Gio trnh

Quan trc mi trng

Li gii thiu

Quan trc v phn tch mi trng (QT&PTMT) l mt hot ng quan trng ca
cng tc qun l nh nc v bo v mi trng. Ti cc iu 37 v 38 ca Lut Bo v
mi trng quy nh rng, B Khoa hc, Cng ngh v Mi trng (nay l B Ti
nguyn Mi trng) chu trch nhim trc Chnh ph v hot ng qun l nh nc
v bo v mi trng v mt trong nhng ni dung c bn ca cng tc ny l: "T
chc, xy dng, qun l h thng quan trc, nh k nh gi hin trng mi trng, d
bo din bin mi trng."
thc hin cc quy nh trn ca Lut Bo v mi trng, t nm 1994, B
KHCN&MT ( nay l B Ti nguyn & Mi trng) tng bc xy dng Mng li
cc trm QT&PTMT quc gia. Mng li ny c xy dng trn c s phi hp lin
b nhm tn dng c cc nng lc sn c v QT&PTMT ti mt s b, ngnh, a
phng v nhanh chng a c Mng li vo hot ng phc v kp thi cc yu
cu cp bch v qun l mi trng. Ngoi Mng li QT&PTMT quc gia th vi nm
tr li y, hng chc a phng trong nc cng bt u xy dng v bc u a
vo hot ng cc trm QT&PTMT a phng. Cng vi s pht trin ca hot ng
QT&PTMT th nhu cu v b ti liu php quy hng dn vic bo m v kim sot
cht lng ca hot ng ny ngy cng tr nn bc xc.
Bn hng dn ny c son tho nh l mt trong cc n lc ca Cc Bo v
mi trng, B TN&MT, trong vic m bo v kim sot cht lng ca hot ng
QT&PTMT nhm a ra c cc s liu quan trc c tin cy v chnh xc cao.
Bn hng dn y s bao gm nhiu thnh phn mi trng khc nhau, bn
hng dn u tin ny son tho cho quan trc mi trng nc lc a bao gm 2
chng :
Chng 1 - Nhng vn chung, bao gm cc khi nim c bn v quan trc
mi trng v hot ng m bo v kim sot cht lng trong quan trc mi trng
Chng 2 - Hng dn c th v m bo v kim sot cht lng trong quan
trc mi trng nc lc a.
i tng p dng Bn hng dn ny l tt c hot ng QT&PTMT c tin
hnh trong Mng li quc gia v cc trm QT&PTMT a phng. Bn hng dn
cng c th c s dng nh ti liu tham kho cho hot ng QT&PTMT ca cc
B/ngnh khc.
Ti liu ny do Cc Bo v mi trng ch tr bin son vi s tham gia ca cc
chuyn gia v quan trc v phn tch mi trng thuc cc n v sau:
1. Trung tm k thut mi trng th v Khu cng nghip, i hc Xy dng
H Ni
2. Tng cc Tiu chun - o lng - Cht lng, B KHCN
3. Vin Khoa hc v Cng ngh mi trng, i hc Bch khoa H Ni;

Bn hng dn ny c coi nh c gng ban u nhng rt cn thit nhm nng
cao cht lng v a dn vo n np hot ng QT&PTMT ti Vit Nam. B ti liu
hng dn v QT&PTMT s cn c tip tc hon thin v b theo yu cu ca thc
t.
Do thi gian gp gp cng tc m bo v kim sot cht lng trong quan trc
mi trng ti Vit Nam cn rt mi m nn Bn hng dn chc chn cn nhiu thiu
st. Cc Bo v Mi trng mong nhn c nhiu kin ng gp ca cc chuyn gia,
cc nh khoa hc trong lnh vc QT&PTMT cng nh cc lnh vc lin quan tip tc
trin khai v hon thin b ti liu quan trng ny.


































Chng 1
Nhng vn chung v bo m v kim sot cht lng
trong quan trc v phn tch mi trng
I.1. Mt s khi nim:
1. Quan trc mi trng (QTMT) l mt qu trnh o c thng xuyn mt hoc
nhiu ch tiu v tnh cht vt l, ho hc v sinh hc ca cc thnh phn mi trng,
theo mt k hoch lp sn v thi gian, khng gian, phng php v quy trnh o lng,
cung cp cc thng tin c bn c tin cy, chnh xc cao v c th nh gi c
din bin cht lng mi trng
2. Bo m cht lng (QA: Quality Assurance) trong quan trc mi trng l mt
h thng tch hp cc hot ng qun l v k thut trong mt t chc nhm bo m
cho hot ng quan trc mi trng t c cc tiu chun cht lng quy nh.
3. Kim sot cht lng (QC: Quality Control) trong quan trc mi trng l vic
thc hin cc bin php nh gi, theo di v kp thi iu chnh t c
chnh xc v tp trung ca cc php o theo yu cu ca cc tiu chun cht lng
nhm bo m cho hot ng quan trc mi trng t cc tiu chun cht lng ny.
4. K hoch quan trc mi trng l mt chng trnh quan trc c lp ra nhm p
ng mt s mc tiu nht nh, trong bao gm nhng yu cu v thng tin, cc thng
s, cc a im, tn sut v thi gian quan trc, cc yu cu v trang thit b, phng
php phn tch, o, th; yu cu v nhn lc v kinh ph thc hin.
Cc hot ng QA/QC gn b vi nhau, b sung cho nhau v mt s ni dung
ging nhau, cng din ra trong khun kh h thng qun l cht lng ca t chc, vi
nh ngha h thng qun l cht lng l c cu t chc, trch nhim, cc th tc, qu
trnh v ngun lc cn thit thc hin qun l cht lng.
II.2. m bo cht lng v kim sot cht lng trong quan trc v phn tch
mi trng
1.2.1. QA/QC trong xc nh nhu cu thng tin
m bo cht lng ch c th thc hin tt khi cc yu cu v sn phm c xc
nh r rng, c th. Cc yu cu v quan trc v nh gi l nhu cu c tnh cht thng
tin (nhu cu thng tin). Nhu cu thng tin l im khi u trong chu trnh quan trc v
phn tch mi trng.
Nhu cu thng tin chung chung l khng c ngha. Nhng c nhng yu t lm
phc tp vic xc nh cc nhu cu thng tin, c bit l trong hp tc quc t v quan
trc v nh gi mi trng. V d: thiu cc thut ng, nh ngha cn thit; s g b
do chuyn ngnh ca cc chuyn gia; nhng tho thun phi t c...
Nhu cu thng tin phi phn nh chnh sch hin hnh v qun l mi trng v
phi bao hm c nhng cn nhc, xem xt c tnh cht lu di. C s u tin xc
nh nhu cu thng tin l cc lut v cc vn bn tho thun tm quc gia v quc t.
Ngoi ra, nhng yu cu phc v vic sot xt cc quy nh, vic xy dng mt chnh

sch mi, quan im ca cc nh qun l hin hnh, cng l nhng c s xc nh
nhu cu thng tin.
Hnh 1. Cc bc ch yu trong quan trc v phn tch mi trng

























1.2.2. QA/QC trong xc nh chng trnh quan trc
T nhu cu thng tin, phi xc nh mc tiu v nhu cu quan trc c th, tc l
phi xc nh mt chin lc cho vic quan trc.
Chin lc quan trc phi quyt nh r loi quan trc cn thit: vt l, sinh hc,
ho hc, thu vn, cht thi hoc cnh bo sm ... Phi qui nh cc thng s cn quan
trc, chnh xc v tin cy cn thit v.v... Cn vic thit k mng li s xc nh n
phi c quan trc nh th no. Chin lc quan trc cng phi bao gm c vic phn
tch s liu v bo co, v nhng cng vic ny c th c nh hng ti cc yu cu ca
vic thit k mng li quan trc. Chin lc quan trc phi c lm thnh ti liu v
cn c nhng ngi hay c quan c thm quyn ra quyt nh ph duyt
Cc thnh phn ca mt bo co chin lc quan trc l:
1. Cc nhu cu thng tin bao gm trong chin lc quan trc v phn nhu cu
thng tin s khng bao gm trong chin lc quan trc.
2. Khi nim v h thng quan trc v i tng quan trc (vt l, ho hc, sinh
hc, thu vn, cht thi...), cc thng s cn quan trc v cc iu kin ban u la
Qun l mi trng
Phn tch trong PTN
Nhu cu thng tin S dng thng tin
Chng trnh quan trc
Thit k mng li
Bo co
Phn tch s liu
Ly mu v quan trc ti
hin trng
X l s liu

chn a im v tn sut ly mu i vi tng bin s (nh khong cch ln nht/ b
nht tnh t ng bin; tin cy...).
3. Khi nim v h thng nh gi, v d nh cc phng php tnh ton c s
dng ( tnh ton mc e do hoc khuynh hng); cc tiu chun quc t ph hp
nht; vic s dng th, cng c thng k v cc cng c khc trnh by s liu.
4. Cc kha cnh v mt t chc: t chc no s chu trch nhim v mt no ca
h thng quan trc; nhng thay i cn thit trong t chc, nhng kh khn cho vic
thc hin h thng quan trc v.v... s hp tc gia cc b phn, c quan thc hin.
5. K hoch thit k v thc hin mng li quan trc; nhng iu kin ban
u l g, k hoch ca nhng bc tip theo v k hoch ti chnh.
6. S phn tch v cc ri ro; nhng vn c th dn ti cc tht bi ca h
thng quan trc v nu ln bin php khc phc.
1.2.3. QA/QC trong thit k mng li
Thit k mng li phi c mt nhm chuyn gia c kin thc a ngnh thc
hin. Thit k mng li cn xc nh thng s no phi quan trc, quan trc a im
no v vi tn sut bao nhiu. Trong thit k mng li cng cn cp ti vic s dng
cc phng php ly mu, cc phng php phn tch trong phng th nghim v cc
phng php x l s liu.
Cn c bit quan tm n vic ng dng thng k trong thit k mng li. Vic
s dng thng k hc c th lm gim n mc ti thiu cc a im thng qua mi
tng quan gia cc trm. Thng k hc cng l c s chn la gia hai phng n:
nhiu a im vi tn sut thp hoc t a im vi tn sut cao.
Mt vn quan trng trong thit k mng li l xc nh tnh hiu qu ca
thng tin nhn c t mng li. Cn c s hiu bit chi tit v chi ph v hiu qu ca
mng li thit k.
Thit k mng li phi c ti liu ho bng mt vn bn. Vn bn ny phi
chuyn ti nhng ngi ph trch v qun l chin lc quan trc quc gia. T vn bn
ny h s rt ra kt lun l mng li quan trc c nm trong chin lc v mc tiu
quan trc chung hay khng.
Bo co thit k mng li gm cc phn sau:
1. Gii thch phn chin lc quan trc c cp n trong thit k mng li
v phn ca thit k mng li khng c trong chin lc quan trc.
2. M t mng li quan trc: cc bin s cn o; cc a im ly mu v tn
sut; vic s dng cc tiu chun, v d TCVN; ISO...
3. Cch thc trnh by v th hin cc kt qu.
4. Cc kha cnh v mt t chc. V d nh nhim v ca cc t chc tham gia
i vi tng bc khc nhau trong chng trnh quan trc: thu thp, x l v vn
chuyn mu, phn tch trong phng th nghim; x l s liu; phn tch s liu; bo
co...
5. K hoch thc hin ca mng li quan trc.

