Chuong 4 Vu Tru Trong Vo Hat de Smith N Studio PDF

Trang 101
CHNG 4
TI N ON TNG LAI
S bin mt ca thng tin trong cc h en c th lm gim kh nng tin on tng lai ca
chng ta nh th no?
V T R T R O N G M T V H T
Trang 102
Ngi dch: da_trch@yahoo.com; http://datrach.blogspot.com
T I N O N T N G L A I
Trang 103
(Hnh 4.1)
Mt ngi quan st trn tri t
(mu xanh) ang chuyn ng
trn qu o xung quanh mt tri
s thy sao Ha (mu ) in trn
vng cu cc sao.
Chuyn ng biu kin phc tp
ca cc hnh tinh c th c gii
thch bng cc nh lut ca New-
ton v khng c nh hng g n
s phn ca con ngi.
N
hn loi lun mong mun iu khin tng lai, hoc t nht
l on trc c iu g s xy ra. l l do ti sao
ngnh chim tinh hc li ph bin n th. Chim tinh hc
cho rng cc s kin xy ra trn tri t u lin quan n chuyn
ng ca cc hnh tinh trn bu tri. y l mt gi thit c th
kim chng mt cch khoa hc, khng, n s l mt gi thit c
th kim chng mt cch khoa hc nu nh cc nh chim tinh dm
mo him ni mt d on chc chn m c th kim tra c. Tuy
nhin, h cng thng minh ch ni nhng d on m h c
th ng vi bt k kt qu no. Nhng pht biu kiu nh Cc
mi quan h c nhn c th tr ln mnh lit hn hoc l Bn s
c mt c may v ti chnh s khng bao gi b chng minh l sai
c.
Nhng l do m phn ng cc nh khoa hc khng tin vo chim
tinh hc khng phi l nhng bng chng phi khoa hc hoc thiu
nhng bng chng khoa hc m v n khng ph hp vi nhng l
thuyt khc c kim chng bng thc nghim. Khi Copernicus
v Galileo pht hin ra rng cc hnh tinh quay quanh mt tri ch
khng phi quay quanh tri t, v Newton tm ra nh lut hp dn
iu khin chuyn ng ca cc hnh tinh th chim tinh hc tr
ln cc k ng ng. Ti sao v tr ca cc hnh tinh khc trn nn
tri khi chng c nhn t tri t li c nhng mi tng quan
vi nhng i phn t t gi l sinh vt c tr tu sng trn mt tiu
hnh tinh (hnh 4.1)? Chim tinh hc cn phi lm cho chng ta
tin vo s tng quan . Cc l thuyt c trnh by trong cun
sch ny cng khng hn g chim tinh hc ch khng c thm
Thng ny sao Ha chim cung
Nhn m, l thi gian tt
bn t hc. Sao Ha yu cu bn
sng mt cuc sng theo cch
bn cho l ng v thng nhng
ngi khc cho l sai. V nhng
iu s xy ra.
Vo ngy 20, sao Ha s i n
phn hc vn ca bn, n lin
quan n ngh nghip v bn s
hc nhn ly trch nhim v
gii quyt cc quan h kh khn.
Tuy vy, n k trng rm bn
s c c mt s thng sut v
tm bao qut tuyt vi v ton b
cuc i m bn s nhn c.
Trang 104
cc bng chng thc nghim cng c cc l thuyt , nhng ta
vn tin v cc l thuyt ny ph hp vi cc l thuyt c kim
chng.
S thnh cng ca cc nh lut ca Newton v cc l thuyt vt
l khc dn n tng v quyt nh lun khoa hc (scientic
determinism). tng ny c mt nh khoa hc ngi Php tn
l Marquis de Laplace a ra ln u tin vo u th k th mi
chn. Laplace cho rng nu chng ta bit c v tr v ta ca
tt c cc ht trong v tr ti mt thi im th cc nh lut vt l
s cho php chng ta on c trng thi ca v tr s nh th no
ti bt k mt thi im no khc trong qu kh v tng lai (hnh
4.2).
Ni cch khc, nu quyt nh lun khoa hc m ng th chng
ta c th on trc c tng lai v khng cn n chim tinh
hc. Tt nhin l trn thc t ngay c nhng ci n gin nh nh
lut hp dn ca Newton cng dn n cc phng trnh m chng
ta khng th gii mt cch chnh xc cho h c nhiu hn hai ht
c. Hn na, cc phng trnh ny thng c mt tnh cht c
bit l hn lon, do , mt thay i nh v v tr v vn tc ti
mt thi im c th dn n mt tnh cht hon ton khc ti cc
thi im tip theo. Nhng ngi xem phim Cng vin k Jura
(Jurassic Park, hnh 4.3) u bit, mt xo trn nh mt ni ny
c th gy ra mt thay i ln mt ni khc. Mt con bm v
cnh Tokyo c th gy ra ma cng vin trung tm New York
(hnh 4.3). iu phin phc l chui s kin khng c tnh lp
(Hnh 4.2)
Nu bn bit v tr v tc ca
qu bng m bn nm i, bn c
th tnh c n s i n u.
(Hnh 4.3)
Trang 105
li. Ln sau con bm v cnh, mt lot cc s kin khc s khc
i v cc s kin ny s nh hng n thi tit. l l do ti sao
cc d bo thi tit rt khng ng tin cy.
Do vy, mc d v nguyn l th cc nh lut ca in ng lc hc
lng t s cho php chng ta tnh ton c tt c mi th trong
ha hc v sinh hc, nhng chng ta vn khng c nhiu thnh cng
trong vic on trc c hnh vi con ngi t cc phng trnh
ton hc. Tuy nhin, mc d gp phi nhng kh khn
trn thc tin nh th, nhng v nguyn tc, phn ln
cc nh khoa hc vn c an i vi tng cho
rng tng lai vn c th d bo c.
Thot nhn th quyt nh lun khoa hc c v nh
b nguyn l bt nh e da. Nguyn l bt nh ni
rng chng ta khng th o chnh xc v tr v vn tc
ca mt ht ti mt thi im. Chng ta o v tr cng chnh xc
bao nhiu th chng ta xc nh vn tc cng km chnh xc by
nhiu, v ngc li. Li gii thch v quyt nh lun khoa hc ca
Laplace cho rng nu chng ta bit v tr v vn tc ca cc ht ti
mt thi im th chng ta c th xc nh c v tr v vn tc ca
chng ti bt k thi im no trong qu kh v tng lai. Nhng
lm th no m chng ta c th lm c iu nu nh ngay t
u nguyn l bt nh khng cho chng ta bit c v tr v
vn tc ti mt thi im? D my tnh ca chng ta tt th no i
chng na, nu chng ta cung cp d liu u vo sai th chng ta
U VO
U RA
Trang 106
s nhn c cc d on sai lm.
Tuy vy, quyt nh lun c khi phc di mt dng khc trong
mt l thuyt mi c gi l c hc lng t, tng thch vi
nguyn l bt nh. Trong c hc lng t, ni mt cch gn ng,
