THE SEARCH FOR THE

"MANCHURIAN CANDIDATE"
THE CIA AND MIND CONTROL
John Marks
Allen Lane
Allen Lane
Penguin Books Ltd
17 Grosvenor Gardens
London SW1 OBD
First published in the USA b! "i#es Books$ a division o%
&uadrangle'"he (e) *ork "i#es Book +o$ ,n-$ and
si#ultaneousl! in +anada b! Fit.henr! / Whiteside Ltd$ 1070
First published in Great Britain b! Allen Lane 1070
+op!right 123 4ohn 5arks$ 1070
All rights reserved (o part o% this publi-ation #a! be reprodu-ed$
stored in a retrieval s!ste#$ or trans#itted in an! %or# or b! an!
#eans$ ele-troni-$ #e-hani-al$ photo-op!ing$ re-ording or
other)ise$ )ithout the prior per#ission o% the -op!right o)ner
,SB( 67170 18706
99
Printed in Great Britain b! %
"ho#son Litho Ltd$ :ast ;ilbride$ S-otland 4
For Barbara and Daniel
AUTHOR'S NOTE
"his book has gro)n out o% the 1<$666 pages o% do-u#ents that
the +,A released to #e under the Freedo# o% ,n%or#ation A-t
Without these do-u#ents$ the best investigative reporting in
the )orld -ould not have produ-ed a book$ and the se-rets o%
+,A #ind=-ontrol )ork )ould have re#ained buried %orever$
as the #en )ho kne) the# had al)a!s intended Fro# the
do-u#entar! base$ , )as able to e>pand #! kno)ledge through
intervie)s and readings in the behavioral s-ien-es (everthe=
less$ the %inal result is not the )hole stor! o% the +,A?s atta-k on
the #ind Onl! a %e) insiders -ould have )ritten that$ and the!
-hoose to re#ain silent , have done the best , -an to #ake the
book as a--urate as possible$ but , have been ha#pered b! the
re%usal o% #ost o% the prin-ipal -hara-ters to be intervie)ed
and b! the +,A?s destru-tion in 1077 o% #an! o% the ke! do-u=
#ents
, )ant to e>tend spe-ial thanks to the -ongressional sponsors
o% the Freedo# o% ,n%or#ation A-t , )ould like to think that
the! had #! kind o% resear-h in #ind )hen the! passed into
la) the idea that in%or#ation about the govern#ent belongs to
the people$ not to the bureau-rats , a# also grate%ul to the +,A
o%%i-ials )ho #ade )hat #ust have been a rather unpleasant
de-ision to release the do-u#ents and to those in the Agen-!
)ho )orked on the a-tual #e-hani-s o% release Fro# #! point
o% vie)$ the s!ste# has )orked e>tre#el! )ell
, #ust a-kno)ledge that the s!ste# )orked al#ost not at all
during the %irst si> #onths o% #! three=!ear Freedo# o% ,n%or=
#atlon Struggle "hen in late 107@$ 4oseph Petrilloand "i#oth!
Sullivan$ t)o skilled and energeti- la)!ers )ith the %ir# o%
Fried$ Frank$ Shriver$ Aarris and ;a#pel#an$ entered the
-ase , had the distin-t i#pression that the govern#ent attor=
ne!s took #e #u-h #ore seriousl! )hen #! reBuests %or do-u=
#ents started arriving on stationer! )ith all those pro#inent
partners at the top An author should not need la)!ers to )rite
a book$ but , )ould have had great di%%i-ult! )ithout #ine ,
greatl! appre-iate their assistan-e
What an author does need is editors$ a publisher$ resear-hers$
-onsultants$ and %riends$ and , have been parti-ularl! blessed
)ith good ones 5! ver! dear %riend "a!lor Bran-h edited the
book$ and , -ontinue to be i#pressed )ith his great skill in
#aking #! ideas and language -oherent "a!lor has also
served as #! agent$ and in this -apa-it!$ too$ he has done #e
great servi-e
, had a )onder%ul resear-h tea#$ )ithout )hi-h , never
-ould have si%ted through the #asses o% #aterial and run do)n
leads in so #an! pla-es , thank the# all$ and , )ant to a-=
kno)ledge their -ontributions Diane St +lair )as the #ain=
sta! o% the group She put together a s!ste# %or %iling and -ross=
inde>ing that )orked be!ond all e>pe-tations CSpe-ial thanks
to Newsday's Bob Greene$ )hose suggestions %or organi.ing a
large investigation -a#e to us through the auspi-es o% ,nvesti=
gative Deporters and :ditors$ ,n-E (ot until a )eek be%ore the
book )as %inall! %inished did , %ail to %ind a do-u#ent )hi-h ,
neededF naturall!$ it )as so#ething , had #is%iled #!sel%
Diane also -ontributed greatl! to the +old War -hapter Di-h=
ard Sokolo) #ade si#ilar -ontributions to the 5ushroo# and
Sa%ehouse -hapters Ais )ork )as solid$ and his energ! bound=
less 4a! Peter.ell delved deepl! into Dr +a#eron?s Gdepattern=
ingG )ork in 5ontreal and sta!ed )ith it )hen others #ight
have Buit 4a! also did %irst=rate studies o% brain)ashing and
sensor! deprivation 4i# 5int. and ;en +u##ins provided
e>-ellent assistan-e in the earl! resear-h stage
"he +enter %or (ational Se-urit! Studies$ under #! good
%riend Dobert Borosage$ provided ph!si-al support and re=
sear-h aid$ and , )ould like to e>press #! appre-iation 5!
thanks also to 5orton Aalperin )ho -ontinued the support
)hen he be-a#e dire-tor o% the +enter , also appre-iated the
help o% Penn! Bevis$ Aannah Delane!$ Floren-e Oliver$ Aldora
Whit#an$ (i-k Fiore$ and 5oni-a Andres
AUTHOR'S
NOTE
5! sister$ Dr Patri-ia Green%ield$ did e>-ellent )ork on Che
+,A?s inter%a-e )ith a-ade#ia and on the Personalit! Assess=
#ent S!ste# , )ant to a-kno)ledge her -ontribution to the
book and e>press #! thanks and love
"here has been a )hole gala>! o% people )ho have provided
spe-iali.ed help$ and , )ould like to thank the# all 4e%% ;ohan$
:ddie Be-ker$ Sa# Hu-ker#an$ 5atthe) 5esselson$ 4ulian
Dobinson$ 5ilton ;line$ 5art! Lee$ 5 4 +onklin$ Alan S-he=
%lin$ Bonnie Goldstein$ Paul Aver!$ Bill 5ills$ 4ohn Lill!$ Au#=
phre! Os#ond$ 4ulie Aaggert!$ Patri-k Oster$ (or#an
;e#pster$ Bill Di-hards$ Paul 5agnusson$ And! So##er$
5ark +heshire$ Sidne! +ohen$ Paul Alt#e!er$ Fred and :lsa
;leiner$ Dr 4ohn +avanagh$ and Senator 4a#es Aboure.k and
his sta%%
, sent dra%ts o% the %irst ten -hapters to #an! o% the people ,
intervie)ed Cand several )ho re%used to be intervie)edE 5!
ai# )as to have the# -orre-t an! ina--ura-ies or point out
#aterial taken out o% -onte>t "he -o##ents o% those )ho re=
sponded aided #e -onsiderabl! in preparing the %inal book 5!
thanks %or their assistan-e to Albert Ao%#ann$ "el%ord "a!lor$
Leo Ale>ander$ Walter Langer$ 4ohn Sto-k)ell$ Willia# Aood$
Sa#uel "ho#pson$ Sidne! +ohen$ 5ilton Greenblatt$ Gordon
Wasson$ 4a#es 5oore$ Lauren-e Ainkle$ +harles Osgood$ 4ohn
Gittinger C%or +hapter 16 onl!E$ and all the others )ho asked not
to be identi%ied
Finall!$ , )ould like to e>press #! appre-iation to #! pub=
lisher$ "i#es Books$ and espe-iall! to #! editor 4ohn 4 Si#on
4ohn$ "o# Lips-o#b$ Doger 4ellinek$ G!org!i Ioros$ and 4ohn
Gallagher all believed in this book %ro# the beginning and
provided outstanding support "hanks also go to 4udith A
5-&uo)n$ )ho -op!edited the #anus-ript$ and Dosal!n "
Badala#enti$ "i#es Books? Produ-tion :ditor$ )ho oversa)
the )hole produ-tion pro-ess
4ohn 5arks
Washington$ D+
O-tober 8<$ 107J

CONTENTS
PAD" , OD,G,(S OF 5,(D=+O("DOL D:S:AD+A
1. WODLD WAD ,, 7
2. +OLD WAD O( "A: 5,(D 81
3. "A: PDOF:SSOD A(D "A: GAG "D:A"5:(" 7K
PAD" ,, ,(":LL,G:(+: OD GW,"+A:S PO",O(SG
4. LSD @7
5. +O(+:D(,(G "A: +AS: OF DD FDA(; OLSO( 77
6. "A:5 U(W,"",(GL "A: SAF:AOUS:S J7
7. 5USADOO5S "O +OU(":D+UL"UD: 16@
PAD" ,,, SP:LLSM:L:+"DOD:S A(D A*P(OS,S
8. BDA,(WASA,(G 18@
9. AU5A( :+OLOG* 1K7
10. "A: G,"",(G:D ASS:SS5:(" S*S":5 1<K
11. A*P(OS,S 1J8
xi
xii CONTENTS
PAD" ,I +O(+LUS,O(S
18 "A: S:AD+A FOD "A: "DU"A 10@
(O":S 81@
,(D:N 871
THE SEARCH FOR THE
"MANCHURIAN CANDIDATE"
i
ORIGINS OF
MIND-CONTROL
RESEARCH
,% the doors o% per-eption )ere -leansed$
ever! thing )ould appear to #an as it is$
in%inite MW,LL,A5
BLA;:
,t is %ar pleasanter to sit -o#%ortabl! in the
shade rubbing red pepper in a poor devil?s
e!es than to go about in the sun hunting up
eviden-e MS,D 4A5:S S":PA:(S$
1JJ7
,% both the past and the e>ternal )orld
e>ist onl! in the #ind$ and i% the #ind it=
sel% is -ontrollableM)hat thenO
GEORGE ORWELL IN 1984.
PART

CHAPTER
ORLD AR II
On the outskirts o%
Basel$ S)it.erland$
overlooking the Dhine$
lies the )orld)ide
headBuarters o% the
Sando. drug and
-he#i=
-al e#pire "here$ on
the a%ternoon o% April
1<$ 10K7$ Dr Albert
Ao%#ann #ade an
e>traordinar!
dis-over!Mb!
a--ident
At 77$ )ith -lose=
-ropped hair and
ri#less glasses$
Ao%#ann
headed the -o#pan!?s
resear-h progra# to
develop #arketa=
ble drugs out o%
natural produ-ts Ae
)as hard at )ork in
his
laborator! that )ar#
April da! )hen a )ave
o% di..iness sud=
denl! over-a#e hi#
"he strange sensation
)as not unpleas=
ant$ and Ao%#ann %elt
al#ost as though he
)ere drunk
But he be-a#e Buite
restless Ais nerves
see#ed to run o%% in
di%%erent dire-tions
"he inebriation )as
unlike an!thing he
had ever kno)n
be%ore Leaving )ork
earl!$ Ao%#ann
#anaged a )obbl!
bi-!-le=ride ho#e Ae
la! do)n and -losed
his e!es$ still unable to
shake the di..iness
!
(o) the light o% da!
)as disagreeabl!
bright With the
e>ternal )orld shut
out$ his
#ind ra-ed along Ae
e>perien-ed )hat he
)ould later de=
s-ribe as Gan
uninterrupted strea#
o% %antasti- i#ages o%
e>=
traordinar! plasti-it!
and vividness
a--o#panied b! an
intense$ kaleidos-ope=
like pla! o% -olorsG
"hese visions
subsided a%ter a %e)
hours$ and Ao%#ann$
ever
the inBuiring s-ientist$
set out to %ind )hat
-aused the# Ae
presu#ed he had
so#eho) ingested
one o% the drugs )ith
)hi-h he had been
)orking that da!$ and
his pri#e suspe-t
)as d=l!sergi- a-id
dieth!la#ide$ or LSD$
a substan-e that he
hi#sel% had %irst
produ-ed in the sa#e
lab %ive !ears earlier
As
4 ORIGINS OF MIND-CONTROL RESEARCH
part o% his sear-h %or a -ir-ulation sti#ulant$ Ao%#ann had
been e>a#ining derivatives o% ergot$ a %ungus that atta-ks r!e
:rgot had a #!sterious$ -ontradi-tor! reputation ,n +hina
and so#e Arab -ountries$ it )as thought to have #edi-inal
po)ers$ but in :urope it )as asso-iated )ith the horrible #al=
ad! %ro# the 5iddle Ages -alled St Anthon!?s Fire$ )hi-h
stru-k periodi-all! like the plague "he disease turned %ingers
and toes into bla-kened stu#ps and led to #adness and death
Ao%#ann guessed that he had absorbed so#e ergot deriva=
tive through his skin$ perhaps )hile -hanging the %ilter paper
in a su-tion bottle "o test his theor!$ he spent three da!s #ak=
ing up a %resh bat-h o% LSD +autiousl! he s)allo)ed 8@6 #i=
-rogra#s Cless than 1'166$666 o% an oun-eE Ao%#ann planned
to take #ore graduall! through the da! to obtain a result$ sin-e
no kno)n drug had an! e%%e-t on the hu#an bod! in su-h
in%initesi#al a#ounts Ae had no )a! o% kno)ing that be-ause
o% LSD?s poten-!$ he had alread! taken several ti#es )hat
)ould later be ter#ed an ordinar! dose Une>pe-tedl!$ this %irst
spe-k o% LSD took hold a%ter about K6 #inutes$ and Ao%#ann
)as o%% on the %irst sel%=indu-ed GtripG o% #odern ti#esP
Ao%#ann re-alls he %elt Ghorri%i- , )as a%raid , %eared ,
)as be-o#ing -ra.! , had the idea , )as out o% #! bod! ,
thought , had died , did not kno) ho) it )ould %inish ,% !ou
kno) !ou )ill -o#e ba-k %ro# this ver! strange )orld$ onl!
then -an !ou en9o! itG O% -ourse$ Ao%#ann had no )a! o%
kno)ing that he )ould return While he had Bui-kl! re-overed
%ro# his a--idental trip three da!s earlier$ he did not kno) ho)
#u-h LSD had -aused it or )hether the present dose )as #ore
than his bod! -ould deto>i%! Ais #ind kept veering o%% into an
unkno)n di#ension$ but he )as unable to appre-iate #u-h
be!ond his o)n terror
Less than 866 #iles %ro# Ao%#ann?s laborator!$ do-tors -on=
ne-ted to the SS and Gestapo )ere doing e>peri#ents that led
to the testing o% #es-aline Ca drug )hi-h has #an! o% the
#ind=-hanging Bualities o% LSDE on prisoners at Da-hau Ger=
#an!?s se-ret poli-e#en had the notion$ -o#pletel! alien to
Ao%#ann$ that the! -ould use drugs like #es-aline to bring
un)illing people under their -ontrol A--ording to resear-h
?While Ao%#ann spe-i%i-all! used the )ord GtripG in a 1077 intervie) to de=
s-ribe his -ons-iousness=altering e>perien-e$ the )ord obviousl! had no su-h
#eaning in 10K7 and is used here ana-hronisti-all!
WORLD WAR II 5
tea# #e#ber Walter (e%%$ the goal o% the Da-hau e>peri#ents
)as Gto eli#inate the )ill o% the person e>a#inedG
At Da-hau$ (a.is took the sear-h %or s-ienti%i- kno)ledge o%
#ilitar! value to its #ost a)%ul e>tre#e "here$ in a -losel!
guarded$ %en-ed=o%% part o% the -a#p$ SS do-tors studied su-h
Buestions as the a#ount o% ti#e a do)ned air#an -ould sur=
vive in the (orth Atlanti- in Februar! ,n%or#ation o% this sort
)as -onsidered i#portant to Ger#an se-urit!$ sin-e skilled
pilots )ere in relativel! short suppl! So$ at Aeinri-h
Ai##ler?s personal order$ the do-tors at Da-hau si#pl! sat b!
huge tubs o% i-e )ater )ith stop)at-hes and ti#ed ho) long it
took i##ersed prisoners to die ,n other e>peri#ents$ under
the -over o% Gaviation #edi-ine$G in#ates )ere -rushed to
death in high=altitude pressure -ha#bers Cto learn ho) high
pilots -ould sa%el! %l!E$ and prisoners )ere shot$ so that spe-ial
blood -oagulants -ould be tested on their )ounds
"he #es-aline tests at Da-hau run b! Dr ;urt Plotner )ere
not nearl! so lethal as the others in the GaviationG series$ but
the drug -ould still -ause grave da#age$ parti-ularl! to an!one
)ho alread! had so#e degree o% #ental instabilit! "he danger
)as in-reased b! the %a-t that the #es-aline )as ad#inistered
-overtl! b! SS #en )ho spiked the prisoners? drinks Unlike
Dr Ao%#ann$ the sub9e-ts had no idea that a drug )as -ausing
their e>tre#e disorientation 5an! #ust have %eared the! had
gone stark #ad all on their o)n Al)a!s$ the sub9e-ts o% these
e>peri#ents )ere 4e)s$ g!psies$ Dussians$ and other groups on
)hose lives the (a.is pla-ed little or no value ,n no )a! )ere
an! o% the# true volunteers$ although so#e #a! have -o#e
%or)ard under the delusion that the! )ould re-eive better
treat#ent
A%ter the )ar$ (e%% told A#eri-an investigators that the sub=
9e-ts sho)ed a )ide variet! o% rea-tions So#e be-a#e %uriousF
others )ere #elan-hol! or ga!$ as i% the! )ere drunk (ot
surprisingl!$ Gsenti#ents o% hatred and revenge )ere e>posed
in ever! -aseG (e%% noted that the drug -aused -ertain people
to reveal their G#ost inti#ate se-retsG Still$ the Ger#ans )ere
not read! to a--ept #es-aline as a substitute %or their #ore
ph!si-al #ethods o% interrogation "he! )ent on to tr! h!pno=
sis in -o#bination )ith the drug$ but the! apparentl! never %elt
-on%ident that the! had %ound a )a! to assu#e -o##and o%
their vi-ti#?s #ind
:ven as the SS do-tors )ere -arr!ing on their e>peri#ents
ORIGINS OF MIND-CONTROL RESEARCH
at Da-hau$ the O%%i-e o% Strategi- Servi-es COSSE$ A#eri-a?s
)arti#e intelligen-e agen-!$ set up a Gtruth drugG -o##ittee
under Dr Win%red Overholser$ head o% St :li.abeth?s Aospital
in Washington "he -o##ittee Bui-kl! tried and re9e-ted #es=
-aline$ several barbiturates$ and s-opola#ine "hen$ during
the spring o% 10K7$ the -o##ittee de-ided that !a""a#is i"di!a
Mor #ari9uanaMsho)ed the #ost pro#ise$ and it started a
testing progra# in -ooperation )ith the 5anhattan Pro9e-t$
the "OP S:+D:" e%%ort to build an ato#i- bo#b ,t is not -lear
)h! OSS turned to the bo#b #akers %or help$ e>-ept that$ as
one %or#er Pro9e-t o%%i-ial puts it$ GOur se-ret )as so great$ ,
guess )e )ere sa%er than an!one elseG Apparentl!$ top Pro9e-t
leaders$ )ho )ent to in-redible lengths to preserve se-urit!$
sa) no danger in tr!ing out drugs on their personnel
"he 5anhattan Pro9e-t supplied the %irst do.en test sub9e-ts$
)ho )ere asked to s)allo) a -on-entrated$ liBuid %or# o% #ari=
9uana that an A#eri-an phar#a-euti-al -o#pan! %urnished in
s#all glass vials A Pro9e-t #an )ho )as present re-allsL G,t
didn?t )ork the )a! )e )anted Apparentl! the hu#an s!ste#
)ould not take it all at on-e orall! "he sub9e-ts )ould lean
over and vo#itG What is #ore$ the! dis-losed no se-rets$ and
one sub9e-t )ound up in the hospital
Ba-k to the dra)ing board )ent the OSS e>perts "he! de=
-ided that the best )a! to ad#inister the #ari9uana )as inha=
lation o% its %u#es Atte#pts )ere #ade to pour the solution on
burning -har-oal$ and an OSS o%%i-er na#ed George White
C)ho had alread! su--eeded in kno-king hi#sel% out )ith an
overdose o% the relativel! potent substan-eE tried out the vapor$
)ithout su%%i-ient e%%e-t$ at St :li.abeth?s Finall!$ the OSS
group dis-overed a deliver! s!ste# )hi-h had been kno)n %or
!ears to 9a.. #usi-ians and other usersL the -igarette OSS
do-u#ents reported that s#oking a #i> o% toba--o and the
#ari9uana essen-e brought on a Gstate o% irresponsibilit!$ -aus=
ing the sub9e-t to be loBua-ious and %ree in his i#partation o%
in%or#ationG
"he %irst %ield test o% these #ari9uana=la-ed -igarettes took
pla-e on 5a! 87$10K7 "he sub9e-t )as one August Del Gra-io$
)ho )as des-ribed in OSS do-u#ents as a Gnotorious (e) *ork
gangsterGP George White$ an Ar#! -aptain )ho had -o#e to
Del Grade's name was deleted by the CIA from the OSS do!ment that de"
sr#bed the #n#dent$ b!t h#s Ident#ty was learned from the %a%ers of Geor&e
WORLD WAR II $
OSS %ro# the Federal Bureau o% (ar-oti-s$ ad#inistered the
drug b! inviting Del Gra-io up to his apart#ent %or a s#oke
and a -hat White had been talking to Del Gra-io earlier about
se-uring the 5a%ia?s -ooperation to keep A>is agents out o% the
(e) *ork )ater%ront and to prepare the )a! %or the invasion
o% Si-il!P
Del Gra-io had alread! #ade it -lear to White that he person=
all! had taken part in killing in%or#ers )ho had sBuealed to
the Feds "he gangster )as as tough as the! -a#e$ and i% he
-ould be indu-ed to talk under the in%luen-e o% a truth drug$
-ertainl! Ger#an prisoners -ouldMor so the reasoning )ent
White plied hi# )ith -igarettes until Gsub9e-t be-a#e high
and e>tre#el! garrulousG Over the ne>t t)o hours$ Del Gra-io
told the Federal agent about the ins and outs o% the drug trade
Crevealing in%or#ation so sensitive that the +,A deleted it %ro#
the OSS do-u#ents it released 7K !ears laterE At one point in
the -onversation$ a%ter Del Gra-io had begun to talk$ the gang=
ster told White$ GWhatever !ou do$ don?t ever use an! o% the stu%%
,?# telling !ouG ,n a subseBuent session$ White pa-ked the
-igarettes )ith so #u-h #ari9uana that Del Gra-io be-a#e
un-ons-ious %or about an hour *et$ on the )hole the e>peri=
#ent )as -onsidered a su--ess in Gloosening the sub9e-t?s
tongueG
While #e#bers o% the truth=drug -o##ittee never believed
that the -on-entrated #ari9uana -ould -o#pel a person to -on=
%ess his deepest se-rets$ the! authori.ed White to push ahead
)ith the testing On the ne>t stage$ he and a 5anhattan Pro9e-t
-ounterintelligen-e #an borro)ed 1@ to 1J thi-k dossiers %ro#
the FB, and )ent o%% to tr! the #ari9uana on suspe-ted +o##u=
nist soldiers stationed in #ilitar! -a#ps outside Atlanta$ 5e#=
phis$ and (e) Orleans A--ording to White?s 5anhattan Pro=
9e-t sideki-k$ a Aarvard La) graduate and %uture 9udge$ the!
)orked out a standard interrogation te-hniBueL
White$ )hose )ido) donated the# to Foothills +ollege in Los Altos$ +ali%ornia
+,A o%%i-ials -ut virtuall! all the na#es %ro# the roughl! 1<$666 pages o% its
o)n papers and the %e) s-ore pages %ro# OSS that it released to #e under the
Freedo# o% ,n%or#ation A-t Ao)ever$ as in this -ase$ #an! o% the na#es -ould
be %ound through -ollateral sour-es
?(aval intelligen-e o%%i-ers eventuall! #ade a deal in )hi-h #ob leaders pro=
#ised to -ooperate$ and as a dire-t result$ (e) *ork Governor "ho#as De)e!
ordered Del Gra-io?s -hie%$ boss o% bosses$ +harles GLu-k!G Lu-iano %reed %ro#
9ail in 10K<
% ORIGINS OF MIND-CONTROL RESEARCH
Be%ore )e )ent in$ George and , )ould bu! -igarettes$ re#ove
the# %ro# the botto# o% the pa-k$ use a h!poder#i- needle to
put in the %luid$ and leave the -igarettes in a shot glass to dr!
"hen$ )e resealed the pa-k We sat do)n )ith a parti-ular
soldier and tried to )in his -on%iden-e We )ould sa! so#ething
like G"his is better than being overseas and getting shot at$G and
)e )ould tr! to break the# We started asking Buestions %ro#
their QFB,R %older$ and )e )ould let the# see that )e had the
%older on the# We had a pit-her o% i-e )ater on the table$ and
)e kne) the drug had taken e%%e-t )hen the! rea-hed %or a glass
"he stu%% a-tuall! )orked :ver!one but oneMand he didn?t
s#okeMgave us #ore in%or#ation than )e had be%ore
"he 5anhattan Pro9e-t la)!er re#e#bers this s)ing
through the South )ith George White as a Ggood ti#eG "he t)o
#en ate in the best restaurants and took in all the sights
GGeorge )as Buite a gu!$G he sa!s GAt the Doosevelt Aotel in
(e) Orleans a%ter )e had intervie)ed our #en$ )e )ere l!ing
on the beds )hen George took out his pistol and shot his initials
into the #olding that ran along the -eiling Ae used his 88
auto#ati-$ eBuipped )ith a silen-er$ and he e#ptied several
-lipsG Asked i% he tried out the truth drug hi#sel%$ the la)!er
sa!s$ G*es "he -igarettes gave !ou a %eeling o% )alking a -ou=
ple o% %eet o%% the %loor , had a pleasant sensation o% )ell=being
"he %ello)s %ro# #! o%%i-e )ouldn?t take a -igarette %ro#
#e %or the rest o% the )arG
Sin-e World War ,,$ the United States govern#ent$ led b! the
+entral ,ntelligen-e Agen-!$ has sear-hed se-retl! %or )a!s to
-ontrol hu#an behavior "his book is about that sear-h$ )hi-h
had its origins in World War ,, "he +,A progra#s )ere not
onl! an e>tension o% the OSS Buest %or a truth drug$ but the!
also e-hoed su-h events as the (a.i e>peri#ents at Da-hau
and Albert Ao%#ann?s dis-over! o% LSD
B! probing the inner rea-hes o% -ons-iousness$ Ao%#ann?s
resear-h took hi# to the ver! %rontiers o% kno)ledge As never
be%ore in histor!$ the )arring po)ers sought ideas %ro# s-ien=
tists -apable o% rea-hing those %rontiersMideas that -ould
#ake the di%%eren-e bet)een vi-tor! and de%eat While Ao%=
#ann hi#sel% re#ained aloo%$ in the S)iss tradition$ other
s-ientists$ like Albert :instein$ helped turned the abstra-tions
o% the laborator! into in-redibl! destru-tive )eapons 4ules
Ierne?s notions o% spa-eships tou-hing the #oon stopped being
WORLD WAR II &
absurd )hen Wernher von Braun?s ro-kets started pounding
London With their -reations$ the s-ientists rea-hed be!ond the
spe-ulations o% s-ien-e %i-tion (ever be%ore had their dis-over=
ies been so breathtaking and so %rightening Albert Ao%#ann?s
)ork tou-hed upon the %antasies o% the #indMa--essible$ in
an-ient legends$ to )it-hes and )i.ards )ho used spells and
potions to bring people under their s)a! ,n the earl! s-ienti%i-
age$ the drea# o% -ontrolling the brain took on a #odern %or#
in 5ar! Shelle!?s -reation$ Dr Frankenstein?s #onster "he
drea# )ould be updated again during the +old War era to
be-o#e the 5an-hurian +andidate$ the assassin )hose #ind
)as -ontrolled b! a hostile govern#entP Who -ould sa! %or
-ertain that su-h a %antas! )ould not be turned into a realit!$
like Ierne?s ro-ket stories or :instein?s -al-ulationsO And )ho
should be surprised to learn that govern#ent agen-iesMspe=
-i%i-all! the +,AM)ould s)oop do)n on Albert Ao%#ann?s lab
in an e%%ort to harness the po)er over the #ind that LSD
see#ed to holdO
Fro# the Da-hau e>peri#ents -a#e the -ruelt! that #an
)as -apable o% heaping upon his %ello)s in the na#e o% ad=
van-ing s-ien-e and helping his -ountr! gain advantage in
)ar "o sa! that the Da-hau e>peri#ents are ob9e-t lessons o%
ho) %ar people -an stret-h ends to 9usti%! #eans is to belittle
b! -li-he )hat o--urred in the -on-entration -a#ps (othing
the +,A ever did in its post)ar sear-h %or #ind=-ontrol te-hnol=
og! -a#e -lose to the -allous killing o% the (a.i Gaviation re=
sear-hG (evertheless$ in their atte#pts to %ind )a!s to #anip=
ulate people$ Agen-! o%%i-ials and their agents -rossed #an! o%
the sa#e ethi-al barriers "he! e>peri#ented )ith dangerous
G"he ter# G5an-hurian +andidateG -a#e into the language in 10@0 )hen
author Di-hard +ondon #ade it the title o% his best=selling novel that later
be-a#e a popular #ovie starring Lauren-e Aarve! and Frank Sinatra "he
stor! )as about a 9oint Soviet=+hinese plot to take an A#eri-an soldier -ap=
tured in ;orea$ -ondition hi# at a spe-ial brain)ashing -enter lo-ated in
5an-huria$ and -reate a re#ote=-ontrolled assassin )ho )as supposed to kill
the President o% the United States +ondon -onsulted )ith a )ide variet! o%
e>perts )hile resear-hing the book$ and so#e inside sour-es #a! )ell have
%illed hi# in on the gist o% a dis-ussion that took pla-e at a 10@7 #eeting at the
+,A on behavior -ontrol Said one parti-ipant$ G individuals )ho had -o#e
out o% (orth ;orea a-ross the Soviet Union to %reedo# re-entl! apparentl! had
a blank period o% disorientation )hile passing through a spe-ial .one in 5an=
-huriaG "he +,A and #ilitar! #en at this session pro#ised to seek #ore
in%or#ation$ but the #atter never -a#e up again in either the do-u#ents
released b! the Agen-! or in the intervie)s done %or this book
'( ORIGINS OF MIND-CONTROL RESEARCH
and unkno)n te-hniBues on people )ho had no idea )hat )as
happening "he! s!ste#ati-all! violated the %ree )ill and #en=
tal dignit! o% their sub9e-ts$ and$ like the Ger#ans$ the! -hose
to vi-ti#i.e spe-ial groups o% people )hose e>isten-e the! -on=
sidered$ out o% pre9udi-e and -onvenien-e$ less )orth! than
their o)n Wherever their e>tre#e e>peri#ents )ent$ the +,A
sponsors pi-ked %or sub9e-ts their o)n eBuivalents o% the (a.is?