6. Cc kt qu phn tch chi ph- hiu qu; m t cc tranh lun ra quyt nh.
7. Phn tch cc ri ro. Ci g s xy ra nu c sai st v cc bin php no c th
thc hin trnh hoc gim thiu cc thit hi.
1.2.4. QA/QC trong hot ng ti hin trng
Hot ng ti hin trng bao gm ly mu v quan trc hin trng. Tu thuc
vo thnh phn mi trng m c cc phng php tin hnh khc nhau.
1.2.5. QA/QC trong hot ng phng th nghim
QA/QC phng th nghim chnh l vic xy dng v p dng h thng qun l
cht lng trong c s an xen, kt hp cc hot ng QC, theo yu cu ca ISO/IEC
Guide 25 TCVN 5958: 1995, Yu cu chung v nng lc ca phng th nghim/hiu
chun hin nay c chuyn thnh mt tiu chun quc t mang tn ISO/IEC 17025:
1999, tng ng vi TCVN ISO/IEC 17025: 2001.
1.2.6. QA/QC trong x l s liu
Trong mt chng trnh quan trc, s liu thu c s dng thng l rt ln.
thun li cho s dng, hu ht cc s liu ngy nay u c lu gi trong cc file
s liu ca my tnh. C hai loi s liu c lu gi. Mt loi c lu gi sn
trong my tnh v mt loi l nhng s liu o c ca chng trnh quan trc hin
hnh. Phi m bo cho cc loi s liu ny c phn bit r rng, khng nhm ln vi
nhau v an ton.
Khi s dng phn mm ca my tnh, cn phi c bit quan tm n vic kim
tra, pht trin v duy tr h thng my tnh. Phn mm ca my tnh cng c th thc
hin cc chc nng kim sot khc nhau, nh cc php phn tch tng quan v vic s
dng cc cp gii hn.
1.2.7. QA/QC trong phn tch s liu
Phn tch s liu l giai on chuyn s liu th thnh thng tin s dng c.
nhng thng tin nhn c t s liu th c th so snh v truy nguyn ngun gc, phi
trin khai cc bin bn phn tch s liu.
Phi c phng php t liu ho chun mc nhm bin cc s liu c thnh c
s d liu truy cp v x dng khi cn thit.
1.2.8. QA/QC trong lp bo co
Mc tiu cui cng ca mt chng trnh quan trc l chuyn thng tin thu thp
c ti ngi s dng thng tin. C th thc hin cng vic ny bng nhiu cch khc
nhau: truyn ton b cc php phn tch s liu hoc ch l nhng kt lun ngn gn
bng vn bn, li ni hoc bng s... Mt s k thut trnh by s liu c s dng
rng ri l:
1/ Cc bng s liu o
Cch lit k s liu o vo trong cc bng to iu kin khng lm mt s liu.
Tuy nhin, t cc s liu trong bng, ngi c s liu phi t to thnh cc thng tin
cn thit cho mnh.
2/ S liu o c x l thng k

X l thng k s chuyn i s liu ri rc thnh cc gi tr h thng thay i
theo thi gian v khng gian. Chng to ra thng tin c th s dng ngay cho ngi c.
3/ th
th gip cho ngi c nhanh chng rt ra c nhng nhn nh tng qut.
Bng vic nu ra cc tiu chun hoc cc ti liu tham kho trn th, tnh hnh mi
trng c phn nh ng thc trng ca n. Cc th c th l dng ng, dng ct
hoc biu phn trm (% )...
4/ Thng tin c trnh by c tnh cht a l
Cch trnh by ny gip hiu bit tt hn tnh hnh cht lng ca mi trng qua
phn b khng gian ca cc thng s lin quan.
5/ Thng tin tng hp
Vic tng hp li cc s liu l rt cn thit x l nhanh mt lng ln s liu.
S dng cc ph lc l phng php hay c dng p ng yu cu ny.






















Chng 2
Hng dn m bo cht lng/kim sot cht
lng (QA/QC) trong quan trc v phn tch mi
trng nc lc a

II.1. Tng quan v bo m v kim sot cht lng trong quan trc nc lc
a
II.1.1. Mc tiu
Cc hot ng quan trc v phn tch mi trng nc din ra ngoi hin trng
(ly mu, bo qun mu, o c mt s thng s khng bn) v phn tch trong phng
th nghim. thu thp c thng tin cn phi tin hnh mt lot hot ng bao gm
t khu lp k hoch, thit k chng trnh, thit k mng li, ly mu, phn tch trong
phng th nghim v x l s liu.
Mc tiu ca chng trnh m bo cht lng/kim sot cht lng (QA/QC) trong
hot ng quan trc v phn tch mi trng nc (bao gm nc lc a v nc bin)
l cung cp nhng s liu tin cy v c kim sot v hin trng mi trng nc
bao gm cc thng s ch yu nh: nhit , pH, DO, kim loi nng, cn l lng,
c, COD, BOD
5
/TOC (vi nc bin), clorua, amoni, tng P, tng N, tng coliform,
trm tch, ph du, vi sinh vt... tho mn yu cu thng tin cn thu thp, theo mc tiu
cht lng t ra, :
nh gi hin trng cht lng nc khu vc/a phng;
nh gi din bin cht lng mi trng nc theo thi gian;
Cnh bo sm cc hin tng nhim ngun nc;
Theo cc yu cu khc ca cng tc qun l mi trng v pht trin kinh t.
II.1.2. QA/QC trong lp k hoch/thit k chng trnh
Khi lp k hoch quan trc phi bao hm cc ni dung chnh nh sau:
Xc nh ni dung nhim v t quan trc: a im/trm v, cc thng s cn o
c, cc loi mu cn ly, thi gian thc hin.
Xc nh yu cu v nhn lc tham gia (s lng, lnh vc chuyn mn).
Yu cu v trang thit b.
Lp k hoch ly mu.
Phng php ly mu v phn tch.
Kinh ph cho chng trnh quan trc v QA/QC
Cc vn m bo an ton con ngi, thit b cho cc hot ng quan trc nht
l quan trc trn sng, bao gm:
- Cc bin php, phng tin bo m an ton (ngi v thit b);

- Phng n cu h;
- Lit k nhng vng nc xoy, bi ct ngm trong vng quan trc tu thuyn n
trnh;
- Nhng yu t thi tit bt thng c th xy ra trong thi gian quan trc.
II.1.3. QA/QC trong thit k mng li
Thit k mng li l s la chn a im ly mu, la chn tn sut ly mu, thi
gian ly mu v loi mu cn phi ly. m bo cht lng/kim sot cht lng trong
thit k mng li l lp k hoch ly mu p ng c yu cu mc tiu ca chng
trnh quan trc v phn tch mi trng.
- B tr cn b theo k hoch;
- Din ly mu, a im ly mu;
- Tn sut v thi gian;
- Cc dng ly mu; mu o ti hin trng, mu mang v PTN.
- m bo tnh kh thi v an ton;
La chn vng/im ly mu, la chn tn sut,thi gian ly mu v dng ly mu
cho tng loi nc c trnh by chi tit trong cc tiu chun TCVN 5994-1995
(Hng dn ly nc h ao nhn to), TCVN 5996-1995 (Hng dn ly mu nc
sng v sui), TCVN 5998-1995 (Hng dn ly mu nc thi), TCVN 6000-1995
(Hng dn ly mu nc ngm), ISO 5667-13:1993 (Hng dn ly mu nc, nc
thi v bn) cc trm quan trc nn nghin cu trc khi lp k hoch thit k mng
li bo m tnh khoa hc, phn nh c mc tiu cht lng, p ng nhu cu thng
tin trong cng tc qun l mi trng.
II.2. m bo cht lng v kim sot cht lng ti hin trng
II.2.1. QA/QC trong hot ng ly mu
II.2.1.1. Mc tiu ca chng trnh kim sot cht lng ly mu
Mc tiu chng trnh kim sot cht lng ly mu l:
Cung cp c nhng phng php gim st v pht hin cc sai st do ly mu
v do c cc bin php loi tr cc d liu khng hp l hoc sai lc.
Chng minh c rng cc sai s ly mu c kim sot mt cch thch hp.
Ch ra c cc thay i ca vic ly mu v t truy nguyn cc ngun gc
gy sai s.
Mc tiu ca vic ly mu l ly c mt th tch mu vn chuyn v x l
trong phng th nghim nhm phn tch chnh xc cc thng s cn thit ti v tr ly
mu.
Tu thuc vo mc ch ly mu l phn tch cc ch tiu (thng s) l hc, ho
hc hay vi sinh m la chn phng php ly mu thch hp.
Mu c ly phi i din cho khu vc quan trc v khng gian v thi gian v p
ng c cc yu cu ca chng trnh quan trc v phn tch mi trng.

