even experienced sale person do considerable probing, usually of
the (uestion - and - answer variety. The $ro$ect% interet 're 'ffected +y
+'ic &oti"'tion( cloene of the inter"ie# !+-ect to the c!rrent $ro+le&(
it ti&eline( 'nd their rece$ti"e( ,e$tic'l or hotile &ood) In electing the
'$$e'l to e&$h'i.e the 'le $eron &!t t',e 'll thee into 'cco!nt.
(iii) /indling Deire:
The sales person must eep the conversation running along the main line toward
the sale to indle the prospect8s desire to ready - to - buy point. The development of
sales obstacles the prospects ob7ections, external interruptions, and digressive
remars may sidetrac the presentation during this phase. 6bstacles must be faced
and ways found to get around them. 6b7ections need answering to the prospects
satisfaction. Time is saved, and the chance of maing a sale improved if ob7ections
are anticipated and answered before the prospects raises them. %ood sales people
summarize what has been said earlier before continuing. *igressive should be
disposed of fact fully, with finesse, but sometimes distracting depression is best
handled bluntly for example 5 well0 that8s all very interesting but to get bac to the
sub7ect...5.
(i") Ind!cting Action:
)f the presentation has been perfect, the prospect is ready to buy. #owever, buying
must be induced. 9xperienced sales personnel do not close until the prospect is
fully convinced of the merits of the proposition. The trial close, the close on a
minor point, and the tric close are used to test the prospect8s free action. :or fear
of getting 5;o5 from which they thin there is no retreat some sales personnel
never as for definite 5yes5 or 5;o. &ut it is better to as for the order straight
forwardly.
(") 0!ilding S'tif'ction:
The sales person should reassure the customer that his buying decision is correct
and that sales person merely helped in deciding. The order is the climax of the
selling situation. &uilding satisfaction means thaning the customer for the order,
and attending to such matter as maing certain that the order is filled as written,
and following upon promises made.
For e1'&$le2
Sec!ring 'ttention +Telling about <6 water purifier and its (uality to purify
water
G'ining Interet + by showing flipcharts, presentations and brochures and also
focusing on purity and health of the family members.
/indling Deire + to mae them use the <6 water purifier for their use
Ind!ction + consumer purchase the product due to its effectiveness in providing
pure and germ free water
0!ilding S'tif'ction + appreciate the customer by saying that he has made the
good purchase by relating its health factor .
(2) RIGHT SET OF 3IR345STAN3ES THEOR6 0
This theory sometimes is also called Situation <esponse theory, had its
psychological origin in experiments with animals and holds that the particular
circumstances prevailing in a given selling situation cause the prospect to respond
in a predictable way. )f the sales person succeeds in securing the attention and
gaining the interest of the prospect, and if the salesperson presents the proper
stimuli or appeals, the desired response will result.
:urthermore the more silled the salesperson is in handling the set of
circumstances, the more predictable is the response. The set of circumstances
includes factors external and internal to the prospect. To use a simplified example,
Suppose a salesperson sales to the prospect, =et,s go out for lunch. The
salesperson and the remars are the external factors. &ut at least > factors internal
to the prospect affect the response. These are the presence or the absence of desires
.2/ :irst to go out for lunch
.?/ To have it now
.@/ To go out
.>/ To go out with salesperson
Aroponents of this theory tend to stress external factors and at the expense of
internal factors. They see selling appeals that evoe desired responses. Sales
personnel who try to apply the theory experience difficulty traceable to internal
factors in many selling situations, but the internal factors are not readily
manipulated. This is a seller oriented theory0 it stresses the importance of the
salesperson controlling the situation, does not handle the problem of influencing
the factors internal to the prospect, and fails to assign appropriate weight to the
response side of the situation response interaction.
For e1'&$le
Suppose you provide a Aaying guest accommodation as well as provide Tiffin
services to those living in A% as well as to others and charge for it.
(7) 80!ying For&!l'9 theory of elling :
This theory emphasizes the buyer,s side of the buyer,s seller dyad. The buyers
need or problem receives ma7or attention and the sales person role is to help buyer
find solutions. This theory purports0 what thining process goes on mind that
causes the decision to buy or not to buyB
The buying formula is a schematic representation of a group of responses arranged
in a psychological se(uence .The formula theory emphasizes the prospects
responses and deemphasizes the external factors ,on the assumption that the
salesperson, being naturally conscious of the external factors will not overloo
them.