ta c th d on mt cch chnh xc mt na nhng iu m ta
mong mun thc hin trn quan im Laplace c in. Trong c
hc lng t, mt ht khng c v tr hoc vn tc xc nh nhng
trng thi ca ht c th c biu din bng mt ci gi l hm
sng (hnh 4.4).
Ti mi v tr trong khng gian, mt hm sng l mt con s cho
bit xc xut m ht c th c tm thy ti v tr . Tc thay
i ca hm sng t im ny n im khc cho bit kh nng
ht c cc vn tc khc nhau. Mt s hm sng c mt nh rt nhn
(Hnh 4.4)
Hm sng xc nh xc sut m
ht s c cc v tr v vn tc khc
nhau theo cch m chng phi
tun theo nguyn l bt nh.
HM SNG NHN
PHN B XC SUT VN
TC CA HT
SNG CC HM SNG
PHN B XC SUT VN
TC CA HT
V tr
V tr
Vn tc
Vn tc
Trang 107
ti mt im c th trong khng gian. Trong trng hp ny, bt
nh v v tr ca ht l rt nh. Trn gin ta cng c th thy
trong nhng trng hp , hm sng thay i rt nhanh gn nh
ca sng, hm sng tng nhanh mt sn v gim nhanh pha
sn kia. iu ny c ngha l phn b xc sut ca vn tc c
tri trn mt vng gi tr rt ln. Hay ni mt cch khc, bt nh
v vn tc rt ln. Mt khc, chng ta hy xem cc hm sng thoai
thoi th bt nh v v tr ln nhng bt nh v vn tc li
nh. Vy nn, vic m t cc ht bng hm sng khng cho ta v tr
v vn tc chnh xc. Gi y ta thy rng hm sng l tt c nhng
g m ta c th xc nh. Thm ch chng ta cng khng th cho
rng Cha bit v tr v vn tc ca cc ht nhng giu khng cho
chng ta bit. Cc l thuyt bin s n (hidden variable) nh th
khng ph hp vi cc quan st thc nghim. Hn th na, Cha b
gii hn bi nguyn l bt nh v khng th bit v tr v vn tc
ca ht; Cha ch c th bit hm sng ca ht m thi.
Tc thay i ca hm sng theo thi gian c cho bi mt
V tr
Vn tc
(Hnh 4.5)
PHNG TRNH SCHRO-
DINGER
S ph thuc ca hm sng
theo thi gian c xc nh bi
ton t H lin quan n nng
lng ca h ang xt.
Trang 108
phng trnh gi l phng trnh Schrodinger (hnh 4.5). Nu ta
bit hm sng ti mt thi im th chng ta c th dng phng
trnh Schrodinger tnh hm sng ti bt k thi im no khc
trong qu kh v tng lai. Vy nn, quyt nh lun khoa hc vn
ng trong l thuyt lng t nhng vi mt mc thp hn.
Thay cho kh nng on trc c c v tr v vn tc, chng ta
ch c th bit c hm sng. Hm sng ch cho bit chnh xc v
tr hoc vn tc ch khng th bit c c hai. Do , trong c hc
lng t, kh nng tin on chnh xc ch bng mt na kh nng
tin on trong th gii quan Laplace c in. Vi ngha gii hn
ny, ta c th ni quyt nh lun khoa hc vn ng.
Tuy nhin, vic dng phng trnh Schrodinger tnh hm sng theo
thi gian (tc l d on nhng iu s xy ra trong tng lai) hin
nhin tha nhn rng thi gian tri i mt cch trn tru mi mi ti
khp cc im trong khng gian. iu ny r rng l ng trong vt
l Newton. Thi gian c cho l tuyt i, tc l mi s kin trong
lch s ca v tr c nh du bi mt con s c gi l thi
gian v chui con s tri mt cch trn tru t v hn trong qu
kh n v hn trong tng lai. c th ni l cm nhn chung v
thi gian v l cch nhn m phn ng mi ngi thm ch l phn
ng cc nh vt l tm nim. Tuy nhin vo nm 1905, nh chng
ta thy, thuyt tng i hp vt b khi nim thi gian tuyt
i, trong , thi gian t n khng cn l mt i lng c lp
(Hnh 4.6)
Trong khng thi gian phng
ca thuyt tng i hp, nhng
ngi quan st chuyn ng vi
cc tc khc nhau s c cc
php o thi gian khc nhau,
nhng chng ta c th dng
phng trnh Schrodinger trong
bt k thi gian no on c
hm sng trong tng lai.
Trang 109
ca mt th lin tc bn chiu c gi l khng thi gian. Trong
thuyt tng i hp, cc nh quan st khc nhau chuyn ng vi
cc vn tc khc nhau trong khng thi gian theo cc hng khc
nhau. Mi nh quan st c php o thi gian ring ca anh ta hoc
c ta dc theo hng m anh hoc c ta ang chuyn ng. V cc
nh quan st khc nhau s o c cc khong thi gian khc nhau
gia cc s kin (hnh 4.6).
Do , trong thuyt tng i hp, khng c thi gian tuyt i
chng ta c th nh du cc s kin. Tuy nhin khng thi gian
trong thuyt tng i hp li phng. iu ny c ngha l, trong
thuyt tng i hp, thi gian c o bi bt k nh quan st
chuyn ng t do s tng mt cch trn tru trong khng thi gian
t m v cng ca qu kh v cng n dng v cng ca tng
lai v cng. Chng ta c th dng bt k php o thi gian no trong
phng trnh Schrodinger tnh s ph thuc ca hm sng vo
thi gian. Vy nn, trong thuyt tng i hp, chng ta vn c mt
kiu quyt nh lun lng t.
Trong thuyt tng i rng th tnh hung li khc i v khng
thi gian khng cn phng m b b cong bi vt cht v nng
lng trong . Trong h mt tri ca chng ta, t nht l trn nc
thang v m, cong ca khng thi gian nh n ni n khng
nh hng n quan nim chung ca chng ta v thi gian. Trong
trng hp , chng ta vn c th dng thi gian trong phng
trnh Schrodinger bit s ph thuc ca hm sng vo thi gian.
Tuy nhin, mt khi chng ta cho php khng thi gian c th b
cong th kh nng, trong khng thi gian c mt cu trc khng
cho php thi gian tng mt cch trn tru i vi mi nh quan st
nh chng ta trng i, c th xy ra. V d, khng thi gian ging
(Hnh 4.7) THI GIAN DNG
Mt php o thi gian c th nht
thit phi c mt im dng m
ti quai cm ca chic cc tip
xc vi phn tr chnh: ti cc
im , thi gian s dng. Ti
cc im nh th, thi gian khng
tng theo bt k hng no. Do
, ta c th dng phng trnh
Schrodinger tin on hm
sng trong tng lai.
T
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i