II.2.1.2. m bo cht lng ly mu
Mt k hoch m bo cht lng ly mu cn phi c thit lp, bao gm:
Cc nhn vin ly mu u c o to v tp hun.
Chun b cng tc thc a chu o: dng c, thit b, ho cht thuc th bo qun
mu phi y v ph hp.
m bo rng cc phng php ly mu u c ph bin ti tt c cc nhn
vin trong nhm quan trc.
m bo rng mi mt bc ly mu hin nay v qu trnh ly mu trc y u
tun theo mt vn bn.
m bo rng dng c ly mu v my mc o c hin trng phi c bo tr
v hiu chun nh k, s sch bo tr cn phi c lu gi.
Quy nh thng nht v nhn dng mu c ly bao gm dn nhn ln tt c cc
mu c ly, trn ghi chp chnh xc ngy thng, a im, thi gian ly mu v tn
ngi ly mu, s m hiu ca mu bng mc khng thm nc.
Quy nh v ghi chp li tt c cc chi tit c lin quan n vic ly mu vo bin
bn/nht k ly mu, nhng iu kin v cc bin ng bt thng t k thut ly mu
thng thng n nhng yu cu c bit.
Quy nh v iu kin, ni cc dng c trnh lm nhim bn mu, lm sch
dng c ly mu, kim tra sch v hiu qu ca dng c (bng cch phn tch mu
trng v mu so snh thch hp).
Quy nh v tin hnh bo qun mu cho tng thng s cht lng nc, trm
tch, ph du, vi sinh vt ... theo cc ch dn trong cc tiu chun tng ng.
Bo m chnh xc ca cc php o, phn tch ngoi hin trng khi cc iu
kin mi trng khng c m bo. Cc thng s hin trng (nhit , m, p
sut...) cn phi ghi chp khi ly mu chuyn i cc gi tr o c v iu kin tiu
chun khi lp bo co, th d: s liu pH phi chuyn v iu kin 25
0
C.
Cn phi m t chi tit:
Qu trnh trao i chi tit cho nhng ngi cha c nhiu kinh nghim vn c
kh nng hon thnh vic ly v x l mu;
Qu trnh chun b thuc th v bo qun;
Hng dn s dng dng c ly mu, my o hin trng ... b xung cho cc ti
liu vn hnh ca nh sn xut;
Phng php chun b mu QC;
Tiu ch kim sot cht lng ( ngha l gii hn chp nhn);
Phng php ly mu v cc ti liu cn phi xem xt thng xuyn v khng c
qu 1 nm/mt ln. Phng php cn phi c ph duyt li theo nh k c bit c
s thay i v thit b hoc con ngi.
Khi ti liu c lu gi trong cc file my tnh, nhng thay i v phng php ly
mu cn phi c phn nh bng cch thay i cc m s my tnh c lin quan.

Nguyn nhn gy ra sai s do ly mu:
Nhng nguyn nhn gy ra sai s do ly mu c th l:
Nhim bn:
Nhim bn do cc thit b ly v cha mu gy ra; do dng c cha mu bn; do s
ly nhim gia cc mu; do cch bo qun, lu kho v b tr vn chuyn mu khng
thch hp.
Tnh khng n nh ca mu:
- Bn cht ca mu
- Tng tc ca mu vi dng c khc
- nh hng ca nhit , nh sng
Ly mu khng chnh xc:
- Quy trnh ly mu khng ph hp,
- Khng tun th ng quy trnh ly mu.
Vn chuyn mu:
- Do thi gian vn chuyn mu qu gii hn cho php,
- Do iu kin vn chuyn khng ph hp.
II.2.2. Kim sot cht lng hin trng
Kim sot cht lng hin trng yu cu phi tin hnh ly cc loi mu trng,
mu p nhm kim tra mc tinh khit ca ho cht dng lm cht bo qun, kim
tra mc nhim bn ca dng c ly, cha mu, giy lc hay cc thit b khc c lin
quan n cng vic thu, bo qun v vn chuyn mu. Mu lp cng c thu nhm
kim tra mc ti lp ca vic ly mu. Thi gian v tn xut ly mu trng, mu p
v mu lp c xc nh khi thit k chng trnh. Ni chung khong 10 ln thu mu,
tin hnh thu 1 ln cc loi mu trng, mu p, mu lp. Cch thc v ngha thu cc
loi mu nh sau:
a, Mu trng dng c cha mu
Ly mt dng c cha mu mt cch ngu nhin, sau np dng c bng nc ct
mang ra hin trng. Mu ny c bo qun, vn chuyn v phn tch cc thng s
trong phng th nghim tng t nh cc mu thng thng. Mu trng loi ny nhm
kim sot s nhim bn do qu trnh ra, bo qun dng c.
b, Mu trng dng c ly mu
Dng nc ct trng hoc vo dng c ly mu. Sau np vo chai cha mu.
Mu c bo qun, vn chuyn v phn tch cc thng s tng t nh mu cn ly.
Mu loi ny nhm kim sot mc nhim trong qu trnh bo qun, s dng dng
c ly mu.
c, Mu trng thit b lc mu

Nu mu nc cn lc ngoi hin trng xc nh cc hp phn ho tan th cc
b lc mu s c ra, bo qun v vn chuyn ngoi hin trng. Tin hnh ly mu
trng dng c lc mu bng cch: cho nc ct hai ln lc qua dng c lc mu. Phn
lc c np vo dng c cha mu v c bo qun vn chuyn v phng th nghim
tng t nh cc mu ly phn tch cc thng s mi trng.
d) Mu trng vn chuyn v mu trng hin trng
Mu trng vn chuyn: cho vo dng c cha mu mt lng nc ct tinh khit
hoc nc kh ion, y kn np, chuyn t phng th nghim ra ngoi hin trng v
c vn chuyn cng vi mu tht. Mu trng vn chuyn dng xc nh s nhim
bn c th xy ra khi x l, vn chuyn v bo qun mu.
Mu trng hin trng: cho vo dng c cha mu mt lng nc ct tinh
khit/nc kh ion v chuyn t phng th nghim ra ngoi hin trng. Ti hin trng
np dng c cha mu c m ra v x l ging nh cc mu tht. Mu trng hin
trng dng xc nh s nhim bn gy ra t cc dng c ly mu, dng c x l
mu (cc loi mng lc) hoc do cc iu kin khc ca mi trng trong qu trnh ly
mu (do bi bc ln chng hn).
C th m t cch thc chun b mu trng theo s nh sau:













Cc thng tin v mu trng hin trng, mu trng vn chuyn cn phi c th
hin trong bo co cng vi mu tht. Khi cc cht gy nhiu c nhn bit cn
phi iu tra tng nguyn nhn v kp thi khc phc.
e) Mu p (mu chia i)
Mu p c thu bng cch chia mt mu thnh 2 hay nhiu mu ging nhau.
Mu ny s dng nh gi cc sai s ngu nhin v h thng do c s thay i trong
thi gian ly v vn chuyn mu v phng th nghim.
f) Mu lp theo thi gian
Ly hai hoc nhiu mu ti mt a im. Mu loi ny nh gi s bin ng
theo thi gian ca cc thng s mi trng trong khu vc.
g) Mu lp theo khng gian
Nc ct tinh khit
Phn A(Gi li trong phng TN) Phn B (Chia lm hai
h )
Mu trng hin trng
(X l nh mu tht)
Mu trng vn chuyn
(Khng x l)

Ly hai hoc nhiu mu cng mt lc trn mt lt ct ngang c xc nh trc
trong thu vc. Mu loi ny dng nh gi s bin ng theo khng gian ca cc
thng s mi trng.
h) Mu chun i chng hin trng:
Mu chun i chng vn chuyn l mt lng nc tinh khit c cha cht phn
tch (cht chun) bit trc nng c chuyn t phng th nghim ra hin trng
sau quay tr v cng vi mu tht. Ti hin trng khng m np y mu. Mu
chun i chng vn chuyn dng xc nh c s nhim bn v s mt mt cht phn
tch c th xy ra khi x l mu, vn chuyn v bo qun mu ng thi cng xc
nh sai s phn tch.
Mu chun i chng hin trng l lng nc tinh khit c cha cht phn tch
(cht chun) bit trc nng c mang t phng th nghim ra ngoi hin trng.
Ti hin trng, np y c m ra v tin hnh x l nh mu tht. Mc ch ca vic
to mu chun i chng hin trng l xc nh s nhim bn hoc s mt mt cht
phn tch xy ra do dng c ly mu, dng c x l mu v nh hng ca iu kin
mi trng trong sut qu trnh ly mu cho v n phng th nghim.
Cc kt qu phn tch mu chun i chng hin trng cn phi c a vo bo
co cng vi mu tht. Khi xy ra s sai lch vi gi tr thc khng c chnh sa s
liu m cn phi tin hnh iu tra v khc phc kp thi.
i) Mu lp hin trng
L hai (hoc nhiu hn) mu c ly ti cng mt v tr, s dng cng mt thit b ly
mu v c cng mt cn b tin hnh, c x l, bo qun, vn chuyn v phn tch
cc thng s trong phng th nghim tng t nh mu tht. Mu QC loi ny c s
dng kim sot chm ca vic ly mu ngoi hin trng.
k) Mu thm
Vic thm cht phn tch (cht chun) bit trc nng vo nc ct hay nc
kh ion cng thi im ly mu ngay ti hin trng xem xt s phn hu cc thng
s k t khi ly mu.
Mu thm c s dng khi bt u mt k thut mi hoc thit b mi bo m
rng phng php hoc thit b l thch hp cho cc mu ang c ly c tnh phc tp
nh vy. Vic thm cht chun vo mu phi do nhng cn b phn tch c kinh nghim
thc hin.
II.2.3. QA/QC trong vn chuyn mu
II.2.3.1. m bo cht lng
Vn chuyn mu: cn phi c quy trnh vn chuyn mu ph hp nhm bo ton
mu v mt s lng v cht lng. Trong quy trnh cn nu r mt s im chnh
nh sau:
- Mu khi vn chuyn phi c nhn (k hiu) trnh nhm ln.
- Th tc sp xp mu nhm trnh v.

