Chapter 16

Toward a New Heaven and a New Earth: The Scientific Revolution and the Emergence of
Modern Science

I. Background to the Scientific Revolution
i. Renaissance humanists mastery of Greek and Latin made available new
works of Galen, Ptolemy, Archimedes, Plato, pre-Socratics new
scientific work sometimes completely rejecting classical authorities
ii. Renaissance artists desire to imitate nature rely on close observation of
nature
iii. 15
th
, 16
th
centuries: proliferation of books on machines and technology
belief that innovation necessary
iv. Mathematics fundamental to scientific achievements promoted in the
Renaissance
v. Renaissance magic, belief in divinity, scientists interest in Hermetic ideas
Scientific Revolution
II. Toward a New Heaven: A Revolution in Astronomy
i. Christianized Ptolemaic universe did not satisfy professional astronomers
b. Copernicus
i. Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543): Ptolemys geocentric system too
complicated heliocentric theory
ii. Eight spheres with sun motionless at center, sphere of fixed stars at rest in
eighth sphere
a. Moon revolved around earth
b. Movement of fixed stars and sun really the daily rotation of earth
and earths journey around the sun
iii. Conservative: didnt reject Aristotles principle of heavenly spheres
moving in circular orbits retained Ptolemys epicycles
iv. Shift from earth-centered to sun-centered system uncertainty about
human role in universe, Gods location
a. Protestants attack new ideas first
b. Catholic church remains silent until work of Galileo appeared
c. Brahe and Kepler
i. Tycho Brahe (1546-1601): builds Uraniborg castle on island near
Copenhagen accurate observations of stars and planets for that time
reject Aristotelian-Ptolemaic system, but unable to accept Copernicus
suggestion that earth moved
ii. Johannes Kepler (1571-1630): universe was constructed on basis of
geometric figures
a. Harmony of human soul mirrored in numerical relationships
between planets music of the spheres
b. Three laws of planetary motion confirmed Copernicus
heliocentric theory with modifications
a. First law: planetary orbit around sun not circular but
elliptical
b. Second law: speed of planet greater when closer to sun,
decreases as distance from sun increases
c. Third law: planets with larger orbits revolve at slower
average velocity than those with smaller orbits
c. Three laws eliminates idea of uniform circular motion
Ptolemaic system disproved
d. Galileo
i. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642): observations through telescope universe
seemed to be composed of material substance similar to that of earth rather
than ethereal or perfect and unchanging substance
ii. The Starry Messenger: Galileo reveals himself a firm proponent of
Copernicus heliocentric system Roman Inquisition of Catholic Church
orders Galileo to reject Copernican thesis
a. Galileo told that he could continue to discuss Copernicanism as a
mathematical supposition
iii. Galileo doesnt accept condemnation 1632: publishes Dialogue on the
Two Chief World Systems in Italian 1633: tried before the Inquisition,
found guilty of teaching Copernican system house arrest
iv. Aristoleian principle of motion: force constantly exerted on object moving
at constant, stopped if force removed medieval theorists added that rush
of air kept projectile in motion
a. Posed problem for Copernican system: what force kept earth and
planets in motion
v. Galileos two contributions to problem of motion
a. Uniform force leads to accelerated speed
b. Principle of inertia: body in motion continues in motion unless
deflected by external force
e. Newton
i. Isaac Newton (1642-1727): invented calculus, mathematical means of
calculating rates of change wrote Principia
ii. Principia: mathematical proofs demonstrating universal law of
gravitation; three laws of motion
a. First law: object continues in uniform motion or rest in straight line
unless deflected
b. Second law: rate of change of motion proportional to force
c. Third law: every action comes with an equal and opposition
reaction
d. Book Three: demonstrates three laws of motion govern planetary
bodies as well as terrestrial objects
e. Planetary bodies continued in elliptical orbits about the sun
iii. Newtonian synthesis creates new cosmology: world-machine, God ever-
present
iv. Newtons ideas accepted in England (out of national pride and conviction)
for political reasons
a. Natural philosophers on the Continent resisted Newtons ideas
III. Advances in Medicine
i. Late medieval medicine dominated by Galen (2
nd
century A.D. Greek
physician)
a. Professors read Galen text while assistant dissects cadaver
b. Physiology: two separate blood systems
c. Treatment of disease influenced by Galens four bodily humors:
blood (warm, moist), yellow bile (warm, dry), phlegm (cold,
moist), black bile (cold, dry)
a. Examination of urine chief diagnostic tool
b. Herbal medicines often beneficial
ii. Philipus Aureolus von Hohenheim Paracelsus (1493-1541): replace old
system with new chemical philosophy based on new understanding of
nature derived from fresh observation and experiment.
a. Macrocosm-microcosm analogy: human a small replica of larger
world diseases caused by chemical imbalances in specific
organs that could be treated by chemical remedies
b. Like cures like
iii. Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564): published On the Fabric of the Human
Body 1543
a. Anatomical treatise presented a careful examination of individual
organs and general structure of body
b. Blood vessels originate from heart (Galen: originate from liver)
c. Agreed with Galen on veins and arteries
iv. William Harvey (1578-1657): published On the Motion of the Heart and
Blood 1628
a. Heart was the beginning point of blood circulation
b. Blood makes complete circuit as it passes through body
c. Laid foundation for modern physiology
IV. Women in the Origins of Modern Science
i. Humanism encouraged learned men to encourage women to read and
study classical and Christian texts.