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i
a
n
T
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i

g
i
a
n
Khng gian
Khng gian
im dng
Trang 110
nh mt hnh tr thng ng (hnh 4.7).
Chiu cao ca hnh tr c th l php o thi gian, thi
gian tng i vi mi ngi quan st v chy t m v
cng n dng v cng. Tuy nhin, hy tng tng
rng, thay cho hnh tr l mt hnh tr vi mt ci
quai (hoc l mt h giun (wormhole)) tch ri khi
hnh tr sau li nhp li. Do , bt k php o thi
gian no u c cc im dng ti ni m ci quai nhp vo
hnh tr chnh: cc im m ti thi gian dng li. Ti cc
im ny thi gian khng tng i vi bt k ngi quan st
no. Trong mt khng thi gian nh vy chng ta khng th dng
phng trnh Schrodinger bit c s ph thuc ca hm sng
vo thi gian. Hy cn thn vi cc h giun: bn khng bao gi bit
c ci g s chui ra t .
Cc h en l nguyn nhn chng ta ngh thi gian khng tng
i vi cc nh quan st. Tho lun u tin v h en xut hin vo
nm 1783. Mt cu gio s ca i hc Cambridge, John Michell
trnh by lun c sau y: nu ai bn mt ht, nh l mt vin
n i bc chng hn, thng ln tri th chuyn ng ln trn s b
chm li do lc hp dn v cui cng l ht s dng chuyn ng
ln trn v s ri tr li (hnh 4.8). Tuy vy nu vn tc bn ban u
ln hn mt vn tc ti hn c gi l vn tc thot th lc hp
dn s khng mnh dng ht li v ht s bay i. Trn
tri t, vn tc thot vo khong 12 km/giy; trn mt tri th gi
Trang 111
H EN SCHWARZSCHILD
Nm 1916, mt nh thin vn hc ngi c
Karl Schwarzschild tm thy mt nghim t
l thuyt tng i ca Einstein i din cho
mt h en hnh cu. Cng trnh ca Schwar-
zschild tip l mt b n bt ng ca thuyt
tng i. ng chng minh rng nu mt
ngi sao b c c trong mt vng nh th
trng hp dn ti b mt s tr ln mnh n
mc nh sng cng khng th thot c.
Ngy nay ngi sao nh th c gi l mt
h en, mt vng khng thi gian b bao bi
mt ci gi l chn tri s kin, n gii hn
vng khng gian m tt c mi th, ngay c
nh sng cng khng th thot ra n vi
ngi quan st.
Trong mt thi k rt di, cc nh vt l, ngay
c Einstein cng nghi ng mt hnh th cc
oan nh th ca vt cht c th xut hin
trong v tr thc. Tuy nhin, ngy nay chng
ta hiu rng bt k mt ngi sao khng quay,
nng, sau khi t ht nhin liu ht nhn
s phi suy sp thnh h en hnh cu hon
ho ca Schwarzschild. ng knh (R) ca
chn tri s kin ca h en ch ph thuc
vo khi lng ca n, v c cho bi cng
thc:
R = 2MG/c
2
Trong cng thc ny, c l vn tc nh sng,
G l hng s Newton, v M l khi lng ca
h en. Mt h en c khi lng bng khi
lng mt tri s c bn knh bng hai dm.
tr vo khong 618 km/giy.
C hai vn tc thot u ln hn nhiu vn tc ca cc vin n
i bc nhng li nh hn vn tc nh sng (vo khong 300.000
km/giy). Vy nn nh sng c th thot khi tri t v mt tri
mt cch khng my kh khn. Nhng Michell li l lun rng c
th c cc ngi sao ln hn nhiu ln mt tri v c vn tc thot
ln hn vn tc nh sng (hnh 4.9). Chng ta khng th nhn thy
cc ngi sao v bt k tia sng no c phng i s b lc hp
dn ca ngi sao ko tr li.
tng v cc ngi sao ti ca Michell da trn nn vt l ca
Newton, trong thi gian l tuyt i v thi gian khng m xa
n nhng s kin xy ra. Vy nn, trong bc tranh vt l c in
ca Newton, cc ngi sao en khng nh hng n kh nng tin
on tng lai ca chng ta. Nhng trong thuyt tng i rng,
trong cc vt th khng l lm cong khng thi gian th tnh hung
li khc hn.
Nm 1916, ngay sau khi thuyt tng i rng c a ra ln u
tin, Karl Schwarzschild (ng mt ngay sau khi mc bnh mt
trn vi Nga trong i chin th gii ln th nht) tm thy mt
nghim ca cc phng trnh trng ca thuyt tng i rng biu
din cho mt h en. Trong rt nhiu nm, ngi ta khng hiu hoc
Trang 112
(Hnh 4.10)
Quasar 3C273, ngun pht sng
v tuyn gi sao u tin c
pht hin, pht ra mt nng lng
rt ln trong mt vng nh. C
ch duy nht gii thch hin
tng sng cao nh th l vt
cht ang ri vo h en.
JOHN WHEELER
John Chibald Wheeler sinh nm 1911 ti Jackson-
ville, Florida, Hoa K. ng ly bng tin s v tn
x ca nh sng ln nguyn t Helium i hc
John Hopkins nm 1933. Nm 1938 ng lm vic
cng nh vt l an Mch Niels Bohr pht trin
l thuyt phn hch. Sau mt thi gian, ng lm
vic cng vi sinh vin ca ng l Richard Feyn-
man, tp trung nghin cu nhit ng hc; nhng
ngay sau khi Hoa K tham gia i chin th gii 2,
c hai u ng gp vo s n Mahattan.
Vo nhng nm u thp k 50, ly cm hng t
cng trnh v s suy sp hp dn ca nhng ngi