- Yu cu trong qu trnh vn chuyn: thi gian vn chuyn v nhit ca mu, yu
cu ny da theo tiu chun (TCVN, ISO) i vi tng thng s quan trc v cch
bo qun mu (bng 2.1).
Bng 2.1. Yu cu khi vn chuyn mu
TT Tn mu Cc yu cu khi vn
chuyn
Ghi ch




- Phng tin vn chuyn: c xc nh trn c s yu cu ca thng s quan trc
(Bng 2.2).
Bng 2.2. Phng tin vn chuyn v ngi chu trch nhim

TT Tn mu Phng tin
vn chuyn
Ngi chu
trch nhim
Thi gian
vn chuyn
Ghi ch




Giao v nhn mu: c th c tin hnh hin trng (nhm hin trng bn giao
cho ngi vn chuyn, v phng th nghim (nhm hin trng hay ngi vn
chuyn bn giao cho phng th nghim)) theo quy trnh vi ni dung c th hin
trong bin bn bn giao:
- H v tn ngi bn giao:
- H v tn ngi nhn:
- Thi gian bn giao:
- S lng mu:
- Tnh trng mu khi bn giao:
- Ghi ch (nhng im bt thng cn quan tm):
Kim tra v loi b cc mu khng t yu cu nh v, bt nt,... v tin hnh
khi phc li cc mu b sai st nu c th.
Khi tip nhn mu, phi bn giao y v s lng, bo m cht lng, ghi chp
r rng v tnh trng mu, nhng sai hng trong qu trnh vn chuyn
II.2.3.2. Kim sot cht lng
kim sot cht lng trong qu trnh vn chuyn mu, mu kim sot cht lng
thng c s dng:
Mu trng vn chuyn: mt mu nh vt liu sch ca i tng nghin cu c
vn chuyn cng vi mu tht trong cng mt mi trng, c bo qun, phn tch cc
thng s trong phng th nghim nh mu tht. Mu QC loi ny c s dng kim
sot s nhim bn trong qu trnh vn chuyn mu.


II.2.4. QA/QC trong o, phn tch ti hin trng
Mt s thng s khng bn nh nhit , pH, DO, cht rn l lng, c cn c
xc nh ti ch hoc ngay sau khi ly mu cng sm cng tt.
Khi o, phn tch ti ch cc thng s khng bn, cn phi ch :
La chn phng php phn tch ph hp khng hoc t b nh hng ca
iu kin bn ngoi hoc to cc iu kin mi trng thch hp (nh phng th nghim
di ng, b tr bung lm vic trn tu ...) bo m kt qu phn tch.
Nhng thay i bt thng khi ly mu
Tnh trng hot ng ca thit b
Ngn nga nhim bn mu:
- o c hin trng: Khi o c cc thng s bng my mc ngoi hin trng (v
d pH, t
o
, mn,...) khng c nhng trc tip cc thit b o vo my ly nc m
phi ly cc mu ph o, sau khi o, mu phi i.
- Chai l cha mu phi c ra sch theo ng yu cu i vi tng thng s.
Khng c tn dng cc loi chai l dng cha ho cht trong phng th nghim
s dng cho vic cha mu.
- Dng c cha mu phi c bo qun trong mi trng sch s, trnh bi, khi v
cc ngun gy nhim khc.
- Cc loi giy lc, b dng c lc phi c ng gi cn thn, bc bng cc cht
liu thch hp.
m bo cc thit b hot ng quan trc ngoi hin trng lm vic chnh xc n
nh, cn phi nh k hiu chun cc thit b ny theo cc quy nh ca nh sn xut.
Tt c h s hiu chun phi c lu gi.
Trong trng hp khng c iu kin hiu chun th phi c cc bin php nhn
bit tnh trng lm vic ca thit b . Th d: so snh thng xuyn gia cc thit b
ging nhau hoc cng loi vi nhau theo mt ch tiu ph hp.
Trc mi t quan trc cn phi kim tra tnh trng hot ng ca thit b.
i vi nhng mu c phn tch ti hin trng (cht rn l lng, c ...) cng
phi tin hnh phn tch mu QC kim sot c cht lng s liu.
II.2.5. Thuc th ho cht bo qun mu
Ton b thuc th v ho cht bo qun mu phi t tinh khit theo yu cu ca
mc phn tch v c nhn dn r rng
Ho cht v thuc th bo qun c th c ong o trc v cho vo cc l nh
hoc ampul v hn kn trnh phi pha ch ngoi hin trng.
II.2.6. Nc ct
Nc ct s dng ngoi hin trng cn phi ch :
Ph hp vi tiu chun,

Khng s dng nc ct cha bit ngun gc,
Khng dng nc ct qu hn.
II.2.7. Dng c cha mu
Dng c cha mu phi c phng phn tch lm sch trc v y np. Nu c
iu kin phi bc giy trng paraphin mng chng bi.
Dng c cha mu phi c kim tra nh k pht hin nhim bn bng cch
ly mu trng hoc thm cht chun nng thp.
Khng c ng mu trong dng c cha mu khng c np y.
Trong nhng trng hp khi phn tch nhy cao phi s dng dng c cha
mu hon ton mi.
II.2.8. Kim sot cht lng v khc phc sai st
Cc k thut kim sot cht lng phi c p dng cho tng mu c ly, cho
mt lot mu v cc o c c thc hin ti hin trng.
Cn c s trao i thng tin gia ngi ly mu v ngi phn tch gii thch
s liu v c bin php khc phc sai st.
S liu v kt qu QC phi c tp hp li thnh bo co.
Lp biu kim sot lp kim sot cht lng s liu (ISO 5667-14). Nu kt
qu phn tch mu QC vt ra ngoi gii hn cho php cn tin hnh cc bin php khc
phc.
II.3. m bo cht lng v kim sot cht lng trong phng th nghim
II.3.1. Cc yu cu chung v nng lc phng th nghim phn tch mi trng
c th cung cp c nhng s liu tin cy, duy tr cc hot ng kim sot cht
lng thng xuyn, mt phng th nghim phn tch mi trng (c nh hoc di ng)
phi p ng c cc yu cu v nng lc qun l v k thut theo chun mc ca
ISO/IEC 17 025: 2002.
Cc yu t quyt nh mc chnh xc v tin cy ca php th do phng th
nghim thc hin, bao gm:
C cu t chc ph hp (ngi qun l v ngi thc hin).
Yu t con ngi lm phn tch (cng tc tp hun, kim tra tay ngh),
Trang thit b; qun l, bo dng, kim chun v hiu chun thit b,
iu kin, vt cht, tin nghi v mi trng,
Qun l mu th,
Phng php phn tch v hiu lc ca phng php,
Cht chun, mu chun,
Nh vy ngoi yu t qun l, con ngi, phng th nghim phi c c s vt cht
tin hnh cc php th c cht lng, tho mn mc tiu cht lng s liu.

Phng th nghim phi tin hnh cc th tc kim sot cht lng, bao gm:
Thng xuyn s dng cht chun c chng nhn trong cc php th,
Tham gia cc chng trnh so snh lin phng hoc th nghim thnh tho,
T chc phn tch mu QC theo k hoch v duy tr thng xuyn .
II.3.2. Qun l mu
Phng th nghim phi t chc vn chuyn, tip nhn, bo qun, lu gi hoc thanh
l mu theo cc quy nh cn thit v thng nht nhm bo m tnh trn vn ca mu
trc v sau khi phn tch theo:
Bo qun mu nc trong thi gian ngn: 4
0
C
Bo qun mu nc trong thi gian di: -20
0
C
Vi cc mu sinh vt, tissue: -20
0
C
Vi mu trm tch: Tu vo i tng phn tch m s dng mu t hay kh.
Nu s dng mu kh phi lm kh mu trong khng kh, nhit phng.
C th bo qun mu bng cch thm ho cht vi nhng lng thch hp. Nhng
ho cht c chn phi khng nh hng n vic kim tra tip theo hoc nh hng
n kt qu.
Ghi chp li tt c cc bc bo qun trong bo co kt qu.
II.3.3. La chn v cng nhn phng php phn tch
Phng th nghim phi s dng nhng tiu chun/phng php ph hp vi thit b
sn c nhng phi p ng cc mc tiu cht lng v theo cc vn sau:
Thng s phn tch,
Yu cu gii hn pht hin,
chnh xc ca phng php ( chnh xc, chun xc),
Yu cu v kh nng so snh s liu,
S ph hp ca phng php vi cc iu kin phng th nghim.
Phng th nghim phi tin hnh cc th tc chp nhn/ph duyt phng php
II.3.4. Kim sot cht lng
Kim sot cht lng bng mu QC
Mu QC phng th nghim dng nh gi hiu qu ca phng php trong phng
th nghim v mu QC hin trng nh gi cht lng tng hp ca qu trnh thu
mu ngoi hin trng v phng php trong phng th nghim.
Cc kt qu mu trng hin trng c so snh vi cc kt qu mu trng phng
th nghim phn bit s nhim bn ngoi hin trng v s nhim bn trong phng
th nghim.
Mu thm hin trng c so snh vi mu thm phng th nghim phn bit
cc vn bo qun v vn chuyn mu ngoi hin trng v cc vn bo qun mu
trong phng th nghim.