ii. Women attracted to science had to obtain a largely informal education.
iii. Margaret Cavendish (1623-1673): works on scientific matters including
Observations upon Experimental Philosophy and Grounds of Natural
Philosophy
a. Attacks what she considers defects of rationalist and empiricist
approaches to scientific knowledge
b. Critical of growing belief that humans would be masters of nature
through science
iv. Germany: female participation in craft production women involved in
observational science, especially entomology and astronomy
v. Maria Sibylla Merian (1647-1717): entomologist
a. 1699: expedition into wilds of Dutch colony of Surinam to collect
and draw samples of plants and insect life Metamorphosis of the
Insects of Surinam
vi. Craft organization of astronomy opportunities for women to become
involved in science
vii. Maria Winkelmann (1670-1720): German astronomer
a. Married Gottfried Kirch, Germanys foremost astronomer
assistant at Berlin observatory for Academy of Science
b. Husband dies 1710 applies for position at Berlin Academy
denied acceptance
viii. Querelles des femmes arguments about women: women portrayed as
inherently base, prone to vice, easily swayed, and sexually insatiable
men need to control them
a. Learned women viewed as having overcome female liabilities to
become like men
b. Women argued that women also had rational minds and could
grow from education.
c. Men used science to find new support for old views about
womans place in the scheme of things.
ix. 18
th
century anatomical and physiological studies of sexual differences
provided scientific evidence to reaffirm inferiority of women.
a. Drawings of female skeletons: larger pelvic area = women meant
to be childbearers; larger skull of men = superiority of male mind
x. 17
th
,18
th
centuries: women lost traditional spheres of influence, such as
midwifery professionalized males take over justified male
dominance
xi. Male scientists used new science to spread view that women were inferior
by nature.
V. Toward a New Earth: Descartes, Rationalism, and a New View of Humankind
i. Rene Descartes (1596-1650): wrote Discourse on Method 1637
a. Descartes decided to set aside all that he had learned and begin
again.
b. Separation of mind and matter: the mind cannot be doubted but
the body and material world can, the two must be radically
different. absolute duality between mind and body known as
Cartesian dualism
c. Father of modern rationalism: radical Cartesian split between mind
and matter had devastating implications not only for traditional
religious views but also for how Westerners viewed themselves.
VI. The Scientific Method
i. Francis Bacon (1561-1626): rejected Copernicus and Kepler,
misunderstood Galileo.
a. The Great Instauration: called for his contemporaries to
commence a total reconstruction of sciences, arts, and all human
knowledge, raised upon the proper foundations.
b. Scientific method: proceed from the particular to the general;
organized experiments, systematic observations develop correct
generalizations
c. Wanted science to contribute to mechanical arts by creating
devices that would benefit industry, agriculture, and trade.
ii. Descartes Discourse on Method: each step in argument should be well
founded as a mathematical proof
a. Emphasis on starting with self-evident truths and deducing more
complex conclusions
iii. Sir Isaac Newton unites Bacons empiricism with Descartes rationalism
iv. Scientific method valuable in answering question as to how something
works, not why or the purpose religion retains central importance in
17
th
century
VII. Science and Religion in the Seventeenth Century
a. Spinoza
i. Benedict de Spinoza (1623-1677): philosophy of pantheism (nothing can
be apart from God) set out in Ethics Demonstrated in the Geometrical
Manner
ii. Failure to understand God misconception that nature exists only for
ones use
iii. Everything has a rational explanation humans are capable of finding
people find true happiness
b. Pascal
i. Blaise Pascal (1623-1662): French scientist, sought to keep science and
religion united
ii. Pensees (Thoughts): tries to convert rationalists to Christianity
a. Humans often deceived by senses, misled by reason, and battered
by emotions.
iii. Christian religion not contrary to reason
a. In Christianity, people are both vulnerable and great
b. God is a reasonable bet; it is worthwhile to assume that God exists
iv. Refused to rely on scientists world of rationality to attract people to God
v. Pascal failed to achieve his goal of uniting Christianity and science
VIII. The Spread of Scientific Knowledge
a. The Scientific Societies
i. English Royal Society: evolved from informal gatherings of scientists at
London and Oxford in 1640s; received formal charter from King Charles
II 1662
ii. French Royal Academy of Sciences: arose out of informal scientific
meetings in Paris during 1650s; 1666 Louis XIV formally recognized the
group
iii. Emphasis on practical value of scientific research replaced by primary
interest on theoretical work in mechanics and astronomy
iv. French Academy forced by war minister of France, the marquis de
Louvois, to continue practical work
v. German princes and city governments sponsored scientific societies
vi. Scientific journals concept of cooperation
a. Journal des Savants: results of experiments, general scientific
knowledge
b. Philosophical Transactions of Royal Society: aimed at practicing
scientists
b. Science and Society
i. Literate mercantile and propertied elites of Europe were attracted to new
science because it offered new ways to exploit resources for profit.
ii. Political interests used the new scientific conception of the natural world
to bolster social stability.