sao nng ca Robert Oppenheimer vo nm 1039,
Wheeler chuyn sang thuyt tng i rng ca
Einstein. Vo thi gian , phn ln cc nh vt
l u nghin cu vt l ht nhn v thuyt tng
i rng khng thc s c coi l ph hp vi th
gii vt l. Nhng gn nh mt mnh Wheeler n
thng c m lm thay i lnh vc nghin cu
thng qua cc cng trnh ca ng v thng qua vic
ging dy kha hc u tin v thuyt tng i
i hc Princeton.
Rt lu sau, vo nm 1969, ng a ra khi nim
h en, m lc by gi ch c mt s t ngi
tin rng n tn ti, ch trng thi suy sp ca
vt cht. V t cng trnh ca Werner Israel, ng
d on rng h en khng c tc, m ch trng
thi suy sp c bt k ngi sao nng khng quay
no cng c th c m t bng nghim Schswar-
zschild.
Trang 113
khng nhn ra tm quan trng ca nhng iu m Schwarzschild
tm ra. Bn thn Einstein cng khng bao gi tin vo cc h en
v quan im ca ng cng c phn ln cc nh khoa hc c uy
tn v thuyt tng i chia s. Ti cn nh chuyn i Paris trnh
by mt bo co v pht hin ca ti cho rng thuyt lng t ng
cc h en khng hon ton en. Bo co ca ti kh t nht v vo
lc gn nh khng c ai Paris tin vo cc h en. Ngi Php
cn cm thy rng ci tn trou noir (l en) m h dch ra ting
Php c ngha hi tc tu v nn thay bng ci tn astre occlu tc l
ngi sao n (hidden star). Tuy vy, d l ngi sao n hoc bt k
tn no khc cng khng nhn c s nhn nhn ca cng chng
bng ci tn h en. y l tn do Archibald Wheeler a ra. ng
l mt nh vt l M, ngi gy nhiu cm hng cho cc cng
trnh trong lnh vc ny.
S pht hin ra cc quasar vo nm 1963 gy ra mt cuc bng
pht cc nghin cu l thuyt v h en v cc n lc quan st
nhn thy chng (hnh 4.10). y l bc tranh c ghp li. Hy
xem xt nhng iu chng ta tin v lch s ca mt ngi sao c khi
lng ln gp hai mi ln khi lng mt tri. Cc ngi sao nh
vy c hnh thnh t cc m my kh nh l cc ngi sao trong
tinh vn Thin Lang (Orion, hnh 4.11). Khi cc m my kh co
li di lc hp dn ca chnh bn thn chng, cc kh ny s nung
nng v thm ch tr nn nng khi ng phn ng nhit hch
bin hydro thnh helium. Nhit to bi qu trnh ny gy nn mt
p sut gip ngi sao chng tri li lc hp dn ca n v lm cho
ngi sao khng b co thm na. Ngi sao s trng thi ny trong
mt thi gian di, t chy hydro v bc x nh sng vo khng
gian.
Trng hp dn ca ngi sao s nh hng n ng truyn ca
chm sng pht ra t ngi sao . Ta c th v mt gin vi thi
gian l trc thng ng, khong cch t tm ca ngi sao l trc
nm ngang (hnh 4.12). Trong gin ny, b mt ca ngi sao
c biu din bng hai ng thng ng nm hai bn ca tm
sao. Ta c th o thi gian bng giy v khong cch bng giy
nh sng khong cch m nh sng i c trong mt giy. Khi
ta dng cc n v ny th tc ca nh sng l 1; tc l, tc
ca nh sng l mt giy nh sng trn giy. Gin ng rng,
pha xa ngi sao, xa trng hp dn ca n th ng truyn ca tia
sng trn gin l mt ng thng to vi trc thng ng mt
gc 45 . Tuy nhin, gn ngi sao th cong ca khng thi gian
do khi lng ca ngi sao gy ra s lm thay i ng truyn ca
cc tia sng v lm cho chng to vi phng thng ng mt gc
(Hnh 4.11)
Cc ngi sao c hnh thnh t
cc m bi kh ging nh tinh
vn Thin lang.
Trang 114
hp hn.
Cc ngi sao nng s t chy hydro thnh helium nhanh hn mt
tri rt nhiu. iu ny c ngha l chng s cn kit hydro ch
trong mt thi gian ngn khong vi trm triu nm. Sau , cc
ngi sao ny s i mt vi mt cuc khng hong. Chng c th
t helium thnh cc nguyn t nng hn nh l carbon v oxygen,
nhng cc phn ng ht nhn ny khng gii thot nhiu nng
lng, do cc ngi sao s mt nhit v mt i p sut nhit gip
ngi sao chng li lc hp dn. Do cc ngi sao tr nn nh hn.
Nu khi lng ca chng ln hn hai ln khi lng mt tri th
p sut s khng bao gi ngn chn qu trnh co li. Chng s
suy sp thnh mt im vi mt v hn to nn ci gi l im
k d (hnh 4.13). Trong gin thi gian theo khong cch t tm
ngi sao, khi mt ngi sao co li th ng truyn ca cc tia sng
(Hnh 4.12) Khng thi gian xung
quanh mt ngi sao khng b suy
sp. nh sng c th thot ra t
b mt ngi sao (ng thng
ng mu ). xa ngi sao, nh
sng to vi phng thng ng
mt gc 45 , nhng gn ngi
sao, khi lng ca ngi sao lm
cong khng thi gian lm cho cc
tia sng lm mt gc nh hn vi
phng thng ng.
(Hnh 4.13) Nu mt ngi sao
suy sp (ng mu ct nhau
ti mt im) khng thi gian b
b cong n ni nh sng gn b
mt b hng vo trong. Mt h
en c hnh thnh, mt vng
khng thi gian m nh sng t
khng th thot ra c.
Hnh 4.12 Hnh 4.13
Ngi sao
Ngi sao
Tia sng Tia sng
C
h
n