The mental involved in the purchase are
;eed solution purchase
&ecause the outcome of the purchase affects the chance that a continuing relation
will develop between the buyer and the seller and because nearly all sales
organizations are interested in continuing relationship. )t is necessary to add a
fourth element the fourth elements then are
;eed solution purchase satisfaction
1henever a need is felt or problem recognized, the individual is conscious of a
deficiency of satisfaction. 1hen definite buying habit has been established the
buying formula is
;eed product service and or trade name purchase satisfactionC
dissatisfaction
To ensure purchase the product or service and the trade name must be considered
ade(uate, and the buyer must experience a feeling of anticipated satisfaction when
thining of the product and service and the trade name. )n many cases, an item
viewed as ade(uate is also lied, and vice versa, but this is not always so. Some
products and services that are (uite ade(uate are not lied and bought that are
admittedly not as good as competing items. Similar reasoning applies to trade
names. Some sources of supply are both ade(uate and lied, others are ade(uate
but not lied, and still others are lied but patronized even though they are
inade(uate to competing sources.
1ith ade(uacy and pleasant feelings included, the buying formula becomes
"de(uacy "de(uacy
;eed product andC or trade name purchase satisfaction
Service

Aleasant feelings Aleasant feelings
1hen a buying habit is being established, the buyer should now why product or
service is an ade(uate solution to the need or problem, and why trade name is the
best name to buy. The buyers must also have a pleasant feeling toward the product
or service and the trade name.
Then, whenever the buyer,s habit is challenged by a friend,s mar, a competing
salesperson,s presentation, or a competitor,s advertisement, the buyer needs
reasons to defend the purchase, and, in addition, he or she needs a pleasant feeling
toward both the product or service and the trade name.
The primary elements in a well established buying habit are those connected by
solid lines, on the central line of the formula. Most purchases are made with
scarcely a thought as to why, and with a minimum of feeling. "nd it should be the
constant aim of the sales person and advertiser to form such direct associations.
<easons .ade(uacy of solution/ and pleasant feelings constitute the elements of
defense in the buying habit. "s long as they are present, repeat buying occurs.
The answer to each selling problem is implied in the buying formula, and
differences among answers are differences in emphasis upon the elements in the
formula. )t may be said that
.2/)f the prospect does not feel a need or recognize a problem that can be satisfied
by the product or service, the need or problem should be emphasized.
.?/)f the prospect does not thin of the product or service when he or she feels the
need or recognizes the problem, the association between need or problem and
product or service should be emphasized.
.@/)f the prospect does not thin of the trade name when he or she thins of the
product or service, the association between the product or service or trade name
should be emphasized.
.>/)f need or problem, product or service and trade name are well associative,
emphasis should be put upon facilitating purchase and use.
.D/)f competition is felt, emphasis should be put upon establishing in the prospects,
minds the ade(uacy of the trade name product or service, and pleasant feelings
towards it.
For e1'&$le:
Suppose a salesperson goes to a lady and wants to sell a water purifier. #e will tell
about the effectiveness of the purifier in cleaning water and maing it purer and
safer. #e will place the water purifier as the solution for pure and germ free water.
1hen the lady purchases the water purifier it depends on her whether she gets
satisfied or not. )t is not possible that the water purifier provides the same
ade(uacy and pleasant feeling to all. The water purifier may give ade(uate and
pleasant feeling and the lady may purchase it and it will provide her satisfaction.
There may be other products in the maret that can provide more ade(uacy and
feeling.
(:) 0eh'"ior'l E*!'tion Theory:
Esing stimuli + response model, this theory has developed. :our essential elements
re(uired in learning process to explain buying behavior and purchasing decision
process.
*rive + a strong internal stimulus that impel the buyer,s response
.i/ )nnate drive .psychological/
(ii) =earned drive .statusCsocial/
:or example0 innate drive +you are hungry
=earned drive + you want to have burger
$ues + 1ea stimuli when the buyer,s respond
.i/Triggering cue + activates decision process for a given product and evoes you
to buy a product. :or example 0 you are hungry and want to have burger
.ii/ ;on + triggering cue + influences the decision process but not activate. )t can
be of two types for the product which helps to mae opinion for decision process
and the information which you get from advertisements, sales promotion etc.
:or example 0Fou believe Mcdonalds provides the cheap and the best burger with
(uicest service time.
.iii/ Specific product C information + also functions as triggering cue. :or example
special offersCdiscounts on cold drin and :rench fries with the burger.
<esponse0 1hat buyer doesB
9xample buyer can purchase or not
<einforcement + event that strengthens buyer,s tendency of response.
9xample0 convenience, time saving and money factor also.
&GAH*HIHJ
&G<esponse
AG AredispositionC inward response tendency habit
*G Aresent drive level
IG incentive potential i.e. value, productCpotential satisfaction of the buyer
9xample if predisposition is positive then automatically I is active
JG intensity of all customer
9xample here A and I is positive the customer are more loyal towards the products
and sales increases.