4e)s and g!psiesL #ental patients$ prostitutes$ %oreigners$ drug
addi-ts$ and prisoners$ o%ten %ro# #inorit! ethni- groups
,n the post)ar era$ A#eri-an o%%i-ials straddled the ethi-al
and the -utthroat approa-hes to s-ienti%i- resear-h A%ter an
Allied tribunal had -onvi-ted the %irst e-helon o% surviving
(a.i )ar -ri#inalsMthe Gorings and SpeersMA#eri-an
prose-utors -harged the Da-hau do-tors )ith G-ri#es against
hu#anit!G at a se-ond (ure#berg trial (one o% the Ger#an
s-ientists e>pressed re#orse 5ost -lai#ed that so#eone else
had -arried out the vilest e>peri#ents All said that issues o%
#oral and personal responsibilit! are #oot in state=sponsored
resear-h What is -riti-al$ testi%ied Dr ;arl Brandt$ Aitler?s
personal ph!si-ian$ is G)hether the e>peri#ent is i#portant or
uni#portantG Asked his attitude to)ard killing hu#an beings
in the -ourse o% #edi-al resear-h$ Brandt replied$ GDo !ou
think that one -an obtain an! )orth)hile %unda#ental results
)ithout a de%inite toll o% livesOG "he 9udges at (ure#berg re=
9e-ted su-h de%enses and put %orth )hat -a#e to be kno)n as
the (ure#berg +ode on s-ienti%i- resear-hP ,ts #ain points
)ere si#pleL Desear-hers #ust obtain %ull voluntar! -onsent
%ro# all sub9e-tsF e>peri#ents should !ield %ruit%ul results %or
the good o% so-iet! that -an be obtained in no other )a!F re=
sear-hers should not -ondu-t tests )here death or serious in=
9ur! #ight o--ur$ Ge>-ept$ perhapsG )hen the supervising do-=
tors also serve as sub9e-ts "he 9udgesMall A#eri-ansM
senten-ed seven o% the Ger#ans$ in-luding Dr Brandt$ to death
b! hanging (ine others re-eived long prison senten-es "hus$
the US govern#ent put its %ull #oral %or-e behind the idea
that there )ere li#its on )hat s-ientists -ould do to hu#an
sub9e-ts$ even )hen a -ountr!?s se-urit! )as thought to hang
in the balan-e
"he (ure#berg +ode has re#ained o%%i-ial A#eri-an pol=
P"he +ode )as suggested in essentiall! its %inal %or# b! prose-ution tea#
-onsultant$ ,Er Leo Ale>ander$ a Boston ps!-hiatrist
WORLD WAR II ''
i-! ever sin-e 10K<$ but$ even be%ore the verdi-ts )ere in$
spe-ial US investigating tea#s )ere si%ting through the e>=
peri#ental re-ords at Da-hau %or in%or#ation o% #ilitar!
value "he report o% one su-h tea# %ound that )hile part o%
the data )as Gina--urate$G so#e o% the -on-lusions$ i%
-on%ir#ed$ )ould be Gan i#portant -o#ple#ent to e>isting
kno)ledgeG 5ilitar! authorities sent the re-ords$ in-luding
a des-ription o% the #es-aline and h!pnosis e>peri#ents$
ba-k to the United States (one o% the Ger#an #ind=-ontrol
resear-h )as ever #ade publi-
,##ediatel! a%ter the )ar$ large politi-al -urrents began to
shi%t in the )orld$ as the! al)a!s do Allies be-a#e ene#ies
and ene#ies be-a#e allies Other -hanges )ere %resh and !et
old ,n the United States$ the ne) +old War against -o##u=
nis# -arried )ith it a pier-ing sense o% %ear and a s)eeping
sense o% #issionMat least as %ar as A#eri-an leaders )ere -on=
-erned Out o% these %eelings and out o% that overriding A#eri=
-an %aith in advan-ing te-hnolog! -a#e the +,A?s atte#pts to
ta#e hostile #inds and #ake sp! %antasies real :>peri#ents
)ent %or)ard and the +,A?s s-ientistsMbitten$ so#eti#es ob=
sessedMkept going ba-k to their laboratories %or one last ad9ust=
#ent So#e theories )ere -rushed$ )hile others e#erged in
une>pe-ted )a!s that )ould have a greater i#pa-t outside the
+,A than in the )orld o% -overt operations Onl! one aspe-t
re#ained -onstant during the Buarter=-entur! o% a-tive re=
sear-hL "he +,A?s interest in -ontrolling the hu#an #ind had
to re#ain absolutel! se-ret
World War ,, provided #ore than the grand the#es o% the
+,A?s behavioral progra#s ,t also be-a#e the %or#ative li%e
e>perien-e o% the prin-ipal +,A o%%i-ials$ and$ indeed$ o% the
+,A itsel% as an institution "he se-ret derring=do o% the OSS
)as ne) to the United States$ and the )a!s o% the OSS )ould
gro) into the )a!s o% the +,A OSS leaders )ould have their
-ounterparts later in the Agen-! +,A o%%i-ials tended to have
kno)n the OSS #en$ to think like the#$ to -op! their #ethods$
and even$ in so#e -ases$ to be the sa#e people When Agen-!
o%%i-ials )anted to laun-h their #assive e%%ort %or #ind -ontrol$
%or instan-e$ the! got out the old OSS do-u#ents and )ent
about their goal in #an! o% the sa#e )a!s the OSS had OSS
leaders enlisted outside s-ientistsF Agen-! o%%i-ials also )ent to
the #ost prestigious ones in a-ade#ia and industr!$ soli-iting
aid %or the good o% the -ountr! "he! even approa-hed the sa#e
') ORIGINS OF MIND-CONTROL RESEARCH
George White )ho had shot his initials in the hotel -eiling
)hile on OSS assign#ent
*ears later$ White?s es-apades )ith OSS and +,A )ould -arr!
)ith the# a hu#or -learl! unintended at the ti#e "o those
dire-tl! involved$ in%luen-ing hu#an behavior )as a deadl!
serious business$ but Bualities like bu#bling and pure -ra.i=
ness shine through in hindsight ,n the +,A?s -a#paign$ so#e
o% A#eri-a?s #ost distinguished behavioral s-ientists )ould
sti-k all kinds o% drugs and )ires into their e>peri#ental sub=
9e-tsMo%ten dis#issing the obviousl! har#%ul e%%e-ts )ith
theories re#inis-ent o% the learned nineteenth=-entur! ph!si=
-ians )ho bled their patients )ith lee-hes and belittled the
ignoran-e o% an!one )ho Buestioned the te-hniBue ,% the
s-he#es o% these s-ientists to -ontrol the #ind had #et )ith
#ore su--ess$ the! )ould be #u-h less a#using But so %ar$ at
least$ the hu#an spirit has apparentl! kept )inning "hatMi%
an!thingMis the saving gra-e o% the #ind=-ontrol -a#paign
World War ,, signaled the end o% A#eri-an isolation and inno=
-en-e$ and the United States %ound it had a huge gap to -lose$
)ith its ene#ies and allies alike$ in appl!ing underhanded
ta-ti-s to )ar Unlike Britain$ )hi-h %or hundreds o% !ears had
used -overt operations to hold her e#pire together$ the United
States had no tradition o% using subversion as a se-ret instru=
#ent o% govern#ent poli-! "he Ger#ans$ the Fren-h$ the Dus=
sians$ and nearl! ever!one else had long been involved in this
ga#e$ although no one see#ed as good at it as the British
+landestine lobb!ing b! British agents in the United States
led dire-tl! to President Franklin Doosevelt?s -reation o% the
organi.ation that be-a#e OSS in 10K8 "his )as the %irst
A#eri-an agen-! set up to )age se-ret$ unli#ited )ar Doose=
velt pla-ed it under the -o##and o% a Wall Street la)!er and
World War , #ilitar! hero$ General Willia# GWild BillG Dono=
van A burl!$ vigorous Depubli-an #illionaire )ith great intel=
le-tual -uriosit!$ Donovan started as White Aouse intelligen-e
adviser even be%ore Pearl Aarbor$ and he had dire-t a--ess to
the President
Learning at the %eet o% the British )ho #ade available their
e>pertise$ i% not all their se-rets$ Donovan put together an orga=
ni.ation )here nothing had e>isted be%ore A +olu#bia +ollege
and +olu#bia La) graduate hi#sel%$ he tended to turn to the
gentle#anl! preserves o% the :astern establish#ent %or re=
WORLD WAR II '*
-ruits C"he initials OSS )ere said to stand %or GOh So So-ialGE
FriendsMor %riends o% %riendsM-ould be trusted GOld bo!sG
)ere the stal)arts o% the British se-ret servi-e$ and$ as )ith
#ost other aspe-ts o% OSS$ the A#eri-ans %ollo)ed suit
One o% Donovan?s ne) re-ruits )as Di-hard Ael#s$ a !oung
ne)spaper e>e-utive then best kno)n %or having gained an
intervie) )ith Adol% Aitler in 107< )hile )orking %or United
Press Aaving gone to Le Dose!$ the sa#e S)iss prep s-hool as
the Shah o% ,ran$ and then on to -lubb! Willia#s +ollege$
Ael#s #oved easil! a#ong the !oung OSS #en Ae )as al=
read! #ore ta-iturn than the 9ovial Donovan$ but he )as
eBuall! a#bitious and skilled as a 9udge o% -hara-ter For
Ael#s$ OSS sp!)ork began a li%elong -areer Ae )ould be-o#e
the #ost i#portant sponsor o% #ind=-ontrol resear-h )ithin
the +,A$ nurturing and pro#oting it throughout his stead!
-li#b to the top position in the Agen-!
Like ever! #a9or )arti#e o%%i-ial %ro# President Doosevelt
do)n$ General Donovan believed that World War ,, )as in
large #easure a battle o% s-ien-e and organi.ation "he idea
)as to #obili.e s-ien-e %or de%ense$ and the Doosevelt ad#inis=
tration set up a -ostl!$ intert)ining net)ork o% resear-h pro=
gra#s to deal )ith ever!thing %ro# splitting the ato# to pre=
venting #ental breakdo)ns in -o#bat Donovan na#ed Boston
industrialist Stanle! Lovell to head OSS Desear-h and Develop=
#ent and to be the se-ret agen-!?s liaison )ith the govern#ent
s-ienti%i- -o##unit!
A +ornell graduate and a sel%=des-ribed Gsau-epan -he#ist$G
Lovell )as a -on%ident energeti- #an )ith a parti-ular kna-k
%or -o#ing up )ith o%%beat ideas and selling the# to others
Like #ost o% his generation$ he )as an outspoken patriot Ae
)rote in his diar! shortl! a%ter Pearl AarborL GAs 4a#es Ailton
said$ ?On-e at )ar$ to reason is treason? 5! 9ob is -learMto do
all that is in #e to help A#eri-aG
General Donovan #in-ed no )ords in la!ing out )hat he
e>pe-ted o% LovellL G, need ever! subtle devi-e and ever! un=
derhanded tri-k to use against the Ger#ans and 4apaneseM
b! our o)n peopleMbut espe-iall! b! the underground re=
sistan-e progra#s in all the o--upied -ountries *ou?ll have
to invent the# all$ Lovell$ be-ause !ou?re going to be #!
#anG "hus Lovell re-alled his #ar-hing orders %ro# Dono=
van$ )hi-h he instantl! re-eived on being introdu-ed to the
bluster!$ h!pera-tive OSS -hie% Lovell had never #et an!=
'4 ORIGINS OF MIND-CONTROL RESEARCH
one )ith Donovan?s personal #agnetis#
Lovell Bui-kl! turned to so#e o% the leading lights in the
a-ade#i- and private se-tors A spe-ial groupM-alled Division
10M)ithin 4a#es +onant?s (ational De%ense Desear-h +o#=
#ittee )as set up to produ-e G#is-ellaneous )eaponsG %or OSS
and British intelligen-e Lovell?s strateg!$ he later )rote$ )as
Gto sti#ulate the Pe-k?s Bad Bo! beneath the sur%a-e o% ever!
A#eri-an s-ientist and to sa! to hi#$ "hro) all !our nor#al
la)=abiding -on-epts out the )indo) Aere?s a -han-e to raise
#err! hell
1
G
Dr George ;istiako)sk!$ the Aarvard -he#ist )ho )orked
on e>plosives resear-h during the )ar Cand )ho be-a#e s-i=
en-e adviser to Presidents :isenho)er and ;enned!E re#e#=
bers Stanle! Lovell )ellL GStan -a#e to us and asked us to
develop )a!s %or -a#ou%laging e>plosives )hi-h -ould be
s#uggled into ene#! -ountriesG ;istiako)sk! and an asso-i=
ate -a#e up )ith a substan-e )hi-h )as dubbed GAunt
4e#i#aG be-ause it looked and tasted like pan-ake #i> Sa!s
;istiako)sk!L G*ou -ould bake bread or other things out o% it
, personall! took it to a high=level #eeting at the War Depart=
#ent and ate -ookies in %ront o% all those -hara-ters to sho)
the# )hat a )onder%ul invention it )as All !ou had to do )as
atta-h a po)er%ul detonator$ and it e>ploded )ith the %or-e o%
d!na#iteG "hus disguised$ GAunt 4e#i#aG -ould be slipped
into o--upied lands ,t )as -redited )ith blo)ing up at least
one #a9or bridge in +hina
Lovell en-ouraged OSS behavioral s-ientists to %ind so#e=
thing that )ould o%%end 4apanese -ultural sensibilities Ais
sta%% anthropologists reported ba-k that nothing )as so sha#e=
%ul to the 4apanese soldier as his bo)el #ove#ents Lovell then
had the -he#ists )ork up a skatole -o#pound )hi-h du=
pli-ated the odor o% diarrhea ,t )as loaded into -ollapsible
tubes$ %lo)n to +hina$ and distributed to -hildren in ene#!=
o--upied -ities When a 4apanese o%%i-er appeared on a
-ro)ded street$ the kids )ere en-ouraged to slip up behind hi#
and sBuirt the liBuid on the seat o% his pants Lovell na#ed the
produ-t GWhoO 5eOG and he -redited it )ith -osting the 4apa=
nese G%a-eG
Unlike #ost )eapons$ GWhoO 5eOG )as not designed to kill
or #ai# ,t )as a Gharass#ent substan-eG designed to lo)er
the #orale o% individual 4apanese "he inspiration -a#e
%ro# a-ade#i-ians )ho tried to #ake a s-ien-e o% hu#an
behavior
WORLD WAR II '5
During World War ,,$ the behavioral s-ien-es )ere still ver!
#u-h in their in%an-!$ but OSSM)ell be%ore #ost o% the outside
)orldMre-ogni.ed their potential in )ar%are Ps!-holog! and
ps!-hiatr!$ so-iolog!$ and anthropolog! all see#ed to o%%er in=
sights that -ould be e>ploited to #anipulate the ene#!
General Donovan hi#sel% believed that the te-hniBues o%
ps!-hoanal!sis #ight be turned on Adol% Aitler to get a better
idea o% Gthe things that #ade hi# ti-k$G as Donovan put it
Donovan gave the 9ob o% being the Fuhrer?s anal!st to Walter
Langer$ a +a#bridge$ 5assa-husetts ps!-hoanal!st )hose
older brother Willia# had taken leave %ro# a -hair o% histor!
at Aarvard to head OSS Desear-h and Anal!sisP Langer pro=
tested that a stud! o% Aitler based on available data )ould be
highl! un-ertain and that -onventional ps!-hiatri- and ps!=
-hoanal!ti- #ethods -ould not be used )ithout dire-t a--ess to
the patient Donovan )as not the sort to be deterred b! su-h
details Ae told Langer to go ahead an!)a!
With the help o% a s#all resear-h sta%%$ Langer looked
through ever!thing he -ould %ind on Aitler and intervie)ed a
nu#ber o% people )ho had kno)n the Ger#an leader A)are o%
the severe li#itations on his in%or#ation$ but le%t no -hoi-e b!
General Donovan$ Langer plo)ed ahead and )rote up a %inal
stud! ,t pegged Aitler as a Gneuroti- ps!-hopathG and pro=
-eeded to pi-k apart the Fuhrer?s ps!-he Langer$ sin-e retired
to Florida$ believes he -a#e Gprett! -loseG to des-ribing the real
Adol% Aitler Ae is parti-ularl! proud o% his predi-tions that the
(a.i leader )ould be-o#e in-reasingl! disturbed as Ger#an!
su%%ered #ore and #ore de%eats and that he )ould -o##it
sui-ide rather than %a-e -apture
One reason %or ps!-hoanal!.ing Aitler )as to un-over vul=
nerabilities that -ould be -overtl! e>ploited Stanle! Lovell
sei.ed upon one o% Langer?s ideasMthat Aitler #ight have %e#=
inine tenden-iesMand got per#ission %ro# the OSS hierar-h!
to see i% he -ould push the Fuhrer over the gender line G"he
?Four #onths be%ore Pearl Aarbor$ Donovan had enlisted Walter Langer to put
together a nation)ide net)ork o% anal!sts to stud! the #orale o% the -ountr!?s
!oung #en$ )ho$ it )as )idel! %eared$ )ere not enthusiasti- about %ighting a
%oreign )ar Pearl Aarbor see#ed to solve this #orale proble#$ but Langer
sta!ed )ith Donovan as a part=ti#e ps!-hoanal!ti- -onsultant
tLanger )rote that Aitler )as G#aso-histi- in the e>tre#e inas#u-h as he
derives se>ual pleasure %ro# punish#ent in%li-ted on his o)n bod! "here ,s
ever! reason to suppose that during his earl! !ears$ instead o% identi%!ing
hi#sel% )ith his %ather as #ost bo!s do$ he identi%ied )ith his #other "his )as
' ORIGINS OF MIND-CONTROL RESEARCH
hope )as that his #ousta-he )ould %all o%% and his voi-e be=
-o#e soprano$G Lovell )rote Lovell used OSS?s agent net)ork
to tr! to slip %e#ale se> hor#ones into Aitler?s %ood$ but nothing
apparentl! -a#e o% it (or )as there ever an! pa!o%% to other
Lovell s-he#es to blind Aitler per#anentl! )ith #ustard gas
or to use a drug to e>a-erbate his suspe-ted epileps! "he #ain
proble# in these operationsMall o% )hi-h )ere triedM)as to
get Aitler to take the #edi-ine Failure o% the deliver! s-he#es
also kept Aitler aliveMOSS )as si#ultaneousl! tr!ing to
poison hi#P
Without Buestion$ #urdering a #an )as a de-isive )a! to
in%luen-e his behavior$ and OSS s-ientists developed an arsenal
o% -he#i-al and biologi-al poisons that in-luded the in-redibl!
potent botulinus to>in$ )hose deliver! s!ste# )as a gelatin
-apsule s#aller than the head o% a pin Lovell and his asso-i=
ates also reali.ed there )ere less drasti- )a!s to #anipulate an
ene#!?s behavior$ and the! -a#e up )ith a line o% produ-ts to
-ause si-kness$ it-hing$ baldness$ diarrhea$ and'or the odor
thereo% "he! had less su--ess %inding a drug to -o#pel truth=
telling$ but it )as not %or la-k o% tr!ing
+he#i-al and biologi-al substan-es had been used in )ar=
ti#e long be%ore OSS -a#e on the s-ene Both sides had used
poison gas in World War ,F during the earl! part o% World War
,,$ the 4apanese had dropped deadl! ger#s on +hina and
-aused epide#i-sF and throughout the )ar$ the Allies and A>is
po)ers alike had built up -he#i-al and biologi-al )ar%are
C+BWE sto-kpiles$ )hose #ain %un-tion turned out$ in the end$
to be deterring the other side 5ilitar! #en tended to look on
+BW as a )a! o% destro!ing )hole ar#ies and even popula=
tions Like the )orld?s other se-ret servi-es$ OSS individuali.ed
perhaps easier %or hi# than %or #ost bo!s sin-e$ as )e have seen$ there is a
large %e#inine -o#ponent in his ph!si-al #akeup Ais e>tre#e senti#en=
talit!$ his e#otionalit!$ his o--asional so%tness$ and his )eeping$ even a%ter he
be-a#e +han-ellor$ #a! be regarded as #ani%estations o% a %unda#ental pat=
tern that undoubtedl! had its origin in his relationship to his #otherG
?Although historians have long kno)n that OSS #en had been in tou-h )ith
the Ger#an o%%i-ers )ho tried to assassinate Aitler in 10KK$ the %a-t that OSS
independentl! )as tr!ing to #urder hi# has eluded s-holars o% the period
Stanle! Lovell gave a)a! the se-ret in his 10<7 book$ O+ S,ies a"d S-.a-e/e0s1
but he used su-h -asual and obs-ure )ords that the resear-hers apparentl! did
not noti-e Lovell )roteL G, supplied no) and then a -arba#ate or other Buietus
#edi-ation$ all to be in9e-ted into de. F23.e.'s -arrots$ beets$ or )hateverG A
GBuietus #edi-ineG is a generi- ter# %or a lethal poison$ o% )hi-h -arba#ates
are one t!pe
+BW and #ade it into a )a! o% sele-tivel! but se-retl! e#bar=
rassing$ disorienting$ in-apa-itating$ in9uring$ or killing an
ene#!
As diversi%ied as )ere Lovell?s s-ienti%i- duties %or OSS$ the!
)ere narro) in -o#parison )ith those o% his #ain -ounterpart
in the +,A?s post)ar #ind=-ontrol progra#$ Dr Sidne! Gott=
lieb Gottlieb )ould preside over investigations that ranged
%ro# advan-ed resear-h in a#nesia b! ele-trosho-k to dragnet
sear-hes through the 9ungles o% Latin A#eri-a %or to>i- leaves
and barks Full! in the tradition o% #aking Aitler #ousta-he=
less$ Gottlieb?s o%%i-e )ould devise a s-he#e to #ake Fidel +as=
tro?s beard %all outF like Lovell$ Gottlieb )ould personall! pro=
vide operators )ith deadl! poisons to assassinate %oreign
leaders like the +ongo?s Patri-e Lu#u#ba$ and he )ould be
eBuall! at ease dis-ussing possible appli-ations o% ne) re=
sear-h in neurolog! On a #u-h greater s-ale than Lovell?s$
Gottlieb )ould tra-k do)n ever! -on-eivable gi##i-k that
#ight give one person leverage over another?s #ind Gottlieb
)ould preside over ar-ane %ields %ro# hand)riting anal!sis to
stress -reation$ and he )ould rise through the Agen-! along
)ith his bureau-rati- patron$ Di-hard Ael#s
:arl! in the )ar$ General Donovan got another idea %ro# the
British$ )hose ps!-hologists and ps!-hiatrists had devised a
testing progra# to predi-t the per%or#an-e o% #ilitar! o%%i-ers
Donovan thought su-h a progra# #ight help OSS sort through
the #asses o% re-ruits )ho )ere being rushed through training
"o -reate an assess#ent s!ste# %or A#eri-ans$ Donovan -alled
in Aarvard ps!-holog! pro%essor Aenr! GAarr!G 5urra! ,n
107J 5urra! had )ritten Ex,4o.a-io"s o+ 5e.so"a4i-y1
ble book )hi-h laid out a )hole batter! o% tests that -ould be
used to si.e up the personalities o% individuals GSp!ing is at=
tra-tive to loonies$G states 5urra! GPs!-hopaths$ )ho are peo=
ple )ho spend their lives #aking up stories$ revel in the %ieldG
"he progra#?s pri#e ob9e-tive$ a--ording to 5urra!$ )as keep=
ing out the -ra.ies$ as )ell as the Gsloths$ irritants$ bad a-tors$
and %ree talkersG
Al)a!s in a hurr!$ Donovan gave 5urra! and a distin=
guished group o% -olleagues onl! 1@ da!s until the %irst -andi=
dates arrived to be assessed ,n the interi#$ the! took over a
spa-ious estate outside Washington as their headBuarters ,n a
series o% hurried #eetings$ the! put together an assess#ent
'% ORIGINS OF MIND-CONTROL RESEARCH
s!ste# that -o#bined Ger#an and British #ethods )ith 5ur=
ra!?s earlier resear-h ,t tested a re-ruit?s abilit! to stand up
under pressure$ to be a leader$ to hold liBuor$ to lie skill%ull!$
and to read a person?s -hara-ter b! the nature o% his -lothing
5ore than 76 !ears a%ter the )ar$ 5urra! re#ains #odest in
his -lai#s %or the assess#ent s!ste#$ sa!ing that it )as onl! an
aid in )eeding out the GhorrorsG a#ong OSS -andidates
(evertheless$ the se-ret agen-!?s leaders believed in its results$
and 5urra!?s s!ste# be-a#e a %i>ture in OSS$ testing A#eri=
-ans and %oreign agents alike So#e o% 5urra!?s !oung behav=
ioral s-ientists$ like 4ohn Gardner$P )ould go on to be-o#e
pro#inent in publi- a%%airs$ and$ #ore i#portantl!$ the OSS
assess#ent progra# )ould be re-ogni.ed as a #ilestone in
A#eri-an ps!-holog! ,t )as the %irst s!ste#ati- e%%ort to evalu=
ate an individual?s personalit! in order to predi-t his %uture
behavior A%ter the )ar$ personalit! assess#ent )ould be-o#e
a ne) %ield in itsel%$ and so#e o% 5urra!?s assistants )ould go
on to establish OSS=like s!ste#s at large -orporations$ starting
)ith A"/" "he! also )ould set up stud! progra#s at universi=
ties$ beginning )ith the Universit! o% +ali%ornia at Berkle! As
)ould happen repeatedl! )ith the +,A?s #ind=-ontrol re=
sear-h$ OSS )as !ears ahead o% publi- develop#ents in behav=
ioral theor! and appli-ation
,n the post)ar !ears$ 5urra! )ould be superseded b! a !oung
Oklaho#a ps!-hologist 4ohn Gittinger$ )ho )ould rise in the
+,A on the strength o% his ideas about ho) to #ake a hard
s-ien-e out o% personalit! assess#ent and ho) to use it to #a=
nipulate people Gittinger )ould build an o%%i-e )ithin +,A that
re%ined both 5urra!?s assess#ent %un-tion and Walter
Langer?s indire-t anal!sis o% %oreign leaders Gittinger?s #eth=
ods )ould be-o#e an integral part o% ever!da! Agen-! opera=
tions$ and he )ould be-o#e Sid Gottlieb?s protege
Stanle! Lovell reasoned that a good )a! to kill AitlerMand the
OSS #an )as al)a!s looking %or ideasM)ould be to h!pnoti=
PGardner$ a ps!-hologist tea-hing at 5ount Aol!oke +ollege$ helped 5urra!
set up the original progra# and )ent on to open the West +oast OSS assess#ent
site at a -onverted bea-h -lub in San 4uan +apistrano A%ter the )ar$ he )ould
be-o#e Se-retar! o% A:W in the 4ohnson ad#inistration and %ounder o% +o#=
#on +ause
t5urra! is not at all enthusiasti- )ith the spino%%s GSo#e o% the things done
)ith it turn !our sto#a-h$G he de-lares
WORLD WAR II '&
-all! -ontrol a Ger#an prisoner to hate the Gestapo and the
(a.i regi#e and then to give the sub9e-t a h!pnoti- suggestion
to assassinate the Fuhrer "he OSS -andidate )ould be let loose
in Ger#an! )here he )ould take the desired a-tion$ Gbeing
under a -o#pulsion that #ight not be denied$G as Lovell )rote
Lovell sought advi-e on )hether this s-he#e )ould )ork
%ro# (e) *ork ps!-hiatrist La)ren-e ;ubie and %ro# the
%a#ed 5enninger brothers$ ;arl and Willia# "he 5enning=
ers reported that the )eight o% the eviden-e sho)ed h!pnotis#
to be in-apable o% #aking people do an!thing that the! )ould
not other)ise do :Buall! negative$ Dr ;ubie added that i% a
Ger#an prisoner had a logi-al reason to kill Aitler or an!one
else$ he )ould not need h!pnotis# to #otivate hi#
Lovell and his -o)orkers apparentl! a--epted this skepti-al
vie) o% h!pnosis$ as did the over)hel#ing #a9orit! o% ps!=
-hologists and ps!-hiatrists in the -ountr! At the ti#e$ h!pno=
sis )as -onsidered a %ringe a-tivit!$ and there )as little re-og=
nition o% either its validit! or its use%ulness %or an! purposeM
let alone -overt operations *et there )ere a hand%ul o% serious
e>peri#enters in the %ield )ho believed in its #ilitar! poten=
tial "he #ost vo-al partisan o% this vie) )as the head o% the
Ps!-holog! Depart#ent at +olgate Universit!$ George G:st!G
:stabrooks Sin-e the earl! 1076s$ :stabrooks had periodi-all!
ventured out %ro# his sleep! upstate -a#pus to advise the #ili=
tar! on appli-ations o% h!pnotis#
:stabrooks a-kno)ledged that h!pnosis did not )ork on ev=
er!one and that onl! one person in %ive #ade a good enough
sub9e-t to be pla-ed in a deep tran-e$ or state o% so#na#bulis#
Ae believed that onl! these sub9e-ts -ould be indu-ed to su-h
things against their apparent )ill as reveal se-rets or -o##it
-ri#es Ae had )at-hed respe-ted #e#bers o% the -o##unit!
#ake %ools o% the#selves in the hands o% stage h!pnotists$ and
he had -o#pelled his o)n students to reveal %raternit! se-rets
and the details o% private love a%%airsMall o% )hi-h the sub9e-ts
presu#abl! did not )ant to do
Still his e>perien-e )as li#ited :stabrooks reali.ed that the
onl! -ertain )a! to kno) )hether a person )ould -o##it a
-ri#e like #urder under h!pnosis )as to have the person kill
so#eone Un)illing to settle the issue on his o)n b! tr!ing the
e>peri#ent$ he %elt that govern#ent san-tion o% the pro-ess
)ould relieve the h!pnotist o% personal responsibilit! GAn!
?a--idents? that #ight o--ur during the e>peri#ents )ill si#=
)( ORIGINS OF MIND-CONTROL RESEARCH
pl! be -harged to pro%it and loss$G he )rote$ Ga ver! tri%ling
portion o% that enor#ous )astage in hu#an li%e )hi-h is part
and par-el o% )arG
A%ter Pearl Aarbor$ :stabrooks o%%ered his ideas to OSS$ but
the! )ere not a--epted b! an!one in govern#ent )illing to
-arr! the# to their logi-al -on-lusion Ae )as redu-ed to )rit=
ing books about the potential use o% h!pnotis# in )ar%are
+assandra=like$ he tried to )arn A#eri-a o% the perils posed b!
h!pnoti- -ontrol Ais 10K@ novel$ Dea-3 i" -3e Mi"d1 -on-erned
a series o% see#ingl! treasonable a-ts -o##itted b! Allied per=
sonnelL an A#eri-an sub#arine -aptain torpedoes one o% our
o)n battleships$ and the beauti%ul heroine starts a-ting in an
irrational )a! )hi-h serves the ene#! A%ter a perilous inves=
tigation$ se-ret agent 4ohnn! :vans learns that the Ger#ans
have been h!pnoti.ing Allied personnel and -onditioning the#
to obe! (a.i -o##ands :vans and his -ohorts$ shaken b! the
#an! )a!s h!pnotis# -an be used against the#$ set up elabo=
rate -ounter#easures and then -annot resist going on the
o%%ensive Ob9e-tions are heard %ro# the heroine$ )ho b! this
ti#e has been brutall! and rather graphi-all! tortured She
-o#plains that Gdoing things to people?s #indsG is Ga loath=
so#e )a! to %ightG Aer Bual#s are brushed aside b! 4ohnn!
:vans$ her lover and boss Ae sets o%% a%ter the Ger#ansMGto
ta#per )ith their #indsF 5ake the# traitorsF 5ake the# )ork
%or usG
,n the a%ter#ath o% the )ar$ as the US national se-urit!
apparatus )as being -onstru-ted$ the leaders o% the +entral
,ntelligen-e Agen-! )ould adopt 4ohnn! :vans? #issionMal=
#ost in those ver! )ords Di-hard Ael#s$ Sid Gottlieb$ 4ohn
Gittinger$ George White$ and #an! others )ould undertake a
%ar=%lung and -o#pli-ated assault on the hu#an #ind ,n h!p=
nosis and #an! other %ields$ s-ientists even #ore eager than
George :stabrooks )ould seek +,A approval %or the kinds o%
e>peri#ents the! )ould not dare per%or# on their o)n So#e=
ti#es the Agen-! #en -on-urredF on other o--asions$ the! re=
served su-h e>peri#ents %or the#selves "he! )ould ta#per
)ith #an! #inds and inevitabl! -ause so#e to be da#aged ,n
the end$ the! )ould #ini#i.e and hide their deeds$ and the!
)ould live to see doubts raised about the health o% their o)n
#inds
CHAPTER
COLD AR
ON THE MIND
+,A o%%i-ials started
preli#inar! )ork on
drugs and h!pnosis
shortl! a%ter the
Agen-!?s -reation in
10K7$ but the
behavior=
-ontrol progra# did
not reall! get going
until the Aungarian
govern#ent put
4ose% +ardinal
5inds.ent! on trial
in 10K0
With a gla.ed look in
his e!es$ 5inds.ent!
-on%essed to -ri#es
o% treason he
apparentl! did not
-o##it Ais
per%or#an-e re=
-alled the 5os-o)
purge trials o% 1077
and 107J at )hi-h
tough
and dedi-ated part!
a,,a.a-!3i6s had
#eekl! pleaded
guilt! to
long series o%
i#probable o%%enses
"hese and a string o%
post=
)ar trials in other
:astern :uropean
-ountries see#ed
staged$
eerie$ and unreal
+,A #en %elt the!
had to kno) ho) the
+o#=
#unists had
rendered the
de%endants
.o#bielike ,n the
8
5inds.ent! -ase$ a
+,A Se-urit!