t
r
i
K d
Khng gian
Khng gian
T
h
i

g
i
a
n
T
h
i

g
i
a
n
Trang 115
t b mt ngi sao s to vi ng thng ng nhng gc nh hn
v nh hn. Khi ngi sao t n mt bn knh ti hn xc nh
th cc ng truyn ca tia sng s l ng thng ng trn gin
, tc l nh sng s i trn mt khong cc c nh vi tm ngi
sao m khng bao gi c th thot i c. ng truyn ti hn
ca tia sng s lt trn mt b mt c gi l chn tri s kin
(event horizon) phn cch vng khng thi gian m nh sng c th
thot khi ngi sao v vng khng thi gian m nh sng khng th
thot c. Bt k mt tia sng no c ngi sao pht i sau khi
i qua chn tri s kin s b b cong tr li bi cong ca khng
thi gian. Ngi sao s tr thnh mt trong nhng ngi sao en ca
Michell, hoc nh ngy nay chng ta ni, mt h en.
Chn tri l vng bin gii ca
mt h en c hnh thnh bi
cc tia sng ch chm khng
thot khi h en v gi mt
khong cch khng i vi tm
ca h en.
Nn nh sng thot ra
Tia sng thot ra trc khi
chn tri s kin hnh thnh
Nn nh sng b nh hng
bi trng hp dn
Nn nh sng b by
Tia sng thot ra ti thi im
K d
Tia sng thot ra sau khi
Khi u chn tri s kin
KHNG GIAN
T
H
I

G
I
A
N
Trang 116
Lm th no c th ghi nhn mt h en nu khng mt tia sng
no c th thot khi n? Cu tr li l h en vn to ra mt lc ht
hp dn khng i ln cc vt th ln cn khi ngi sao b suy sp.
Nu mt tri l mt h en hoc tr thnh mt h en m khng
mt i khi lng ca n th th cc hnh tinh vn quay nh chng
ang quay hin nay.
C mt cch tm kim cc h en l tm kim vt cht quay
xung quanh mt vt th khng l, c v khng nhn thy. Ngi ta
quan st rt nhiu cc h nh th. C l n tng nht l cc h
en khng l xut hin tm ca cc thin h v cc quasar (hnh
4.15).
Cc tnh cht ca h en c tho lun cho n nay khng gy
nn vn ln no cho quyt nh lun. Thi gian s kt thc i
vi nh du hnh v tr ri vo h en v chm vo im k d. Tuy
nhin, trong thuyt tng i, ngi ta hon ton t do khi o thi
gian vi cc tc khc nhau v ti cc a im khc nhau. Do ,
ngi ta c th tng tc ng h ca nh du hnh v tr khi anh ta
hoc c ta tin n gn im k d, vy nn, ngi ta vn ghi nhn
c khong thi gian v tn. Trn gin thi gian khong cch
(hnh 4.14), cc mt phng m ti thi gian l hng s (mt ng
thi gian) s rt dy c ti trung tm bn di im m ti
k d xut hin. Nhng cc mt phng li ph hp vi php o
thi gian thng thng ti vng khng thi gian gn phng cch xa
h en.
Ta c th dng thi gian trong vng khng thi gian gn phng cho
phng trnh Schrodinger v tnh hm sng ti cc thi im sau
nu ta bit thi gian trc . Do , ta vn c quyt nh lun.
Tuy vy, cng ng lu rng, ti cc thi im sau, mt phn ca
(Hnh 4.15) MT H EN
TM THIN H
Tri: Pht hin thin h NGC
4151 t ng knh thin h trng
rng.
Gia: ng nm ngang bc
hnh l nh sng pht ra t mt
h en tm thin h 4151.
Phi: Hnh ny cho thy tc
pht ra oxygen. Tt c cc bng
chng u cho thy rng NGC
4151 c cha mt h en c khi
lng bng mt trm triu ln
khi lng mt tri.
CT: ng ng thi gian
(Hnh 4.14)
Trang 117
Hnh minh ha mt nh du hnh h cch xung
mt ngi sao ang suy sp vo hi 11 gi 59 pht
57 giy v chm vo ngi sao ang co li ti bn
knh ti hn m ti hp dn mnh n ni khng
mt tn hiu no c th thot ra c. Nh du hnh
gi tn hiu t ng h ca anh ta v phi thuyn
ang quay cch quanh ngi sao mt khong cch
tng i ln.
Mt ai ang nhn ngi sao t pha xa s khng
bao gi nhn thy n i qua ng chn tri vo h
en. Thay vo , ngi sao c v nh ln l bn
ngoi kch thc ti hn v ng h trn b mt
ngi sao s chm dn ri tt hn.
N
h