Mu lp ngoi hin trng c so snh vi mu lp trong phng th nghim
phn bit chun xc ca vic thu mu ngoi hin trng vi chun xc ca phn
tch trong phng th nghim.
kim sot cht lng s liu, phng th nghim phi duy tr phn tch mu QC,
bao gm:
Mu trng thit b (Blanks): s dng nc ct lm mu trng nhm nh gi
nhiu ca thit b v xc nh gii hn pht hin ca thit b. Gii hn pht hin ca thit
b theo quy nh bng 3 ln nhiu ng nn.
Mu trng phng php (Method Blanks): s dng nc ct + cc cht chun b
mu (ho cht to mi trng, ho cht che, thuc th hin mu ...) nhng khng c
cht nh phn tch. Mu trng phng php nh gi gi hn pht hin ca phng
php, nh gi mc tinh khit ca ho cht s dng.
Mu lp (Replcates/Duplicates): Do tnh phc tp ca cc phng php phn tch
mu nc nn ta khng th lm c tt c mu lp nh gi lch chun cng nh
khng m bo ca php o. Nn nh cp trn chng ta ch lm mt s mu
lp/mu p cho mt nhm mu (1520 mu) nh gi tp trung ca php th.
Chun thm tra (Control Standards)
Chun so snh (Refrence Standards)
Mu chun i chng (CRMs): Vi mi trng nc, mu chun i chng thng
thng l cc mu ly ti hin trng hoc cc mu t to c thnh phn phc tp nh
ngoi mi trng, c a n nhiu phng th nghim c uy tn xc nh gi tr
trung bnh v khong tin cy. Mu chun i chng c lm song song vi mu thc.
Cn c vo khong tin cy cho php ta nh gi kt qu phn tch mu thc. S liu
phn tch mu chun i chng cn phi lu trong h s di dng biu kim tra
nh gi hiu qu cng nh sai s h thng ca phng php.
Mu ng hnh (Surrogate Compounds): mu ng hnh l cc mu c c im
nh mu tht, cc cht phn tch trong cng c tnh cht vt l ho hc tng t vi
cc cht trong mu tht nhng li khng c trong t nhin, hoc s dng cc cht ng
v phng x trong thnh phn nguyn t ca cc cht phn tch (
14
C,
37
Cl...). Mu ng
hnh thng s dng khi phn tch cc hp cht hu c nh PAHs, thuc tr su.
Kt qu thc hin phn tch mu QC c i km vi s liu chng trnh quan trc
v phn tch mi trng v trnh by nh bng sau:
Mu Kt qu
Mu trng thit b:
Mu trng phng php:
Chun thm tra:
Mu No.1:
Mu No.2:
............
Mu No.n :
Mu lp No.2:
Mu lp No.m (m n)
Mu trng phng php:

CRM/Mu ng hnh:
Chun so snh:

II.4. QA/QC trong tnh ton kt qu, ghi chp s liu phn tch
Cc kt qu phn tch trc khi ghi chp vo s phi c kim tra i chiu vi cc s
sch gc nh: nht k thc a, s ghi kt qu phn tch. Vic kim tra c thc hin
bi t nht 1 ngi c trch nhim trong phng th nghim. Kt qu phn tch c ghi
vo biu kt qu phi cha ng c mt s thng tin quan trng di y:
Ngy thng phn tch, phng php phn tch.
K hiu mu phn tch.
K hiu v kt qu phn tch ca mu kim tra.
Cc gii hn kim tra v cnh bo.
Cc sc , th (nu c).
H tn ngi phn tch, ngi tnh ton v ngi kim tra.
Sau khi s liu c i chiu, kim tra, lc mi c gi tr v c s dng vo cc
mc ch khc nhau.
II.5. QA/QC trong bo co kt qu
Bn bo co kt qu phn tch m bo cht lng phi bao gm cc thng tin sau:
- Tiu
- Tn, a ch phng th nghim tin hnh phn tch
- Tn, a ch khch hng
- Ngy, thng ly mu
- Ngy, gi phn tch
- K hiu mu.
- Tnh trng mu khi a vo phn tch
- Phng php phn tch s dng
- Sai s cho php
- Kt qu phn tch mu trng thit b, mu trng phng th nghim, mu p v mu
lp
- Kt qu phn tch mu



Ti liu tham kho

1. APHA, Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 19th
Edition, 1995
2. Britsh Columbia Field Sampling Manual, 1996 Edition
3. Canadian Executive Agency, CPMS-II, Pollution Monitoring and Baseline
Studies- Environmental Monitoring Workbook 1997.
4. EPA Standard Methods, CD-ROM, Revision 1, July 1992
5. ISO 5667-14:1998, Water Quality- Sampling, Part 14: Guidance on Quality
Assurance of Enviromental Water Sampling and Handling
6. IUPAC, ISO, AOAC, Harmonised Guidlines for Internal Quality Control in
Analitycal Chemistry Laboratory, 1994
7. Jame P.Dux,Quality Assurance for the Anlytical Chemistry Laboratory, 2d
Edition, Van Nostrand Reihold, 1991
8. Lawrence H.K. et all, Principles of Environmental Analysis, Ana.Chem, 1983,
55, 2210-2218
9. TCVN 5993-1995, Cht lng nc-Hng dn bo qun v x l mu
10. TCVN 5994-1995, Cht lng nc-Hng dn ly mu h ao t nhin nhn
to
11. TCVN 5996-1995, Cht lng nc-Hng dn ly mu nc sng v sui
12. TCVN 5998-1995, Cht lng nc-Hng dn ly mu nc thi
13. UN/ECE Task Force on Monitoring & Assessment, Guidelines on Water-Quality
monitoring and Assessment of Tranboudary Rivers, May 1996
14. UN/ECE Task Force on Monitoring & Assessment, Volumn 4: Quality
Assurance, Jaunuary 1996
15. Villars M.T. Monitoring water quality in the future, Executive summary, Deft, the
netherlands, May 1995.














Ph lc 1: H thng qun l cht lng phng th nghim

H thng qun l cht lng ca phng th nghim/ hiu chun c quy nh
trong ISO/IEC 17025: 1999 gm hai nhm yu cu ln: cc yu cu v qun l v cc
yu cu v k thut.
Cc yu cu v qun l bao gm:
1. T chc.
2. H thng cht lng.
3. Kim sot ti liu.
4. Xem xt cc yu cu, ngh v hp ng.
5. Hp ng ph v th nghim v hiu chun.
6. Cc dch v mua sm v ngun cung cp.
7. Dch v i vi khch hng.
8. Phn nn (hay kin ngh).
9. Kim sot vic th nghim v/hoc hiu chun khng ph hp.
10. Bin php khc phc.
11. Bin php phng nga.
12. Kim sot h s.
13. nh gi ni b.
14. Xem xt ca lnh o.
Cc yu cu v k thut bao gm:
1. Yu cu chung.
2. Nhn s.
3. Tin nghi v iu kin mi trng.
4. Phng php th nghim, hiu chun v ph duyt phng php.
5. Thit b.
6. Tnh lin kt chun o lng.
7. Ly mu.
8. Qun l mu th nghim, hiu chun.
9. m bo cht lng kt qu th nghim v hiu chun
10. Bo co kt qu.

Di y hng dn thc hin mt s vn then cht trong hot ng QA/QC
ca phng th nghim.

I. T chc v qun l phng th nghim


t chc v qun l tt phng th nghim, cn thc hin mt s yu cu sau:

a/ Xc nh r c cu t chc ca PTN trong t chc m PTN trc thuc. Phn
nh r nhim v, trch nhim ca tng cn b, nhn vin trong PTN. Xc nh c th
ngi l "cn b qun l k thut" chu trch nhim v cc hot ng k thut v ngi
l "cn b qun l cht lng" chu trch nhim m bo cho cc yu cu c quy
nh trong h thng cht lng c tun th v thc hin y .

b/ Phng th nghim phi thit lp mt h thng cht lng c th hin bng h
thng cc vn bn, ti liu, gi chung l "h thng ti liu cht lng". H thng ti liu
cht lng ny bao gm: S tay cht lng; cc quy nh, th tc iu hnh nhng hot
ng, qu trnh c tnh cht chung ca phng th nghim; cc quy nh, ti liu c tnh
cht ch dn cng vic c th.

C th hnh dung h thng ti liu cht lng trn bng s kim t thp di
y. trn cng l S tay cht lng, cng mc di, s lng vn bn, ti liu cng
yu cu nhiu hn.















c/ PTN phi nh k tin hnh vic nh gi ni b theo cc thi hn (thng l 1
nm) v th tc nh kim tra xem hot ng ca phng th nghim c lin tc
tun th cc yu cu ca h thng cht lng hay khng. Cn b qun l cht lng c
trch nhim lp k hoch v t chc nh gi theo chng trnh nh.
Khi vic nh gi pht hin ra nhng nghi ng v hiu qu ca cc hot ng
hoc v s ng n ca cc kt qu phn tch, o, th, phng th nghim phi tin hnh
cc hot ng khc phc kp thi, phi thng bo bng vn bn cho cc c s c lin
quan bit v nhng sai st ny hiu chnh chng.

d/ Lnh o phng th nghim phi nh k, thng l 1 nm, xem xt li h
thng qun l cht lng v cc hot ng phn tch, o, th ca phng th nghim
m bo s ph hp lin tc v tnh hiu qu ca chng v a ra nhng thay i
hoc ci tin cn thit.
Cc th
tc iu hnh
Cc ch dn
cng vic c th
S tay
cht lng


II. Cc phng php phn tch, o th.

Yu cu chung l PTN phi s dng cc phng php v th tc ph hp vi
nhng yu cu c xc nh trong cc chng trnh quan trc v ph hp vi cc
php phn tch, o, th thuc phm vi hot ng ca PTN, bao gm c vic ly mu, x
l, vn chuyn, lu kho v chun b mu.

a/ Chn la phng php

Tt nht l s dng cc phng php tiu chun ho, l cc tiu chun quc
t, tiu chun vng, tiu chun quc gia. Phi s dng nhng n phm mi nht ca cc
tiu chun. Khi cn thit, PTN phi hiu chnh cc tiu chun ny bng nhng chi tit b
sung m bo s p dng thch hp.