5e#orandu#
de-lared that
Gso#e unkno)n
%or-eG had
-ontrolled the
+ardinal$ and the
#e#o spe-ulated
that the -o##unist
authorities had used
h!pnosis on hi#
,n the su##er o%
10K0$ the Agen-!?s
head o% S-ienti%i-
,ntelli=
gen-e #ade a spe-ial
trip to Western
:urope to %ind out
#ore
about )hat the
Soviets )ere doing
and Gto appl! spe-ial
#eth=
ods o% interrogation
%or the purpose o%
evaluation o%
Dussian
pra-ti-esG ,n other
)ords$ %ear%ul that
the -o##unists
#ight
have used drugs and
h!pnosis on
prisoners$ a senior
+,A o%%i-ial
used e>a-tl! the
sa#e te-hniBues on
re%ugees and
returned
prisoners %ro#
:astern :urope On
returning to the
United
)) ORIGINS OF MIND-CONTROL RESEARCH
States$ this o%%i-ial re-o##ended t)o -ourses o% a-tionL %irst$
that the Agen-! -onsider setting up an es-ape operation to %ree
5inds.ent!F and se-ond$ that the +,A train and send to :urope
a tea# skilled in Gspe-ialG interrogation #ethods o% the t!pe he
had tried out in :urope
B! the spring o% 10@6$ several other +,A bran-hes )ere -on=
te#plating the operational use o% h!pnosis "he O%%i-e o% Se-u=
rit!$ )hose #ain 9ob )as to prote-t Agen-! personnel and
%a-ilities %ro# ene#! penetration$ #oved to -entrali.e all a-=
tivit! in this and other behavioral %ields "he Se-urit! -hie%$
She%%ield :d)ards$ a %or#er Ar#! -olonel )ho a de-ade later
)ould personall! handle 9oint +,A=5a%ia operations$ took the
initiative b! -alling a #eeting o% all interested Agen-! parties
and proposing that interrogation tea#s be %or#ed under Se-u=
rit!?s -o##and Se-urit! )ould use the tea#s to -he-k out
agents and de%e-tors %or the )hole +,A :a-h tea# )ould -on=
sist o% a ps!-hiatrist$ a pol!graph Clie dete-torE e>pert trained
in h!pnosis$ and a te-hni-ian :d)ards agreed not to use the
tea#s operationall! )ithout the per#ission o% a high=level
-o##ittee Ae -alled the pro9e-t BLU:B,DD$ a -ode na#e
)hi-h$ like all Agen-! na#es$ had no signi%i-an-eMe>-ept per=
haps to the person )ho -hose it :d)ards -lassi%ied the pro=
gra# "OP S:+D:" and stressed the e>traordinar! need %or
se-re-! On April 86$ 10@6$ +,A Dire-tor Dos-oe Aillenkoetter
approved BLU:B,DD and authori.ed the use o% unvou-hered
%unds to pa! %or its #ost sensitive areas "he +,A?s behavior=
-ontrol progra# no) had a bureau-rati- stru-ture
"he -hie% o% S-ienti%i- ,ntelligen-e attended the original
BLU:B,DD #eeting in She%%ield :d)ards? o%%i-e and assured
those present that his o%%i-e )ould keep tr!ing to gather all
possible data on %oreignMparti-ularl! DussianMe%%orts in the
behavioral %ield (ot long a%ter)ard$ his representative ar=
ranged to inspe-t the (ure#berg "ribunal re-ords to see i%
the! -ontained an!thing use%ul to BLU:B,DD A--ording to a
+,A ps!-hologist )ho looked over the Ger#an resear-h$ the
Agen-! did not %ind #u-h o% spe-i%i- help G,t )as a real horror
stor!$ but )e learned )hat hu#an beings )ere -apable o%$G he
re-alls G"here )ere so#e e>peri#ents on pain$ but the! )ere
so #i>ed up )ith sadis# as not to be use%ul Ao) the vi-ti#
-oped )as ver! interestingG
At the beginning$ at least$ there )as -ooperation bet)een the
s-ientists and the interrogators in the +,A Desear-hers %ro#
COLD WAR ON THE MIND )*
Se-urit! C)ho had no spe-ial e>pertise but )ho )ere e>=
perien-ed in poli-e )orkE and resear-hers %ro# S-ienti%i- ,n=
telligen-e C)ho la-ked operational ba-kground but )ho had
a-ade#i- trainingE pored 9ointl! over all the open literature
and se-ret reports "he! Bui-kl! reali.ed that the onl! )a! to
build an e%%e-tive de%ense against #ind -ontrol )as to under=
stand its o%%ensive possibilities "he line bet)een o%%ense and
de%enseMi% it ever e>istedMsoon be-a#e so blurred as to be
#eaningless (earl! ever! Agen-! do-u#ent stressed goals
like G-ontrolling an individual to the point )here he )ill do our
bidding against his )ill and even against su-h %unda#ental
la)s o% nature as sel%=preservationG On reading one su-h
#e#o$ an Agen-! o%%i-er )rote to his bossL G,% this is supposed
to be -overed up as a de%ensive %easibilit! stud!$ it?s prett!
da#n transparentG
"hree #onths a%ter the Dire-tor approved BLU:B,DD$ the
%irst tea# traveled to 4apan to tr! out behavioral te-hniBues on
hu#an sub9e-tsMprobabl! suspe-ted double agents "he three
#en arrived in "ok!o in 4ul! 10@6$ about a #onth a%ter the start
o% the ;orean War (o one needed to i#press upon the# the
i#portan-e o% their #ission "he Se-urit! O%%i-e ordered the#
to -on-eal their true purpose %ro# even the US #ilitar! au=
thorities )ith )ho# the! )orked in 4apan$ using the -over that
the! )ould be per%or#ing Gintensive pol!graphG )ork ,n sti=
%ling$ debilitating heat and hu#idit!$ the! tried out -o#bina=
tions o% the depressant sodiu# a#!tal )ith the sti#ulant
ben.edrine on ea-h o% %our sub9e-ts$ the last t)o o% )ho# also
re-eived a se-ond sti#ulant$ pi-roto>in "he! also tried to in=
du-e a#nesia "he tea# -onsidered the tests su--ess%ul$ but the
+,A do-u#ents available on the trip give onl! the sket-hiest
outline o% )hat happenedP "hen around O-tober 10@6$ the
BLU:B,DD tea# used Gadvan-edG te-hniBues on 8@ sub9e-ts$
apparentl! (orth ;orean prisoners o% )ar
B! the end o% that !ear$ a Se-urit! operator$ 5orse Allen$ had
be-o#e the head o% the BLU:B,DD progra# Fort! !ears old at
the ti#e$ Allen had spent #ost o% his earlier -areer rooting out
the do#esti- -o##unist threat$ starting in the late 1076s )hen
he had 9oined the +ivil Servi-e +o##ision and set up its %irst
se-urit! %iles on -o##unists CGAe kno)s their #ethods$G )rote
P For a better=do-u#ented -ase o% nar-otherap! and nar-oh!pnosis$ see +hap=
ter 7
)4 ORIGINS OF MIND-CONTROL RESEARCH
a +,A -olleagueE During World War ,,$ Allen had served )ith
(aval intelligen-e$ %irst pursuing le%tists in (e) *ork and then
landing )ith the 5arines on Okina)a A%ter the )ar$ he )ent
to the State Depart#ent$ onl! to leave in the late 10K6s be-ause
he %elt the Depart#ent )as )hite)ashing -ertain -o##unist
-ases Ae soon 9oined the +,A?s O%%i-e o% Se-urit! A suspi-ious
#an b! in-lination and training$ Allen took nothing at %a-e
value Like all -ounterintelligen-e or se-urit! operators$ his 9ob
)as to sho) )h! things are not )hat the! see# to be Ae )as
al)a!s thinking ahead and behind$ pun-hing holes in sur%a-e
realities Allen had no a-ade#i- training %or behavioral re=
sear-h Calthough he did take a short -ourse in h!pnotis#$ a
sub9e-t that %as-inated hi#E Ae sa) the BLU:B,DD 9ob as one
that -alled %or stud!ing ever! last #ethod the -o##unists
#ight use against the United States and %iguring out )a!s to
-ounter the#
"he +,A had s-hooled 5orse Allen in one %ield )hi-h in the
+,A?s earl! da!s be-a#e an i#portant part o% -overt operationsL
the use o% the pol!graph Probabl! #ore than an! intelligen-e
servi-e in the )orld$ the Agen-! developed the habit o% strap=
ping its %oreign agentsMand eventuall!$ its o)n e#plo!eesM
into the Gbo>G "he pol!graph #easures ph!siologi-al -hanges
that #ight sho) l!ingMheartbeat$ blood pressure$ perspira=
tion$ and the like ,t has never been %oolproo% ,n 10K0 the O%%i-e
o% Se-urit! esti#ated that it )orked su--ess%ull! on seven out
o% eight -ases$ a ver! high %ra-tion but not one high enough %or
those in sear-h o% -ertaint! A ps!-hopathi- liar$ a h!pnoti.ed
person$ or a spe-iall! trained pro%essional -an GbeatG the #a=
-hine 5oreover$ the skill o% the person running the pol!graph
and asking the Buestions deter#ines ho) )ell the devi-e )ill
)ork GA good operator -an #ake brilliant use o% the pol!graph
)ithout plugging it in$G -lai#s one veteran +,A -ase o%%i-er
Others #aintain onl! so#e)hat less e>travagantl! that its
-hie% value is to deter agents te#pted to s)it-h lo!alties or
reveal se-rets "he po)er o% the #a-hineMreal and i#agined
Mto dete-t in%idelit! and dishonest! -an be an inti#idating
%a-torP (evertheless$ the pol!graph -annot -o#pel truth Like
PWhile the regular pol!graphing o% +,A -areer e#plo!ees apparentl! never
has turned up a penetration agent in the ranks$ it al#ost -ertainl! has a deter=
rent e%%e-t on those -onsidering -o#ing out o% the ho#ose>ual -loset or on those
-onsidering dipping into the large su#s o% -ash dispensed %ro# proverbial
bla-k bags
COLD WAR ON THE MIND )5
Pino--hio?s nose$ it onl! indi-ates l!ing ,n addition$ the #a=
-hine reBuires enough ph!si-al -ontrol over the sub9e-t to strap
hi# in For !ears$ the +,A tried to over-o#e this li#itation b!
developing a GsuperG pol!graph that -ould be ai#ed %ro# a%ar
or -on-ealed in a -hair ,n this %ield$ as in #an! others$ no
behavior -ontrol s-he#e )as too %ar%et-hed to investigate$ and
Agen-! s-ientists did #ake so#e progress
,n De-e#ber 10@6$ 5orse Allen told his boss$ Paul Ga!nor$ a
retired brigadier general )ith a long ba-kground in -ounterin=
telligen-e and interrogation$ that he had heard o% e>peri#ents
)ith an Gele-tro=sleepG #a-hine in a Di-h#ond$ Iirginia hos=
pital Su-h an invention appealed to Allen be-ause it sup=
posedl! put people to sleep )ithout sho-k or -onvulsions "he
BLU:B,DD tea# had been using drugs to bring on a state si#i=
lar to a h!pnoti- tran-e$ and Allen hoped this #a-hine )ould
allo) an operator to put people into deep sleep )ithout having
to resort to -he#i-als ,n theor!$ all an operator had to do )as
to atta-h the ele-trode=tipped )ires to the sub9e-t?s head and let
the #a-hine do the rest ,t -ost about S8@6 and )as about t)i-e
the si.e o% a table=#odel di-tating #a-hine GAlthough it )ould
not be %easible to use it on an! o% our o)n people be-ause there
is at least a theoreti-al danger o% te#porar! brain da#age$G
5orse Allen )rote$ Git )ould possibl! be o% value in -ertain
areas in -onne-tion )ith POW interrogation or on individuals
o% interest to this Agen-!G "he #a-hine never )orked )ell
enough to get into the testing stage %or the +,A
At the end o% 10@1$ Allen talked to a %a#ed ps!-hiatrist
C)hose na#e$ like #ost o% the others$ the +,A has deleted %ro#
the do-u#ents releasedE about a grueso#e but #ore pra-ti-al
te-hniBue "his ps!-hiatrist$ a -leared Agen-! -onsultant$ re=
ported that ele-trosho-k treat#ents -ould produ-e a#nesia %or
var!ing lengths o% ti#e and that he had been able to obtain
in%or#ation %ro# patients as the! -a#e out o% the stupor that
%ollo)ed sho-k treat#ents Ae also reported that a lo)er set=
ting o% the Deiter ele-trosho-k #a-hine produ-ed an Ge>-ru-i=
ating painG that$ )hile nontherapeuti-$ -ould be e%%e-tive as Ga
third degree #ethodG to #ake so#eone talk 5orse Allen asked
i% the ps!-hiatrist had ever taken advantage o% the Ggrogg!G
period that %ollo)ed nor#al ele-trosho-k to gain h!pnoti- -on=
trol o% his patients (o$ replied the ps!-hiatrist$ but he )ould
tr! it in the near %uture and report ba-k to the Agen-! "he
ps!-hiatrist also #entioned that -ontinued ele-trosho-k treat=
) ORIGINS OF MIND-CONTROL RESEARCH
#ents -ould graduall! redu-e a sub9e-t to the Gvegetable level$G
and that these treat#ents -ould not be dete-ted unless the sub=
9e-t )as given ::+ tests )ithin t)o )eeks At the end o% a
#e#o la!ing out this in%or#ation$ Allen noted that portable$
batter!=driven ele-trosho-k #a-hines had -o#e on the #arket
Shortl! a%ter this 5orse Allen report$ the O%%i-e o% S-ienti%i-
,ntelligen-e re-o##ended that this sa#e ps!-hiatrist be given
S166$666 in resear-h %unds Gto develop ele-tri- sho-k and h!p=
noti- te-hniBuesG While Allen thought this sub9e-t )orth pur=
suing$ he had so#e Bual#s about the ulti#ate appli-ation o%
the sho-k treat#entsL G"he ob9e-tions )ould$ o% -ourse$ appl!
to the use o% ele-trosho-k i% the end result )as -reation o% a
?vegetable? Q,R believe that these te-hniBues should not be -on=
sidered e>-ept in gravest e#ergen-ies$ and neutrali.ation b!
-on%ine#ent and'or re#oval %ro# the area )ould be %ar #ore
appropriate and -ertainl! sa%erG
,n 10@8 the O%%i-e o% S-ienti%i- ,ntelligen-e proposed giv=
ing another private do-tor S166$666 to develop BLU:B,DD=
related Gneurosurgi-al te-hniBuesGMpresu#abl! loboto#!=
-onne-tedP Si#ilarl!$ the Se-urit! o%%i-e planned to use outside
-onsultants to %ind out about su-h te-hniBues as ultrasoni-s$
vibrations$ -on-ussions$ high and lo) pressure$ the uses o% vari=
ous gases in airtight -ha#bers$ diet variations$ -a%%eine$ %a=
tigue$ radiation$ heat and -old$ and -hanging light Agen-! o%%i=
-ials looked into all these areas and #an! others So#e the!
studied intensivel!F others the! #erel! dis-ussed )ith -onsult=
ants
"he BLU:B,DD #ind=-ontrol progra# began )hen Stalin
)as still alive$ )hen the #e#or! o% Aitler )as %resh$ and the
terri%!ing prospe-t o% global nu-lear )ar )as 9ust sinking into
popular -ons-iousness "he Soviet Union had sub9ugated #ost
o% :astern :urope$ and a +o##unist part! had taken -ontrol
over the )orld?s #ost populous nation$ +hina War had broken
out in ;orea$ and Senator 4oseph 5-+arth!?s anti-o##unist
-rusade )as on the rise in the United States ,n both %oreign and
do#esti- politi-s$ the prevailing #ood )as one o% %earMeven
paranoia
A#eri-an o%%i-ials have pointed to the +old War at#osphere
ever sin-e as an e>-use %or -ri#es and e>-esses -o##itted then
PWhether the Agen-! ulti#atel! %unded this or the ele-tri-=sho-k proposal
-ited above -annot be deter#ined %ro# the do-u#ents
COLD WAR ON THE MIND )$
and a%ter)ard One re-urring litan! in national se-urit! inves=
tigations has been the testi#on! o% the e>posed o%%i-ial -iting
+old War h!steria to 9usti%! an a-t that he or she )ould not
other)ise de%end "he apprehensions o% the +old War do not
provide a #oral or legal shield %or su-h a-ts$ but the! do help
e>plain the# :ven )hen the apprehensions )ere not )ell
%ounded$ the! )ere no less real to the people involved
,t )as also a ti#e )hen the United States had a-hieved a ne)
preei#inen-e in the )orld A%ter World War ,,$ A#eri-an o%%i=
-ials )ielded the kind o% po)er that diplo#ats %reBuentl!
drea# o% "he! established ne) allian-es$ ne) rulers$ and even
ne) nations to suit their purposes "he! dispensed guns$ %avors$
and aid to s-ores o% nations +onseBuentl!$ A#eri-an o%%i-ials
)ere noti-ed$ respe-ted$ and pa#pered )herever the! )entM
as never be%ore "heir ne) sense o% i#portan-e and their +old
War %ears o%ten #ade a dangerous -o#binationMit is a %a-t o%
hu#an nature that an!one )ho is both pu%%ed up and a%raid is
so#eone to )at-h out %or
,n 10K7 the (ational Se-urit! A-t -reated not onl! the +,A but
also the (ational Se-urit! +oun-ilMin su#$ the -o##and
stru-ture %or the +old War Warti#e OSS leaders like Willia#
Donovan and Allen Dulles lobbied %everishl! %or the A-t O%%i=
-ials )ithin the ne) -o##and stru-ture soon put their %ear
and their grandiose notions to )ork Dea-ting to the per-eived
threat$ the! adopted a ruthless and )arlike posture to)ard an!=
one the! -onsidered an ene#!M#ost espe-iall! the Soviet
Union "he! took it upon the#selves to %ight -o##unis# and
things that #ight lead to -o##unis# ever!)here in the )orld
Fe) -iti.ens disagreed )ith the#F the! appeared to e>press the
senti#ents o% #ost A#eri-ans in that era$ but national se-urit!
o%%i-ials still pre%erred to a-t in se-re-! A se-ret stud! -o##i=
sion under %or#er President Aoover -aptured the spirit o% their
-all to -landestine )ar%areL
,t is no) -lear )e are %a-ing an i#pla-able ene#! )hose avo)ed
ob9e-tive is )orld do#ination b! )hatever #eans and at )hat=
ever -ost "here are no rules in su-h a ga#e Aitherto a--eptable
longstanding A#eri-an -on-epts o% G%air pla!G #ust be re-onsid=
ered We #ust develop e%%e-tive espionage and -ounterespionage
servi-es and #ust learn to subvert$ sabotage$ and destro! our
ene#ies b! #ore -lever$ #ore sophisti-ated$ and #ore e%%e-tive
#ethods than those used against us
)% ORIGINS OF MIND-CONTROL RESEARCH
"he #en in the ne) +,A took this 9ob Buite seriousl! GWe %elt
)e )ere the %irst line o% de%ense in the anti-o##unist -ru=
sade$G re-alls Aarr! Dosit.ke$ an earl! head o% the Agen-!?s
Soviet Division G"here )as a -lear and head! sense o% #ission
Ma sense o% )hat a huge 9ob this )asG 5i-hael Burke$ )ho )as
-hie% o% +,A -overt operations in Ger#an! be%ore going on to
head the (e) *ork *ankees and 5adison SBuare Garden$
agreesL G,t )as riveting One )as totall! absorbed in so#e=
thing that has be-o#e #isunderstood no)$ but the +old War in
those da!s )as a ver! real thing )ith hundreds o% thousands o%
Soviet troops$ tanks$ and planes poised on the :ast Ger#an
border$ -apable o% #oving to the :nglish +hannel in %ort!=eight
hoursG Augh +unningha#$ an Agen-! o%%i-ial )ho sta!ed on
%or #an! !ears$ re#e#bers that survival itsel% )as at stake$
GWhat !ou )ere #ade to %eel )as that the -ountr! )as in des=
perate peril and )e had to do )hatever it took to save itG
BLU:B,DD and the +,A?s later #ind=-ontrol progra#s
sprang %ro# su-h alar# As a #atter o% -ourse$ the +,A )as
also reBuired to learn the #ethods and intentions o% all possible
%oes G,% the +,A had not tried to %ind out )hat the Dussians
)ere doing )ith #ind=altering drugs in the earl! 10@6s$ , think
the then=Dire-tor should have been %ired$G sa!s Da! +line$ a
%or#er Deput! Dire-tor o% the Agen-!
Aigh Agen-! o%%i-ials %elt the! had to kno) )hat the Dus=
sians )ere up to (evertheless$ a -are%ul reading o% the -onte#=
poraneous +,A do-u#ents al#ost three de-ades later indi-ates
that i% the Dussians )ere s-oring breakthroughs in the behav=
ior=-ontrol %ieldM)hose author the! al#ost -ertainl! )ere not
Mthe +,A la-ked intelligen-e to prove that For e>a#ple$ a 10@8
Se-urit! do-u#ent$ )hi-h ad#ittedl! had an a> to grind )ith
the O%%i-e o% S-ienti%i- ,ntelligen-e$ -alled the data gathered on
the Soviet progra#s Ge>tre#el! poorG "he author noted that
the Agen-!?s in%or#ation )as based on Gse-ond= or third=hand
ru#ors$ unsupported state#ents and non=%a-tual dataGP Ap=
parentl!$ the %ears and %antasies aroused b! the 5inds.ent!
trial and the subseBuent ;orean War Gbrain)ashingG %uror
outstripped the %a-ts on hand "he prevalent +,A notion
o% a G#ind=-ontrol gapG )as as #u-h o% a #!th as the later
bo#ber and #issile GgapsG ,n an! -ase$ be!ond the de%ensive
T"he +,A re%used to suppl! either a brie%ing or additional #aterial )hen ,
asked %or #ore ba-kground on Soviet behavior=-ontrol progra#s
COLD WAR ON THE MIND )&
-uriosit!$ #ind -ontrol took on a #o#entu# o% its o)n
As uniBue and %rightening as the +old War )as$ it did not
-ause people )orking %or the govern#ent to rea-t #u-h di%%er=
entl! to ea-h other or po)er than at other ti#es in A#eri-an
histor! Bureau-rati- sBuabbling )ent on right through the
#ost -hilling !ears o% the behavior=-ontrol progra# (o #atter
ho) alar#ed +,A o%%i-ials be-a#e over the Dussian peril$ the!
still #anaged to Buarrel )ith their internal rivals over -ontrol
o% Agen-! %unds and #anpo)er Bet)een 10@6 and 10@8$ re=
sponsibilit! %or #ind -ontrol )ent %ro# the O%%i-e o% Se-urit!
to the S-ienti%i- ,ntelligen-e unit ba-k to Se-urit! again ,n the
pro-ess$ BLU:B,DD )as re-hristened AD",+AO;: "he
bureau-rati- )ars )ere dra)n=out a%%airs$ ba%%ling to outsidersF
!et #an! o% the -ru-ial turns in behavioral resear-h -a#e out
o% essentiall! bureau-rati- -onsiderations on the part o% the
-ontending o%%i-ials ,n general$ the O%%i-e o% Se-urit! )as %ull
o% prag#atists )ho )ere an>ious to )eed out -o##unists Cand
ho#ose>ualsE ever!)here "he! believed the intelle-tuals
%ro# S-ienti%i- ,ntelligen-e had %ailed to produ-e 7o"e ne)$
usable paper$ suggestion$ drug$ instru#ent$ na#e o% an individ=
ual$ et-$ et-$G as one do-u#ent puts it "he learned gentle#en
%ro# S-ienti%i- ,ntelligen-e %elt that the %or#er -ops$ #ilitar!
#en$ and investigators in Se-urit! la-ked the te-hni-al ba-k=
ground to handle so a)eso#e a task as -ontrolling the hu#an
#ind
G4urisdi-tional -on%li-t )as -onstant in this area$G a Senate
-o##ittee )ould state in 107< A 10@8 report to the -hie% o% the
+,A?s 5edi-al Sta%% Citsel% a parti-ipant in the in%ightingE dre)
a harsher -on-lusionL G"here e>ists a glaring la-k o% -oopera=
tion a#ong the various intra=Agen-! groups %ostered b! pett!
9ealousies and personalit! di%%eren-es that result in the retar=
dation o% the enhan-ing and advan-ing o% the Agen-! as a
bod!G When Se-urit! took AD",+AO;: ba-k %ro# S-ienti%i-
,ntelligen-e in 10@8$ the vi-tor! lasted onl! t)o and one=hal%
!ears be%ore #ost o% the behavioral )ork )ent to !et another
+,A out%it$ %ull o% PhDs )ith operational e>perien-eMthe
"e-hni-al Servi-es Sta%% C"SSEP
"here )as bureau-rati- )ar%are outside the +,A as )ell$ al=
T"his Agen-! -o#ponent$ responsible %or providing the supporting gadgets$
disguises$ %orgeries$ se-ret )riting$ and )eapons$ has been -alled during its
histor! the "e-hni-al Servi-es Division and the O%%i-e o% "e-hni-al Servi-es$
as )ell as "SS$ the na#e )hi-h )ill be used throughout this book
*( ORIGINS OF MIND-CONTROL RESEARCH
though there )ere earl! gestures to)ard interagen-! -oopera=
tion ,n April 10@1 the +,A Dire-tor approved liaison )ith
Ar#!$ (av!$ and Air For-e intelligen-e to avoid dupli-ation o%
e%%ort "he Ar#! and (av! )ere both looking %or truth drugs$
)hile the pri#e -on-ern o% the Air For-e )as interrogation
te-hniBues used on do)ned pilots Depresentatives o% ea-h ser=
vi-e attended regular #eetings to dis-uss AD",+AO;: #at=
ters "he Agen-! also invited the FB,$ but 4 :dgar Aoover?s
#en sta!ed a)a!
During their brie% period o% -ooperation$ the #ilitar! and the
+,A also e>-hanged in%or#ation )ith the British and +anadian
govern#ents At the %irst session in 4une 10@1$ the British repre=
sentative announ-ed at the outset that there had been nothing
ne) in the interrogation business sin-e the da!s o% the ,nBuisi=
tion and that there )as little hope o% a-hieving valuable results
through resear-h Ae )anted to -on-entrate on propaganda
and politi-al )ar%are as the! applied to su-h threats as -o##u=
nist penetration o% trade unions "he +,A?s #inutes o% the ses=
sion re-ord that this skepti-al :nglish#an %inall! agreed to the
i#portan-e o% behavioral resear-h$ but one doubts the sin-erit!
o% this -onversion "he #inutes also re-ord a -onsensus o% Gno
-on-lusive eviden-eG that either Western -ountries or the Sovi=
ets had #ade an! Grevolutionar! progressG in the %ield$ and
des-ribe Soviet #ethods as Gre#arkabl! si#ilar to the age=
old #ethodsG (onetheless$ the representatives o% the three
-ountries agreed to -ontinue investigating behavior=-ontrol
#ethods be-ause o% their i#portan-e to G-old )ar operationsG
"o )hat e>tent the British and +anadians -ontinued -annot be
told "he +,A did not stop until the 1076s
Bureau-rati- -on%li-t )as not the onl! aspe-t o% ordinar! gov=
ern#ent li%e that persisted through the +old War O%%i-ials also
#aintained their nor#al a)areness o% the ethi-al and legal
-onseBuen-es o% their de-isions O%ten the! )ent through -on=
torted rationali.ations and took steps to prote-t the#selves$ but
at least the! re-ogni.ed and paused over the various ethi-al
lines be%ore -rossing the# ,t )ould be un%air to sa! that all
#oral a)areness evaporated O%%i-ials agoni.ed over the -onse=
Buen-es o% their a-ts$ and #u-h o% the bureau-rati- re-ord o%
behavior -ontrol is the histor! o% o%%i-ials dealing )ith #oral
-on%li-ts as the! arose
"he Se-urit! o%%i-e barel! #anaged to re-ruit the tea# ps!=
COLD WAR ON THE MIND *'
-hiatrist in ti#e %or the %irst #ission to 4apan$ and %or !ears$
Agen-! o%%i-ials had trouble attra-ting Buali%ied #edi-al #en
to the pro9e-t Spe-ulating )h!$ one Agen-! #e#o listed su-h
reasons as the +,A?s -o#parativel! lo) salaries %or do-tors and
AD",+AO;:?S narro) pro%essional s-ope$ adding that a -andi=
date?s Gethi-s #ight be su-h that he #ight not -are to -ooperate
in -ertain #ore revolutionar! phases o% our pro9e-tG "his -on=
sideration be-a#e e>pli-it in Agen-! re-ruiting During the
talent sear-h$ another +,A #e#o stated )h! another do-tor
see#ed suitableL GAis ethi-s are su-h that he )ould be -o#=
pletel! -ooperative in an! phase o% our progra#$ regardless o%
ho) revolutionar! it #a! beG
"he #atter )as even #ore troubleso#e in the task o% obtain=
ing guinea pigs %or #ind=-ontrol e>peri#ents GOur biggest
-urrent proble#$G noted one +,A #e#o$ Gis to %ind suitable
sub9e-tsG "he #en %ro# AD",+AO;: %ound their #ost -onve=
nient sour-e a#ong the %lotsa# and 9etsa# o% the international
sp! tradeL Gindividuals o% dubious lo!alt!$ suspe-ted agents or
plants$ sub9e-ts having kno)n reason %or de-eption$ et-$G as one
Agen-! do-u#ent des-ribed the# AD",+AO;: o%%i-ials
looked on these people as GuniBue resear-h #aterial$G %ro#
)ho# #eaning%ul se-rets #ight be e>tra-ted )hile the e>peri=
#ents )ent on
,t is %air to sa! that the +,A operators tended to put less
value on the lives o% these sub9e-ts than the! did on those o%
A#eri-an -ollege students$ upon )ho# preli#inar!$ #ore
benign testing )as done "he! tailored the sub9e-ts to suit
the ethi-al sensitivit! o% the e>peri#ent A ps!-hiatrist )ho
)orked on an AD",+AO;: tea# stresses that no one %ro#
the Agen-! )anted sub9e-ts to be hurt *et he and his -ol=
leagues )ere )illing to treat dubious de%e-tors and agents in
a )a! )hi-h not onl! )ould be pro%essionall! unethi-al in
the United States but also an indi-table -ri#e ,n short$
these sub9e-ts )ere$ i% not e>pendable$ at least not parti-u=
larl! pri.ed as hu#an beings As a +,A ps!-hologist )ho
)orked %or a de-ade in the behavior=-ontrol progra#$ puts
it$ GOne did not put a high pre#iu# on the -ivil rights o% a
person )ho )as treasonable to his o)n -ountr! or )ho )as
operating e%%e-tivel! to destro! usG Another e>=Agen-! ps!=
-hologist observes that +,A operators did not have Ga univer=
sal -on-ept o% #ankindG and thus )ere )illing to do things
to %oreigners that the! )ould have been relu-tant to tr! on
*) ORIGINS OF MIND-CONTROL RESEARCH
A#eri-ans G,t )as stri-tl! a patrioti- vision$G he sa!s
AD",+AO;: o%%i-ials never see#ed to be able to %ind enough
sub9e-ts "he pro%essional operatorsMparti-ularl! the tradi=
tionalistsM)ere relu-tant to turn over agents to the Se-urit!
#en )ith their unproved #ethods "he %ield #en did not par=
ti-ularl! )ant outsiders$ su-h as the AD",+AO;: -re)$ get=
ting #i>ed up in their operations ,n the sp! business$ agents
are ver! valuable propert! indeed$ and operators tend to be ver!
prote-tive o% the# "hus the AD",+AO;: tea#s )ere given
#ostl! the dregs o% the -landestine under)orld to )ork on
,ne>orabl!$ the AD",+AO;: #en -rossed the -lear ethi-al
lines 5orse Allen believed it proved little or nothing to e>peri=
#ent on volunteers )ho gave their in%or#ed -onsent For all
their e%%orts to a-t naturall!$ volunteers still kne) the! )ere
pla!ing in a #ake=believe ga#e +ons-iousl! or intuitivel!$
the! understood that no one )ould allo) the# to be har#ed
Allen %elt that onl! b! testing sub9e-ts G%or )ho# #u-h is at
stake Cperhaps li%e and deathE$G as he )rote$ -ould he get reli=
able results relevant to operations ,n do-u#ents and -onversa=
tion$ Allen and his -o)orkers -alled su-h realisti- tests Gter#i=
nal e>peri#entsGMter#inal in the sense that the e>peri#ent
)ould be -arried through to -o#pletion ,t )ould not end )hen
the sub9e-t %elt like going ho#e or )hen he or his best interest
)as about to be har#ed ,ndeed$ the sub9e-t usuall! had no idea
that he had ever been part o% an e>peri#ent
,n ever! %ield o% behavior -ontrol$ a-ade#i- resear-hers took
the )ork onl! so %ar Fro# 5orse Allen?s perspe-tive$ so#ebod!
then had to do the ter#inal e>peri#ent to %ind out ho) )ell the
te-hniBue )orked in the real )orldL ho) drugs a%%e-ted un)it=
ting sub9e-ts$ ho) #assive ele-trosho-k in%luen-ed #e#or!$
ho) prolonged sensor! deprivation disturbed the #ind B! de%i=
nition$ ter#inal e>peri#ents )ent be!ond -onventional ethi=
-al and legal li#its "he ulti#ate ter#inal e>peri#ents -aused
death$ but AD",+AO;: sour-es state that those )ere %orbid=
den
For -areer +,A o%%i-ials$ e>-eeding these li#its in the na#e
o% national se-urit! be-a#e part o% the 9ob$ although individual
operators usuall! had personal lines the! )ould not -ross 5ost
a-ade#i-s )anted no part o% the ga#e at this stageMnor did
Agen-! #en al)a!s like having these outsiders around ,% a-a=
de#i- and #edi-al -onsultants )ere brought along %or the ter=
#inal phase$ the! usuall! did the )ork overseas$ in se-ret As
COLD WAR ON THE MIND **
+ornell 5edi-al S-hool?s %a#ed neurologist Aarold Wol%% e>=
plained in a resear-h proposal he #ade to the +,A$ )hen an!
o% the tests involved doing har# to the sub9e-ts$ GWe e>pe-t the
Agen-! to #ake available suitable sub9e-ts and a proper pla-e
%or the per%or#an-e o% the ne-essar! e>peri#entsG An! pro=
%essional -aught tr!ing the kinds o% things the Agen-! -a#e to
sponsorMholding sub9e-ts prisoner$ shooting the# %ull o% un=
)anted drugsM probabl! )ould have been arrested %or kidnap=
ping or aggravated assault +ertainl! su-h a resear-her )ould
have been disgra-ed a#ong his peers *et$ b! per%or#ing the
sa#e e>peri#ent under the +,A?s banner$ he had no )orr!
%ro# the la) Ais -olleagues -ould not -ensure hi# be-ause
the! had no idea )hat he )as doing And he -ould take pride
in helping his -ountr!