d
u

h
n
h

v

t
r
i

t
n

h
i
u

t
i
n

v
o

h
i

1
1
:
5
9
:
5
7
N
h

d
u

h
n
h

v

t
r
i

t
n

h
i
u

t
h

h
a
i

v
o

h
i

1
1
:
5
9
:
5
8
N
h

d
u

h
n
h

v

t
r
i

t
n

h
i
u

t
h

h
a
i

v
o

h
i

1
1
:
5
9
:
5
9
T
n

h
i
u

t

n
h

d
u

h
n
h

v

t
r
o

h
i

1
2
:
0
0
:
0
0
KHNG GIAN
T
H
I

G
I
A
N
Trang 118
hm sng li bn trong h en ni m khng ai bn ngoi c
th quan st thy hm sng . V th, mt ngi quan st ngi
nhy cm khng b ri vo h en, khng th chy ngc
phng trnh Schrodinger tnh hm sng ti cc thi im trc
. lm iu , anh ta hoc c ta cn bit phn ca hm sng
nm bn trong h en. Phn hm sng ny c cha cc thng tin
v nhng ci ri vo h en. Rt c kh nng l mt lng ln
cc thng tin v h en vi khi lng v tc quay cho c th
c to thnh t rt nhiu tp hp cc ht khc nhau; h en khng
ph thuc vo bn cht vt th suy sp to nn n. John Wheeler
gi kt qu ny l h en khng c tc. i vi ngi Php, iu
ny khng nh cc mi nghi ng ca h.
Kh khn cho quyt nh lun xut hin khi ti thy rng cc h
en khng phi l hon ton en. Nh l ta thy trong chng 2,
thuyt lng t ng rng cc trng c th khng hon ton bng
khng ngay c trong ci m ta gi l chn khng. Nu chng bng
khng th chng s c c v tr ti im khng v tc thay i hay
cn gi l vn tc cng bng khng. iu ngy vi phm nguyn l
bt nh ni rng ngi ta khng th xc nh chnh xc vn tc v
v tr. Thay vo , tt c cc trng cn phi c mt ci gi l thng
ging chn khng nht nh (tng t nh l con lc trong chng
2 phi c thng ging im khng). Thng ging chn khng c th
c gii thch theo mt vi cch c v khc nhau nhng thc t l
chng tng ng vi nhau v mt ton hc. Trn quan im thc
chng, ta khng b b buc khi s dng bt k m hnh no hiu qu
nht cho bi ton t ra. Trong trng hp ny, s rt c ch khi coi
thng ging chn khng nh cc cp ht o xut hin cng nhau ti
mt im trong khng thi gian, chuyn ng ra xa nhau ri quay
tr li vi nhau v hy nhau ln nhau. o c ngha l cc ht ny
khng th c quan st mt cch trc tip, nhng ta c th o c
cc hiu ng gin tip, v cc php o ny ph hp vi cc tin
on l thuyt vi mt chnh xc ng k (hnh 4.16).
Nu h en hin din th mt thnh phn ca cp ht c th b ri
vo h en li thnh phn kia t do thot vo v tn (hnh 4.17).
i vi mt ngi pha xa h en th ht thot ra kia dng nh
c pht x t h en. Ta trng i ph ca h en chnh l ph
ca mt vt nng vi nhit t l vi trng hp dn ti chn tri
s kin bin gii ca h en. Ni cch khc, nhit ca h en
ph thuc vo kch thc ca n.
Mt h en c khi lng gp vi ln khi lng mt tri s c
nhit khong mt phn triu trn khng tuyt i, v mt
NHIT CA H EN
H en pht x ging nh mt
vt nng c nhit (T) v
ch ph thuc vo khi lng
ca n. Ni chnh xc hn l
nhit cho bi cng thc
sau:
T = hc
3
/8kGM
Trong cng thc ny (c) l
vn tc nh sng, (h) l hng
s Plank, (G) l hng s hp
dn Newton, (k) l hng s
Boltzman.
Cui cng l (M) l khi
lng ca h en, do , h
en cng nh th nhit
cng cao. Cng thc ny cho
chng ta thy rng, nhit
ca mt h en c khi lng
bng vi ln khi lng mt
tri c nhit ch khong
mt phn triu trn khng
tuyt i.
H en khng c tc
Trang 119
(Hnh 4.16, bn tri)
Trong khng gian trng rng, cc
cp ht xut hin trong khonh
khc ri hy ln nhau.
(Hnh 4.17, bn trn)
Cc ht o xut hin v hy ln
nhau gn chn tri s kin ca
h en.
Mt ht b ri vo h en trong
khi ht kia thot ra ngoi. T bn
ngoi chn tri s kin dng
nh h en ang bc x cc ht
ra khng gian.
Trang 120
h en ln hn li c nhit thp hn. Do vy, bt k bc x lng
t no t cc h en nh th s b chm hon ton trong bc x 2,7
cn st li t v n ln bc x phng v tr m ta tho lun
trong chng 2. Ta c th ghi c bc x t cc h en nh hn
v nng hn, nhng dng nh khng c nhiu cc h en nh th.
Tht ng tic! Nu ngi ta pht hin ra mt h en th ti s c
gii Nobel. Tuy nhin chng ta vn c nhng bng chng kh quan
gin tip v bc x ny, bng chng ny n t v tr s khai. Nh
m t trong chng 3, ngi ta cho rng vo nhng giai on
rt sm trong lch s, v tr tri qua mt thi k lm pht, khi
v tr gin n vi mt tc cha tng c. Qu trnh gin n trong
thi k ny nhanh n ni mt s vt th qu xa chng ta v nh
Cc s kin m ngi quan st khng bao gi nhn thy
(Hnh 4.18)
Nghim de Sitter ca cc
phng trnh trng ca thuyt
tng i biu din mt v tr
gin n theo kiu lm pht. Trn
gin , thi gian hng ln trn
v kch thc ca v tr theo
phng nm ngang. Khong cch
v khng gian tng nhanh n
mc nh sng t cc thin h xa
xi khng bao gi c th n vi
chng ta, v do , c mt chn
tri s kin ging chn tri s
kin ca h en, mt bin gii
ngn cch nhng vng v tr ta
khng th quan st c.
Chn tri s kin
ca ngi quan st
Chn tri s kin
ca ngi quan st
Mt ng thi gian Lch s ngi quan st
Trang 121
sng ca chng khng bao gi n c vi chng ta. V tr gin