PTN cng c th chn cc phng php thch hp c cng b trong cc tp
ch, cc sch khoa hc. Cc phng php ni b (do PTN t xy dng) cng c th c
s dng nu ph hp vi yu cu quy nh v phi c th hin thnh vn bn, c
ph duyt theo th tc quy nh. i vi cc phng php cha c tiu chun ho ny
cn phi c s tho thun ca c quan qun l chng trnh quan trc. S tho thun ny
c th hin bng mt vn bn quy nh r rng v cc yu cu v mc ch ca php
phn tch, o, th.

b/ Ph duyt phng php

PTN phi kim tra li cc phng php tiu chun, khng tiu chun v cc
phng php mi khng nh cc phng php ny l ph hp vi mc ch s dng.
































Hnh 1. Hot ng QA/QC trong phng th nghim

Mc tiu cht lng
La chn phng php
Xy dng phng php
Bin son phng
h
Chp nhn phng php
- Kim tra hiu qu
- nh gi hiu qu
Kim sot cht lng
(bao gm bo tr thit b)
Sot xt/chp nhn li
- Kim tra hiu qu
- nh gi hiu qu
Tt Khng tt
Tt Khng tt

Phi ghi li cc kt qu ca vic ph duyt v th tc thc hin vic ph duyt ny.
Vic ph duyt phi da trn cc thng s ca cc k thut phn tch c chn. Cc
thng s v kt qu ph duyt phi c th hin bng vn bn v phi c lu tr.

S ph hp ca phng php c th kim tra bng cch so snh vi cc yu cu
c trng cho vic s dng nh nh khng m bo ca kt qu, gii hn pht
hin, chn lc ca phng php, tuyn tnh, gii hn lp li hoc ti lp,
kh nng chng li cc nh hng bn ngoi ...

Cc k thut c s dng ph duyt mt phng php c th l mt hoc mt
s trong cc cch sau: s dng cc chun o lng hoc mu chun; so snh kt qu vi
cc phng php khc; so snh lin phng; nh gi mt cch h thng nhng yu t
nh hng n kt qu; nh gi khng m bo ca kt qu da trn hiu bit khoa
hc v cc nguyn tc l thuyt ca phng php v kinh nghim thc t.

c/ nh gi khng m bo

PTN phi c th tc nh gi khng m bo ca tt c cc php phn tch,
o, th.

Phi quan tm n tt c cc yu t gp phn vo khng m bo. Cc yu t
l:
- Cc chun chnh, mu chun v trang thit b s dng;
- Phng php phn tch, o th c la chn;
- iu kin mi trng;
- c tnh ca i tng phn tch, o, th;
- Ngi thao tc.
Ti liu c bn nh gi, trnh by khng m bo o hin nay l
ISO/TAG4/WG3 "Guide to expression of uncertainty in measurement", 1993 v b tiu
chun ISO 5725: 1994: chnh xc ( chnh xc v chm) ca phng php o v
kt qu o (ISO 5725: 1994 Accuracy (truness and precsion) of measurement methods
and results).

III. Trang thit b

a/ Trang thit b ca phng th nghim phi p ng cc yu cu ca tiu chun
hoc phng php tng ng.

b/ Trang thit b phi c nh du, dn nhn phn bit v nhn dng c
d dng, trong phn nh c tnh trng hiu chun, kim nh v thi hn hiu
chun, kim nh tip theo ca n.

Phi duy tr v lu gi h s ca tng loi trang thit b.

c/ Phi thit lp cc th tc bo dng v thc hin vic bo dng trang thit b
thng xuyn hay nh k.

Trang thit b sai hng phi c dn nhn phn bit vi cc trang thit b
bnh thng. Phi ngng s dng n cho n khi sa cha, hiu chnh xong v vic hiu
chun hoc kim nh sau chng minh thit b hot ng tt.

Khi v l do no , trang thit b vt ra ngoi phm vi kim sot trc tip ca
PTN trong mt thi gian nht nh, PTN phi tin hnh kim tra m bo rng thit
b vn tt trc khi a vo hot ng tr li trong PTN.

d/ Phi m bo tnh lin kt chun o lng ca tt c cc trang thit b ca
phng th nghim.

Thc cht ca yu cu m bo tnh lin kt chun chnh l vic thc hin mt
chui php hiu chun k tip nhau i vi tt c trang thit b ca PTN, lm cho cc
trang thit b ny u c so snh (trc tip hay gin tip), v tip l hiu chnh,
theo h thng chun o lng quc gia hay quc t, t m bo cho trang thit b o,
th, phn tch lun tin cy v chnh xc. C th phng th nghim phi thc hin mt s
vic sau:

+ PTN phi xy dng v thc hin chng trnh hiu chun cho tt c cc trang
thit b c nh hng r rt n gi tr v chnh xc ca cc kt qu phn tch, o, th
trc khi a chng vo s dng cng nh trong sut qu trnh s dng chng. Chng
trnh hiu chun phi bao gm c cc phng tin o dng cho cc php o ph tr, v
d o cc iu kin mi trng.
+ i vi nhng trang thit b khng th thc hin c vic hiu chun nu trn,
PTN c th p dng cc bin php sau:
- Tham gia mt chng trnh so snh lin phng hoc th nghim thnh tho
c bng chng v s ph hp ca cc trang thit b lin quan.

- S dng cc mu chun m cc gi tr v thnh phn v tnh cht ca n
c chng nhn kim tra trang thit b.

- S dng cc chun hoc cc phng php c cc bn lin quan tho thun.

IV. Tin nghi v iu kin mi trng

a/ Yu cu chung l tin nghi ca PTN, bao gm c cc iu kin v mi trng,
chiu sng v cc ngun nng lng, phi ph hp c th d dng thc hin mt cch
ng n cc php phn tch, o, th theo yu cu. Cn c s quan tm c bit khi vic
ly mu, hoc vic phn tch, o, th c thc hin nhng ni ngoi a im c
nh ca PTN. Phi quy nh thnh vn bn cc yu cu i vi cc tin nghi v iu
kin mi trng c th nh hng n kt qu phn tch, o, th.
b/ PTN phi c cc th tc v thc hin vic gim st, kim tra chc chn rng
mi trng khng tc ng xu ti vic ly mu; vic tin hnh phn tch, o, th. Vic
thc hin cc php phn tch phi c dng li khi cc iu kin mi trng khng ph
hp. Cn c bit kim sot s ph hp vi cc yu cu ca cc yu t nh s v trng

v mt sinh hc, bi bn, nhng tn hiu in t gy nhiu, cht phng x, vic cung
ng in, nhit , m, rung ng, ting n v.v...

c/ Trng hp c nhng hot ng nh hng ln nhau, PTN phi phn lp mt
cch c hiu qu nhng khu vc ny trnh nhng nh hng xu qua li.

d/ PTN phi thc hin s kim sot i vi vic s dng v ra vo phng th
nghim m khng c nhim v hn ch nhng nh hng xu n kt qu phn tch,
c bit l nhng ni c nh hng trc tip n cht lng cc php phn tch.

V. Nhn s

a/ Ban lnh o PTN phi m bo rng tt c k thut vin vn hnh trang thit b
c trnh v nng lc cn thit. Trong PTN cc k thut vin cn thng xuyn
c nng cao trnh p ng yu cu thc t.
b/ Nhim v ca cn b lnh o v k thut vin phi c phn cng r rng v
c th hin bng vn bn.

VI. Qun l mu phn tch, o, th

a/ PTN phi c cc th tc thch hp cho vic qun l mu i vi tng thng s.
b/ PTN phi c cc cch nhn dng v phn bit mu. Nhng k hiu nhn
dng phi c duy tr trong sut thi gian tn ti ca mu trong PTN m bo
khng gy ra s nhm ln cc mu khi phn tch o, th khi lun chuyn, k c khi a
vo h s, ti liu.

c/ Khi tip nhn mu, PTN phi ghi li mi s khng bnh thng hoc sai lch
so vi s m t trong cc phng php phn tch, o, th m PTN s dng; phi tham
kho kin ca cc b phn lin quan h cho cc hng dn c th khi c s nghi
ng v s ph hp ca mu.

d/ PTN phi c cc th tc v tin nghi phng trnh cc h hng i vi mu
trong qu trnh lu gi, x l, chun b v tin hnh phn tch, o, th. Phi tun th cc
hng dn km theo mu.

VII. m bo cht lng cc kt qu phn tch
PTN phi m bo cht lng kt qu phn tch bng cch theo di lin tc cc
kt qu. Vic theo di phi c lp thnh k hoch v c th bao gm cc cch sau:
Cc s kim tra cht lng ni b bng cch s dng k thut thng k.
Tham gia cc chng trnh so snh lin phng hoc th nghim thnh tho.
S dng u n cc mu chun c chng nhn.
Ti to li cc php phn tch bng cc phng php ging hoc khc nhau.
Phn tch nghim li cc mu c lu gi.

Xem xt s tng quan gia kt qu vi cc c trng khc nhau ca mu.
VIII. Kim sot cht lng trong phng th nghim
QC phng th nghim chnh l mt chng trnh nh gi an xen vo cc hot
ng ti hin trng v trong phng th nghim nh gi chnh xc v ng
n ca cc php phn tch o th (gi vn tt l cc php o).
Cc qu trnh QC c thc hin bng vic phn tch u n mu kim sot cht
lng (mu QC) sau khi mt phng php c chng minh l thch hp cho vic s
dng thng qua s ph duyt phng php.
Cc mu QC c dng trong phn tch mi trng gm hai loi: mu QC phng
th nghim v mu QC hin trng.








Mu QC hin trng xem mc 1.4

1. Mu QC phng th nghim

Mu QC phng th nghim gm hai loi: mu QC phng php v mu QC thit
b.










Mu QC thit b

Cc mu QC thit b dng nh gi v kim tra cht lng ca kt qu do thit
b mang li. Mu QC thit b bao gm: chun kim sot (control standard); chun thm
tra (verification standard); mu trng thit b (instrument blank).





Mu QC hin trng
Mu QC
Mu QC phng th nghim
Mu QC
phng th nghim
Mu QC phng php Mu QC thit b
Mu QC thit b







+ Mu trng thit b: mt mu nh dung mi, thng l nc ct, c cho trc
tip vo thit b o s nhim do thit b gy ra. Mu ny thng dng nh gi
n nh v nhiu ca thit b.