Without having been there in person$ no one -an kno) e>=
a-tl! )hat it %elt like to take part in a ter#inal e>peri#ent ,n
an! -ase$ the sub9e-ts probabl! do not have %ond #e#ories o%
the e>perien-e While the resear-hers so#eti#es rese#bled
Alphonse and Gastone$ the! took the#selves and their )ork
ver! seriousl! (o) the! are either dead$ or$ %or their o)n rea=
sons$ the! do not )ant to talk about the tests Onl! in the %ollo)=
ing -ase have , been able to pie-e together an!thing approa-h=
ing a %irsthand a--ount o% a ter#inal e>peri#ent$ and this one
is Buite #ild -o#pared to the others the AD",+AO;: #en
planned
CHAPTER
THE
PROFESSOR AND
THE "A" TREATMENT
"he three #en )ere all part o% the
sa#e (av! tea#$ traveling
together to Ger#an! "heir trip
)as so sensitive that the! had
been ordered to ignore ea-h other$
even as the! )aited in the
ter#inal at Andre)s Air For-e
Base outside Washington on a
s)eltering August #orning in
10@8 4ust the #onth be%ore$
Gar! +ooper had opened in Hi/3
Noo"1 and the notion o% sho)=
do)nM)hether )ith outla)s or
-o##unistsM)as in the air
With )ar still raging in ;orea$
se-urit! -ons-iousness )as
high :ven so$ the se-re-!
surrounding this (av! #ission
)ent
)ell be!ond ordinar! "OP
S:+D:" restri-tions$ %or the tea#
)as slated to link up in Frank%urt
)ith a -ontingent %ro# the
#ost hush=hush agen-! o% all$ the
+,A "hen the -o#bined
group )as going to per%or#
dangerous e>peri#ents on hu#an
sub9e-ts Both (av! and +,A
o%%i-ials believed that an! dis-lo=
sure about these tests )ould -ause
grave har# to the A#eri-an
national interest
"he (av! tea# s)eated out a
t)o=hour dela! at Andre)s
be%ore the %our=engine #ilitar!
transport %inall! took o%% (ot
until the plane tou-hed do)n at
the A#eri-an %ield in the
A.ores did one o% the group$ a
representative o% (aval intelli=
gen-e$ %lash a prearranged signal
indi-ating that the! )ere not
being )at-hed and the! -ould talk
G,t )as all this -loak=and=
dagger -rap$G re-alls another
parti-ipant$ Dr Sa#uel "ho#p=
son$ a ps!-hiatrist$ ph!siologist$
3
and phar#a-ologist )ho )as
also a (av! -o##ander
THE 5ROFESSOR AND THE 7A 7 TREA TMENT *5
"he third #an in the part! )as G Di-hard Wendt$ -hair=
#an o% the Ps!-holog! Depart#ent at the Universit! o%
Do-hester and a part=ti#e (av! -ontra-tor A s#all K<=!ear=
old #an )ith gra!ing blond hair and a %air=si.ed paun-h$
Wendt had been the onl! one )ith -o#panionship during
the hours o% de-reed silen-e Ae had brought along his at=
tra-tive !oung assistant$ ostensibl! to help hi# )ith the e>=
peri#ents She )as not )ell re-eived b! the (av! #en$ nor
)ould she be appre-iated b! the +,A operators in Frank%urt
"he behavior=-ontrol %ield )as ver! #u-h a #an?s )orld$ e>=
-ept )hen )o#en sub9e-ts )ere used "he pro%essor?s rela=
tionship )ith this parti-ular lad! )as destined to be-o#e a
sour-e o% %ri-tion )ith his %ello) e>peri#enters$ and$ even=
tuall!$ a topi- o% o%%i-ial +,A reporting
,n theor!$ Pro%essor Wendt )orked under Dr "ho#pson?s
supervision in a highl! -lassi%ied (av! progra# -alled Pro9e-t
+AA"":D$ but the strong=#inded ps!-hologist did not take
an!one?s orders easil! Ier! #u-h an independent spirit$
Wendt ironi-all!$ had a--epted +AA"":D?S goal o% )eaken=
ing$ i% not eli#inating$ %ree )ill in others "he (av! progra#$
)hi-h had started in 10K7$ )as ai#ed at developing a truth
drug that )ould %or-e people to reveal their inner#ost se-rets
"ho#pson$ )ho inherited Wendt and +AA"":D in 10@1
)hen he be-a#e head o% ps!-hiatri- resear-h at the (aval
5edi-al Desear-h ,nstitute$ re#e#bers (aval intelligen-e tell=
ing hi# o% the need %or a truth drug in -ase Gso#eone planted
an A=bo#b in one o% our -ities and )e had t)elve hours to %ind
out %ro# a person )here it )as What -ould )e do to #ake hi#
talkOG "ho#pson -on-edes he )as al)a!s GnegativeG about the
possibilit! that su-h a drug -ould ever e>ist$ but he -ites the
%ear that the Dussians #ight develop their o)n #ira-le potion
as reason enough to 9usti%! the progra# Also$ "ho#pson and
the other US o%%i-ials -ould not resist looking %or a pill or
pana-ea that )ould so#eho) #ake their side all=kno)ing or
all=po)er%ul
Pro%essor Wendt had e>peri#ented )ith drugs %or the (av!
be%ore he be-a#e involved in the sear-h %or a truth seru# Ais
earlier )ork had been on the use o% dra#a#ine and other
#ethods to prevent #otion si-kness$ and no) that he )as doing
#ore sensitive resear-h$ the (av! hid it under the -over o%
-ontinuing his G#otion si-knessG stud! At the end o% 10@6$ the
(av! gave Wendt a S766$666 -ontra-t to stud! su-h substan-es
as barbiturates$ a#pheta#ines$ al-ohol$ and heroin "o pre=
* ORIGINS OF MIND-CONTROL RESEARCH
serve se-re-!$ )hi-h o%ten rea-hed %etish proportions in #ind=
-ontrol resear-h$ the #one! %lo)ed to hi# not through (av!
-hannels but out o% the Se-retar! o% De%ense?s -ontingen-!
%und For those drugs that )ere not available %ro# phar=
#a-euti-al -o#panies$ (av! o%%i-ials )ent to the Federal Bu=
reau o% (ar-oti-s "he +o##issioner o% (ar-oti-s personall!
signed the papers$ and spe-ial -ouriers -arried pou-hes o% il=
legal drugs through Washington streets and then up to the pro=
%essor at Do-hester De-eipts sho) that the Bureau sent the
(av! 76 gra#s o% pure heroin and 11 pounds o% G5e>i-an
gro)nG #ari9uana$ a#ong other drugs
Like #ost serious drug resear-hers$ Wendt sa#pled ever!=
thing %irst be%ore testing on assistants and students "he drug
that took up the #ost spa-e in his %irst progress report )as
heroin Ae had be-a#e his o)n pri#e sub9e-t At )eekl! inter=
vals$ he told the (av!$ the ps!-hologist gave hi#sel% heroin
in9e-tions and then )rote do)n his rea-tions as he #oved
through the G%ull rangeG o% his li%eL driving$ shopping$ re-rea=
tion$ #anual )ork$ %a#il! relations$ and se>ual a-tivit! Ae
noted in hi#sel% Gslight euphoria heightened aestheti- ap=
pre-iation absent#inded behavior la-k o% desire to
operate at %ull speed la-k o% desire %or al-ohol possibl!
redu-ed se> interest %eeling o% ph!si-al )ell=beingG Ae
-on-luded in his report that heroin -ould have Gso#e$ but slight
value %or interrogationG i% used on so#eone G)orked on %or a
long period o% ti#eGP
Wendt never had an! trouble getting student volunteers Ae
si#pl! posted a noti-e on a -a#pus bulletin board$ and he
)ound up )ith a long )aiting list Ae -hose onl! #en sub9e-ts
over 81$ and he paid ever!one a--epted a%ter a long intervie)
S166 an hour With so #u-h govern#ent #one! to spend$ he
hired over 86 sta%% assistants$ and he built a )hole ne) testing
%a-ilit! in the atti- o% the s-hool librar! Wendt )as -autious
)ith his students$ and he apparentl! did not share the hard
drugs )ith the# Ae usuall! tested sub9e-ts in s#all groupsM
PWhat Wendt appears to have been getting atMna#el!$ that repeated shots o%
heroin #ight have an e%%e-t on interrogationM)as stated e>pli-itl! in a 10@8
+,A do-u#ent )hi-h de-lared the drug G-an be use%ul in reverse be-ause o%
the stresses produ-ed )hen )ithdra)n %ro# those addi-tedG Wendt?s inter=
est in heroin see#s to have lasted to his death in 1077$ long a%ter his e>peri=
#ents had stopped "he )o#an )ho -leaned out his sa%e at that ti#e told the
Do-hester De0o!.a- a"d C3.o"i!4e she %ound a Buantit! o% the )hite po)der$
along )ith s!ringes and a good #an! other drugs
THE 5ROFESSOR AND THE 7A 7 TREA TMENT *$
%our to eight at a ti#e Ae and his asso-iates )at-hed through
a t)o=)a! #irror and )rote do)n the sub9e-ts? rea-tions Ae
al)a!s used both pla-ebos Cinert substan-esE and drugsF the
students never kne) )hatMi% an!thingMthe! )ere taking A-=
-ording to Dr "ho#pson$ to have alerted the# in advan-e and
thus given the#selves a -han-e to steel the#selves up G)ould
have spoiled the e>peri#entG
(onetheless$ Wendt?s pro-edure )as a %ar -r! %ro# true un=
)itting testing An! drug that )as po)er%ul enough to break
through an ene#!?s resistan-e -ould have a trau#ati- e%%e-t on
the person taking itMparti-ularl! i% the sub9e-t )as totall! un=
a)are o% )hat )as happening "he (av! resear-h plan )as to
do preli#inar! studies on sub9e-ts like Wendt?s students$ and
then$ as soon as the drug sho)ed pro#ise$ to tr! it under %ield
-onditions Under nor#al s-ienti%i- resear-h$ the operational
tests )ould not have been run be%ore the basi- )ork )as
%inished But the (av! -ould not )ait "he drugs )ere to be
tested on involuntar! sub9e-ts "ho#pson readil! ad#its that
this pro-edure )as Gunethi-al$G but he sa!s$ GWe %elt )e had to
do it %or the good o% -ountr!G
During the su##er o% 10@8$ Pro%essor Wendt announ-ed that
he had %ound a -on-o-tion Gso spe-ialG that it )ould be 7-3e
ans)erG to the truth=drug proble#$ as "ho#pson re-alls it G,
thought it )ould be a good idea to -all the Agen-!$G sa!s
"ho#pson G, thought the! #ight have so#eone )ith so#e=
thing to spillG Wendt )as ada#ant on one pointL Ae )ould not
tell an!one in the (av! or the +,A )hat his potion -ontained
Ae )ould onl! de#onstrate (either the +AA"":D nor AD",=
+AO;: tea#s -ould resist the bait "he (av! had no sour-e o%
sub9e-ts %or ter#inal e>peri#ents$ but the +,A #en agreed to
%urnish the hu#an beingsMin Ger#an!Meven though the!
had no idea )hat Wendt had in store %or his guinea pigs "he
+,A na#ed the operation +AS",GA":
A%ter settling into a Frank%urt hotel$ Wendt$ "ho#pson$ and
the (aval ,ntelligen-e #an set out to #eet the AD",+AO;:
-re) at the lo-al +,A headBuarters ,t )as lo-ated in the huge$
elongated building that had housed the , G Farben industrial
-o#ple> until the end o% the )ar "he %ranti- bustle o% a US
#ilitar! installation provided ideal -over %or this +,A base$ and
the arrival o% a %e) ne) A#eri-ans attra-ted no spe-ial atten=
tion "he (av! group passed Bui-kl! through the lobb! and
rode up the elevator At the +,A outer o%%i-e$ the tea# #e#bers
*% ORIGINS OF MIND-CONTROL RESEARCH
had to sho) identi%i-ation$ and "ho#pson sa!s the! )ere
%risked "he (aval ,ntelligen-e #an had to -he-k his revolver
A se-retar! ushered the (av! group in to #eet the AD",=
+AO;: -ontingent$ )hi-h had arrived earlier %ro# Washing=
ton "he part! in-luded tea# leader 5orse Allen$ his boss in the
O%%i-e o% Se-urit!$ Paul Ga!nor$ and a pro#inent Washington
ps!-hiatrist )ho regularl! le%t his private pra-ti-e to %l! o%% on
spe-ial #issions %or the Agen-! Also present )ere -ase o%%i-ers
%ro# the +,A?s Frank%urt base )ho had taken -are o% the sup=
port arrange#entsMthe #ost i#portant o% )hi-h )as suppl!=
ing the sub9e-ts
:ver!one at the #eeting )anted to kno) )hat drugs Wendt
)as going to use on the %ive sele-ted sub9e-ts$ )ho in-luded one
kno)n double agent$ one suspe-ted double$ and the three de%e-=
tors "he pro%essor still )as not talking Dr "ho#pson asked
)hat )ould happen i% so#ething )ent )rong and the sub9e-t
died Ae re-alls one o% the Frank%urt +,A #en repl!ing$ GDis=
posal o% the bod! )ould be no proble#G
A%ter the session ended$ "ho#pson took Wendt aside and
pointed out that sin-e the pro%essor$ unlike "ho#pson$ )as
neither a ps!-hiatrist nor a phar#a-ologist$ he )as a-ting irre=
sponsibl! in not having a Buali%ied ph!si-ian standing b! )ith
antidotes in -ase o% trouble Wendt %inall! relented and -on%ided
in "ho#pson that he )as going to slip the sub9e-ts a -o#bina=
tion o% the depressant Se-onal$ the sti#ulant De>edrine$ and
tetrah!dro-annabinol$ the a-tive ingredient in #ari9uana
"ho#pson )as du#b%ounded Ae re#e#bers )anting to shoot
Wendt on the spot "hese )ere all )ell=kno)n drugs that had
been thoroughl! tested ,ndeed$ even the idea o% #i>ing Se=
-onal and De>edrine )as not originalL "he -o#bined drug al=
read! had its o)n brand na#eMDe>a#!l Cand it )ould eventu=
all! have a street na#e$ Gthe goo%ballGE "ho#pson Bui-kl!
passed on to the +,A #en )hat Wendt had in #indP "he!$ too$
)ere #ore than a little disappointed
(evertheless$ there )as never an! thought o% stopping the
e>peri#ents "he AD",+AO;: tea# had its o)n #ethods to
tr!$ even i% Wendt?s proved a %ailure$ and the )hole a%%air had
developed its o)n #o#entu# Sin-e this )as one o% the earl!
PBeing good under-over operators$ the +,A #en never let on to Wendt that the!
kne) his se-ret$ and Wendt )as not about to give it a)a! "o)ard the end o%
the trip$ he told the -onsultant he )ould %eel Gunpatrioti-G i% he )ere to share
his se-ret be-ause the AD",+AO;: tea# )as Gnot -o#petentG to use the drugs
THE 5ROFESSOR AND THE 7A 7 TREA TMENT *&
AD",+AO;: trips into the %ield$ the tea# )as still )orking to
per%e-t the logisti-s o% testing ,t had reserved t)o +,A Gsa%e=
housesG in the -ountr!side not %ar %ro# Frank%urt$ and A#eri=
-ans had been assigned to guard the e>peri#ental sites Agen-!
#anagers had alread! -o#pleted the paper)ork %or the instal=
lation o% hidden #i-rophones and t)o=)a! #irrors$ so all the
tea# #e#bers -ould #onitor the interrogations
"he %irst sa%ehouse proved to be a solid old %ar#house set
pi-turesBuel! in the #iddle o% green %ields$ %ar %ro# the nearest
d)elling "he AD",+AO;: and +AA"":D groups drove up
9ust as the +,A?s -arpenters )ere -leaning up the #ess the! had
#ade in ripping a hole through the building?s thi-k )alls "he
house had e>isted %or several hundred !ears )ithout an obser=
vation glass peering in on the sitting roo#$ and it had put up
so#e stru-tural resistan-e to the )ork#en
Sub9e-t U 1 arrived in the earl! a%ternoon$ delivered in a
+,A sedan b! ar#ed operators$ )ho had hand-u%%ed hi#$
sha-kled his %eet$ and #ade hi# lie do)n on the %loor o% the
ba-k seat Agen-! o%%i-ials des-ribed hi# as a suspe-ted Dus=
sian agent$ about K6 !ears old$ )ho had a GDon 4uan -o#=
ple>G One -an onl! i#agine ho) the sub9e-t #ust have
rea-ted to these rather in-onsistent A#eri-ans )ho onl! a
%e) hours earlier had literall! grabbed hi# out o% -on%ine=
#ent$ harshl! bound hi#$ and sat #ore or less on top o% hi#
as the! )andered through id!lli- Ger#an %ar# -ountr!$ and
)ho no) )ere telling hi# to rela> as the! engaged hi# in
%riendl! -onversation and o%%ered hi# a beer Ae had no
)a! o% kno)ing that it )ould be the last unspiked drink he
)ould have %or Buite so#e ti#e
On the %ollo)ing #orning$ the testing started in earnest
Wendt put 86 #g o% Se-onal in the sub9e-t?s break%ast and then
%ollo)ed up )ith @6 #g o% De>edrine in ea-h o% his t)o #orn=
ing -ups o% -o%%ee Wendt gave hi# a se-ond dose o% Se-onal in
his lun-heon beer "he sub9e-t )as obviousl! not his nor#al
sel%M)hatever that )as What )as -lear )as that Wendt )as
in )a! over his head$ and even the little pro%essor see#ed to
reali.e it G, don?t kno) ho) to deal )ith these people$G he told
the +,A ps!-hiatri- -onsultant Wendt %latl! re%used to e>a#=
ine the sub9e-t$ leaving the interrogation to the -onsultant For
his part$ the -onsultant had little su--ess in e>tra-ting in%or=
#ation not alread! kno)n to the +,A
"he third da! )as #ore o% the sa#eL Se-onal )ith break%ast$
4( ORIGINS OF MIND-CONTROL RESEARCH
De>edrine and #ari9uana in a glass o% )ater a%ter)ards "he
onl! break %ro# the previous da!?s routine -a#e at 16L16 A5
)hen the sub9e-t )as allo)ed to pla! a short poker ga#e "hen
he )as given #ore o% Wendt?s drugs in t)o red -apsules that
)ere$ he )as told$ Ga pres-ription %or his nervesG B! 8LK6 P5$
Wendt de-lared that this sub9e-t )as not the right personalit!
t!pe %or his treat#ent Ae e>plained to his disgusted -olleagues
that i% so#eone is deter#ined to lie$ these drugs )ill onl! #ake
hi# a better liar Ae said that the #ari9uana e>tra-t produ-ed
a %eeling o% not )anting to hold an!thing ba-k and that it
)orked best on people )ho )anted to tell the truth but )ere
a%raid to OSS had dis-overed the sa#e thing al#ost a de-ade
earlier
Wendt retired te#poraril! %ro# the s-ene$ and the others
-on-luded it )ould be a sha#e to )aste a good sub9e-t "he!
de-ided to give hi# the GAG C%or AD",+AO;:E treat#ent "his$
too$ )as not ver! original ,t had been used during the )ar to
interrogate prisoners and treat shell=sho-ked soldiers As pra-=
ti-ed on the suspe-ted Dussian agent$ it -onsisted o% in9e-ting
enough sodiu# pentothal into the vein o% his ar# to kno-k hi#
out and then$ t)ent! #inutes later$ sti#ulating hi# ba-k to
se#i-ons-iousness )ith a shot o% Ben.edrine ,n this -ase$ the
ben.edrine did not revive the sub9e-t enough to suit the ps!-hi=
atri- -onsultant and he told Dr "ho#pson to give the sub9e-t
another 16 #g ten #inutes later "his put the sub9e-t into a
state so#e)here bet)een )aking and sleepingMal#ost -o#a=
tose and !et bug=e!ed ,n h!pnoti- tones that had to be trans=
lated into Dussian b! an interpreter$ the -onsultant used the
te-hniBue o% GregressionG to -onvin-e the sub9e-t he )as talk=
ing to his )i%e :va at so#e earlier ti#e in his li%e "his )as no
eas! tri-k$ sin-e a #ale interpreter )as pla!ing :va (everthe=
less$ the -onsultant states he -ould G-reate an! %antas!G )ith <6
to 76 per-ent o% his patients$ using nar-otherap! Cas in this
-aseE or h!pnosis For roughl! an hour$ the sub9e-t see#ed to
have no idea he )as not speaking )ith his )i%e but )ith +,A
operatives tr!ing to %ind out about his relationship )ith Soviet
intelligen-e When the sub9e-t started to do.e$ the -onsultant
had "ho#pson give hi# a doubled 9olt o% Ben.edrine A hal%
hour later$ the sub9e-t began to )eep violentl! "he -onsultant
de-ided to end the session$ and in his #ost soothing voi-e$ he
urged the sub9e-t to %all asleep As the sub9e-t -al#ed do)n$ the
-onsultant suggested$ )ith %riendl! and soothing )ords$ that
THE 5ROFESSOR AND THE 7A 7 TREA TMENT 4'
the sub9e-t )ould re#e#ber nothing o% the e>perien-e )hen
he )oke up
,ndu-ing a#nesia )as an i#portant Agen-! goal GFro# the
AD",+AO;: point o% vie)$G states a 10@8 do-u#ent$ Gthe
greater the a#nesia produ-ed$ the #ore e%%e-tive the resultsG
Obviousl! i% a vi-ti# re#e#bered the GAG treat#ent$ it )ould
stop being a -losel! guarded AD",+AO;: se-ret Presu#abl!$
so#e sub9e-t )ho reall! did )ork %or the Dussians )ould tell
the# ho) the A#eri-ans had )orked hi# over "his realit!
#ade GdisposalG o% AD",+AO;: sub9e-ts a parti-ular prob=
le# ;illing the# see#s to have been ruled out$ but Agen-!
o%%i-ials #ade sure that so#e sta!ed in %oreign prisons %or long
periods o% ti#e While in nu#erous spe-i%i- -ases$ AD",=
+AO;: tea# #e#bers -lai#ed su--ess in #aking their sub=
9e-ts %orget$ their outside -onsultants had told the# Gthat short
o% -utting a sub9e-t?s throat$ a true a#nesia -annot be guaran=
teedG As earl! as 10@6$ the Agen-! had put out a -ontra-t to a
private resear-her to %ind a #e#or!=destro!ing drug$ but to no
apparent availP ,n an! -ase$ it )ould be unreasonable to as=
su#e that over the !ears at least one AD",+AO;: sub9e-t did
not shake o%% the a#nesi- -o##ands and tell the Dussians
)hat happened to hi# As )as so o%ten the -ase )ith +,A=opera=
tions$ the ene#! probabl! had a #u-h better idea o% the
Agen-!?s a-tivities than the %olks ba-k ho#e
Ba-k at the sa%ehouse$ Wendt )as %ar %ro# through Four
#ore sub9e-ts )ould be brought to hi# "he ne>t one )as an
alleged double agent )ho# the +,A had -ode=na#ed :NPLO=
S,I: Agen-! do-u#ents des-ribe hi# as a Dussian Gpro%es=
sional agent t!peG and Ga hard=boiled individual )ho appar=
entl! has the abilit! to lie -onsistentl! but not ver! e%%e-tivel!G
Ae )as no stranger to AD",+AO;: tea# #e#bers )ho$ a %e)
#onths be%ore$ had plied hi# )ith a #i>ture o% drugs and
h!pnosis under the -over o% a Gps!-hiatri-=#edi-alG e>a# At
that ti#e$ a pro%essional h!pnotist had a--o#panied the tea#$
and he had given his -o##ands through an elaborate inter-o#
s!ste# to an interpreter )ho$ in turn$ )as apparentl! able to
put :NPLOS,I: under A%ter)ard$ the tea# reported to the
GAo#er reported the an-ient Greeks had su-h a substan-eMnepentheMGa drug
to lull all pain and anger$ and bring %orget%ulness o% ever! sorro)G
t(either 5orse Allen nor an!one else on the AD",+AO;: tea#s spoke an!
%oreign languages Allen believed that the di%%i-ult! in -o##uni-ating )ith the
guinea pigs ha#pered AD",+AO;: resear-h
4) ORIGINS OF MIND-CONTROL RESEARCH
+,A?s Dire-tor that :NPLOS,I: had revealed Ge>tre#el! valu=
ableG in%or#ation and that he had been #ade to %orget his
interrogation through a h!pnoti-all! indu-ed a#nesia Sin-e
that ti#e :NPLOS,I: had been kept in -ustod! (o) he )as
being brought out to give Pro%essor Wendt a -ra-k at hi# )ith
the Se-onal=De>edrine=#ari9uana -o#bination
"his ti#e$ Wendt gave the sub9e-t all three drugs together in
one beer$ delivered at the -o-ktail hour (e>t -a#e Se-onal in
a dinner beer and then all three on-e #ore in a postprandial
beer "here )ere little$ i% an!$ positive results Wendt ended the
session a%ter #idnight and -o##ented$ GAt least )e learned
one thing %ro# this e>peri#ent "he people !ou have to deal
)ith here are di%%erent %ro# A#eri-an -ollege studentsG
During the ne>t )eek$ the +,A #en brought Wendt three
#ore sub9e-ts$ )ith little su--ess "he general attitude to)ard
Wendt be-a#e$ in "ho#pson?s )ords$ Ghostile as all hellG Both
the Agen-! and the (av! groups Buestioned his -o#peten-e
With one sub9e-t$ the pro%essor de-lared he had given too
strong a doseF )ith the ne>t$ too )eak While he had advertised
his drugs as tasteless$ the sub9e-ts reali.ed the! had s)allo)ed
so#ething As one sub9e-t in the ne>t roo# )as being interro=
gated in Dussian that no one )as bothering to translate$ Wendt
took to pla!ing the sa#e pattern on the piano over and over %or
a hal% hour While the %inal sub9e-t )as being Buestioned$
Wendt and his %e#ale assistant got a little tips! on beer Wendt
be-a#e so distra-ted during this e>peri#ent that he %inall!
ad#itted$ G5! thoughts are else)hereG Ais assistant began to
giggle Aer presen-e had be-o#e like an open soreM)hi-h )as
#ade #ore pain%ul )hen 5rs Wendt sho)ed up in Frank%urt
and the pro%essor threatened to 9u#p o%% a -hur-h to)er$
"ho#pson re-alls
Wendt is not alive to give his version o% )hat happened$ but
both +,A and (av! sour-es are -onsistent in their des-ription
o% hi# AD",+AO;: tea# leader 5orse Allen %elt he had been
the vi-ti# o% Ga %raud or at least a gross #isinterpretation$G
and he des-ribed the trip as Ga )aste o% ti#e and #one!G A
#an )ho usuall! hid his %eelings$ Allen be-a#e livid )hen
Wendt?s assistant #easured drugs out )ith a penkni%e Ae
re-o##ended in his %inal report that those )ho develop drugs
not be allo)ed to parti-ipate in %uture %ield testing G"his$ o%
-ourse$ does not #ean that e>peri#ental )ork is -onde#ned b!
the AD",+AO;: tea#$G he )rote$ Gbut a -o##on sense ap=
THE 5ROFESSOR AND THE 7A 7 TREA TMENT 4*
proa-h in this dire-tion )ill pre-lude argu#ents$ alibis$ and
-o#plaints as in the re-ent situationG ,n keeping )ith this
G-o##on sense approa-h$G he also re-o##ended that as Gan
absolute rule$G no )o#en be allo)ed on AD",+AO;: #issions
Mbe-ause o% the possible danger and be-ause Gpersonal -onve=
nien-e$ toilet %a-ilities$ et-$ are -o#pli-ated b! the presen-e o%
)o#enG
5orse Allen and his AD",+AO;: #ates returned to the
States still -onvin-ed that the! -ould %ind )a!s to -ontrol
hu#an behavior$ but the (av! #en )ere shaken "heir pri=
#ar! -ontra-tor had turned out to be a tre#endous e#barrass=
#ent Dr "ho#pson stated he -ould never )ork )ith Wendt
again (av! o%%i-ials soon su##oned Wendt to Bethesda and
told hi# the! )ere -an-eling their support %or his resear-h
Adding insult to in9ur!$ the! told hi# the! e>pe-ted re%und o%
all unspent #one! While the (av! #anagers #ade so#e e%%ort
to -ontinue +AA"":D at other institutions$ the progra# never
re-overed %ro# the Wendt %ias-o B! the end o% the ne>t !ear$
10@7$ the ;orean War had ended and the (av! abandoned
+AA"":D altogether
Over the ne>t t)o de-ades$ the (av! )ould still sponsor large
a#ounts o% spe-iali.ed behavioral resear-h$ and the Ar#!
)ould invest huge su#s in s-he#es to in-apa-itate )hole ar=
#ies )ith po)er%ul drugs But the +,A -learl! pulled %ar into
the lead in #ind -ontrol ,n those areas in )hi-h #ilitar! re=
sear-h -ontinued$ the Agen-! sta!ed )a! ahead "he +,A -on=
sistentl! )as out on )hat )as -alled the G-utting edgeG o% the
resear-h$ sponsoring the lion?s share o% the #ost harro)ing
e>peri#ents AD",+AO;: and its su--essor +,A progra#s be=
-a#e an enor#ous e%%ort that harnessed the energies o% hun=
dreds o% s-ientists
"he e>perien-e o% the +,A ps!-hiatri- -onsultant provides a
s#all personal gli#pse o% ho) it %elt to be a soldier in the
#ind=-ontrol -a#paign "his ps!-hiatrist$ )ho insists on ano=
n!#it!$ esti#ates that he #ade bet)een 18@ and 1@6 trips over=
seas on Agen-! operations %ro# 10@8 through his retire#ent in
10<< G"o be a ps!-hiatrist -hasing o%% to :urope instead o% 9ust
seeing the sa#e patients !ear a%ter !ear$ that )as e>traordi=
nar!$G he re#inis-es G, )ish , )as ba-k in those da!s , never
got tired o% itG Ae sa!s his assign#ents -alled %or Gpra-ti-ing
ps!-hiatr! in an ideal )a!$ )hi-h #eant !ou didn?t be-o#e
involved )ith !our patients *ou )eren?t supposed toG Asked
44 ORIGINS OF MIND-CONTROL RESEARCH
ho) he %elt about using drugs on un)itting %oreigners$ he
snaps$ GDepends )hi-h side !ou )ere on , never hurt an!one
We )ere at )arG
For the #ost part$ the ps!-hiatrist stopped giving the GAG treat=
#ent a%ter the #id=10@6s but he -ontinued to use his pro%es=
sional skills to assess and #anipulate agents and de%e-tors Ais
9ob )as to help %ind out i% a sub9e-t )as under another -ountr!?s
-ontrol and to re-o##end ho) the person -ould be s)it-hed to
the +,A?s ,n this )ork$ he )as -ontributing to the #ainstrea#
o% +,A a-tivit! that per#eates its institutional e>isten-e %ro#
its operations to its internal politi-s to its so-ial li%eL the notion
o% -ontrolling people Finding reliable )a!s to do that is a pri=
#ar! +,A goal$ and the business is o%ten a brutal one As %or#er
+,A Dire-tor Di-hard Ael#s stated in Senate testi#on!$ G"he
-landestine operator is trained to believe !ou -an?t -ount on
the honest! o% !our agent to do e>a-tl! )hat !ou )ant or to
report a--uratel! unless !ou o)n hi# bod! and soulG
Like all the )orld?s se-ret servi-es$ the +,A sought to %ind the
best #ethods o% o)ning people and #aking sure the! sta!ed
o)ned Ao) -ould an operator be sure o% an agent?s lo!altiesO
De%ugees and de%e-tors )ere %looding Western :urope$ and the
+,A )anted to e>ploit the# Whi-h ones )ere telling the truthO
Who )as a de-eption agent or a provo-ateurO "he Anglo=
A#eri-an se-ret invasion o% Albania had %ailed #iserabl!
Aad the! been betra!edOP Who# -ould the +,A trustO
One )a! to tr! to ans)er these Buestions is to use ph!si-al
duressMor torture Aside %ro# its ethi-al dra)ba-ks$ ho)ever$
ph!si-al brutalit! si#pl! does not )ork ver! )ell As a senior
-ounterintelligen-e o%%i-ial e>plains$ G,% !ou have a blo)tor-h
up so#eone?s ass$ he?ll give !ou ta-ti-al in%or#ationG *et he
)ill not be )illing or able to pla! the #odern espionage ga#e
on the level desired b! the +,A One Agen-! do-u#ent e>-ludes
the use o% torture Gbe-ause su-h inhu#an treat#ent is not onl!
out o% keeping )ith the traditions o% this -ountr!$ but o% dubious
G"he ans)er )as !es$ in the sense that Soviet agent Aarold G;i#G
Philb!$
)orking as British intelligen-e?s liaison )ith the +,A apparentl!
in%or#ed his
sp!#asters o% spe-i%i- plans to set up anti-o##unist resistan-e
#ove#ents in
Albania and all over :astern :urope "he Dussians al#ost -ertainl!
learned
about +,A plans to overthro) -o##unist rule in :astern :urope and in
the
Soviet Union itsel% ;no)ing o% su-h operations presu#abl! in-reased
Soviet
hostilit!

THE 5ROFESSOR AND THE 7A 7 TREA TMENT 45

e%%e-tiveness as -o#pared )ith various supple#ental ps!=
-hoanal!ti-al te-hniBuesG
"he se-ond and #ost popular #ethod to get ans)ers is tradi=
tional sp! trade-ra%t Given enough ti#e$ a good interrogator
-an ver! o%ten %ind out a person?s se-rets Ae applies persuasion
and #ental sedu-tion$ #i>ed )ith ps!-hologi-al pressures o%
ever! des-riptionMe#otional -arrots and sti-ks A su--ess%ul
-overt operator uses the sa#e sorts o% te-hniBues in re-ruiting
agents and #aking sure the! sta! in line While the rest o% the
population #a! dabble in this sort o% #anipulation$ the pro%es=
sional operator does it %or a living$ and he operates #ostl! out=
side the s!ste# o% restraints that nor#all! govern personal
relationships G, never gave a thought to legalit! or #oralit!$G
states a retired and Buite -!ni-al Agen-! -ase o%%i-er )ith over
86 !ears? e>perien-e GFrankl!$ , did )hat )orkedG
"he operator pursues people he -an turn into G-ontrolled
sour-esGMagents )illing to do his bidding either in suppl!ing
intelligen-e or taking -overt a-tion Ae seeks people in a posi=
tion to do so#ething use%ul %or the Agen-!Mor )ho so#eda!
0i/3- be in su-h a position$ perhaps )ith +,A aid On-e he
pi-ks his target$ he usuall! looks %or a )eakness or vulnerabil=
it! he -an pla! on Like a good %isher#an$ the -lever operator
kno)s that the )a! to hook his pre! is to -hoose an appropriate
bait$ )hi-h the target )ill think he is sei.ing be-ause he )ants
to "he hook has to be %ir#l! i#plantedF the agent so#eti#es
tries to es-ape on-e he understands the i#pli-ations o% betra!=
ing his -ountr! While the -ase o%%i-er #ight tr! to -onvin-e
hi# he is a-ting %or the good o% his ho#eland$ the agent #ust
still %a-e up to being branded a traitor
Does ever! #an have his pri-eO (ot e>a-tl!$ states the senior
-ounterintelligen-e #an$ but he believes a shre)d operator
-an usuall! %ind a )a! to rea-h an!one$ parti-ularl! through
his %a#il! ,n developing -ountries$ the Agen-! has -aused
%a#il! #e#bers to be arrested and #istreated b! the lo-al
poli-e$ given or )ithheld #edi-al -are %or a si-k -hild$ and$
#ore prosai-all!$ provided s-holarships %or a relative to stud!
abroad "his kind o% ta-ti- does not )ork as )ell on a Dussian
or Western :uropean$ )ho does not live in a so-iet! )here the
+,A -an e>ert pressure so easil!