n qu nhiu v qu nhanh trong khi nh sng t chng truyn vn
hng v chng ta. Do s c mt chn tri trong v tr ging
nh chn tri ca h en, phn cch vng m nh sng t c th
n vi chng ta v vng m nh sng khng th n vi ta c
(hnh 4.18).
Cc lp lun tng t cho tht rng c mt bc x nhit t chn tri
ny ging nh bc x nhit t chn tri ca h en. T bc x nhit,
chng ta mun bit ph c trng ca cc thng ging mt .
y, cc thng ging mt ny cng gin n cng v tr. Khi kch
thc ca chng tr ln ln hn kch thc ca chn tri s kin th
chng s b ng bng, cho nn ngy nay ta c th thy chng nh
l nhng thng ging nh trong nhit ca bc x phng v tr
cn li t thi k s khai ca v tr. Cc thng ging quan st ph
hp vi cc tin on v thng ging nhit vi chnh xc cao.
Thm ch nu bng chng thc nghim v bc x ca h en khng
trc tip cho lm th tt c nhng ai nghin cu vn ny u
ng rng bng chng cn phi ph hp vi cc l thuyt khc
m c kim chng bng cc quan st. iu ny c ngha rt
quan trng i vi quyt nh lun. Bc x t h en s mang nng
lng i, iu ny c ngha l h en s mt nng lng v tr nn
nh i. V s nh i ny, n lt n, c ngha l nhit ca h
en s tng v tc bc x cng s tng. Cui cng th h en s
gim n khi lng bng khng. Lc th ta khng bit lm th
no c th tnh c vic g s xy ra, nhng kt qu duy nht
hp l v ng nhin l h en dng nh bin mt hon ton.
Th th ci g s xy ra sau i vi phn hm sng nm trong
h en v thng tin v nhng ci ri vo h en m phn
hm sng c? D on u tin c th l phn hm
sng ny, v cc thng tin m n mang, s thot ra
khi h en cui cng th cng bin mt. Tuy nhin,
thng tin khng c truyn i mt cch min
ph, ngi ta nhn ra iu khi nhn c
ha n in thoi!
Thng tin cn nng lng mang n i v li
c rt t nng lng cn st li trng thi
Trang 122
cui cng ca h en. Cch duy nht c v hp l thng tin bn
trong c th i c ra ngoi l n s thot ra lin tc vi bc x ch
khng i n trng thi cui cng ny. Tuy nhin, theo bc tranh
v mt ht ca cp ht o b ri vo h en v ht kia thot ra ngoi,
ta khng trng i ht thot ra ngoi c lin h vi ht b ri vo h
en hoc mang i thng tin v ht b ri vo h en. Do vy cu tr
li duy nht dng nh l thng tin ca phn hm sng bn trong
h en b mt (hnh 4.19).
S mt mt thng tin nh th c hm rt quan trng vi quyt nh
lun. bt u, ta hy lu rng, thm ch, nu bn bit hm sng
sau khi h en bin mt th bn cng khng th chy ngc phng
trnh Schrodinger v tnh xem hm sng nh th no trc khi
h en c hnh thnh. Hm sng trc ph thuc mt phn
vo hm sng b mt trong h en. Chng ta tng ngh l chng
ta bit qu kh mt cch chnh xc. Tuy nhin, nu thng tin b mt
trong h en th suy ngh khng cn ng na. Bt k iu g
cng c th xy ra.
(Hnh 4.19)
Bc x nhit t chn tri s kin
ca h en mang nng lng
dng i lm gim khi lng
ca n. V mt i khi lng,
nhit ca h en tng ln v
tc bc x cng gia tng lm
cho khi lng ca n gim i
cng nhanh. Chng ta khng bit
iu g xy ra nu khi lng tr
ln cc nh, nhng kt qu hp
l nht c th l h en bin mt
hon ton.
Trang 123
Mc d vy th ni chung mi ngi nh l cc nh du hnh v tr
v nhng ngi t vn cho h quan tm n vic tin on tng
lai hn l xem xt li qu kh. Thot nhn, c v nh l vic mt
mt phn hm sng trong h en khng ngn cn chng ta tin on
hm sng bn ngoi h en. Nhng ha ra s mt mt ny li tc
ng n tin on nh th, nh chng ta s thy khi ta xem xt mt
th nghim v t duy do Einstein, Boris Podolsky v Nathan Rosen
xut vo nhng nm 1930.
Hy hnh dung mt nguyn t phng x phn r v pht ra hai ht i
theo hai hng ngc nhau vi spin cng ngc nhau. Mt ngi
quan st m ch nhn vo mt ht th khng th tin on ht s
quay phi hay quay tri. Nu ngi quan st o c mt ht quay
phi th anh ta hoc c ta c th on chc chn l ht kia s quay
tri, v ngc li (hnh 4.20). Einstein cho rng iu ny chng
minh thuyt lng t tht nc ci: gi s by gi ht kia pha
bn kia ca thin h, ngi ta vn c th bit ngay tc th hng
quay ca n. Tuy vy, phn ln cc nh khoa hc ng rng chnh
(Hnh 4.20)
Trong th nghim t duy Einstein-
Podolsky-Rosen, mt ngi quan
st o spin ca mt ht s bit
hng spin ca ht th hai.
Trang 124
Einstein lm ln ch khng phi thuyt lng t. Th nghim v
t duy Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen khng chng minh rng ngi ta
c th gi thng tin nhanh hn nh sng. M chnh l iu nc
ci. Ngi ta khng th chn ht quay phi quan st nn ngi
ta khng th on trc c ht pha xa ngi quan st s quay
tri.
Trn thc t, th nghim v t duy ny chnh l nhng iu xy ra
vi bc x h en. Cp ht o s c mt hm sng tin on rng
hai ht s mi c spin ngc nhau (hnh 4.21). iu m chng ta
mun lm l on spin v hm sng ca ht thot ra. Ta c th
lm c iu ny nu ta c th quan st c ht b ri vo h en.
Nhng ht trong h en th ta khng th o c spin v hm