+ Chun kim sot: l chun dng kim tra chnh xc ca cc chun c
dng chun ho thit b.

+ Chun thm tra: l chun theo di n nh ca thit b theo thi gian.

Mu QC phng php:

Mu QC phng php dng nh gi cht lng tt c tnh nng s dng ca
phng php trong phng th nghim. Mu QC phng php phng th nghim gm:
mu trng phng php, mu lp phng th nghim, mu thm phng php, mu chun
c chng nhn.











Mu trng phng php: L mu bng vt liu sch c tri qua cc bc x l
ging nh vi mu phn tch, o, th. Mu ny c dng nh gi s nhim to
ra trong ton b mt th tc phn tch, o, th.

Mu lp phng th nghim: Hai hoc nhiu hn cc phn ca cng mt mu t
nhin c chun b v phn tch ring r bng cng mt phng php. Mu ny dng
nh gi tp trung ca kt qu phn tch , o, th trong phng th nghim.

Mu thm phng php: Mu, vt liu sch hoc thuc th c cho thm vo
mt lng bit ca mt hay nhiu yu t phn tch v c x l ging nh khi phn
tch, o, th. Mu thm nh gi mc sai lch gy ra do nh hng ca nn v sai
s ca phng th nghim, cc sai s hiu chun, sai s chun b muv.v...

Mu chun c chng nhn:
Mu QC
phng php
Mu chun c
chng nhn
Mu lp
phng th ghim
Mu thm
phng php
Mu trng
phng php
Chun thm tra Mu trng thit b Chun kim sot


Vic phn tch mu chun trong phng th nghim trc ht l nh gi sai s,
ng, sai s h thng ca phng php c s dng.

2. Tiu ch chp nhn ca kim sot cht lng v bin php khc phc

Kim sot cht lng c thc hin thng qua vic phn tch, o hoc th
nghim mt s loi mu QC nu trn nhn dng cc ngun sai s xc nh. Tuy
nhin kt qu phn tch, o, th cc mu QC s ch c ngha khi a ra c cc gii
hn so snh vi chng. V d khi phn tch mu trng hin trng, mu trng vn
chuyn, mu trng thit b... cn c cc gi tr nh mc thch hp bit mc
nhim gy ra trong qu trnh ly mu, vn chuyn mu, hoc do thit b gy ra cn chp
nhn c hay ti mc nguy him, cn truy tm nguyn nhn loi b n. Hoc khi
hiu chun thit b bng cch so snh vi chun, s xc nh c sai s s ch ca thit
b ny. Nhng cng vi n phi bit sai s cho php ln nht ca thit b l bao nhiu
quyt nh xem c cn hiu chnh a sai s v phm vi cho php hay khng v.v...

Mt v d in hnh l s dng cc "gii hn cnh bo" v "gii hn kim sot".
Nh khi phn tch"mu lp phng th nghim", ta xc nh c lch chun s c
trng cho s phn tn ( tp trung) ca phng php (th tc) phn tch c s dng.
Gii hn cnh bo c ly l 2s v gii hn kim sot c ly l 3s. Gi tr 2s v 3s
gi l gii hn cnh bo v gii hn kim sot trn (k hiu l UWL v UCL). Gi tr -
2s v -3s gi l gii hn cnh bo v gii hn kim sot di (k hiu l LWL v LCL).
Khi s thnh tho ca PTN tng ln, gi tr ca cc gii hn ny s nh xung. Cc gii
hn 2s va 3s ng vi mc tin cy 95,45% v 99,73%. iu ny c ngha l vi 100
php phn tch ta hy vng nhiu nht l ch c 5 php phn tch c gi tr vt qu gii
hn cnh bo v c 300 php phn tch hy vng ch c 1 gi tr vt qu gii hn kim
sot. Vi mt gi tr nn xc nh ta c biu kim sot sau y:













Khi gi tr thu c vt ra khi gii hn cnh bo, ngha l bt u c nhng
vn phi quan tm xem xt v khi gi tr thu c vt qu gii hn kim sot, c
ngha l vn tr nn nghim trng v nguy him. Cc bin php khc phc phi
c ra v thc hin. Bng di y cho mt v d v cc hnh ng khc phc trong
mt tnh hung c th.
UCL 3s
UWL 2s
Nn
LWL
-2s
LCL
-3s


K hoch khc phc cc sai st ca QC

A. Cc gi thit:
1. Trung bnh c 1 trong 20 im o vt qu gii hn cnh bo (WL) 2 lch
chun (2SD) v 1 trong 300 im o vt qu gii hn kim sot (CL) 3 lch
chun (3SD).
2. ng trung tm l x ln gii hn pht hin ca phng php (MDL) vi x t
nht l 20 ln MDL.
3. Tiu chun v cc hnh ng x l p dng cho cc im o nm trn v di
gii hn ca tham s v khng p dng nu cc im o nm trn hai cn ca
tham s.

B. Bin php khc phc

Tham s thng k Tiu chun Hnh ng
Gii hn kim sot
(CL) l 3SD (3s)
1. Mt im o vt qu CL
2.a. Cc php phn tch lp li < CL
2.b. Cc php phn tch lp li > CL
1. Lp li php phn tch
2.a. Tip tc phn tch
2. b. Dng li v hiu chnh
Gii hn cnh bo
(WL) l 2SD (2s)
1. 2 hoc 3 im o > WL
2.a. im o tip theo < WL 2. b.
im o tip theo > WL
1. Phn tch mu khc
2. a. Tip tc phn tch
2. b. Dng liv hiu chnh
lch chun (SD) 1. 4 hoc 5 im o > 1 SD
2.a. im o tip theo < 1SD
2.b. im o tip theo > 1SD
1. Phn tch mu khc
2. a. Tip tc phn tch
2.b.Dng li v hiu chnh
ng trung tm
(CTL)

1. im o trn CTL
2.a. im o tip theo di CTL
2.b. im o tip theo trn CTL
1. Phn tch mu khc
2. a. Tip tc phn tch
2. b. Dng li v hiu chnh

C. Sau khi tin hnh cc hot ng khc phc

Phn tch li mt na s mu nm gia im cui cng trong gii hn kim sot
v im ngoi cng ngoi gii hn kim sot.

IX. So snh lin phng th nghim v th nghim thnh tho

Mt trong cc bin php kim sot cht lng PTN c hiu qu l vic t chc v
tham gia so snh lin PTN v th nghim thnh tho.

* So snh lin phng th nghim (Interlaboratory compairison)
L vic t chc v thc hin nh gi cc php phn tch i vi cc mu hoc vt
liu th hon ton ging nhau hoc tng t nhau bi hai hay nhiu PTN theo s tho
thun vi nhng iu kin c xc nh.


So snh lin PTN nhm cc mc ch: xc nh nng lc ca PTN i vi cc php
phn tch, o, th nghim; kim tra s tng thch v nht qun ca s liu i vi tng
c nhn k thut vin ca PTN; thit lp cc phng php phn tch; o, th mi; gii
quyt s khc nhau gia cc PTN; xc nh gi tr cc mu chun c chng nhn
v.v...

* Th nghim thnh tho (proficiency testing)

L vic xc nh cht lng thc hin vic phn tch bng cch so snh lin PTN.

Mc ch ca vic th nghim thnh tho chnh l nhm xc nh nng lc ca
PTN i vi cc php phn tch do cc PTN cng b.

Th nghim thnh tho c thc hin bng chng trnh th nghim lin PTN.

* Chng trnh th nghim lin PTN (interlaboratory testing programmes)

L vic so snh lin PTN trong cc mu ca mt vt liu th ng nht c
phn pht thc hin cc php phn tch thch hp ti cc PTN tham gia.


















Ph lc 2. X l s liu theo phn b chun
(phn b Gauss)
1. lch chun ca phng php bit
Kt qu ca php o 1 ln c trnh by nh sau:
Q= X ts; vi P = 95%
Trong : Q l gi tr thc ca i lng;
X l gi tr thu c t php o 1 ln, c coi l kt qu o (l gi tr
ca i lng o);
P l xc sut (mc tin cy);
t l h s ph thuc P (bng 1 v bng 2 ca ph lc).
iu trn c ngha l vi xc sut tin cy P chn, sai s ca kt qu o (X)
nm trong gii hn ts, cng c ngha l gi tr thc Q ca i lng s nm trong
khong t X - ts n X + ts. Trng hp P c ly bng 95% (0,95), khi h s t = 2,
c ngha l nu ta tin hnh 100 php o theo phng php y s hy vng ch c 5 ln
o c sai s vt ra ngoi gii hn 2s. Chn P bng bao nhiu l tu thuc vo yu
cu c th.
V d: Sai s ca php o mt ln c th bng bao nhiu nu phng php o
cho c s =0,01 n v v c 100 ln o th trung bnh c 5 ln sai s vt qu gii hn
quy nh. Bi ton ny cng c ngha l tm gii hn sai s ca php o vi s =0,01 v
v P = 95%.
Bng 2 Ph lc I phn b chun cho ng vi P=95%, ta c t=2. Sai s ca php
o 1 ln trong trng hp ny l:
ts = 2 x 0.01v = 0,02 v
2. Trng hp cha bit lch chun s ca phng php
Thc hin n ln o (th, phn tch) lin tip cng mt i lng. Tnh gi tr
trung bnh cng ( x ) v lch chun thc nghim nh sau:
x
n
x
n
n
x x x
n
i
i
=
=
+ +
=
1
2 1
...

trong : x
1
, x
2
....x
n
l gi tr thu c tng ln o;
n l s ln o lp li.