Like a do-tor?s bedside #anner or a la)!er?s -ourtroo# st!le$
sp! trade-ra%t is highl! personali.ed Di%%erent -ase o%%i-ers
s)ear b! di%%erent approa-hes$ and su--ess%ul #ethods are
4 ORIGINS OF MIND-CONTROL RESEARCH
-are%ull! observed and -opied 5ost +,A operators see# to pre=
%er using an ideologi-al lure i% the! -an 4ohn Sto-k)ell$ )ho
le%t the Agen-! in 1077 to )rite a book about +,A operations in
Angola$ believes his best agents )ere Gpeople -onvin-ed the!
)ere doing the right thing )ho disliked -o##unists and %elt
the +,A )as the right organi.ationG Sto-k)ell re-alls his
Agen-! instru-tors Gha##ering a)a! at the positive aspe-t o%
re-ruit#ent "his )as )here the! established the #!th o% +,A
-ase o%%i-ers being good gu!s "he! said )e didn?t use negative
-ontrol$ and )e al)a!s #ade the relationship so that both par=
ties )ere better o%% %or having )orked togetherG 5ore -!ni-al
operators$ like the one Buoted above$ take a di%%erent vie)L G*ou
-an?t -reate real #otivation in a person b! )aving the %lag or
b! sa!ing this is %or the %uture good o% de#o-ra-! *ou?ve got
to have a %ir#er hold than that Ais opinions -an -hangeG
"his e>=operator %avors approa-hes based either on revenge or
helping the agent advan-e his -areerL
"hose are good #otives be-ause the! -an be -reated )ith the
individual 5a!be !ou start )ith a +o##unist part! -ell
#e#ber and !ou help hi# be-o#e a distri-t -o##ittee #e#ber
b! eli#inating his -o#petition$ or !ou help hi# get a position
)here he -an get even )ith so#eone At the sa#e ti#e$ he?s
giving !ou #ore and #ore in%or#ation as he #oves %or)ard$ and
i% !ou ever sur%a-e his reports$ he?s out o% business *ou?ve reall!
got hi# )rapped up *ou don?t even have to tell hi# Ae reali.es
it hi#sel%
(o #atter )hat the approa-h to the prospe-tive agent$ the
-ase o%%i-er tries to #ake #one! a %a-tor in the relationship
So#eti#es the )hole re-ruiting pit-h revolves around enri-h=
#ent ,n other instan-es$ the -ase o%%i-er allo)s the target the
illusion that he has sold out %or higher #otives Al)a!s$ ho)=
ever$ the operator tries to use #one! to #ake the agent depen=
dent "he situation -an be-o#e sti-k! )ith #one!=#inded
agents )hen the -ase o%%i-er insists that part or all o% the pa!=
#ents be pla-ed in es-ro)$ to prevent attra-ting undue atten=
tion But even -ash does not -reate -ontrol in the sp! business
As the -!ni-al -ase o%%i-er puts it$ G5one! is tenuous be-ause
so#ebod! -an al)a!s o%%er #oreG
Surprisingl!$ ea-h o% the +,A operators sa#pled agrees that
overt bla-k#ail is a highl! overrated %or# o% -ontrol "he sen=
THE 5ROFESSOR AND THE 7A 7 TREA TMENT 4$
ior -ounterintelligen-e #an notes that )hile the Dussians %re=
Buentl! use so#e variet! o% entrap#entMse>ual or other)ise
Mthe +,A rarel! did GIer! %e) QAgen-!R -ase o%%i-ers )ere
tough enoughG to pull it o%% and sustain it$ he sa!s GAn!ti#e an
agent has been %or-ed to -ooperate$ !ou -an take it %or granted
that he has t)o things on his #indL he is looking %or a )a! out
and %or revenge Given the slightest opportunit!$ he )ill hit !ou
right bet)een the e!esG Bla-k#ail -ould ba-k%ire in une>=
pe-ted )a!s 4ohn Sto-k)ell re#e#bers an agent in Southeast
Asia )ho )anted to BuitL G"he -ase o%%i-er leaned on the gu!
and said$ ?Look$ %riend$ )e still need !our intelligen-e$ and )e
have re-eipts !ou signed )hi-h )e -an turn over to the lo-al
poli-e? "he agent ble) his brains out$ leaving a sui-ide note
regretting his -ooperation )ith the +,A and telling ho) the
Agen-! had tried to bla-k#ail hi# ,t -aused so#e proble#s
)ith the lo-al govern#entG
"he -ase o%%i-er al)a!s tries to )eave an ever=tightening )eb
o% -ontrol around his agent Ais #ethods o% doing so are so
personal and so basi- that the! o%ten reveal #ore about the -ase
o%%i-er hi#sel% than the agent$ re%le-ting his outlook and his
personal philosoph! "he -!ni-al operator des-ribes his usual
te-hniBue$ )hi-h turns out to be a %or# o% %alse idealis#L
G*ou?ve got to treat a #an as an eBual and -onvin-e hi# !ou?re
partners in this thing :ven i% he?s a -o##unist part! #e#ber$
!ou -an?t deal )ith hi# like a -ru#b *ou sit do)n )ith hi#
and ask ho) are the kids$ and !ou re#e#ber that he told !ou
last ti#e that his son )as having trouble in s-hool *ou build
personal rapport ,% !ou treat hi# like dirt or an ob9e-t o% use$
eventuall! he?ll turn on !ou or drop o%% the band)agonG
4ohn Sto-k)ellVs approa-h relies on the po)er o% i#agina=
tion in a hu#dru# )orldL G, al)a!s %elt the real ke! )as that
!ou )ere o%%ering so#ething spe-ialMa real se-ret li%eMso#e=
thing that he and !ou onl! kne) #ade hi# di%%erent %ro# all
the pedestrian paper shu%%lers in a govern#ent o%%i-e or a bor=
ing part! -ell #eeting :ver!bod! has a little o% Walter 5itt!
in hi#M)hat a relie% to kno) !ou reall! do )ork %or the +,A
in !our spare ti#eG
So#eti#es a -ase o%%i-er )ants to get the agent to do so#e=
thing he does not think he )ants to do One %or#er +,A operator
uses a highl! -harged #etaphor to des-ribe ho) he did itL
GSo#eti#es one partner in a relationship )ants to get into
deviations %ro# standard se> ,% !ou have so#e -ontrol$ !ou
4% ORIGINS OF MIND-CONTROL RESEARCH
#ight be able to %or-e !our partner to tr! di%%erent things$ but
it?s #u-h better to lead her do)n the road a step at a ti#e$ to
dis-uss it and %antasi.e until eventuall! she?s sa!ing$ ?Let?s tr!
this thing? ,% her inhibitions and #oral reservations are eroded
and she is turned on$ it?s #u-h #ore %un and there?s less -han-e
o% blo)ba-k Qe>posure$ in sp! talkR ,t?s the sa#e )ith an
agentG
All -ase o%%i-ersMand parti-ularl! -ounterintelligen-e #enM
harbor re-urring %ears that their agents )ill betra! the# "he
suspi-ious pro%essional looks %or telltale signs like lateness$
nervousness$ or in-onsisten-! Ae relies on his intuition G"he
#ore !ou?ve been around agents$ the #ore likel! !ou are to
sense that so#ething isn?t )hat it should be$G -o##ents the
senior -ounterintelligen-e #an G,t?s like )ith -hildrenG
(o #atter ho) skill%ull! pra-ti-ed$ traditional sp!-ra%t pro=
vides onl! in-o#plete ans)ers to the nagging Buestion o% ho)
#u-h the Agen-! -an reall! trust an agent All the si>th sense$
digging$ and dedu-tive reasoning in the )orld do not produ-e
-ertaint! in a %ield that is based on de-eption and lies Whereas
the British$ )ho invented the ga#e$ have histori-all! under=
stood the need %or patien-e and a sti%% upper lip$ A#eri-ans
tend to look %or Bui-k ans)ers$ o%ten b! using the latest te-hnol=
og! GWe )ere ver! gi##i-k=prone$G sa!s the senior -ounterin=
telligen-e o%%i-ial Gi##i-ksM#a-hines$ drugs$ te-hni-al
tri-ksM-o#prise the third #ethod o% behavior -ontrol$ a%ter
torture and trade-ra%t Like sa%e-ra-kers )ho s)ear b! the skill
in their %ingertips$ #ost o% the Agen-!?s #ainstrea# operators
disparage ne)%angled gadgets 5an! no) -lai# that drugs$
h!pnosis$ and other e>oti- #ethods a-tuall! detra-t %ro# good
trade-ra%t be-ause the! #ake operators -areless and la.!
(evertheless$ the operators and their high=level sponsors$
like Allen Dulles and Di-hard Ael#s$ -onsistentl! pushed %or
the #agi- te-hniBueMthe de2s ex 0a!3i"aMthat )ould solve
their proble#s +aught in the #u-k and %rustration o% ordinar!
sp!)ork$ operators hoped %or a #ira-le tool Fa-ed )ith liars
and de-eivers$ the! longed %or a truth drug Surrounded b!
people )ho kne) too #u-h$ the! sought a )a! to -reate a#ne=
sia "he! drea#ed o% %inding #eans to #ake un)illing people
-arr! out spe-i%i- tasks$ su-h as stealing do-u#ents$ provoking
a %ight$ killing so#eone$ or other)ise -o##itting an antiso-ial
a-t Se-ret agents re-ruited b! #ore traditional appeals to ide=
alis#$ greed$ a#bition$ or %ear had al)a!s done su-h deeds$ but
THE 5ROFESSOR AND THE 7A 7 TREA TMENT 4&
the! usuall! gave their sp!#asters heada-hes in the pro-ess
So#eti#es the! balked 5oreover$ %irst the! had to agree to
serve the +,A "he best trade-ra%t in the )orld seldo# )orks
against a )ell=#otivated target C"he -!ni-al operator re-alls
o%%ering the head o% +uban intelligen-e S1$666$666Min 10<< at
a 5adrid hotelMonl! to re-eive a %lat re9e-tionE Plagued b! the
unsureness$ Agen-! o%%i-ials hoped to take the rando#nessM
indeed$ the %ree )illMout o% agent handling As one one ps!=
-hologist )ho )orked on behavior -ontrol des-ribes it$ G"he
proble# o% ever! intelligen-e operation is ho) do !ou re#ove
the hu#an ele#entO "he operators )ould -o#e to us and ask
%or the hu#an ele#ent to be re#ovedG "hus the i#petus to=
)ard #ind=-ontrol resear-h -a#e not onl! %ro# the lure o%
s-ien-e and the %antasies o% s-ien-e %i-tion$ it also -a#e %ro#
the heart o% the sp! business

PART II
INTELLIGENCE OR
"ITCHES POTIONS"
And it see#s to #e per%e-tl! in the -ards
that there )ill be )ithin the ne>t genera=
tion or so a phar#a-ologi-al #ethod o%
#aking people love their servitude$ and
produ-ing a kind o% painless -on-entra=
tion -a#p %or entire so-ieties$ so that peo=
ple )ill in %a-t have their liberties taken
a)a! %ro# the# but )ill rather en9o! it$
be-ause the! )ill be distra-ted %ro# an!
desire to rebel b! propaganda$ brain)ash=
ing$ or brain)ashing enhan-ed b! phar=
#a-ologi-al #ethods
MALDOUS AUNL:*$ 10@0
, had per%e-ted LSD %or #edi-al use$ not as
a )eapon ,t -an #ake !ou insane or even
kill !ou i% it is not properl! used under
#edi-al supervision ,n an! -ase$ the re=
sear-h should be done b! #edi-al people
and not b! soldiers or intelligen-e agen=
-ies MALB:D" AOFF5A($ 1077
LSDMLB4MFB,M+,A
ML*D,+ FDO5 Hai.1 10<J
CHAPTER
#
LSD
Albert Ao%#ann?s dis-over! o% LSD in 10K7 #a! have begun a
ne) age in the e>ploration o% the hu#an #ind$ but it took si>
!ears %or )ord to rea-h A#eri-a :ven a%ter Ao%#ann and his
-o)orkers in S)it.erland published their )ork in a 10K7 arti=
-le$ no one in the United States see#ed to noti-e "hen in 10K0$
a %a#ous Iiennese do-tor na#ed Otto ;auders traveled to the
United States in sear-h o% resear-h %unds Ae gave a -on%eren-e
at Boston Ps!-hopathi- Aospital$P a pioneering #ental=health
institution a%%iliated )ith Aarvard 5edi-al S-hool$ and he
spoke about a ne) e>peri#ental drug -alled d=l!sergi- a-id
dieth!la#ide 5ilton Greenblatt$ the hospital?s resear-h dire-=
tor$ vividl! re-alls ;auders? des-ription o% ho) an in%initesi=
#all! s#all dose had rendered Dr Ao%#ann te#poraril!
G-ra.!G GWe )ere ver! interested in an!thing that -ould #ake
so#eone s-hi.ophreni-$G sa!s Greenblatt ,% the drug reall! did
indu-e ps!-hosis %or a short ti#e$ the Boston do-tors reasoned$
an antidoteM)hi-h the! hoped to %indM#ight -ure s-hi.ophre=
nia ,t )ould take #an! !ears o% resear-h to sho) that LSD did
not$ in %a-t$ produ-e a G#odel ps!-hosis$G but to the Boston
do-tors in 10K0$ the drug sho)ed in-redible pro#ise 5a> Din=
kel$ a neurops!-hiatrist and re%ugee %ro# Aitler?s Ger#an!$
)as so intrigued b! ;auders? presentation that he Bui-kl! -on=
ta-ted Sando.$ the huge S)iss phar#a-euti-al %ir# )here Al=
'(!r#n& the )*+,s$ -oston .syho%ath# han&ed #ts name to 'assah!setts
'ental /ealth Center$ the name #t hears today0
54 INTELLIGENCE OR 7WITCHES
5OTIONS7
bert Ao%#ann )orked Sando. o%%i-ials arranged
to ship so#e
LSD a-ross the Atlanti-
"he %irst A#eri-an trip %ollo)ed "he sub9e-t
)as Dobert
A!de$ a Ier#ont=born ps!-hiatrist )ho )as
Boston Ps!=
-hopathi-?s nu#ber=t)o #an A bold$
innovative sort$ A!de
took it %or granted that there )ould be no testing
progra# until
he tried the drug With Dinkel and the hospital?s
senior ph!si=
-ian$ A 4a-kson DeShon looking on$ A!de
drank a glass o%
)ater )ith 166 #i-rogra#s o% LSD in itMless
than hal% Ao%=
#ann?s dose$ but still a he%t! 9olt DeShon
des-ribes A!de?s
rea-tion as Gnothing ver! startlingG "he
perp
etua
ll!
a-ti
ve
A!d
e
insis
ted
on
#ak
ing
his
nor
#al
hosp
ital
roun
ds
)hil
e his
-oll
eagu
es tagged along Dinkel later told a s-ienti%i-
-on%er=
en-e that A!de be-a#e GBuite paranoia-$
sa!ing that )e had
not given hi# an!thing Ae also berated us and
said the -o#=
pan! had -heated us$ given us plain )ater "hat
)as not Dr
A!de?s nor#al behaviorF he is a ver! pleasant
#anG A!de?s
%irst e>perien-e )as hardl! as dra#ati- as
Albert Ao%#ann?s$
but then the Boston ps!-hiatrist had not$ like
Ao%#ann$ set o%%
on a vo!age into the -o#plete unkno)n For
better or )orse$
LSD had -o#e to A#eri-a in 10K0 and had
e#barked on a
strange trip o% its o)n A-ade#i- resear-hers
)ould stud! it in
sear-h o% kno)ledge that )ould bene%it all
#ankind ,ntelli=
gen-e agen-ies$ parti-ularl! the +,A$ )ould
subsidi.e and
shape the %or# o% #u-h o% this )ork to learn
ho) the drug
-ould be used to break the )ill o% ene#! agents$
unlo-k se-rets
in the #inds o% trained spies$ and other)ise
#anipulate
hu#an behavior "hese t)o strainsMo% helping
people and o%
-ontrolling the#M)ould -oe>ist rather
-o#%ortabl! through
the 10@6s "hen$ in the 10<6s$ LSD )ould es-ape
%ro# the -losed
)orld o% s-holar and sp!$ and it )ould pla! a
#a9or role in
-ausing a -ultural upheaval that )ould have an
i#pa-t both on
global politi-s and on inti#ate personal belie%s
"he trip )ould
)ind upMto borro) so#e h!perbole %ro# the
#usi-al Hai.M
)ith Gthe !outh o% A#eri-a on LSDG
"he -ounter-ulture generation )as not !et out
o% the nurser!$
ho)ever$ )hen Bob A!de )ent trippingL A!de
hi#sel% )ould
not be-o#e a se-ret +,A -onsultant %or several
!ears "he +,A
and
the
#ili
tar!
intel
lige
n-e
age
n-ie
s
)er
e
9ust
setti
ng
out
on
their
Bue
st
%or
dru
gs
and
othe
r
e>ot
i-
#et
hod
s to
take
poss
es=
sion
o%
peo
ple?s
#in
ds
"he
an-i
ent
desi
re to
-ont
rol
ene
#ie
s
LSD 55
through #agi-al spells and potions had -o#e alive again$ and
several o%%i-es )ithin the +,A -o#peted to be-o#e the head
-ontrollers 5en %ro# the O%%i-e o% Se-urit!?s AD",+AO;:
progra# )ere strugglingMas had OSS be%ore the#Mto %ind a
truth drug or h!pnoti- #ethod that )ould aid in interrogation
+on-urrentl!$ the "e-hni-al Servi-es Sta%% C"SSE )as investi=
gating in #u-h greater depth the )hole area o% appl!ing -he#=
i-al and biologi-al )ar%are C+BWE to -overt operations "SS
)as the lineal des-endent o% Stanle! Lovell?s Desear-h and
Develop#ent unit in OSS$ and its o%%i-ials kept alive #u-h o%
the e>-ite#ent and urgen-! o% the World War ,, da!s )hen
Lovell had tried to bring out the Pe-k?s Bad Bo! in A#eri-an
s-ientists Spe-ialists %ro# "SS %urnished ba-kup eBuip#ent
%or se-ret operationsL %alse papers$ bugs$ taps$ sui-ide pills$ e>=
plosive seashells$ trans#itters hidden in %alse teeth$ -a#eras in
toba--o pou-hes$ invisible inks$ and the like ,n later !ears$
these gadget )i.ards %ro# "SS )ould be-o#e kno)n %or sup=
pl!ing so#e o% histor!?s #ore ludi-rous land#arks$ su-h as
Ao)ard Aunt?s ill=%itting red )igF but in the earl! da!s o% the
+,A$ the! gave pro#ise o% trans%or#ing the sp! )orld
Within "SS$ there e>isted a +he#i-al Division )ith %un-=
tions that %e) othersMeven in "SSMkne) about "hese had to
do )ith using -he#i-als Cand ger#sE against spe-i%i- people
Fro# 10@1 to 10@<$ the !ears )hen the +,A?s interest in LSD
peaked$ Sidne! Gottlieb$ a native o% the Bron> )ith a PhD in
-he#istr! %ro# +al "e-h$ headed this division CAnd %or #ost
o% the !ears until 1077$ he )ould oversee "SS?s behavioral pro=
gra#s %ro# one 9ob or anotherE Onl! 77 !ears old )hen he took
over the +he#i-al Division$ Gottlieb had #anaged to over-o#e
a pronoun-ed sta##er and a -lub%oot to rise through Agen-!
ranks Des-ribed b! several a-Buaintan-es as a G-o#pensator$G
Gottlieb prided hi#sel% on his abilit!$ despite his obvious handi=
-aps$ to pursue his -herished hobb!$ %olk dan-ing On returning
%ro# se-ret #issions overseas$ he invariabl! brought ba-k a
ne) step that he )ould dan-e )ith surprising gra-e Ae -ould
-all out instru-tions %or the #ost -o#pli-ated dan-es )ithout
a break in his voi-e$ in%e-ting others )ith enthusias# A #an
o% unorthodo> tastes$ Gottlieb lived in a %or#er slave -abin that
he had re#odeled hi#sel%M)ith his )i%e$ the daughter o% Pres=
b!terian #issionaries in ,ndia$ and his %our -hildren :a-h
#orning$ he rose at @L76 to #ilk the goats he kept on his 1@ a-res
outside Washington "he Gottliebs drank onl! goat?s #ilk$ and
5 INTELLIGENCE OR 7WITCHES 5OTIONS7
the! #ade their o)n -heese "he! also raised +hrist#as trees
)hi-h the! sold to the outside )orld Greatl! respe-ted b! his
%or#er -olleagues$ Gottlieb$ )ho re%used to be intervie)ed %or
this book$ is des-ribed as a hu#anist$ a #an o% intelle-tual
hu#ilit! and strength$ )illing to -arr! out$ as one e>=asso-iate
puts it$ Gthe tough things that had to be doneG "his asso-iate
%ondl! re-alls$ GWhen !ou )at-hed hi#$ !ou gained #ore and
#ore respe-t be-ause he )as )illing to )ork so hard to get an
idea a-ross Ae le%t hi#sel% totall! e>posed ,t )as #ore i#por=
tant %or us to get the idea than %or hi# not to stutterG One idea
he got a-ross )as that the Agen-! should investigate the poten=
tial use o% the obs-ure ne) drug$ LSD$ as a sp! )eapon
At the top ranks o% the +landestine Servi-es Co%%i-iall! -alled
the Dire-torate o% Operations but popularl! kno)n as the Gdirt!
tri-ks depart#entGE$ Sid Gottlieb had a -ha#pion )ho ap=
pre-iated his Bualities$ Di-hard Ael#s For t)o de-ades$ Gott=
lieb )ould #ove into progressivel! higher positions in the
)ake o% Ael#s? -li#b to the highest position in the Agen-!
Ael#s$ the tall$ s#ooth Gpreppie$G apparentl! liked the )a! the
4e)ish -he#ist$ )ho had started out at 5anhattan?s +it! +ol=
lege$ -ould thread his )a! through -o#pli-ated te-hni-al prob=
le#s and #ake the# understandable to nons-ientists Gottlieb
)as lo!al and he %ollo)ed orders Although #an! people la! in
the -hain o% -o##and bet)een the t)o #en$ Ael#s pre%erred
to avoid bureau-rati- ni-eties b! dealing dire-tl! )ith Gottlieb
On April 7$ 10@7$ Ael#s proposed to Dire-tor Allen Dulles
that the +,A set up a progra# under Gottlieb %or G-overt use o%
biologi-al and -he#i-al #aterialsG Ael#s #ade -lear that the
Agen-! -ould use these #ethods in Gpresent and %uture -lan=
destine operationsG and then added$ GAside %ro# the o%%ensive
potential$ the develop#ent o% a -o#prehensive -apabilit! in
this %ield gives us a thorough kno)ledge o% the ene#!?s
theoreti-al potential$ thus enabling us to de%end ourselves
against a %oe )ho #ight not be as restrained in the use o% these
te-hniBues as )e areG On-e again$ as it )ould throughout the
histor! o% the behavioral progra#s$ de%ense 9usti%ied o%%ense
Da! +line$ o%ten a bureau-rati- rival o% Ael#s$ notes the spirit
in )hi-h the %uture Dire-tor pushed this progra#L GAel#s %an=
-ied hi#sel% a prett! tough -ookie ,t )as %ashionable a#ong
that group to %an-! the! )ere rather i#personal about dangers$
risks$ and hu#an li%e Ael#s )ould think it senti#ental and
%oolish to be against so#ething like thisG
LSD 5$
On April 17$ 10@7Mthe sa#e da! that the Pentagon an=
noun-ed that an! US prisoner re%using repatriation in ;orea
)ould be listed as a deserter and shot i% -aughtMAllen Dulles
approved the progra#$ essentiall! as put %orth b! Ael#s
Dulles took note o% the Gultra=sensitive )orkG involved and
agreed that the pro9e-t )ould be -alled 5;UL"DAP Ae ap=
proved an initial budget o% S766$666$ e>e#pted the progra#
%ro# nor#al +,A %inan-ial -ontrols$ and allo)ed "SS to start up
resear-h pro9e-ts G)ithout the signing o% the usual -ontra-ts or
other )ritten agree#entsG Dulles ordered the Agen-!?s book=
keepers to pa! the -osts blindl! on the signatures o% Sid Gottlieb
and Willis Gibbons$ a %or#er US Dubber e>e-utive )ho
headed "SS
As is so o%ten the -ase in govern#ent$ the a-tivit! that Allen
Dulles approved )ith 5;UL"DA )as alread! under )a!$ even
be%ore he gave it a bureau-rati- stru-ture Under the -ode
na#e 5;D:L"A$ the +landestine Servi-es had set up pro-e=
dures the !ear be%ore to govern the use o% +BW produ-ts
C5;D:L"A no) be-a#e the operational side o% 5;UL"DAE
Also in 10@8$ "SS had #ade an agree#ent )ith the Spe-ial
Operations Division CSODE o% the Ar#!?s biologi-al resear-h
-enter at Fort Detri-k$ 5ar!land )hereb! SOD )ould produ-e
ger# )eapons %or the +,A?s use C)ith the progra# -alled
5;(AO5,E Sid Gottlieb later testi%ied that the purpose o%
these progra#s )as Gto investigate )hether and ho) it )as
possible to #odi%! an individual?s behavior b! -overt #eans
"he -onte>t in )hi-h this investigation )as started )as that o%
the height o% the +old War )ith the ;orean War 9ust )inding
do)nF )ith the +,A organi.ing its resour-es to liberate :astern
:urope b! para#ilitar! #eansF and )ith the threat o% Soviet
aggression ver! real and tangible$ as e>e#pli%ied b! the re-ent
Berlin airli%tG C)hi-h o--urred in 10KJE
,n the earl! da!s o% 5;UL"DA$ the roughl! si> "SS pro%es=
sionals )ho )orked on the progra# spent a good deal o% their
ti#e -onsidering the possibilities o% LSDP G"he #ost %as-inat=
PPronoun-ed 5=;=UL"DA "he 5; digraph si#pl! identi%ied it as a "SS pro=
9e-t As %or the UL"DA part$ it #a! have had its et!#ologi-al roots in the #ost
-losel! guarded Anglo=A#eri-an World War ,, intelligen-e se-ret$ the UL"DA
progra#$ )hi-h handled the -ra-king o% Ger#an #ilitar! -odes While good
espionage trade-ra%t -alled %or -r!pton!#s to have no spe-ial #eaning$ )ar=
ti#e e>perien-es )ere still ver! #u-h on the #inds o% #en like Allen Dulles
PB! no #eans did "SS negle-t other drugs ,t looked at hundreds o% others %ro#
-o-aine to ni-otine$ )ith spe-ial e#phasis on spe-ial=purpose substan-es One
@@ INTELLIGENCE OR 7WITCHES 5OTIONS7
ing thing about it$G sa!s one o% the#$ G)as that su-h #inute
Buantities had su-h a terri%i- e%%e-tG Albert Ao%#an had gone
o%% into another )orld a%ter s)allo)ing less than 1'166$666 o%
an oun-e S-ientists had kno)n about the #ind=altering Buali=
ties o% drugs like #es-aline sin-e the late nineteenth -entur!$
but LSD )as several thousand ti#es #ore potent Aashish had
been around %or #illennia$ but LSD )as roughl! a #illion
ti#es stronger Cb! )eightE A t)o=suiter suit-ase -ould hold
enough LSD to turn on ever! #an$ )o#an$ and -hild in the
United States GWe thought about the possibilit! o% putting
so#e in a -it! )ater suppl! and having the -iti.ens )ander
around in a #ore or less happ! state$ not terribl! interested in
de%ending the#selves$G re-alls the "SS #an But in-apa-itat=
ing su-h large nu#bers o% people %ell to the Ar#! +he#i-al
+orps$ )hi-h also tested LSD and even stronger hallu-inogens
"he +,A )as -on-entrating on individuals "SS o%%i-ials under=
stood that LSD distorted a person?s sense o% realit!$ and the! %elt
-o#pelled to learn )hether it -ould alter so#eone?s basi- lo!al=
ties +ould the +,A #ake spies out o% tripping DussiansMor vi-e
versaO ,n the earl! 10@6s$ )hen the Agen-! developed an al#ost
desperate need to kno) #ore about LSD$ al#ost no outside
in%or#ation e>isted on the sub9e-t Sando. had done so#e -lin=
i-al studies$ as had a %e) other pla-es$ in-luding Boston Ps!=
-hopathi-$ but the )ork generall! had not #oved #u-h be!ond
the horse=and=bugg! stage "he 5;UL"DA tea# had literall!
hundreds o% Buestions about LSD?s ph!siologi-al$ ps!-hologi=
-al$ -he#i-al$ and so-ial e%%e-ts Did it have an! antidotesO
What happened i% it )ere -o#bined )ith other drugsO Did it
a%%e-t ever!one the sa#e )a!O What )as the e%%e-t o% doubling
the doseO And so on
"SS %irst sought ans)ers %ro# a-ade#i- resear-hers$ )ho$ on
the )hole$ gladl! -ooperated and let the Agen-! pi-k their
brains But +,A o%%i-ials reali.ed that no one )ould undertake
a Bui-k and s!ste#ati- stud! o% the drug unless the Agen-!
itsel% paid the bill Al#ost no govern#ent or private #one! )as
then available %or )hat had been dubbed Ge>peri#ental ps!=
-hiatr!G Sando. )anted the drug tested$ %or its o)n -o##er=
-ial reasons$ but be!ond suppl!ing it %ree to resear-hers$ it
10@8 #e#o talked about the urgent operational need %or a -he#i-al Gprodu-ing
general listlessness and letharg!G Another #entioned %indingMas "SS later
didMa potion to a--elerate the e%%e-ts o% liBuor$ -alled an Gal-ohol e>tenderG
LSD 5&
)ould not assu#e the -osts "he (ational ,nstitutes o% 5ental
Aealth had an interest in LSD?s relationship to #ental illness$
but +,A o%%i-ials )anted to kno) ho) the drug a%%e-ted nor#al
people$ not si-k ones Onl! the #ilitar! servi-es$ essentiall! %or
the sa#e reasons as the +,A$ )ere )illing to sink #u-h #one!
into LSD$ and the Agen-! #en )ere not about to de%er to the#
"he! -hose instead to take the leadMin e%%e-t to -reate a )hole
ne) %ield o% resear-h
Suddenl! there )as a huge ne) #arket %or grants in a-a=
de#ia$ as Sid Gottlieb and his aides began to %und LSD pro9e-ts
at prestigious institutions "he Agen-!?s LSD path%inders -an
be identi%iedL Bob A!de?s group at Boston Ps!-hopathi-$ Aarold
Abra#son at 5t Sinai Aospital and +olu#bia Universit! in
(e) *ork$ +arl P%ei%%er at the Universit! o% ,llinois 5edi-al
S-hool$ Aarris ,sbell o% the (,5A=sponsored Addi-tion De=
sear-h +enter in Le>ington$ ;entu-k!$ Louis 4ol!on West at the
Universit! o% Oklaho#a$ and Aarold Aodge?s group at the Uni=
versit! o% Do-hester "he Agen-! disguised its involve#ent b!
passing the #one! through t)o -onduitsL the 4osiah 5a-!$ 4r
Foundation$ a ri-h establish#ent institution )hi-h served as a
-utout Cinter#ediar!E onl! %or a !ear or t)o$ and the Ges-hi-k=
ter Fund %or 5edi-al Desear-h$ a Washington$ D+ %a#il!