sng ca n. Vy nn ta khng th tin on spin v hm sng ca
(Hnh 4.21)
Mt cp ht o c mt hm sng
tin on c hai ht c spin ngc
nhau. Nhng nu mt ht b ri
vo h en th ta khng th on
c chc chn spin ca ht cn
li.
Trang 125
Cc mng gp nhau
H en
ht thot ra. Ht c th c cc spin khc, cc hm sng khc vi
cc xc sut khc nhau, nhng n khng c mt spin hoc mt hm
sng duy nht. Vy nn, kh nng tin on tng lai ca chng ta
dng nh b gii hn hn. tng c in ca Laplace v vic
ta c th tin on c v tr v vn tc ca ht cn phi thay i khi
nguyn l bt nh cho thy rng ta khng th o chnh xc c v
tr v vn tc. Tuy nhin, ngi ta vn c th o c hm sng v
s dng phng trnh Schrodinger bit tng lai s nh th no.
iu ny cho php ta chc chn on c t hp ca v tr v vn
tc l mt na ca nhng iu c th on trc theo tng
ca Laplace. Chc chn l ta c th tin on cc ht c spin ngc
nhau, nhng nu mt ht b ri vo h en th chng ta khng th
tin on chc chn v ht cn li. iu ny c ngha l ngi ta
khng th tin on chc chn bt k php o no bn ngoi h en:
(Hnh 4.22)
Cc h en c th c coi nh
l phn giao nhau ca cc mng-
p trong cc chiu b sung ca
khng thi gian. Thng tin v cc
trng thi bn trong h en c th
c lu tr di dng cc sng
trn mng-p.
Trang 126
kh nng tin on chc chn ca chng ta b gim v khng. Do
vy ngnh chim tinh hc c th tin on tng lai khng ti hn
cc nh lut khoa hc.
Nhiu nh vt l khng thch s suy gim trong quyt nh lun, v
do , h cho rng thng tin v nhng th bn trong c th thot
ra ngoi bng cch no . Trong nhiu nm, ngi ta ho vng
tm thy cch cu ly thng tin. Nhng vo nm 1996, Andrew
Strominger v Cumrun Vafa thc hin mt ci tin quan trng.
H coi mt h en c to nn bi cc thnh phn c gi l cc
mng-p (p-brane: xem trang 54).
Nhc li l ta c th hnh dung v cc mng-p nh l cc tm chuyn
ng trong khng gian ba chiu v trong by chiu b sung m ta
khng (hnh 4.22). Trong mt s trng hp nht nh, ta c
th chng minh rng s cc sng trn cc mng-p bng lng thng
tin m ta trng i h en c. Nu cc ht p vo mng-p, cc ht
s to ra thm cc sng trn cc mng . Tng t, nu cc
sng ang chuyn ng theo cc hng khc nhau trn cc mng-p
(Hnh 4.23)
Mt ht b ri vo h en c th
c coi nh mt vng dy kn
p vo mng-p (1). N kch
thch mt sng trn mng-P (2).
Cc sng c th i vi nhau
lm cho mt phn ca mng-p b
t ra to mt vng dy kn (3).
y l mt ht thot ra khi h
en.
Trang 127
m gp nhau ti mt im no th chng c th to nn mt nh
sng ln n ni lm cho mt phn ca mng-p b t v thot ra
ngoi nh mt ht. Vy nn cc mng-p c th hp th v pht x
cc ht ging nh h en (hnh 4.23).
Ta c th coi cc mng-p nh l mt l thuyt hiu dng; tc l,
chng ta khng cn tin rng thc s c cc mng t hon chuyn
ng trong mt khng thi gian phng hay khng, th cc h en
vn c th x s nh th chng c to thnh t cc mng nh vy.
Ging nh nc vy, nc c to thnh t hng t t cc phn t
H
2
O vi cc tng tc phc tp. Nhng m hnh cht lng lin tc
l m hnh hiu dng rt tt. M hnh ton hc v cc h en cho
rng chng c to thnh t cc mng-p cho cc kt qu tng t
vi m hnh cp ht o c m t trc y. Do , trn quan im
thc chng, y cng l mt m hnh rt tt, t nht l i vi mt
s loi h en nht nh. i vi loi h en , m hnh mng-p
tin on mt cch chnh xc tc pht x m m hnh cp ht o
a ra. Tuy nhin, c mt s khc nhau quan trng: trong m hnh
mng-p, thng tin v nhng ci ri vo h en c lu tr bi hm
Trang 128
Trang 129
sng ca cc sng trn cc mng-p. Cc mng-p c coi nh l cc
tm trong khng gian phng, v v l do , thi gian s tri i mt
cch trn tru, ng truyn ca cc tia sng s khng b b cong, v
thng tin trong cc sng s khng b mt. Thay vo , cui cng
th thng tin hin ra t h en theo cc bc x t cc mng-p. Vy
nn, theo m hnh mng-p, chng ta c th s dng phng trnh
Schrodinger tnh hm sng ti cc thi im sau . Khng c g
b mt c, thi gian s quay u n. Chng ta s c mt quyt nh
lun hon ho theo ngha lng t.
Th th bc tranh no trong hai bc tranh trn l ng? Mt phn
hm sng s b mt trong h en hay tt c cc thng tin s thot
ra nh mng-p d on? y l mt trong nhng cu hi ni cm
nht trong vt l l thuyt ngy nay. Nhiu ngi tin rng cng trnh
gy y cho thy thng tin s khng b mt. Th gii l an ton v
c th d on c, s khng c g bt ng xy ra. Nhng iu
vn cha r rng. Nu ta chn thuyt tng i rng ca Einstein
mt cch nghim tc th ta phi tha nhn xc xut m khng thi
gian t tri mnh nh mt ci n v thng tin b mt trong nhng
np gp. Khi phi thuyn Enterprise i qua mt h giun, vi iu bt
ng xy ra. Ti bit iu v chnh ti trn phi thuyn
chi bi vi Newton, Einstein v Data. Ti rt ngc nhin. Hy
xem ci g xy ra u gi ca ti ny!
Mt cnh trong phim Star Trek:
The Next Generation, 2001

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