= s
( )
1
1
2

=
n
x x
n
i
i

Gi tr trung bnh x c ly lm kt qu o. lch chun s c trng cho s
phn tn ca cc gi tr o ring r x
i
xung quanh gi tr trung bnh x . Gi tr s ln c
ngha l cc gi tr o ring r x
i
phn tn nhiu quanh x , tc php o c tp trung
thp v ngc li.
Kt qu ca php o c trnh by nh sau:

Q = x s
n
t
s
Vi P = ....
Trong : Q l gi tr thc ca i lng;
x l gi tr trung bnh;
t
s
l h s ph thuc s ln o lp n v xc sut tin cy P chn c tra
theo bng 1 v bng 2 phn b Student (ph lc)
s l lch chun thc nghim;
P l xc sut tin cy.
iu trn c ngha l vi xc sut tin cy P chn sai s ca kt qu o ( x )
nm trong gii hn

s
n
t
s
, c ngha l gi tr thc ca i lng s nm t

s
n
t
x
s
n

+ s
n
t
x
s
.
V d: xc nh chnh xc khi lng mt mu th, ta cn lin tip 6 ln mu
, c cc kt qu sau (n v g):
72,631 72,344
72,357 72,346
73,352 72,340
Khi lng thc ca mu bng bao nhiu vi xc xut tin cy l 99%.
Tnh: x =
6
i
x
= 72,350 g
= s
( )
1 6
350 , 72
1
2

=
n
i
i
x
8,06 x 10
-3
g
Tra bng 1 ph lc I, ng vi n = 6 v P = 99%, c t
s
= 4,03. Ta c:
s
n
t
s
= g x g x x
3 3
10 13 10 86 , 0
6
03 , 4


Kt qu o cui cng c th hin l:
m =(72,350 0,013)g, vi P = 99%
3. Lm trn s
Khi lm trn tr s ca kt qu o, ngi ta cn c vo bc c ngha ca sai s. Tr
s ca kt qu o phi tn cng bng con s cng bc vi tr s ca sai s. V d, khi sai
s l 5, con s tn cng s l con s ng vi hng n v, khi sai s l 0,02, con s
tn cng s l s l phn trm...
lm trn s, p dng cc quy tc sau y:
a. Nu k tip con s cui cng cn li khi quy trn l cc con s nh hn 5 th
khi quy trn, con s cui cng s khng thay i (quy trn xung hay gim).
V d:
2,12 2,1
6,343 6,34

b. Nu k tip con s cui cng cn li khi quy trn l cc con s ln hn 5 th
khi quy trn, con s cui cng s tng thm 1 (quy trn ln hay quy trn tng).
V d: 3,14159 3,1416
8,248 8,25
c. Nu k tip con s cui cng cn li khi quy trn l con s 5 v sau con s 5
c t nht mt con s khc khng th khi quy trn con s cui cng s tng thm 1
(quy trn tng).
V d:
4,3501 4,4
d. Nu k tip con s cui cng cn li khi quy trn l con s 5 v bit r con s
5 ny c quy trn nh th no th con s 5 s c quy trn xung theo quy tc
a nu nh n c quy trn ln v s c quy trn ln theo quy tc b nu nh n
c quy trn xung.
V d: 6,3149 c quy trn thnh 6,315 nu tip tc s c quy trn thnh
6,31.
4,1852 quy trn thnh 4,185, nu tip tc s quy thnh 4,19.
e. Nu k tip con s cui cng cn li khi quy trn l con s ng 5 (sau n ch
ton l s 0) th c th tu quy trn ln hay quy trn xung. Nhng nu cn s dng s
quy trn trong khi tnh ton th nn quy trn nh th no con s cui cng l con s
chn. Nh vy, con s cui cng s khng thay i nu n l con s chn v s
tng thm 1 nu n l con s l (quy tc s chn).
V d:
062 0 0625 0
16
1
, , =

8 0 75 0
4
3
, , =
f. Nu k tip con s cui cng cn li khi quy trn l con s 5 nhng khng
bit n l con s ng 5 hay c quy trn, th xem con s 5 l con s ng v
quy trn theo quy tc e.
4. Loi b kt qu o bt thng
Kt qu ca mt ln o ring r trong dy n php o cng mt i lng c coi
l bt thng nu n lch mt cch ng k so vi nhng gi tr cn li. Bng phn b
chun v phn b Student cho thy xc sut a = 1 - P mt kt qu o ring r lch so
vi gi tr trung bnh 3s hoc 4s l rt nh ( a ng vi x
i
- x > 3s l 0,3% v ng vi
x
i
- x > 4s l 0,01% ). Vy c kt qu no lch vi x qu gii hn 3s hoc 4s (tu
theo P c chn) c th coi l mc sai s th v loi b chng trong qu trnh x l kt
qu o.








Bng 1

Gi tr tch phn xc sut dt e ) t (
t t

=
0
2
2
2
2
theo cc gi tr t cho trc


t F(t) t F(t) t F(t) t F(t)
0,00
0,05
0,10
0,15
0,20
0,25
0,30
0,35
0,40
0,45
0,55
0,60
0,55
0,65
0,60
0,75
0,80
0,85
0,90
0,0000
0,0399
0,0797
0,1192
0,1585
0,1974
0,2358
0,2737
0,3108
0,3473
0,3829
0,4177
0,4515
0,4843
0,5161
0,5467
0,5763
0,6047
0,6319
0,95
1,00
1,05
1,10
1,15
1,20
1,25
1,30
1,35
1,40
1,45
1,50
1,55
1,60
1,65
1,70
1,75
1,80

0,6579
0,6827
0,7063
0,7287
0,7499
0,7699
0,7887
0,8064
0,8230
0,8385
0,8529
0,8664
0,8798
0,8904
0,9011
0,9109
0,9199
0.9281
1,85
1,90
1,95
2,00
2,05
2,10
2,15
2,20
2,25
2,30
2,35
2,40
2,45
2,50
2,55
2,60
2,65
2,70

0,9357
0,9426
0,9488
0,9545
0,9596
0,9643
0,9684
0,9722
0,9756
0,9786
0,9812
0,9836
0,9857
0,9876
0,9892
0,9907
0,9920
0,9931

2,75
2,80
2,85
2,90
2,95
3,0
3,1
3,2
3,3
3,4
3,5
3,6
3,7
3,8
3,9
4,0
4,,5
5,0
0,9940
0,9949
0,9956
0,9963
0,9968
0,99730
0,99806
0,99862
0,99904
0,99932
0,99954
0,99968
0,99978
0,99986
0,99990
0,999936
0,999994
0,9999994
















Bng 2
Gi tr t theo gi tr tch phn xc sut cho trc

F(t) 1- F(t) t F(t) 1- F(t) t
0,50
0,60
0,70
0,75
0,80
0,85
0,90
0,95
0,96
0,97
0,98
0,99
0,991
0,50
0,40
0,30
0,25
0,20
0,15
0,10
0,05
0,04
0,03
0,02
0,01
0,009
0,675
0,842
1,036
1,150
1,282
1,440
1,645
2,960
2,054
2,170
2,326
2,576
2,612
0,992
0,993
0,994
0,995
0,996
0,997
0,998
0,999
0,9995
0,9999
0,99999
0,999999
0,9999999
0,008
0,007
0,006
0,005
0,004
0,003
0,002
0,001
5.10
-4

1.10
-4

1.10
-5
1.10
-6
1.10
-6

2,652
2,697
2,748
2,807
2,878
2,968
3,090
3,219
3,481
3,891
4,417
4,892
5,327

























Bng 3.

Gi tr t
s
ng vi xc sut tin cy P
s
v s ln o n khc nhau

P
s


n

0,5

0,6

0,7

0,8

0,9

0,95

0,98

0,99

0,999


2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20



1,000
0,816
0,765
0,741
0,727
0,718
0,711
0,706
0,703
0,700
0,697
0,665
0,694
0,692
0,691
0,690
0,689
0,688
0,688
0,674

1,376
1,061
0,978
0,941
0,920
0,906
0,896
0,889
0,883
0,879
0,976
0,873
0,870
0,868
0,866
0,865
0,863
0,862
0,861
0,842

1,963
1,336
1,250
1,190
1,156
1,134
1,119
1,108
1,110
1,093
1,088
1,083
1,079
1,076
1,074
1,071
1,069
1,067
1,066
1,036

3,08
1,886
1,638
1,533
1,476
1,440
1,415
1,397
1,383
1,372
1,363
1,356
1,350
1,345
1,341
1,337
1,333
1,330
1,328
2,282

6,31
2,92
2,35
2,13
2,02
1,943
1,895
1,860
1,833
1,812
1,796
1,782
1,771
1,761
1,753
1,746
1,740
1,734
1,729
1,645

12,71
4,30
3,18
2,77
2,57
2,45
2,36
2,31
2,26
2,23
2,20
2,18
2,16
2,14
2,13
2,12
2,11
2,10
2,09
1,960

31,8
6,96
4,54
3,75
3,36
3,14
3,00
2,90
2,82
2,76
2,72
2,68
2,65
2,62
2,60
2,58
2,57
2,55
2,54
2,33

63,7
6,92
5,84
4,60
4,03
3,71
3,50
3,36
3,25
3,17
3,11
3,05
3,01
2,98
2,95
2,92
2,90
2,88
2,86
2,58

636,6
31,6
12,9
8,61
6,86
5,96
5,40
5,04
4,78
4,59
4,49
4,32
4,22
4,14
4,07
4,02
3,96
3,92
3,88
3,29










Bng 4

Gi tr xc sut tin cy P
s
tng ng vi cc gi tr t
s
v n khc nhau

t
s

n

2

2,5

3

3,5

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20


0,705
0,816
0,861
0,884
0,898
0,908
0,914
0,919
0,923
0,927
0,929
0,931
0,933
0,935
0,936
0,937
0,938
0,939
0,940
0,955

0,758
0,870
0,912
0,933
0,946
0,953
0,959
0,963
0,966
0,969
0,970
0,972
0,974
0,974
0,975
0,976
0,977
0,978
0,976
0,988

0,795
0,905
0,942
0,960
0,970
0,976
0,980
0,983
0,985
0,987
0,988
0,989
0,990
0,990
0,991
0,992
0,992
0,992
0,993
0,997

0,823
0,928
0,961
0,975
0,983
0,987
0,990
0,992
0,993
0,994
0,995
0,996
0,996
0,996
0,997
0,997
0,997
0,998
0,998
0,9995