%oundation$ )hose head$ Dr +harles Ges-hi-kter$ provided the
Agen-! )ith a variet! o% servi-es %or #ore than a de-ade
De%le>ivel!$ "SS o%%i-ials %elt the! had to keep the +,A -onne-=
tion se-ret "he! -ould onl! Gassu#e$G a--ording to a 10@@
stud!$ that Soviet s-ientists understood the drug?s Gstrategi-
i#portan-eG and )ere -apable o% #aking it the#selves "he!
did not )ant to spur the Dussians into starting their o)n LSD
progra# or into devising -ounter#easures
"he +,A?s se-re-! )as also -learl! ai#ed at the %olks ba-k
ho#e As a 10<7 ,nspe-tor General?s report stated$ GDesear-h in
the #anipulation o% hu#an behavior is -onsidered b! #an!
authorities in #edi-ine and related %ields to be pro%essionall!
unethi-alGF there%ore$ openness )ould put Gin 9eopard!G the
reputations o% the outside resear-hers 5oreover$ the +,A ,n=
spe-tor General de-lared that dis-losure o% -ertain 5;UL"DA
a-tivities -ould result in Gserious adverse rea-tionG a#ong the
A#eri-an publi-
At Boston Ps!-hopathi-$ there )ere various levels o% -on-eal=
#ent Onl! Bob A!de and his boss$ the hospital superintendant$
kne) o%%i-iall! that the +,A )as %unding the hospital?s LSD
( INTELLIGENCE OR 7WITCHES 5OTIONS7
progra# %ro# 10@8 on$ to the tune o% about SK6$666 a !ear *et$
a--ording to another #e#ber o% the A!de group$ Dr DeShon$
all senior sta%% understood )here the #one! reall! -a#e %ro#
GWe agreed not to dis-uss it$G sa!s DeShon G, don?t see an!
ob9e-tion to this We never gave it to an!one )ithout his -on=
sent and )ithout e>plaining it in detailG Aospital o%%i-ials told
the volunteer sub9e-ts so#ething about the nature o% the e>=
peri#ents but nothing about their origins or purpose (one o%
the sub9e-ts had an! idea that the +,A )as pa!ing %or the prob=
ing o% their #inds and )ould use the results %or its o)n pur=
posesF #ost o% the sta%% )as si#ilarl! ignorant
Like A!de$ al#ost all the resear-hers tried LSD on the#=
selves ,ndeed$ #an! believed the! gained real insight into
)hat it %elt like to be #entall! ill$ use%ul kno)ledge %or health
pro%essionals )ho spent their lives treating people supposedl!
si-k in the head A!de set up a #ultidis-iplinar! progra#M
virtuall! unheard o% at the ti#eMthat brought together ps!=
-hiatrists$ ps!-hologists$ and ph!siologists As sub9e-ts$ the!
used ea-h other$ hospital patients$ and volunteersM#ostl! stu=
dentsM%ro# the Boston area "he! )orked through a long se=
Buen-e o% e>peri#ents that served to isolate variable a%ter vari=
able Pal#ing the#selves o%% as %oundation o%%i-ials$ the #en
%ro# 5;UL"DA %reBuentl! visited to observe and suggest
areas o% %uture resear-h One Agen-! #an$ )ho hi#sel%
tripped several ti#es under A!de?s general supervision$
re#e#bers that he and his -olleagues )ould pass on a nugget
that another -ontra-tor like Aarold Abra#son had gleaned and
ask A!de to per%or# a %ollo)=up test that #ight ans)er a Bues=
tion o% interest to the Agen-! Despite these tangents$ the #ain
bod! o% resear-h pro-eeded in a planned and orderl! %ashion
"he resear-hers learned that )hile so#e sub9e-ts see#ed to
be-o#e s-hi.ophreni-$ #an! others did not Surprisingl!$ true
s-hi.ophreni-s sho)ed little rea-tion at all to LSD$ unless
given #assive doses "he A!de group %ound out that the Bualit!
o% a person?s rea-tion )as deter#ined #ainl! b! the person?s
basi- personalit! stru-ture CsetE and the environ#ent CsettingE
in )hi-h he or she took the drug "he sub9e-t?s e>pe-tation o%
)hat )ould happen also pla!ed a #a9or part 5ore than an!=
thing else$ LSD tended to intensi%! the sub9e-t?s e>isting -har=
a-teristi-sMo%ten to e>tre#es A little suspi-ion -ould gro)
into #a9or paranoia$ parti-ularl! in the -o#pan! o% people
per-eived as threatening
LSD '
Unbekno)nst to his %ello) resear-hers$ the energeti- Dr
A!de also advised the +,A on using LSD in -overt operations
A +,A o%%i-er )ho )orked )ith hi# re-allsL G"he idea )ould be
to give hi# the details o% )hat had happened Q)ith a -aseR$ and
he )ould spe-ulate As a sharp 5D in the old=s-hool sense$ he
)ould look at things in )a!s that a lot o% re-ent bright lights
-ouldn?t get Ae had a good sense o% #ake=doG "he Agen-!
paid A!de %or his ti#e as a -onsultant$ and "SS o%%i-ials eventu=
all! set aside a spe-ial 5;UL"DA subpro9e-t as A!de?s private
%unding #e-hanis# A!de re-eived %unds %ro# !et another
5;UL"DA subpro9e-t that "SS #en -reated %or hi# in 10@K$
so he -ould serve as a -utout %or Agen-! pur-hases o% rare
-he#i-als Ais %irst bu! )as to be S78$666 )orth o% -or!nan=
thine$ a possible antidote to LSD$ that )ould not be tra-ed to the
+,A
Bob A!de died in 107< at the age o% <<$ )idel! hailed as a
pa-esetter in #ental health Ais #edi-al and intelligen-e -ol=
leagues speak highl! o% hi# both personall! and pro%ession=
all! Like #ost o% his generation$ he apparentl! -onsidered
helping the +,A a patrioti- dut! An Agen-! o%%i-er states that
A!de never raised doubts about his -overt )ork GAe )ouldn?t
#orali.e Ae had a lot o% trust in the people he )as dealing )ith
Q%ro# the +,AR Ae had prett! )ell rea-hed the -on-lusion that
i% the! de-ided to do so#ething Qoperationall!R$ the! had tried
)hatever else there )as and )ere )illing to risk itG
5ost o% the +,A?s a-ade#i- resear-hers published arti-les on
their )ork in pro%essional 9ournals$ but those long$ s-holarl!
reports o%ten gave an in-o#plete pi-ture o% the resear-h ,n
e%%e-t$ the s-ientists )ould )rite openl! about ho) LSD a%%e-ts
a patient?s pulse rate$ but the! )ould tell onl! the +,A ho) the
drug -ould be used to ruin that patient?s #arriage or #e#or!
"hose resear-hers )ho )ere a)are o% the Agen-!?s sponsor=
ship seldo# published an!thing re#otel! -onne-ted to the in=
stru#ental and rather unpleasant Buestions the 5;UL"DA
#en posed %or investigation "hat )as true o% A!de and o%
Aarold Abra#son$ the (e) *ork allergist )ho be-a#e one o%
the %irst 4ohnn! Appleseeds o% LSD b! giving it to a nu#ber o%
his distinguished -olleagues Abra#son do-u#ented all sorts
o% e>peri#ents on topi-s like the e%%e-ts o% LSD on Sia#ese
%ighting %ish and snails$P but he never )rote a )ord about one
PAs happened to Albert Ao%#ann the %irst ti#e$ Abra#son on-e unkno)ingl!
) INTELLIGENCE OR 7WITCHES 5OTIONS7
o% his earl! LSD assign#ents %ro# the Agen-! ,n a 10@7 do-u=
#ent$ Sid Gottlieb listed sub9e-ts he e>pe-ted Abra#son to in=
vestigate )ith the SJ@$666 the Agen-! )as %urnishing hi#
Gottlieb )anted Goperationall! pertinent #aterials along the
%ollo)ing linesL a Disturban-e o% 5e#or!F b Dis-rediting b!
Aberrant BehaviorF - Alteration o% Se> PatternsF d :li-iting o%
,n%or#ationF e Suggestibilit!F % +reation o% Dependen-eG
Dr Aarris ,sbell$ )hose )ork the +,A %unded through (av!
-over )ith the approval o% the Dire-tor o% the (ational ,nsti=
tutes o% Aealth$ published his prin-ipal %indings$ but he did not
#ention ho) he obtained his sub9e-ts As Dire-tor o% the Addi-=
tion Desear-h +enter at the huge Federal drug hospital in Le>=
ington$ ;entu-k!$ he had a--ess to a literall! -aptive popula=
tion ,n#ates heard on the grapevine that i% the! volunteered
%or ,sbell?s progra#$ the! )ould be re)arded either in the drug
o% their -hoi-e or in ti#e o%% %ro# their senten-es 5ost o% the
addi-ts -hose drugsMusuall! heroin or #orphine o% a purit!
seldo# seen on the street "he sub9e-ts signed an approval
%or#$ but the! )ere not told the na#es o% the e>peri#ental
drugs or the probable e%%e-ts "his #attered little$ sin-e the
GvolunteersG probabl! )ould have granted their in%or#ed -on=
sent to virtuall! an!thing to get hard drugs
Given ,sbell?s al#ost unli#ited suppl! o% sub9e-ts$ "SS o%%i=
-ials used the Le>ington %a-ilit! as a pla-e to #ake Bui-k tests
o% pro#ising but untried drugs and to per%or# spe-iali.ed e>=
peri#ents the! -ould not easil! dupli-ate else)here For in=
stan-e$ ,sbell did one stud! %or )hi-h it )ould have been i#=
possible to attra-t student volunteers Ae kept seven #en on
LSD %or 77 straight da!sP Su-h an e>peri#ent is as -hilling as
ingested so#e LSD$ probabl! b! s)allo)ing )ater %ro# his spiked snail tank
Ae started to %eel bad$ but )ith his )i%e?s help$ he %inall! pinpointed the -ause
A--ording to brain and dolphin e>pert 4ohn Lill!$ )ho heard the stor! %ro#
5rs Abra#son$ Aarold )as greatl! relieved that his dis-o#%ort )as not grave
GOh$ it?s nothing serious$G he said G,t?s 9ust an LSD ps!-hosis ,?ll 9ust go to bed
and sleep it o%%G
PAr#! resear-hers$ as usual running about %ive !ears behind the +,A$ be-a#e
interested in the sustained use o% LSD as an interrogation devi-e during 10<1
%ield tests C-alled Operation "A,DD +AA(+:E "he Ar#! #en tested the drug
in :urope on nine %oreigners and one A#eri-an$ a bla-k soldier na#ed 4a#es
"horn)ell$ a--used o% stealing -lassi%ied do-u#ents While "horn)ell )as
rea-ting to the drug under e>tre#el! stress%ul -onditions$ his -aptors threat=
ened Gto e>tend the state inde%initel!$ even to a per#anent -ondition o% insan=
it!$G a--ording to an Ar#! do-u#ent "horn)ell is no) suing the US govern=
#ent %or S76 #illion
,n one o% those t)ists that Washington insiders take %or granted and outsiders
LSD *
it is astonishingMboth to lovers and haters o% LSD (earl! 86
!ears a%ter Dr ,sbell?s earl! )ork$ -ounter-ulture 9ournalist
Aunter S "ho#pson delighted and %rightened his readers )ith
a--ounts o% drug binges lasting a %e) da!s$ during )hi-h
"ho#pson %elt his brain boiling a)a! in the sun$ his nerves
)rapping around enor#ous barbed )ire %orts$ and his re#ain=
ing %a-ulties redu-ed to their reptilian ante-edents :ven
"ho#pson )ould shudder at the thought o% 77 da!s straight on
LSD$ and it is doubt%ul he )ould 9oke about the idea "o Dr
,sbell$ it )as 9ust another e>peri#ent G, have had seven pa=
tients )ho have no) been taking the drug %or #ore than K8
da!s$G he )rote in the #iddle o% the test$ )hi-h he -alled Gthe
#ost a#a.ing de#onstration o% drug toleran-e , have ever
seenG ,sbell tried to Gbreak through this toleran-eG b! giving
triple and Buadruple doses o% LSD to the in#ates
Filled )ith intense -uriosit!$ ,sbell tried out a )ide variet! o%
unproven drugs on his sub9e-ts 4ust as soon as a ne) bat-h o%
s-opola#ine$ rivea seeds$ or bu%ontenine arrived %ro# the +,A
or (,5A$ he )ould start testing Ais relish %or the task o--a=
sionall! shone through the dull s-ienti%i- reports G, )ill )rite
!ou a letter as soon as , -an get the stu%% into a #an or t)o$G he
in%or#ed his Agen-! -onta-t
(o -orresponding %eeling shone through %or the in#ates$
ho)ever ,n his %e) re-orded personal -o##ents$ he -o#=
plained that his sub9e-ts tended to be a%raid o% the do-tors and
)ere not as open in des-ribing their e>perien-es as the e>peri=
#enters )ould have )ished Although ,sbell #ade an e%%ort to
Gbreak through the barriersG )ith the sub9e-ts$ )ho )ere
nearl! all bla-k drug addi-ts$ ,sbell %inall! de-ided Gin all prob=
abilit!$ this t!pe o% behavior is to be e>pe-ted )ith patients o%
this t!peG "he sub9e-ts have long sin-e s-attered$ and no one
apparentl! has #easured the a%tere%%e-ts o% the #ore e>tre#e
e>peri#ents on the#
One sub9e-t )ho -ould be %ound spent onl! a brie% ti#e )ith
Dr ,sbell :ddie Flo)ers )as 10 !ears old and had been in
Le>ington %or about a !ear )hen he signed up %or ,sbell?s pro=
gra# Ae lied about his age to get in$ -lai#ing he )as 81 All
he -ared about )as getting so#e drugs Ae #oved into the
do not Buite believe$ "err! Len.ner$ a partner o% the sa#e la) %ir# seeking this
huge su# %or "horn)ell$ is the la)!er %or Sid Gottlieb$ the #an )ho oversa)
the 77=da! trips at Le>ington and even #ore dangerous LSD testing
4 INTELLIGENCE OR 7WITCHES 5OTIONS7
e>peri#ental )ing o% the hospital )here the %ood )as better
and he -ould listen to #usi- Ae loved his heroin but kne)
nothing about drugs like LSD One da! he took so#ething in a
graha# -ra-ker (o one ever told hi# the na#e$ but his de=
s-ription sounds like it #ade hi# tripMbadl!$ to be sure G,t
)as the )orst shit , ever had$G he sa!s Ae hallu-inated and
su%%ered %or 1< or 17 hours G, )as %rightened , )ouldn?t take
it againG Still$ Flo)ers earned enough GpointsG in the e>peri=
#ent to Buali%! %or his Gpa!o%%G in heroin All he had to do )as
kno-k on a little )indo) do)n the hall "his )as the drug bank
"he #an in -harge kept a list o% the a#ount o% the hard drug
ea-h in#ate had in his a--ount Flo)ers 9ust had to sa! ho)
#u-h he )anted to )ithdra) and note the #ethod o% pa!#ent
G,% !ou )anted it in the vein$ !ou got it there$G re-alls Flo)ers
)ho no) )orks in a Washington$ D+ drug rehabilitation -en=
ter
Dr ,sbell re%uses all reBuest %or intervie)s Ae did tell a
Senate sub-o##ittee in 107@ that he inherited the drug pa!o%%
s!ste# )hen he -a#e to Le>ington and that Git )as the -usto#
in those da!s "he ethi-al -odes )ere not so highl! devel=
oped$ and there )as a great need to kno) in order to prote-t the
publi- in assessing the potential use o% nar-oti-s , person=
all! think )e did a ver! e>-ellent 9obG
For ever! ,sbell$ A!de$ or Abra#son )ho did "SS -ontra-t
)ork$ there )ere do.ens o% others )ho si#pl! served as -asual
+,A in%or#ants$ so#e )itting and so#e not :a-h "SS pro9e-t
o%%i-er had a skull session )ith do.ens o% re-ogni.ed e>perts
several ti#es a !ear G"hat )as the onl! )a! a tin! sta%% like Sid
Gottlieb?s -ould possibl! keep on top o% the burgeoning behav=
ioral s-ien-es$G sa!s an e>=+,A o%%i-ial G"here )ould be no )a!
!ou -ould do it b! librar! resear-h or the PhD dissertation
approa-hG "he "SS #en al)a!s asked their -onta-ts %or the
na#es o% others the! -ould talk to$ and the -onta-ts )ould pass
the# on to other interesting s-ientists
,n LSD resear-h$ "SS o%%i-ers bene%ited %ro# the energeti-
intelligen-e gathering o% their -ontra-tors$ parti-ularl! Aarold
Abra#son Abra#son talked regularl! to virtuall! ever!one
interested in the drug$ in-luding the %e) earl! resear-hers not
%unded b! the Agen-! or the #ilitar!$ and he reported his
%indings to "SS ,n addition$ he served as reporting se-retar! o%
t)o -on%eren-e series sponsored b! the Agen-!?s so#eti#e -on=
duit$ the 5a-! Foundation "hese series ea-h lasted over %ive
LSD 5
!ear periods in the 10@6sF one dealt )ith GProble#s o% +on=
s-iousnessG and the other )ith G(europhar#a-olog!G Aeld
on-e a !ear in the genteel surroundings o% the Prin-eton ,nn$
the 5a-! Foundation -on%eren-es brought together "SS?s Cand
the #ilitar!?sE leading -ontra-tors$ as part o% a group o% roughl!
8@ )ith the #ultidis-iplinar! ba-kground that "SS o%%i-ials so
loved "he parti-ipants -a#e %ro# all over the so-ial s-ien-es
and in-luded su-h lu#inaries as 5argaret 5ead and 4ean Pia=
get "he topi-s dis-ussed usuall! #irrored "SS?s interests at the
ti#e$ and the -on%eren-es served as a spa)ning ground %or
ideas that allo)ed resear-hers to engage in so#e health! -ross=
%ertili.ation
Be!ond the a-ade#i- )orld$ "SS looked to the phar#a-euti=
-al -o#panies as another sour-e on drugsMand %or a -ontinu=
ing suppl! o% ne) produ-ts to test "SS?s Da! "rei-hler handled
the liaison %un-tion$ and this se-retive little #an built up -lose
relationships )ith #an! o% the industr!?s ke! e>e-utives Ae
had a parti-ular kna-k %or -onvin-ing the# he )ould not re=
veal their trade se-rets So#eti#es -lai#ing to be %ro# the
Ar#! +he#i-al +orps and so#eti#es ad#itting his +,A -on=
ne-tion$ "rei-hler )ould ask %or sa#ples o% drugs that )ere
either highl! poisonous$ or$ in the )ords o% the oneti#e dire-tor
o% resear-h o% a large -o#pan!$ G-aused h!pertension$ in=
-reased blood pressure$ or led to other odd ph!siologi-al a-tiv=
it!G
Dealing )ith A#eri-an drug -o#panies posed no parti-ular
proble#s %or "SS 5ost -ooperated in an! )a! the! -ould But
relations )ith Sando. )ere #ore -o#pli-ated "he giant S)iss
%ir# had a #onopol! on the Western )orld?s produ-tion o% LSD
until 10@7 Agen-! o%%i-ials %eared that Sando. )ould so#eho)
allo) large Buantities to rea-h the Dussians Sin-e in%or#ation
on LSD?s -he#i-al stru-ture and e%%e-ts )as publi-l! available
%ro# 10K7 on$ the Dussians -ould have produ-ed it an! ti#e
the! %elt it )orth)hile "hus$ the Agen-!?s phobia about San=
do. see#s rather irrational$ but it unBuestionabl! did e>ist
On t)o o--asions earl! in the +old War$ the entire +,A hier=
ar-h! )ent into a dither over reports that Sando. #ight allo)
large a#ounts o% LSD to rea-h +o##unist -ountries ,n 10@1
reports -a#e in through #ilitar! -hannels that the Dussians
had obtained so#e @6 #illion doses %ro# Sando. Aorrendous
visions o% )hat the Dussians #ight do )ith su-h a sto-kpile
-ir-ulated in the +,A$ )here o%%i-ials did not %ind out the intelli=
INTELLIGENCE OR 7WITCHES 5OTIONS7
gen-e )as %alse %or several !ears "here )as an even greater
uproar in 10@7 )hen #ore reports -a#e in$ again through #ili=
tar! intelligen-e$ that Sando. )anted to sell the astounding
Buantit! o% 16 kilos C88 poundsE o% LSDMenough %or about 166
#illion dosesMon the open #arket
A top=level -oordinating -o##ittee )hi-h in-luded +,A and
Pentagon representatives unani#ousl! re-o##ended that the
Agen-! put up S8K6$666 to bu! it all Allen Dulles gave his
approval$ and o%% )ent t)o +,A representatives to S)it.erland$
presu#abl! )ith a bla-k bag %ull o% -ash "he! #et )ith the
president o% Sando. and other top e>e-utives "he Sando. #en
stated that the -o#pan! had never #ade an!thing approa-h=
ing 16 kilos o% LSD and that$ in %a-t$ sin-e the dis-over! o% the
drug 16 !ears be%ore$ its total produ-tion had been onl! K6
gra#s Cabout 1@ oun-esEP "he #anu%a-turing pro-ess #oved
Buite slo)l! at that ti#e be-ause Sando. used real ergot$ )hi-h
-ould not be gro)n in large Buantities (evertheless$ Sando.
e>e-utives$ being good S)iss business#en$ o%%ered to suppl!
the US Govern#ent )ith 166 gra#s )eekl! %or an inde%inite
period$ i% the A#eri-ans )ould pa! a %air pri-e ")i-e the
Sando. president thanked the +,A #en %or being )illing to take
the none>istent 16 kilos o%% the #arket While he said the -o#=
pan! no) regretted it had ever dis-overed LSD in the %irst
pla-e$ he pro#ised that Sando. )ould not let the drug %all into
-o##unist hands "he Sando. president #entioned that vari=
ous A#eri-ans had in the past #ade G-overt and side)a!sG
approa-hes to Sando. to %ind out about LSD$ and he agreed to
keep the US Govern#ent in%or#ed o% all %uture produ-tion
and shipping o% the drug Ae also agreed to pass on an! intelli=
gen-e about :astern :uropean interest in LSD "he Sando.
e>e-utives asked onl! that their arrange#ent )ith the +,A be
kept Gin the ver! stri-test -on%iden-eG
All around the )orld$ the +,A tried to sta! on top o% the LSD
suppl! Ba-k ho#e in ,ndianapolis$ :li Lill! / +o#pan! )as
even then )orking on a pro-ess to s!nthesi.e LSD Agen-! o%%i=
PA 107@ +,A do-u#ent -lears up the #!ster! o% ho) the Agen-!?s #ilitar!
sour-es -ould have #ade su-h a huge error in esti#ating Sando.?s LSD suppl!
Cand probabl! also e>plains the earlier ina--urate report that the Dussians had
bought @6$666$666 dosesE What happened$ a--ording to the do-u#ent$ )as that
the US #ilitar! atta-he in S)it.erland did not kno) the di%%eren-e bet)een
a #illigra# C1'1$666 o% a gra#E and a kilogra# C1$666 gra#sE "his #i>=up
thre) all his -al-ulations o%% b! a %a-tor o% 1$666$666
LSD $
-ials %elt un-o#%ortable having to rel! on a %oreign -o#pan!
%or their suppl!$ and in 10@7 the! asked Lill! e>e-utives to
#ake the# up a bat-h$ )hi-h the -o#pan! subseBuentl!
donated to the govern#ent "hen$ in 10@K$ Lill! s-ored a #a9or
breakthrough )hen its resear-hers )orked out a -o#pli-ated
18= to 1@=step pro-ess to #anu%a-ture %irst l!sergi- a-id Cthe
basi- building blo-kE and then LSD itsel% %ro# -he#i-als avail=
able on the open #arket Given a relativel! sophisti-ated lab$
a -o#petent -he#ist -ould no) #ake LSD )ithout a suppl! o%
the hard=to=gro) ergot %ungus Lill! o%%i-ers -on%identiall! in=
%or#ed the govern#ent o% their triu#ph "he! also held an
unpre-edented press -on%eren-e to tru#pet their s!nthesis o%
l!sergi- a-id$ but the! did not publish %or another %ive !ears
their su--ess )ith the -losel! related LSD
"SS o%%i-ials soon sent a #e#o to Allen Dulles$ e>plaining
that the Lill! dis-over! )as i#portant be-ause the govern#ent
hen-e%orth -ould bu! LSD in Gtonnage Buantities$G )hi-h
#ade it a potential -he#i-al=)ar%are agent "he #e#o )riter
pointed out$ ho)ever$ that %ro# the 5;UL"DA point o% vie)$
the dis-over! #ade no di%%eren-e sin-e "SS )as )orking on
)a!s to use the drug onl! in s#all=s-ale -overt operations$ and
the Agen-! had no trouble getting the li#ited a#ounts it
needed But no) the Ar#! +he#i-al +orps and the Air For-e
-ould get their -olle-tive hands on enough LSD to turn on the
)orld
Sharing the drug )ith the Ar#! here$ setting up resear-h
progra#s there$ keeping tra-k o% it ever!)here$ the +,A gener=
all! presided over the LSD s-ene during the 10@6s "o be sure$
the #ilitar! servi-es pla!ed a part and %unded their o)n re=
sear-h progra#sP So did the (ational ,nstitutes o% Aealth$ to
a lesser e>tent *et both the #ilitar! servi-es and the (,A
allo)ed the#selves to be -o=opted b! the +,AMas %unding -on=
P5ilitar! se-urit! agen-ies supported the LSD )ork o% su-h )ell=kno)n re=
sear-hers as A#edeo 5arra..i o% the Universit! o% 5innesota and 5issouri
,nstitute o% Ps!-hiatr!$ Aenr! Bee-her o% Aarvard and 5assa-husetts General
Aospital$ +harles Savage )hile he )as at the (aval 5edi-al Desear-h ,nsti=
tute$ 4a#es Dille o% the Universit! o% Washington$ Gerald ;lee o% the Universit!
o% 5ar!land 5edi-al S-hool$ (eil Bur-h o% Ba!lor Universit! C)ho per%or#ed
later e>peri#ents %or the +,AE$ and Paul Ao-h and 4a#es +attell o% the (e)
*ork State Ps!-hiatri- ,nstitute$ )hose %or-ed in9e-tions o% a #es-aline deriva=
tive led to the 10@7 death o% (e) *ork tennis pro%essional Aarold Blauer CDr
+attell later told Ar#! investigators$ GWe didn?t kno) )hether it )as dog piss
or )hat it )as )e )ere giving hi#GE
% INTELLIGENCE OR 7WITCHES 5OTIONS7
duits and intelligen-e sour-es "he Food and Drug Ad#inistra=
tion also supplied the Agen-! )ith -on%idential in%or#ation on
drug testing O% the Western )orld?s t)o LSD #anu%a-turers$
oneM:li Lill!Mgave its entire Cs#allE suppl! to the +,A and the
#ilitar! "he otherMSando.Min%or#ed Agen-! representa=
tives ever! ti#e it shipped the drug ,% so#eho) the +,A #issed
an!thing )ith all these sour-es$ the Agen-! still had its o)n
net)ork o% s-holar=spies$ the #ost a-tive o% )ho# )as Aarold
Abra#son )ho kept it in%or#ed o% all ne) develop#ents in the
LSD %ield While the +,A #a! not have totall! -ornered the LSD
#arket in the 10@6s$ it -ertainl! had a good #easure o% -ontrol
Mthe ver! po)er it sought over hu#an behavior
Sid Gottlieb and his -olleagues at 5;UL"DA soaked up pools
o% in%or#ation about LSD and other drugs %ro# all outside
sour-es$ but the! saved %or the#selves the resear-h the! reall!
-ared aboutL operational testing "rained in both s-ien-e and
espionage$ the! believed the! -ould bridge the huge gap be=
t)een e>peri#enting in the laborator! and using drugs to out=
s#art the ene#! "here%ore the leaders o% 5;UL"DA initiated
their o)n series o% drug e>peri#ents that paralleled and dre)
in%or#ation %ro# the e>ternal resear-h As pra-ti-al #en o%
a-tion$ unli#ited b! restri-tive a-ade#i- standards$ the! did
not %eel the need to keep their tests in stri-t s-ienti%i- seBuen-e
"he! )anted results no)Mnot ne>t !ear ,% a drug sho)ed
pro#ise$ the! %elt no Bual#s about tr!ing it out operationall!
be%ore all the test results -a#e in As earl! as 10@7$ %or instan-e$
Sid Gottlieb )ent overseas )ith a suppl! o% a hallu-inogeni-
drugMal#ost -ertainl! LSD With unkno)n results$ he ar=
ranged %or it to be slipped to a speaker at a politi-al rall!$
presu#abl! to see i% it )ould #ake a %ool o% hi#
"hese )ere %ree)heeling da!s )ithin the +,AMthen a !oung
agen-! )hose bureau-rati- arteries had not started to harden
"he leaders o% 5;UL"DA had high hopes %or LSD ,t appeared
to be an a)eso#e substan-e$ )hose advent$ like the an-ient
dis-over! o% %ire$ )ould bring out pri#itive responses o% %ear
and )orship in people Onl! a spe-k o% LSD -ould take a strong=
)illed #an and turn his #ost basi- per-eptions into )illo)!
shado)s "i#e$ spa-e$ right$ )rong$ order$ and the notion o%
)hat )as possible all took on ne) %a-es LSD )as a %rightening
)eapon$ and it took a s)ashbu-kling boldness %or the leaders
o% 5;UL"DA to prepare %or operational testing the )a! the!
LSD 69
%irst didL b! taking it the#selves "he! tripped at the o%%i-e
"he! tripped at sa%ehouses$ and so#eti#es the! traveled to
Boston to trip under Bob A!de?s penetrating ga.e Al)a!s the!
observed$ Buestioned$ and anal!.ed ea-h other LSD see#ed to
re#ove inhibitions$ and the! thought the! -ould use it to %ind
out )hat )ent on in the #ind underneath all the outside a-ts
and pretensions ,% the! -ould get at the inner sel%$ the! rea=
soned$ the! -ould better #anipulate a personMor keep hi#
%ro# being #anipulated
"he #en %ro# 5;UL"DA )ere tr!ing LSD in the earl! 10@6s
M)hen Stalin lived and 4oe 5-+arth! raged ,t )as a %orebod=
ing ti#e$ even %or those not pro%essionall! responsible %or
doo#sda! poisons (ot surprisingl!$ Sid Gottlieb and -ol=
leagues )ho tried LSD did not think o% the drug as so#ething
that #ight enhan-e -reativit! or -ause trans-endental e>peri=
en-es "hose notions )ould not -o#e along %or !ears B! and
large$ there )as thought to be onl! one prevailing and hard=
headed version o% realit!$ )hi-h )as Gnor#al$G and ever!thing
else )as G-ra.!G An LSD trip #ade people te#poraril! -ra.!$
)hi-h #eant potentiall! vulnerable to the +,A #en Cand #en=
tall! ill$ to the do-torsE "he +,A e>peri#enters did not trip %or
the e>perien-e itsel%$ or to get high$ or to sa#ple ne) realities
"he! )ere testing a )eaponF %or their purposes$ the! #ight as
)ell have been in a ballisti-s lab
Despite this prevailing attitude in the Agen-!$ at least one
5;UL"DA pioneer re-alls that his %irst trip e>panded his -on=
-eption o% realit!L G, )as shak! at %irst$ but then , 9ust e>=
perien-ed it and had a high , %elt that ever!thing )as )orking
right , )as like a lo-o#otive going at top e%%i-ien-! Sure there
)as stress$ but not in a debilitating )a! ,t )as like the stress
o% an engine pulling the longest train it?s ever pulledG "his +,A
veteran des-ribes seeing all the -olors o% the rainbo) gro)ing
out o% -ra-ks in the side)alk Ae had al)a!s disliked -ra-ks as
signs o% i#per%e-tion$ but suddenl! the -ra-ks be-a#e natural
stress lines that #easured the vibrations o% the universe Ae
sa) people )ith ble#ished %a-es$ )hi-h he had previousl!
%ound slightl! repulsive G, had a -hange o% values about %a-es$G
he sa!s GAooked noses or -rooked teeth )ould be-o#e beauti=
%ul %or that person So#ething had turned loose in #e$ and all
, had done )as shi%t #! attitude Dealit! hadn?t -hanged$ but
, had "hat )as all the di%%eren-e in the )orld bet)een seeing
so#ething ugl! and seeing truth and beaut!G
$( INTELLIGENCE OR 7WITCHES 5OTIONS7
At the end o% this da! o% his %irst trip$ the +,A #an and his
-olleagues had an al-ohol part! to help -o#e do)n G, had a
lu#p in #! throat$G he re-alls )ist%ull! Although he had never
done su-h a thing be%ore$ he )ept in %ront o% his -o)orkers G,
didn?t )ant to leave it , %elt , )ould be going ba-k to a pla-e
)here , )ouldn?t be able to hold on to this kind o% beaut! , %elt
ver! unhapp! "he people )ho )rote the report on #e said ,
had e>perien-ed depression$ but the! didn?t understand )h! ,
%elt so bad "he! thought , had had a bad tripG
"his +,A #an sa!s that others )ith his general personalit!
tended to en9o! the#selves on LSD$ but that the stereot!pi-al
+,A operator Cparti-ularl! the e>tre#e -ounterintelligen-e
t!pe )ho #istrusts ever!one and ever!thingE usuall! had nega=
tive rea-tions "he drug si#pl! e>aggerated his paranoia For
these operators$ the o%%i-ial notes$ Gdark evil things )ould begin
to lurk around$G and the! )ould de-ide the e>peri#enters )ere
plotting against the#
"he "SS tea# understood it )ould be ne>t to i#possible to
alla! the %ears o% this ever=vigilant$ suspi-ious sort$ although
the! #ight use LSD to disorient or generall! -on%use su-h a
person Ao)ever$ the! to!ed )ith the idea that LSD -ould be
applied to better advantage on #ore trusting t!pes +ould a
-lever %oe Gre=edu-ateG su-h a person )ith a skill%ul appli-a=
tion o% LSDO Spe-ulating on this Buestion$ the +,A o%%i-ial states
that )hile under the in%luen-e o% the drug$ G!ou tend to have
a #ore global vie) o% things , %ound it a)%ull! hard )hen
stoned to #aintain the notionL , a# a US -iti.enM#! -ountr!
right or )rongWWW*ou tend to have these good higher %eelings
*ou are #ore open to the brotherhood=o%=#an idea and #ore
sus-eptible to the sea#! sides o% !our o)n so-iet! , think
this is e>a-tl! )hat happened during the 10<6s$ but it didn?t
#ake people #ore -o##unist ,t 9ust #ade the# less in-lined
to identi%! )ith the US "he! took a plague=on=both=!our=
houses positionG
As to )hether his %or#er -olleagues in "SS had the sa#e
per-eption o% the LSD e>perien-e$ the #an replies$ G, think
ever!bod! understood that i% !ou had a good trip$ !ou had a
kind o% above=it=all look into realit! What )e subseBuentl!
%ound )as that )hen !ou -a#e do)n$ !ou re#e#bered the
e>perien-e$ but !ou didn?t s)it-h identities *ou reall! didn?t
have that kind o% %eeling *ou )eren?t as suspi-ious o% people
*ou listened to the#$ but !ou also sa) through the# #ore
easil! and -learl! We de-ided that this )asn?t the kind o% thing
LSD $'
that )as going to #ake a gu! into a turn-oat to his o)n -ountr!
"he #ore )e )orked )ith it$ the less )e be-a#e -onvin-ed this
)as )hat the -o##unists )ere using %or brain)ashingG
"he earl! LSD testsMboth outside and inside the Agen-!M
had gone )ell enough that the 5;UL"DA s-ientists #oved
%or)ard to the ne>t stage on the road to G%ieldG useL "he!
tried the drug out on people b! surprise "his$ a%ter all$
)ould be the )a! an operator )ould giveMor getMthe drug
First the! de-ided to spring it on ea-h other )ithout )arn=
ing "he! agreed a#ong the#selves that a -o)orker #ight
slip it to the# at an! ti#e C,n )hat #a! be an apo-r!phal
stor!$ a "SS sta%% #an sa!s that one o% his %or#er -olleagues
al)a!s brought his o)n bottle o% )ine to o%%i-e parties and
-arried it )ith hi# at all ti#esE Un)itting doses be-a#e an
o--upational ha.ard
5;UL"DA #en usuall! took these unplanned trips in stride$
but o--asionall! the! turned nast! ")o "SS veterans tell the
stor! o% a -o)orker )ho drank so#e LSD=la-ed -o%%ee during
his #orning break Within an hour$ states one veteran$ Ghe sort
o% kne) he had it$ but he -ouldn?t pull hi#sel% together So#e=
ti#es !ou take it$ and !ou start the pro-ess o% #aintaining !our
-o#posure But this grabbed hi# be%ore he )as a)are$ and it
got a)a! %ro# hi#G Filled )ith %ear$ the +,A #an %led the
building that then housed "SS$ lo-ated on the edge o% the 5all
near Washington?s great #onu#ents Aaving lost sight o% hi#$
his -olleagues sear-hed %ranti-all!$ but he #anaged to es-ape
"he hallu-inating Agen-! #an )orked his )a! a-ross one o%
the Poto#a- bridges and apparentl! -ut his last links )ith
rationalit! GAe reported a%ter)ards that ever! auto#obile that
-a#e b! )as a terrible #onster )ith %antasti- e!es$ out to get
hi# personall!$G sa!s the veteran G:a-h ti#e a -ar passed$ he
)ould huddle do)n against the parapet$ terribl! %rightened ,t
)as a real horror trip %or hi# , #ean$ it )as hours o% agon!
,t )as like a drea# that never stopsM)ith so#eone -hasing
!ouG
A%ter about an hour and a hal%$ the vi-ti#?s -o)orkers %ound
hi# on the Iirginia side o% the Poto#a-$ -rou-hed under a
%ountain$ tre#bling G,t )as a)%ull! hard to persuade hi# that
his %riends )ere his %riends at that point$G re-alls the -olleague
GAe )as alone in the )orld$ and ever!one )as hostile Ae?d
be-o#e a %ull=blo)n paranoid ,% it had lasted %or t)o )eeks$
)e?d have plunked hi# in a #ental hospitalG Fortunatel! %or
hi#$ ihe +,A #an -a#e do)n b! the end o% the da! "his )as
78 INTELLIGENCE OR 7WITCHES 5OTIONS7
not the %irst$ last$ or #ost tragi- bad trip in the Agen-!?s testing
progra#P
B! late 10@7$ onl! si> #onths a%ter Allen Dulles had %or#all!
-reated 5;UL"DA$ "SS o%%i-ials )ere alread! )ell into the last
stage o% their resear-hL s!ste#ati- use o% LSD on GoutsidersG
)ho had no idea the! had re-eived the drug "hese vi-ti#s
si#pl! %elt their #oorings slip a)a! in the #idst o% an ordinar!
da!$ %or no apparent reason$ and no one reall! kne) ho) the!
)ould rea-t
Sid Gottlieb )as read! %or the operational e>peri#ents Ae
-onsidered LSD to be su-h a se-ret substan-e that he gave it a
private -ode na#e CGseruni#GE b! )hi-h he and his -olleagues
o%ten re%erred to the drug$ even behind the +,A?s heavil!
guarded doors ,n retrospe-t$ it see#s #ore than bi.arre that
+,A o%%i-ialsM#en responsible %or the nation?s intelligen-e and
alertness )hen the hot and -old )ars against the -o##unists
)ere at their peakM)ould be sneaking LSD into ea-h other?s
-o%%ee -ups and thereb! sub9e-ting the#selves to the unkno)n
%rontiers o% e>peri#ental drugs But these side trips did not
see# to -hange the sense o% realit! o% Gottlieb or o% high +,A
o%%i-ials$ )ho took LSD on several o--asions "he drug did not
trans%or# Gottlieb out o% the #ind set o% a #aster s-ientist=sp!$
a protege o% Di-hard Ael#s in the +,A?s inner -ir-le Ae never
stopped #ilking his goats at @L76 ever! #orning
"he +,A leaders? earl! a-hieve#ents )ith LSD )ere i#pres=
sive "he! had not invented the drug$ but the! had gotten in on
the A#eri-an ground %loor and done nearl! ever!thing else
"he! )ere !ears ahead o% the s-ienti%i- literatureMlet alone the
publi-Mand spies )in b! being ahead "he! had #onopoli.ed
the suppl! o% LSD and do#inated the resear-h b! -reating
#u-h o% it the#selves "he! had used #one! and other blan=
dish#ents to build a net)ork o% s-ientists and do-tors )hose
)ork the! -ould dire-t and turn to their o)n use All that re=
#ained bet)een the# and #a9or espionage su--esses )as the
per%or#an-e o% the drug in the %ield
"hat$ ho)ever$ turned out to be a -onsiderable stu#bling
blo-k LSD had an in-redibl! po)er%ul e%%e-t on people$ but not
in )a!s the +,A -ould predi-t or -ontrol
P"SS o%%i-ials had long kno)n that LSD -ould be Buite dangerous ,n 10@8$
Aarvard 5edi-al S-hool?s Aenr! Bee-her$ )ho regularl! gave the Agen-! in=
%or#ation on his talks )ith :uropean -olleagues$ reported that a S)iss do-tor
had su%%ered severe depression a%ter taking the drug and had killed hersel%
three )eeks later
CONCERNING THE CASE
OF DR. FRANK OLSON
,n (ove#ber 10@7$ Sid Gottlieb de-ided to test LSD on
a
group o% s-ientists %ro# the Ar#! +he#i-al +orps? Spe-ial
Operations Division CSODE at Fort Detri-k in Frederi-k$
5ar!land Although the +landestine Servi-es hierar-h!
had
t)i-e put "SS under stri-t noti-e not to use LSD )ithout
per#ission %ro# above$ Gottlieb #ust have %elt that
tr!ing
the drug on SOD #en )as not so di%%erent %ro# giving it
to
his -olleagues at the o%%i-e A%ter all$ o%%i-ials at "SS
and
SOD )orked inti#atel! together$ and the! shared one o%
the
darkest se-rets o% the +old WarL that the US govern#ent
#aintained the -apabilit!M)hi-h it )ould use at ti#esMto
kill or in-apa-itate sele-ted people )ith biologi-al )eapons
Onl! a hand%ul o% the highest +,A o%%i-ials kne) that "SS
)as pa!ing SOD about S866$666 a !ear in return %or opera=
tional s!ste#s to in%e-t %oes )ith disease
Gottlieb planned to drop the LSD on the SOD #en in the
splendid isolation o% a three=da! )orking retreat ")i-e a !ear$
the SOD and "SS #en )ho -ollaborated on 5;(AO5,$ their
9oint progra#$ held a planning session at a re#ote site )here
the! -ould brainstor# )ithout interruption On (ove#ber 1J$
10@7$ the! gathered at Deep +reek Lodge$ a log building in the
)oods o% Western 5ar!land ,t had been built as a Bo! S-out
-a#p 8@ !ears earlier Surrounded b! the )ater o% a #ountain
lake on three sides$ )ith the peaks o% the Appala-hian -hain
looking do)n over the thi-k %orest$ the lodge )as isolated
CHAPTER
5
$4 INTELLIGENCE OR 7WITCHES 5OTIONS7
enough %or even the #ost se-urit! -ons-ious sp! Onl! an o--a=
sional hunter )as likel! to )ander through a%ter the su##er
#onths
Dr 4ohn S-h)ab$ )ho had %ounded SOD in 10@6$ Lt +olonel
Iin-ent Du)et$ its -urrent -hie%$ and Dr Frank Olson$ its te#=
porar! head earlier that !ear$ led the Detri-k group "hese
ger# )arriors -a#e under the -over o% being )ildli%e )riters
and le-turers o%% on a bus#an?s holida! "he! -are%ull!
re#oved the Fort Detri-k parking sti-kers %ro# their -ars be=
%ore setting out Sid Gottlieb brought three -o=)orkers %ro# the
Agen-!$ in-luding his deput! Dobert Lashbrook
"he! #et in the living roo# o% the lodge$ in %ront o% a roaring
bla.e in the huge )alk=in %irepla-e "hen the! split o%% into
s#aller groups %or spe-iali.ed #eetings "he survivors a#ong
those )ho attended these sessions re#ain as tight=lipped as
ever$ )illing to share a %e) details o% the general at#osphere
but none o% the substan-e Ao)ever$ %ro# other sour-es at Fort
Detri-k and %ro# govern#ent do-u#ents$ the 5;(AO5, re=
sear-h -an be pie-ed together ,t )as this progra# that )as
dis-ussed during the %ate%ul retreat
Under 5;(AO5,$ the SOD #en developed a )hole arse=
nal o% to>i- substan-es %or +,A use ,% Agen-! operators
needed to kill so#eone in a %e) se-onds )ith$ sa!$ a sui-ide
pill$ SOD provided super=deadl! shell%ish to>inP On his ill=
%ated U=8 %light over the Soviet Union in 10<6$ Fran-is Gar!
Po)ers -arriedMand -hose not to useMa drill bit -oated )ith
this poison -on-ealed in a silver dollar While per%e-t %or
so#eone an>ious to dieMor killMinstantl!$ shell%ish to>in
o%%ered no ti#e to es-ape and -ould be tra-ed easil! 5ore
use%ul %or assassination$ +,A and SOD #en de-ided$ )as
botulinu# With an in-ubation period o% J to 18 hours$ it al=
lo)ed the killer ti#e to separate hi#sel% %ro# the deed
Agen-! operators )ould later suppl! pills la-ed )ith this le=
thal %ood poison to its 5a%ia allies %or in-lusion in Fidel +as=
tro?s #ilkshake ,% +,A o%%i-ials )anted an assassination to
look like a death %ro# natural -auses$ the! -ould -hoose
P"o>ins are -he#i-al substan-es$ not living organis#s derived %ro# biolog=
i-al agents While the! -an #ake people si-k or dead$ the! -annot repro=
du-e the#selves like ba-teria Be-ause o% their biologi-al origin$ to>ins
-a#e under the responsibilit! o% Fort Detri-k rather than :dge)ood Arse=
nal$ the %a-ilit! )hi-h handled the -he#i-al side o% A#eri-a?s -he#i-al
and biologi-al )ar%are C+BWE progra#s
CONCERNING THE CASE OF DR8 FRAN9 OLSON $5
%ro# a long list o% deadl! diseases that nor#all! o--urred in
parti-ular -ountries "hus in 10<6$ +landestine Servi-es
-hie% Di-hard Bissell asked Sid Gottlieb to pi-k out an ap=
propriate #alad! to kill the +ongo?s Patri-e Lu#u#ba Gott=
lieb told the Senate investigators that he sele-ted one that
G)as supposed to produ-e a disease that )as indigenous
to that area Qo% West A%ri-aR and that -ould be %atalG Gott=
lieb personall! -arried the ba-teria to the +ongo$ but this
#urderous operation )as s-rubbed be%ore Lu#u#ba -ould
be in%e-ted C"he +ongolese leader )as killed shortl! the=
rea%ter under -ir-u#stan-es that still are not -learE
When +,A operators #erel! )anted to be rid o% so#ebod!
te#poraril!$ SOD sto-kpiled %or the# about a do.en diseases
and to>ins o% var!ing strengths At the relativel! benign end o%
the SOD list stood S-a,38 e"-e.o-oxi"1 a #ild %or# o% %ood
poisoningM#ild -o#pared to botulinu# "his S-a,38 in%e-tion
al#ost never killed and si#pl! in-apa-itated its vi-ti# %or 7 to
< hours Under the skilled guidan-e o% Sid Gottlieb?s )arti#e
prede-essor$ Stanle! Lovell$ OSS had used this ver! substan-e
to prevent (a.i o%%i-ial A9al#ar S-ha-ht %ro# attending an
e-ono#i- -on%eren-e during the )ar 5ore virulent in the SOD
arsenal )as :e"e;2e4a" e<2i"e e"!e,3a4o0ye4i-is virus ,t
usuall! i##obili.ed a person %or 8 to @ da!s and kept hi# in
a )eakened state %or several #ore )eeks ,% the Agen-! )anted
to in-apa-itate so#eone %or a period o% #onths$ SOD had t)o
di%%erent kinds o% bru-ellosisP
A %or#er senior o%%i-ial at Fort Detri-k )as kind enough to
run #e through all the ger#s and to>ins SOD kept %or the +,A$
listing their advantages and disadvantages Be%ore doing so$ he
e#phasi.ed that SOD )as also tr!ing to )ork out )a!s to pro=
te-t US -iti.ens and installations %ro# atta-k )ith si#ilar
substan-es G*ou -an?t have a serious de%ense$G he sa!s$ Gunless
so#eone has thought about o%%enseG Ae stated that 4apan
#ade repeated biologi-al atta-ks against +hina during World
War ,,M)hi-h )as one reason %or starting the A#eri-an pro=
P Bru-ellosis #a! )ell have been the disease that Gottlieb sele-ted in the spring
o% 10<6 )hen the +landestine Servi-es? Aealth Alteration +o##ittee approved
an operation to disable an ,raBi -olonel$ said to be Gpro#oting Soviet=blo-
politi-al interestsG %or at least three #onths Gottlieb told the +hur-h -o##it=
tee that he had a #onogra##ed handker-hie% treated )ith the in-apa-itating
agen-!$ and then #ailed it to the -olonel +,A o%%i-ials told the -o##ittee that
the -olonel )as shot b! a %iring sBuadM)hi-h the Agen-! had nothing to do
)ithMbe%ore the handker-hie% arrived
$ INTELLIGENCE OR 7WITCHES 5OTIONS7
gra#P Ae kno)s o% no use sin-e b! the Soviet Union or an!
other po)er
A--ording to the Detri-k o%%i-ial$ an!one -onte#plating use
o% a biologi-al produ-t had to -onsider #an! other %a-tors be=
sides to>i-it! and in-ubation period
+an the ger# be dete-ted easil! and -ountered )ith a va-=
-ineO Ae notes that anthra>$ a %atal disease C)hen inhaledE that
SOD stored %or +,A$ has the advantage o% s!#pto#s that rese#=
ble pneu#oniaF si#ilarl!$ Iene.uelan eBuine en-ephalo#!eli=
tis -an be #istaken %or the grippe While va--ines do e>ist %or
#an! o% the sto-kpiled diseases$ SOD )as %orever developing
#ore virulent strains G, don?t kno) o% an! organis# sus-epti=
ble to a drug that -an?t be #ade #ore resistant$G states the
Detri-k #an
Did the disease have a high degree o% se-ondar! spreadO SOD
pre%erred it not to$ be-ause these ger# )ar%are #en did not
)ant to start epide#i-sMthat )as the 9ob o% others at Fort De=
tri-k
Was the organis# stableO Ao) did hu#idit! a%%e-t itO SOD
-onsidered these and #an! other %a-tors
"o the +,A$ perhaps the #ost i#portant Buestion )as
)hether it -ould -overtl! deliver the ger# to in%e-t the right
person One bran-h o% SOD spe-iali.ed in building deliver!
s!ste#s$ the #ost %a#ous o% )hi-h no) is the dart gun %ash=
ioned out o% a K@ pistol that e>=+,A Dire-tor Willia# +olb!
displa!ed to the )orld at a 107@ Senate hearing "he Agen-!
had long been a%ter SOD to develop a Gnon=dis-ernible #i-ro=
bioino-ulatorG )hi-h -ould give people deadl! shots that$ a-=
-ording to a +,A do-u#ent$ -ould not be Geasil! dete-ted upon
a detailed autops!G SOD also rigged up aerosol spra!s that
-ould be %ired b! re#ote -ontrol$ in-luding a %luores-ent starter
that )as a-tivated b! turning on the light$ a -igarette lighter
that spra!ed )hen lit$ and an engine head bolt that shot o%% as
the engine heated G,% !ou?re going to in%e-t people$ the #ost
likel! )a! is respirator!$G notes the high Detri-k o%%i-ial G:v=
er!bod! breathes$ but !ou #ight not get the# to eatG
PFor so#e reason$ the US govern#ent has #ade it a point not to release
in%or#ation about 4apanese use o% biologi-al )ar%are "he senior Detri-k
sour-e sa!s$ GWe kne) the! spra!ed 5an-huria We had the results o% ho) the!
produ-ed and disse#inated Qthe biologi-al agents$ in-luding anthra>R , read
the autops! reports #!sel% We had people )ho )ent over to 4apan a%ter the
)arG
CONCERNING THE CASE OF DR8 FRAN9 OLSON $$
Frank Olson spe-iali.ed in the airborne deliver! o% disease
Ae had been )orking in the %ield ever sin-e 10K7$ )hen he -a#e
to Fort Detri-k as one o% the original #ilitar! o%%i-ers in the US
biologi-al )ar%are progra# Be%ore the end o% the )ar$ he de=
veloped a pain%ul ul-er -ondition that led hi# to seek a #edi-al
dis-harge %ro# the uni%or#ed #ilitar!$ but he had sta!ed on as
a -ivilian Ae 9oined SOD )hen it started in 10@6 Obviousl!
good at )hat he did$ Olson served %or several #onths as a-ting
-hie% o% SOD in 10@8=@7 but asked to be relieved )hen the
added stress -aused his ul-er to %lare up Ae happil! returned
to his lesser post as a bran-h -hie%$ )here he had %e)er ad=
#inistrative duties and -ould spend #ore ti#e in the labora=
tor! A lover o% pra-ti-al 9okes$ Olson )as ver! popular a#ong
his #an! %riends Ae )as an outgoing #an$ but$ like #ost o% his
generation$ he kept his inner %eelings to hi#sel% Ais great
passion )as his %a#il!$ and he spent #ost o% his spare ti#e
pla!ing )ith his three kids and helping around the house Ae
had #et his )i%e )hile the! both studied at the Universit! o%
Wis-onsin
Olson attended all the sessions and apparentl! did ever!thing
e>pe-ted o% hi# during the %irst t)o da!s at the lodge A%ter
dinner on "hursda!$ (ove#ber 10$ 10@7Mthe sa#e da! that a
Washington 5os- editorial de-ried the use o% dogs in -he#i-al
e>peri#entsMOlson shared a drink o% +ointreau )ith all but
t)o o% the #en present COne had a heart -onditionF the other$
a re%or#ed al-oholi-$ did not drinkE Unbekno)nst to the SOD
#en$ Sid Gottlieb had de-ided to spike the liBueur )ith LSDP
G"o #e$ ever!one )as prett! nor#al$G sa!s SOD?s Ben9a#in
Wilson G(o one )as a)are an!thing had happened until Gott=
lieb #entioned it Q86 #inutes a%ter the drinkR Gottlieb asked i%
)e had noti-ed an!thing )rong :ver!one )as a)are$ on-e it
)as brought to their attentionG "he! tried to -ontinue their
dis-ussion$ but on-e the drug took hold$ the #eeting deteri=
orated into laughter and boisterous -onversation ")o o% the
SOD #en apparentl! got into an all=night philosophi-al -on=
versation that had nothing to do )ith biologi-al )ar%are
PGottlieb stated 9ust a%ter Olson?s death$ at a ti#e )hen he )as tr!ing to #ini=
#i.e his o)n -ulpabilit!$ that he had talked to the SOD #en about LSD and
that the! had agreed in general ter#s to the desirabilit! o% un)itting testing
")o o% the SOD group in intervie)s and a third in -ongressional testi#on!
%latl! den! the Gottlieb version Gottlieb and the SOD #en all agree Gottlieb
gave no advan-e )arning that he )as giving the# a drug in their liBueur
$% INTELLIGENCE OR 7WITCHES 5OTIONS7
Du)et re#e#bers it as Gthe #ost %rightening e>perien-e , ever
had or hope to haveG Ben Wilson re-alls that GOlson )as
ps!-hoti- Ae -ouldn?t understand )hat happened Ae thought
so#eone )as pla!ing tri-ks on hi# One o% his %avorite
e>pressions )as ?*ou gu!s are a bun-h o% thespians? G
Olson and #ost o% the others be-a#e in-reasingl! un-o#=
%ortable and -ould not sleepP When the group gathered in the
#orning$ Olson )as still agitated$ obviousl! disturbed$ as )ere
several o% his -olleagues "he #eeting had turned sour$ and no
one reall! )anted to do #ore business "he! all straggled ho#e
during the da!
Ali-e Olson re#e#bers her husband -o#ing in be%ore dinner
that eveningL GAe said nothing Ae 9ust sat there Ordinaril!
)hen he -a#e ba-k %ro# a trip$ he?d tell #e about the things
he -ouldM)hat the! had to eat$ that sort o% thing During din=
ner$ , said$ ?,t?s a da#ned sha#e the adults in this %a#il! don?t
-o##uni-ate an!#ore? Ae said$ ?Wait until the kids get to bed
and ,?ll talk to !ou? G Later that night$ Frank Olson told his )i%e
he had #ade Ga terrible #istake$G that his -olleagues had
laughed at hi# and hu#iliated hi# 5rs Olson assured hi#
that the others )ere his %riends$ that the! )ould not #ake %un
o% hi# Still$ Olson )ould not tell her an! #ore Ae kept his
%ears bottled up inside$ and he shared nothing o% his gro)ing
%eeling that so#eone )as out to get hi# Ali-e Olson )as a--us=
to#ed to his keeping se-rets Although she reali.ed he )orked
on biologi-al )ar%are$ the! never talked about it She had had
onl! little gli#pses o% his pro%ession Ae -o#plained about the
pain%ul shots he )as al)a!s taking Ae al#ost never took a
bath at ho#e be-ause he sho)ered upon entering and leaving
his o%%i-e ever! da! When a Detri-k e#plo!ee died o% anthra>
Cone o% three %atalities in the base?s 87=!ear histor!E$ Frank
PFor the ver! reason that #ost trips last about eight hours no #atter )hat ti#e
a sub9e-t takes the drug$ virtuall! all e>peri#enters$ in-luding "SS?s o)n -on=
tra-tors$ give LSD in the #orning to avoid the dis-o#%ort o% sleepless nights
"o enter the SOD building$ in addition to needing an in-redibl! hard=to=get
se-urit! -learan-e$ one had to have an up=to=date shot -ard )ith an!)here
%ro# 16 to 86 i##uni.ations listed "he pro-ess )as so pain%ul and ti#e -on=
su#ing that at one point in the 10<6s the general )ho headed the )hole Ar#!
+he#i-al +orps de-ided against inspe-ting SOD and getting an on=the=spot
brie%ing When asked about this in-ident$ an SOD veteran )ho had earlier
resigned said$ G"hat?s the )a! )e kept the# out "hose Q#ilitar!R t!pes didn?t
need to kno) 5ost o% the se-urit! violations -a#e %ro# the top level Ae
-ould have gone in )ithout shots i% he had insisted "he sa%et! dire-tor )ould
have protested$ but he -ould haveG
CONCERNING THE CASE OF DR8 FRAN9 OLSON $&
Olson told his )i%e the #an had died o% pneu#onia
Ali-e Olson had never even seen the building )here her hus=
band )orked Fort Detri-k )as built on the prin-iple o% -on-en=
tri- -ir-les$ )ith se-rets -on-ealed inside se-rets "o enter the
inner regions )here SOD operated$ one needed not onl! the
highest se-urit! -learan-e but a Gneed to kno)G authori.ation
Aer husband )as not about to break out o% a -areer o% govern=
#ent=i#posed se-re-! to tell her about the "OP S:+D:" e>=
peri#ent that Sid Gottlieb had per%or#ed on hi#
"he Olsons spent an un-o##uni-ative )eekend together
On Sunda! the! sat on the davenport in their living roo#$ hold=
ing handsMso#ething the! had not done %or a long ti#e G,t
)as a rotten (ove#ber da!$G re-alls 5rs Olson G"he %og out=
side )as so thi-k !ou -ould hardl! see out the %ront door
Frank?s depression )as dread%ulG Finall!$ she re-alls$ the!
pa-ked up the three !oung -hildren$ and )ent o%% to the lo-al
theater "he %il# turned out to be L2-3e.8 G,t )as a ver! serious
#ovie$G re#e#bers 5rs Olson$ Gnot a good one to see )hen
!ou?re depressedG
"he %ollo)ing da!$ Olson appeared at 7L76 A5 in the o%%i-e o%
his boss$ Lieutenant +olonel Du)et$ "o Du)et$ Olson see#ed
GagitatedG Ae told Du)et he )anted either to Buit or be %ired
"aken aba-k$ Du)et reassured Olson that his -ondu-t at the
lodge had been Gbe!ond reproa-hG See#ingl! satis%ied and
relieved$ Olson agreed to sta! on and spent the rest o% the da!
on routine SOD business "hat evening$ the Olsons spent their
#ost light=hearted evening sin-e be%ore the retreat to Deep
+reek Lodge$ and the! planned a %are)ell part! %or a -olleague
the %ollo)ing Saturda! night
"uesda! #orning$ Du)et again arrived at his o%%i-e to %ind a
disturbed Frank Olson )aiting %or hi# Olson said he %elt Gall
#i>ed upG and Buestioned his o)n -o#peten-e Ae said that he
should not have le%t the Ar#! during the )ar be-ause o% his
ul-er and that he la-ked the abilit! to do his present )ork A%ter
an hour$ Du)et de-ided Olson needed Gps!-hiatri- attentionG
Du)et apparentl! %elt that the +,A had -aused Olson?s proble#
in the %irst pla-e$ and instead o% sending hi# to the base hospi=
tal$ he -alled Gottlieb?s deput! Dobert Lashbrook to arrange %or
Olson to see a ps!-hiatrist
A%ter a hurried -on%eren-e$ Lashbrook and Gottlieb de-ided
to send Olson to Dr Aarold Abra#son in (e) *ork Abra#son
had no %or#al training in ps!-hiatr! and did not hold hi#sel%
%( INTELLIGENCE OR 7WITCHES POTIONS"
out to be a ps!-hiatrist Ae )as an allergist and i##unologist
interested in treating the proble#s o% the #ind Gottlieb -hose
hi# be-ause he had a "OP S:+D:" +,A se-urit! -learan-e
and be-ause he had been )orking )ith LSDMunder Agen-!
-ontra-tM%or several !ears Gottlieb )as obviousl! prote-ting
his o)n bureau-rati- position b! not letting an!one outside
"SS kno) )hat he had done Aaving %ailed to observe the order
to seek higher approval %or LSD use$ Gottlieb pro-eeded to vio=
late another +,A regulation ,t states$ in e%%e-t$ that )henever
a potential %lap arises that #ight e#barrass the +,A or lead to
a break in se-re-!$ those involved should i##ediatel! -all the
O%%i-e o% Se-urit! For health proble#s like Olson?s$ Se-urit!
and the +,A #edi-al o%%i-e keep a long list o% do-tors Cand
ps!-hiatristsE )ith "OP S:+D:" -learan-e )ho -an provide
treat#ent
Gottlieb had other plans %or Frank Olson$ and o%% to (e) *ork
)ent the disturbed SOD bio-he#ist in the -o#pan! o% Du)et
and Lashbrook Olson alternatel! i#proved and sank deeper
and deeper into his %eelings o% depression$ inadeBua-!$ guilt$
and paranoia Ae began to think that the +,A )as putting a
sti#ulant like Ben.edrine in his -o%%ee to keep hi# a)ake and
that it )as the Agen-! that )as out to get hi# "hat %irst da!
in (e) *ork$ Abra#son sa) Olson at his o%%i-e "hen at 16L76
in the evening$ the allergist visited Olson in his hotel roo#$
ar#ed )ith a bottle o% bourbon and a bottle o% the sedative
(e#butalMan unusual -o#bination %or a do-tor to give to
so#eone )ith s!#pto#s like Olson?s
Be%ore Olson?s appoint#ent )ith Dr Abra#son the %ollo)=
ing da!$ he and Du)et a--o#panied Lashbrook on a visit to a
%a#ous (e) *ork #agi-ian na#ed 4ohn 5ulholland$ )ho#
"SS had put under -ontra-t to prepare a #anual that )ould
appl! Gthe #agi-ian?s art to -overt a-tivitiesG An e>pert at
pulling rabbits out o% hats -ould easil! %ind ne) and better )a!s
to slip drugs into drinks$ and Gottlieb signed up 5ulholland to
)ork on$ a#ong other things$ Gthe deliver! o% various #aterials
to un)itting sub9e-tsG Lashbrook thought that the #agi-ian
#ight a#use Olson$ but Olson be-a#e Ghighl! suspi-iousG
"he group ta-t%ull! -ut their visit short$ and Lashbrook
dropped Olson o%% at Abra#son?s o%%i-e A%ter an hour?s -onsul=
tation )ith Abra#son that a%ternoon the allergist gave Olson
per#ission to return to Frederi-k the %ollo)ing da!$ "hanks=
giving$ to be )ith his %a#il!
CONCERNING THE CASE OF DR8 FRAN9 OLSON %'
Olson$ Du)et$ and Lashbrook had plane reservations %or
"hursda! #orning$ so that night$ in a preholida! atte#pt to li%t
spirits$ the! all )ent to see the Dodgers and Aa##erstein hit
#usi-al$ Me a"d =24ie-8 Olson be-a#e upset during the %irst a-t
and told Du)et that he kne) people )ere )aiting outside the
theater to arrest hi# Olson and Du)et le%t the sho) at inter=
#ission$ and the t)o old %riends )alked ba-k to the Statler
Aotel$ near Penn Station Later$ )hile Du)et slept in the ne>t
bed$ Olson -rept out o% the hotel and )andered the streets
Gripped b! the delusion that he )as %ollo)ing Du)et?s orders$
he tore up all his paper #one! and thre) his )allet do)n a
-hute At @L76 A5$ Du)et and Lashbrook %ound hi# sitting in
the Statler lobb! )ith his hat and -oat on
"he! -he-ked out o% the hotel and -aught the plane ba-k to
Washington An SOD driver pi-ked Olson and Du)et up at
(ational Airport and started to drive the# ba-k to Frederi-k
As the! drove up Wis-onsin Avenue$ Olson had the driver pull
into a Ao)ard 4ohnson?s parking lot Ae told Du)et that he )as
Gasha#edG to see his %a#il! in his present state and that he
%eared he #ight be-o#e violent )ith his -hildren Du)et sug=
gested he go ba-k to see Abra#son in (e) *ork$ and Olson
agreed Du)et and Olson drove ba-k to Lashbrook?s apart#ent
on (e) Aa#pshire Avenue o%% Dupont +ir-le$ and Lashbrook
su##oned Sid Gottlieb %ro# "hanksgiving dinner in Iirginia
All agreed that Lashbrook )ould take Olson ba-k to (e) *ork
)hile Du)et )ould go ba-k to Frederi-k to e>plain the situa=
tion to 5rs Olson and to see his o)n %a#il! CDu)et )as
Olson?s %riend$ )hereas Lashbrook )as no #ore than a pro%es=
sional a-Buaintan-e Olson?s son :ri- believes that his %ather?s
#ental state su%%ered )hen Du)et le%t hi# in the hands o% the
+,A?s Lashbrook$ espe-iall! sin-e Olson %elt the +,A )as Gout
to get hi#GE Olson and Lashbrook %le) to LaGuardia airport
and )ent to see Abra#son at his Long ,sland o%%i-e "hen the
t)o #en ate a 9o!less "hanksgiving dinner at a lo-al restau=
rant Frida! #orning Abra#son drove the# into 5anhattan
Abra#son$ an allergist$ %inall! reali.ed that he had #ore on his
hands )ith Olson than he -ould handle$ and he re-o##ended
hospitali.ation Ae )rote a%ter)ard that Olson G)as in a
ps!-hoti- state )ith delusions o% perse-utionG
Olson agreed to enter +hestnut Lodge$ a Do-kville$ 5ar!land
sanitariu# that had +,A=-leared ps!-hiatrists on the sta%%
"he! -ould not get plane reservations until the ne>t #orning$
%) INTELLIGENCE OR 7WITCHES 5OTIONS7
so Olson and Lashbrook de-ided to spend one last night at the
Statler "he! took a roo# on the tenth %loor With his spirits
revived$ Olson dared to -all his )i%e %or the %irst ti#e sin-e he
had le%t originall! %or (e) *ork "he! had a pleasant talk$
)hi-h le%t her %eeling better
,n the earl! hours o% the #orning$ Lashbrook )oke up 9ust in
ti#e to see Frank Olson -rash through the dra)n blinds and
-losed )indo) on a dead run
Within se-onds$ as a -ro)d gathered around Olson?s shat=
tered bod! on the street belo)$ the -over=up started Lash=
brook -alled Gottlieb to tell hi# )hat had happened be%ore
he noti%ied the poli-e (e>t$ Lashbrook -alled Abra#son$
)ho$ a--ording to Lashbrook$ G)anted to be kept out o% the
thing -o#pletel!G Abra#son soon -alled ba-k and o%%ered to
assist When the poli-e arrived$ Lashbrook told the# he
)orked %or the De%ense Depart#ent Ae said he had no idea
)h! Olson killed hi#sel%$ but he did kno) that the dead
#an had Gsu%%ered %ro# ul-ersG "he dete-tives assigned to
the -ase later reported that getting in%or#ation out o% Lash=
brook )as Glike pulling teethG "he! spe-ulated to ea-h
other that the -ase -ould be a ho#i-ide )ith ho#ose>ual
overtones$ but the! soon dropped their inBuiries )hen Du)et
and Abra#son veri%ied Lashbrook?s sket-h! a--ount and in=
voked high govern#ent -onne-tions
Ba-k in Washington$ Sid Gottlieb %inall! %elt -o#pelled to tell
the O%%i-e o% Se-urit! about the Olson -ase Dire-tor Allen
Dulles personall! ordered ,nspe-tor General L!#an ;irkpa=
tri-k to #ake a %ull investigation$ but %irst$ Agen-! o%%i-ials tried
to #ake sure that no outsider )ould tie Olson?s death either to
the +,A or LSD "ea#s o% Se-urit! o%%i-ers )ere soon s-urr!ing
around (e) *ork and Washington$ #aking sure the Agen-!
had -overed its tra-ks One intervie)ed Lashbrook and then
a--o#panied hi# to a #eeting )ith Abra#son When Lash=
brook and Abra#son asked the se-urit! o%%i-er to leave the#
alone$ he -o#plied and then$ in the best traditions o% his o%%i-e$
listened in on the -onversation -overtl! Fro# his report on
their talk$ it -an sa%el! be said that Lashbrook and Abra#son
-onspired to #ake sure the! told identi-al stories Lashbrook
di-tated to Abra#son$ )ho #ade a re-ording o% the s!#pto#s
that Olson )as supposed to be su%%ering %ro# and the proble#s
that )ere bothering hi# Lashbrook even stated that 5rs
Olson had suggested her husband see a ps!-hiatrist #onths
CONCERNING THE CASE OF DR8 FRAN9 OLSON %*
be%ore the LSD in-identP Lashbrook?s -o##ents appeared in
three reports Abra#son sub#itted to the +,A$ but these reports
)ere internall! in-onsistent ,n one #e#o$ Abra#son )rote
that Olson?s Gps!-hoti- state see#ed to have been -r!stal=
li.ed b! Qthe LSDR e>peri#entG ,n a later report$ Abra#son
-alled the LSD dose Gtherapeuti-G and said he believed Gthis
dosage -ould hardl! have had an! signi%i-ant role in the -ourse
o% events that %ollo)edX
"he +,A o%%i-iall!Mbut se-retl!Mtook the position that the
LSD had GtriggeredG Olson?s sui-ide Agen-! o%%i-ials )orked
industriousl! behind the s-enes to #ake sure that 5rs Olson
re-eived an adeBuate govern#ent pensionMt)o=thirds o% her
husband?s base pa! Du)et$ )ho had threatened to e>pose the
)hole a%%air i% 5rs Olson did not get the pension$ sub#itted a
%or# sa!ing Olson had died o% a G-lassi%ied illnessG Gottlieb
and Lashbrook kept tr!ing to have it both )a!s in regard to
giving Olson LSD$ a--ording to the +,A?s General +ounsel
"he! a-kno)ledged LSD?s triggering %un-tion in his death$ but
the! also -lai#ed it )as Gpra-ti-all! i#possibleG %or the drug
to have har#%ul a%tere%%e-ts "he General +ounsel -alled these
t)o positions G-o#pletel! in-onsistent$G and he )rote he )as
Gnot happ! )ith )hat see#s to #e a ver! -asual attitude on the
part o% "SS representatives to the )a! this e>peri#ent )as
-ondu-ted and to their re#arks that this is 9ust one o% the risks
running )ith s-ienti%i- investigationG
As part o% his investigation$ ,nspe-tor General ;irkpatri-k
seBuestered Gottlieb?s LSD %iles$ )hi-h ;irkpatri-k re#e#bers
did not #ake Gottlieb at all happ! G, brought out his stutter$G
sa!s ;irkpatri-k )ith a )r! s#ile GAe )as Buite -on-erned
about his %utureG ;irkpatri-k eventuall! re-o##ended that
so#e %or# o% repri#and be given to Gottlieb$ "SS -hie% Willis
Gibbons$ and "SS deput! -hie% 4a#es G"rapperG Dru#$ )ho
had )aited 86 da!s a%ter Olson?s death to ad#it that Gottlieb
P5rs Olson sa!s that this is an outright lie
X(onps!-hiatrist Abra#son )ho allo)ed -he#ist Lashbrook to tell hi# about
his patient?s -o#ple>es -learl! had a strange idea )hat )as Gtherapeuti-GMor
ps!-hotherapeuti-$ %or that #atter ,n Abra#son?s 10@7 proposal to the +,A %or
SJ@$666 to stud! LSD$ he )rote that over the ne>t !ear he GhopedG to give
hospital patients G)ho are essentiall! nor#al %ro# a ps!-hiatri- point o%
vie)
un)itting doses o% the drug %or ps!-hotherapeuti- purposesG Ais treat#ent
brings to #ind the Willia# Burroughs -hara-ter in Na6ed L2"!3 )ho statesF
G(o)$ bo!s$ !ou )on?t see this operation per%or#ed ver! o%ten$ and there?s a
reason %or that !ou see$ it has absolutel! no #edi-al valueG
%4 INTELLIGENCE OR 7WITCHES 5OTIONS7
had -leared the e>peri#ent )ith hi# Others opposed ;irkpa=
tri-k?s re-o##endation Ad#iral Luis deFlore.$ the Agen-!?s
Desear-h +hair#an$ sent a personal #e#o to Allen Dulles sa!=
ing repri#ands )ould be an Gin9usti-eG and )ould hinder Gthe
spirit o% initiative and enthusias# so ne-essar! in our )orkG
"he Dire-tor?s o%%i-e )ent along$ and ;irkpatri-k began the
tortuous pro-ess o% preparing letters %or Dulles? signature that
)ould sa! Gottlieb$ Gibbons$ and Dru# had done so#ething
)rong$ but nothing -oo )rong ;irkpatri-k )ent through si>
dra%ts o% the Gottlieb letter alone be%ore he -a#e up )ith a-=
-eptable )ording Ae started out b! sa!ing "SS o%%i-ials had
e>er-ised Ge>-eedingl! bad 9udg#entG "hat )as too harsh %or
high Agen-! o%%i-ials$ so ;irkpatri-k tried Gver! poor 9udg=
#entG Still too hard Ae settled %or Gpoor 9udg#entG "he "SS
o%%i-ials )ere told that the! should not -onsider the letters to be
repri#ands and that no re-ord o% the letters )ould be put in
their personnel %iles )here the! -ould -on-eivabl! har# %uture
-areers
"he Olson %a#il! up in Frederi-k did not get o%% so easil!
Du)et told the# Olson had 9u#ped or %allen out o% the )indo)
in (e) *ork$ but he #entioned not a )ord about the LSD$
)hose e%%e-ts Du)et hi#sel% believed had led to Olson?s death
:ver the good soldier$ Du)et -ould not bring hi#sel% to talk
about the -lassi%ied e>peri#entMeven to ease Ali-e Olson?s sor=
ro) 5rs Olson did not )ant to a--ept the idea that her hus=
band had )ill%ull! -o##itted sui-ide G,t )as ver! i#portant
to #eMal#ost the -ore o% #! li%eMthat #! -hildren not %eel
their %ather had )alked out on the#$G re-alls 5rs Olson
For the ne>t 88 !ears$ Ali-e Olson had no harder eviden-e
than her o)n belie% that her husband did not desert her and the
%a#il! "hen in 4une 107@$ the Do-ke%eller +o##ission stud!=
ing illegal +,A do#esti- operations reported that a #an %itting
Frank Olson?s des-ription had leaped %ro# a (e) *ork hotel
)indo) a%ter the +,A had given hi# LSD )ithout his kno)l=
edge "he Olson %a#il! read about the in-ident in the Washing=
ton 5os-8 Daughter Lisa Olson Aa!)ard and her husband )ent
to see Du)et$ )ho had retired %ro# the Ar#! and settled in
Frederi-k ,n an e#otional #eeting$ Du)et -on%ir#ed that
Olson )as the #an and said he -ould not tell the %a#il! earlier
be-ause he did not have per#ission Du)et tried to dis-ourage
the# %ro# going publi- or seeking -o#pensation %ro# the gov=
ern#ent$ but the Olson %a#il! did bothP On national televi=
CONCERNING THE CASE OF DR8 FRAN9 OLSON
sion$ Ali-e Olson and ea-h o% her gro)n -hildren took turns
reading %ro# a prepared %a#il! state#entL
We %eel our %a#il! has been violated b! the +,A in t)o )a!s$G it
said GFirst$ Frank Olson )as e>peri#ented upon illegall! and
negligentl! Se-ond$ the true nature o% his death )as -on-ealed
%or t)ent!=t)o !ears ,n telling our stor!$ )e are -on-erned
that neither the personal pain this %a#il! has e>perien-ed nor
the #oral and politi-al outrage )e %eel be slighted Onl! in this
)a! -an Frank Olson?s death be-o#e part o% A#eri-an #e#or!
and serve the purpose o% politi-al and ethi-al re%or# so urgentl!
needed in our so-iet!
"he state#ent )ent on to -o#pare the Olsons )ith %a#ilies
in the "hird World G)hose hopes %or a better li%e )ere de=
stro!ed b! +,A interventionG Although :ri- Olson read those
)ords in behal% o% the )hole %a#il!$ the! re%le-ted #ore the
politi-s o% the -hildren than the %eelings o% their #other$ Ali-e
Olson An in-redibl! strong )o#an )ho see#s to have #ade
her pea-e )ith the )orld$ 5rs Olson )ent ba-k to -ollege a%ter
her husband?s death$ got a degree$ and held the %a#il! together
)hile she taught s-hool She has no #ali-e in her heart to)ard
Iin Du)et$ her %riend )ho )ithheld that vital pie-e o% in%or=
#ation %ro# her all those !ears Ae -o#%orted her and gave
support during the #ost di%%i-ult o% ti#es$ and she deepl! ap=
pre-iates that 5rs Olson de%ends Du)et b! sa!ing he )as in
Ga bad positionG but then she stops in #id=senten-e and sa!s$
G,% , had onl! been given so#e indi-ation that it )as the pres=
sure o% )ork ,% onl! , had had so#ething , -ould have told
the kids , don?t kno) ho) QDu)etR -ould have done it either ,t
)as a terrible thing %or a #an )ho loved hi#G
G,?# not vindi-ative to)ard Iin QDu)etR$G re%le-ts 5rs Olson
GGottlieb is a di%%erent Buestion Ae )as despi-ableG She tells
ho) Gottlieb and Lashbrook both attended Olson?s %uneral in
Frederi-k and -ontributed to a #e#orial %und A )eek or t)o
later$ the t)o #en asked to visit her She kne) the! did not
)ork at Detri-k$ but she did not reall! understand )here the!
-a#e %ro# or their role G, didn?t )ant to see the#$G she notes
GIin told #e it )ould #ake the# %eel better , didn?t )ant an
TPresident Gerald Ford later personall! apologi.ed to the Olson %a#il!$ and
+ongress passed a bill in 107< to pa! S7@6$666 in -o#pensation to 5rs Olson
and her three -hildren "he %a#il! voluntaril! abandoned the suit
% INTELLIGENCE OR 7WITCHES 5OTIONS7
oun-e o% %lesh %ro# the# , didn?t think it )as ne-essar!$ but$
oka!$ , agreed ,n retrospe-t$ it )as so bi.arre$ it #akes #e si-k
, )as a su-ker %or the#G
Gottlieb and Lashbrook apparentl! never returned to the bio=
logi-al )ar%are o%%i-es at SOD Little else -hanged$ ho)ever
Da! "rei-hler and Aenr! Bortner took over +,A?s liaison )ith
SOD SOD -ontinued to #anu%a-ture and sto-kpile ba-teriolog=
i-al agents %or the +,A until 10<0$ )hen President Di-hard
(i>on renoun-ed the use o% biologi-al )ar%are ta-ti-s
And presu#abl!$ so#eone repla-ed Frank Olson
THEM
UNITTING$
THE SAFEHOUSES
Frank Olson?s death -ould
have been a #a9or setba-k %or
the
Agen-!?s LSD testing$ but the
progra#$ like Sid Gottlieb?s
-a=
reer$ e#erged essentiall!
uns-athed Aigh +,A o%%i-ials
did -all
a te#porar! halt to all
e>peri#ents )hile the!
investigated the
Olson -ase and re=e>a#ined
the general poli-! "he!
-abled
the t)o %ield stations that had
supplies o% the drug C5anila
and
Atsugi$ 4apanE not to use it
%or the ti#e being$ and the!
even
took a)a! Sid Gottlieb?s o)n
private suppl! and had it
lo-ked
up in his boss? sa%e$ to )hi-h
no one else had the
-o#bination
,n the end$ ho)ever$ Allen
Dulles a--epted the vie)
Di-hard
Ael#s put %orth that the onl!
Goperationall! realisti-G )a!
to
test drugs )as to tr! the# on
un)itting people Ael#s
noted
that e>peri#ents )hi-h gave
advan-e )arning )ould be
7,.o
+o.0a at best and result in a
%alse sense o% a--o#plish#ent
and
readinessG For Allen Dulles
and his top aides$ the possible
i#portan-e o% LSD -learl!
out)eighed the risks and
ethi-al
CHAPTER
%
proble# o% slipping the drug to
involuntar! sub9e-ts "he!
gave
Gottlieb ba-k his LSD
On-e the +,A?s top e-helon
had #ade its de-ision to
-ontinue
un)itting testing$ there
re#ained$ in Di-hard Ael#s?
)ords$
Gonl! then the Buestion o% ho)
best to do itG "he Agen-!?s
role
in the Olson a%%air had -o#e
too perilousl! -lose to leaking
out
%or the -o#%ort o% the
se-urit!=#inded$ so "SS
o%%i-ials si#pl!
had to )ork out a testing
s!ste# )ith better -over "hat
#eant
%% INTELLIGENCE OR 7WITCHES 5OTIONS7
%inding sub9e-ts )ho -ould not be so easil! tra-ed ba-k to the
Agen-!
Well be%ore Olson?s death$ Gottlieb and the 5;UL"DA -re)
had started pondering ho) best to do un)itting testing "he!
-onsidered using an A#eri-an poli-e %or-e to test drugs on
prisoners$ in%or#ants$ and suspe-ts$ but the! kne) that so#e
lo-al politi-ians )ould inevitabl! %ind out ,n the Agen-! vie)$
su-h people -ould not be trusted to keep sensitive se-rets "SS
o%%i-ials thought about tr!ing Federal prisons or hospitals$ but$
)hen sounded out$ the Bureau o% Prisons re%used to go along
)ith true un)itting testing Cas opposed to the voluntar!$ i% -oer=
-ive$ %or# pra-ti-ed on drug addi-ts in ;entu-k!E "he! -on=
te#plated #oving the progra# overseas$ )here the! and the
AD",+AO;: tea#s )ere alread! per%or#ing operational e>=
peri#ents$ but the! de-ided i% the! tested on the s-ale the!
thought )as ne-essar!$ so #an! %oreigners )ould have to kno)
that it )ould pose an una--eptable se-urit! risk
Sid Gottlieb is re#e#bered as the brainstor#ing genius o%
the 5;UL"DA groupMand the one )ith a real talent %or sho)=
ing others$ )ithout hurting their %eelings$ )h! their s-he#es
)ould not )ork States an e>=-olleague )ho ad#ires hi#
greatl!$ G,n the %inal anal!sis$ Sid )as like a good soldierMi% the
9ob had to be done$ he did it On-e the de-ision )as #ade$ he
%ound the #ost e%%e-tive )a!G
,n this -ase$ Gottlieb -a#e up )ith the solution a%ter reading
through old OSS %iles on Stanle! Lovell?s sear-h %or a truth
drug Gottlieb noted that Lovell had used George White$ a pre=
)ar e#plo!ee o% the Federal Bureau o% (ar-oti-s$ to test -on=
-entrated #ari9uana Besides tr!ing the drug out on 5anhattan
Pro9e-t volunteers and unkno)ing suspe-ted +o##unists$
White had slipped so#e to August Del Gra-io$ the Lu-k!
Lu-iano lieutenant White had -alled the e>peri#ent a great
su--ess ,% it had not beenMi% Del Gra-io had so#eho) -aught
on to the druggingMGottlieb reali.ed that the gangster )ould
never have gone to the poli-e or the press Ais survival as a
-ri#inal reBuired he re#ain Buiet about even the )orst indig=
nities heaped upon hi# b! govern#ent agents
"o Gottlieb$ under)orld t!pes looked like ideal test sub9e-ts
(evertheless$ a--ording to one "SS sour-e$ GWe )ere not about
to %ool around )ith the 5a%iaG ,nstead$ this sour-e sa!s the!
-hose Gthe borderline under)orldGMprostitutes$ drug addi-ts$
and other s#all=ti#ers )ho )ould be po)erless to seek an! sort
THEM UNWITTING> THE SAFEHOUSES %&
o% revenge i% the! ever %ound out )hat the +,A had done to
the# ,n addition to their being unlikel! )histle=blo)ers$ su-h
people lived in a )orld )here an un)itting dose o% so#e drug
Musuall! kno-kout dropsM)as an o--upational ha.ard an!=
)a! "he! )ould there%ore be better eBuipped to deal )ithM
and re-over %ro#Ma surprise LSD trip than the population as
a )hole Or so "SS o%%i-ials rationali.ed G"he! -ould at least
sa! to the#selves$ ?Aere , go again ,?ve been slipped a
#i-ke!$?G sa!s a "SS veteran Further#ore$ this veteran
re#e#bers$ his %or#er -olleagues reasoned that i% the! had to
violate the -ivil rights o% an!one$ the! #ight as )ell -hoose a
group o% #arginal people
George White hi#sel% had le%t OSS a%ter the )ar and re=
turned to the (ar-oti-s Bureau ,n 10@8 he )as )orking in the
(e) *ork o%%i-e As a high=ranking nar-oti-s agent$ White had
a per%e-t e>-use to be around drugs and people )ho used the#
Ae had proved during the )ar that he had a talent %or -landes=
tine )ork$ and he -ertainl! had no Bual#s )hen it -a#e to
un)itting testing With his 9ob$ he had a--ess to all the possible
sub9e-ts the Agen-! )ould need$ and i% he -ould use LSD or an!
other drug to %ind out #ore about drug tra%%i-king$ so #u-h the
better Fro# a se-urit! vie)point$ +,A o%%i-ials -ould easil!
den! an! -onne-tion to an!thing White did$ and he -learl! )as
not the -r!bab! t!pe For Sid Gottlieb$ George White )as -learl!
the one "he 5;UL"DA -hie% de-ided to -onta-t White dire-tl!
to see i% he #ight be interested in pi-king up )ith the +,A
)here he had le%t o%% )ith OSS
Al)a!s -are%ul to observe bureau-rati- proto-ol$ Gottlieb
%irst approa-hed Aarr! Anslinger$ the longti#e head o% the
Federal Bureau o% (ar-oti-s$ and got per#ission to use White
on a part=ti#e basis "hen Gottlieb traveled to (e) *ork and
#ade his pit-h to the nar-oti-s agent$ )ho stood @?7G$ )eighed
over 866 pounds$ shaved his head$ and looked so#ething like an
e>tre#el! #ena-ing bo)ling ball A%ter an earl!=#orning
#eeting$ White s-ra)led in his s)eat=stained$ leather=bound
diar! %or that da!$ 4une 0$ 10@8L GGottlieb proposed , be a +,A
-onsultantM, agreeG B! )riting do)n su-h a thing and using
Gottlieb?s true na#e$P White had broken +,A se-urit! regula=
1C)A o%erators and a&ents all had o2er names by wh#h they were s!%%osed
to be allede2en #n lass#f#ed do!ments0 Gottl#eb was 3Sherman R0 Gr#fford03
Geor&e Wh#te beame 3'or&an /all03
&( INTELLIGENCE OR 7WITCHES 5OTIONS7
tions even be%ore he started )ork But then$ White )as never
kno)n as a #an )ho %ollo)ed rules
Despite the high priorit! that "SS put on drug testing$
White?s se-urit! approval did not -o#e through until al#ost a
!ear later G,t )as onl! last #onth that , got -leared$G the out=
spoken nar-oti-s agent )rote to a %riend in 10@7 G, then learned
that a -ouple o% -re)=-ut$ pipe=s#oking punks had either
kno)n #eMor heard o% #eMduring OSS da!s and had de-ided
, )as ?too rough? %or their league and pro#ptl! bla-kballed #e
,t )as onl! )hen #! sponsors dis-overed the root o% the trouble
the! )ere able to b!pass the blo-kade A%ter all$ %ellas$ , didn?t
go to Prin-etonG
People either loved or hated George White$ and he had #ade
so#e po)er%ul ene#ies$ in-luding (e) *ork Governor
"ho#as De)e! and 4 :dgar Aoover De)e! )ould later help
blo-k White %ro# be-o#ing the head o% the (ar-oti-s Bureau
in (e) *ork +it!$ a 9ob White sorel! )anted For so#e %orgot=
ten reason$ Aoover had #anaged to stop White %ro# being
hired b! the +,A in the Agen-!?s earl! da!s$ at a ti#e )hen he
)ould have pre%erred to leave nar-oti-s )ork altogether "hese
)ere t)o o% the biggest disappoint#ents o% his li%e White?s
previous e>-lusion %ro# the +,A #a! e>plain )h! he 9u#ped
so eagerl! at Gottlieb?s o%%er and )h! at the sa#e ti#e he pri=
vatel! heaped -onte#pt on those )ho )orked %or the Agen-!
A re#arkabl! heav! drinker$ )ho )ould so#eti#es %inish o%%
a bottle o% gin in one sitting$ White o%ten #o-ked the +,A -ro)d
over -o-ktails GAe thought the! )ere a 9oke$G re-alls one long=
ti#e -ron! G"he! )ere too -o#pli-ated$ and the! had other
people do their heav! stu%%G
Unlike his +,A -ounterparts$ White loved the glare o% publi-=
it! A #an )ho gloried in talking about hi#sel% and -ultivating
a hard=nosed i#age$ White kne) ho) to #ilk a drug bust %or
all it )as )orthMa skill that gre) out o% earl! !ears spent as a
ne)spaper reporter in San Fran-is-o and Los Angeles ,n
sear-h o% a #ore %inan-iall! se-ure pro%ession$ he had 9oined
the (ar-oti-s Bureau in 107K$ but he -ontinued to pal around
)ith 9ournalists$ parti-ularl! those )ho )rote %avorabl! about
hi# (ot onl! did he -o#e a-ross in the press as a -op hero$ but
he helped to shape the pi-ture o% %uture ;o9aks b! serving as
a -onsultant to one o% the earl!=television dete-tive series "o
start a raid$ he )ould dra#ati-all! tip his hat to signal his
agentsMand to let the photographers kno) that the ti#e had
THEM UNWITTING> THE SAFEHOUSES &'
-o#e to snap his pi-ture GAe )as sort o% vainglorious$G sa!s
another good %riend$ Gthe kind o% gu! )ho i% he did so#ething$
didn?t #ind having the )orld kno) about itGP
"he s-ientists %ro# "SS$ )ith their PhDs and la-k o% street
e>perien-e$ -ould not help ad#iring White %or his s)ashbu-k=
ling i#age Unlike the #en %ro# 5;UL"DA$ )ho$ %or all their
pretensions$ had never )orked as real=live spies$ White had put
his li%e on the line %or OSS overseas and had supposedl! killed
a 4apanese agent )ith his bare hands "he %a-e o% one e>="SS
#an lit up$ like a little bo!?s on +hrist#as #orning$ as he told
o% ra-ing around (e) *ork in George White?s -ar and parking
illegall! )ith no %ear o% the la) GWe )ere ,v! League$ )hite$
#iddle=-lass$G notes another %or#er "SSer GWe )ere naive$
totall! naive about this$ and he %elt prett! e>pert Ae kne) the
)hores$ the pi#ps$ the people )ho brought in the drugs Ae?d
purportedl! been in a nu#ber o% shootouts )here he?d -aptured
#illions o% dollars )orth o% heroin Ae )as a prett! )ild
#an , kno) , )as a%raid o% hi# *ou -ouldn?t -ontrol this gu!
, had a little trouble telling )ho )as -ontrolling )ho in those
da!sG
White lived )ith e>tre#e personal -ontradi-tions As -ould
be e>pe-ted o% a nar-oti-s agent$ he violentl! opposed drugs
*et he died largel! be-ause his beloved al-ohol had destro!ed
his liver Ae had tried ever!thing else$ %ro# #ari9uana to LSD$
and )rote an a-Buaintan-e$ G, did %eel at ti#es , )as having a
?#ind=e>panding? e>perien-e but this vanished like a drea#
i##ediatel! a%ter the sessionG Ae )as a la)=en%or-e#ent o%%i=
-ial )ho regularl! violated the la) ,ndeed$ the +,A turned to
hi# be-ause o% his )illingness to use the po)er o% his o%%i-e to
ride roughshod over the rights o% othersMin the na#e o% Gna=
POne -ase )hi-h put White in ever! ne)spaper in the -ountr! )as his 10K0
arrest o% blues singer Billie Aollida! on an opiu# -harge "o prove she had
been set up and )as not then using drugs$ the singer -he-ked into a +ali%ornia
sanitariu# that had been re-o##ended b! a %riend o% a %riend$ Dr 4a#es
Aa#ilton "he 9ur! then a-Buitted her Aa#ilton?s involve#ent is bi.arre be=
-ause he had )orked )ith George White testing truth drugs %or OSS$ and the
t)o #en )ere good %riends White #a! have put his o)n role in perspe-tive
)hen he told a 1076 intervie)er he Gen9o!edG -hasing -ri#inals G,t )as a
ga#e %or #e$G he said G, %elt Buite a bit o% -o#passion %or a nu#ber o% the
people that , %ound it ne-essar! to put in 9ail$ parti-ularl! )hen !ou?d see the
things that )ould happen to their %a#ilies ,?d give the# a -han-e to sta! out
o% 9ail and take -are o% their %a#ilies b! giving #e in%or#ation$ perhaps$ and
the! )ould stubbornl! re%use to do so "he! )ouldn?t be a rat$ as the! )ould put
itG
&) INTELLIGENCE OR 7WITCHES 5OTIONS7
tional se-urit!$G )hen he tested LSD %or the Agen-!$ in the
na#e o% sta#ping out drug abuse$ %or the (ar-oti-s Bureau As
!et another -lose asso-iate su##ed up White?s attitude to)ard
his 9ob$ GAe reall! believed the ends 9usti%ied the #eansG
George White?s Gprag#ati-G approa-h #eshed per%e-tl! )ith
Sid Gottlieb?s needs %or drug testing ,n 5a! 10@7 the t)o #en$
)ho )ound up going %olk dan-ing together several ti#es$ %or=
#all! 9oined %or-es ,n +,A 9argon$ White be-a#e 5;UL"DA
subpro9e-t U7 Under this arrange#ent$ White rented t)o ad9a=
-ent Green)i-h Iillage apart#ents$ posing as the so#eti#e
artist and sea#an G5organ AallG White agreed to lure guinea
pigs to the Gsa%ehouseGMas the Agen-! #en -alled the apart=
#entsMslip the# drugs$ and report the results to Gottlieb and
the others in "SS For its part$ the +,A let the (ar-oti-s Bureau
use the pla-e %or under-over a-tivities Cand o%ten %or personal
pleasureE )henever no Agen-! )ork )as s-heduled$ and the
+,A paid all the bills$ in-luding the -ost o% keeping a )ell=
sto-ked liBuor -abinetMa substantial bonus %or White Gottlieb
personall! handed over the %irst SK$666 in -ash$ to -over the
initial -osts o% %urnishing the sa%ehouse in the lavish st!le that
White %elt be%itted hi#
Gottlieb did not li#it his interest to drugs Ae and other "SS
o%%i-ials )anted to tr! out surveillan-e eBuip#ent +,A te-hni=
-ians Bui-kl! installed see=through #irrors and #i-rophones
through )hi-h eavesdroppers -ould %il#$ photograph$ and re=
-ord the a-tion G"hings go )rong )ith listening devi-es and
t)o=)a! #irrors$ so !ou build these things to %ind out )hat
)orks and )hat doesn?t$G sa!s a "SS sour-e G,% !ou are going
to entrap$ !ou?ve got to give the gu! pi-tures ?+4a/.a"-e de4i!-o@
and voi-e re-ordings On-e !ou learn ho) to do it so that the
)hole thing looks -o#%ortable$ -o.!$ and sa%e$ then !ou -an
transport the te-hnolog! overseas and use itG "his "SS #an
notes that the Agen-! put to )ork in the bedroo#s o% :urope
so#e o% the te-hniBues developed in the George White sa%e=
house operation
,n the sa%ehouse?s %irst #onths$ White tested LSD$ several
kinds o% kno-kout drops$ and that old OSS standb!$ essen-e o%
#ari9uana Ae served up the drugs in %ood$ drink$ and -iga=
rettes and then tried to )or# in%or#ationMusuall! on nar-ot=
i-s #attersM%ro# his GguestsG So#eti#es 5;UL"DA #en
-a#e up %ro# Washington to )at-h the a-tion A Septe#ber
THEM UNWITTING> THE SAFEHOUSES &*
10@7 entr! in White?s diar! notedL GLashbrook at J1 Bed%ord
StreetMO)en Winkle and LSD surpriseM-an )ashG Sid Gott=
lieb?s deput!$ Dobert Lashbrook$ served as Gpro9e-t #onitorG %or
the (e) *ork sa%ehouseP
White had onl! been running the sa%ehouse si> #onths )hen
Olson died Cin Lashbrook?s -o#pan!E$ and Agen-! o%%i-ials sus=
pended the operation %or re=evaluation "he! soon allo)ed hi#
to restart it$ and then Gottlieb had to order White to slo) do)n
again A (e) *ork State -o##issioner had su##oned the
nar-oti-s agent to e>plain his role in the deal that )ound up
)ith Governor De)e! pardoning Lu-k! Lu-iano a%ter the )ar
"he -o##issioner )as asking Buestions that tou-hed on
White?s use o% #ari9uana on Del Gra-io$ and Gottlieb %eared
that )ord o% the +,A?s -urrent testing #ight so#eho) leak out
"his stor# also soon passed$ but then$ in earl! 10@@$ the (ar-ot=
i-s Bureau trans%erred White to San Fran-is-o to be-o#e -hie%
agent there Aapp! )ith White?s per%or#an-e$ Gottlieb de-ided
to let hi# take the entire sa%ehouse operation )ith hi# to the
+oast White -losed up the Green)i-h Iillage apart#ents$
leaving behind unre-eipted GtipsG %or the landlord Gto -lear up
an! di%%i-ulties about the alterations and da#ages$G as a +,A
do-u#ent put itX
White soon rented a suitable GpadG Cas he al)a!s -alled itE on
"elegraph Aill$ )ith a stunning vie) o% San Fran-is-o Ba!$ the
Golden Gate Bridge$ and Al-atra. "o supple#ent the %urniture
he brought %ro# the (e) *ork sa%ehouse$ he )ent out and
bought ite#s that gave the pla-e the air o% the brothel it )as
to be-o#eL "oulouse=Lautre- posters$ a pi-ture o% a Fren-h -an=
-an dan-er$ and photos o% #ana-led )o#en in bla-k sto-kings
G,t )as supposed to look ri-h$G re-alls a nar-oti-s agent )ho
regularl! visited$ Gbut it )as %urnished like -rapG
White hired a %riend?s -o#pan! to install bugging eBuip=
PDespite this indi-ation %ro# White?s diar! that Lashbrook -a#e to the (e)
*ork sa%ehouse %or an GLSD surpriseG and despite his signature on papers
authori.ing the subpro9e-t$ Lashbrook %latl! denied all %irsthand kno)ledge o%
George White?s testing in 1077 Senate testi#on! Sub-o##ittee -hair#an :d=
)ard ;enned! did not press Lashbrook$ nor did he re%er the #atter to the
4usti-e Depart#ent %or possible per9ur! -harges
X"his )as 9ust one o% #an! e>penditures that )ould drive +,A auditors )ild
)hile going over George White?s a--ounts Others in-luded SKK6K %or a tele=
s-ope$ liBuor bills over S1$666 G)ith no re-ord as to the ne-essit! o% its use$G and
S717@ to #ake an on=the=spot pa!#ent to a neighborhood lad! )hose -ar he
hit "he reason stated %or using govern#ent %unds %or the last e>penseL G,t )as
i#portant to #aintain se-urit! and %orestall an insuran-e investigationG
&4 INTELLIGENCE OR 7WITCHES 5OTIONS7
#erit$ and Willia# Aa)kins$ a 8@=!ear=old ele-troni-s )hi.
then stud!ing at Berkle! put in %our DD=K #i-rophones dis=
guised as ele-tri-al )all outlets and hooked the# up to t)o
F=761 tape re-orders$ )hi-h agents #onitored in an ad9a-ent
Glistening postG Aa)kins re#e#bers that White Gkept a
pit-her o% #artinis in the re%rigerator$ and he?d )at-h #e %or
a )hile as , installed a #i-rophone and then slip o%%G For his
o)n personal Gobservation post$G White had a portable toilet set
up behind a t)o=)a! #irror$ )here he -ould )at-h the pro=
-eedings$ usuall! )ith drink in hand
"he San Fran-is-o sa%ehouse spe-iali.ed in prostitutes GBut
this )as be%ore T3e Hi-e Re,o.- and be%ore an! hooker had
)ritten a book$G re-alls a "SS #an$ Gso %irst )e had to go out and
learn about their )orld ,n the beginning$ )e didn?t kno) )hat
a 4ohn )as or )hat a pi#p didG Sid Gottlieb de-ided to send his
top sta%% ps!-hologist$ 4ohn Gittinger$ to San Fran-is-o to probe
the de#i#onde
George White supplied the prostitutes %or the stud!$ although
White$ in turn$ delegated #u-h o% the pi#ping %un-tion to one
o% his assistants$ ,ra G,keG Feld#an A #us-ular but ver! short
#an$ )ho# even the @7G White to)ered over$ Feld#an tried
even harder than his boss to a-t tough Dressed in suede shoes$
a suit )ith %lared trousers$ a hat )ith a turned=up bri#$ and a
huge .ir-on ring that )as supposed to look like a dia#ond$
Feld#an %irst -a#e to San Fran-is-o on an under-over assign=
#ent posing as an :ast +oast #obster looking to #ake a big
heroin bu! Using a drug=addi-ted prostitute na#e 4anet 4ones$
)hose -o##on=la) husband states that Feld#an paid her o%%
)ith heroin$ the under-over #an lured a nu#ber o% suspe-ted
drug dealers to the GpadG and helped White #ake arrests
As the -hie% Federal nar-oti-s agent in San Fran-is-o$ White
)as in a position to re)ard or punish a prostitute Ae set up a
s!ste# )hereb! he and Feld#an provided Gittinger )ith all
the hookers the ps!-hologist )anted White paid o%% the )o#en
)ith a %i>ed nu#ber o% G-hitsG For ea-h -hit$ White o)ed one
%avor GSo the ne>t ti#e the girl )as arrested )ith a 4ohn$G sa!s
an 5;UL"DA veteran$ Gshe )ould give the -op George White?s
phone nu#ber "he poli-e all kne) White and -ooperated )ith
hi# )ithout asking Buestions "he! )ould release the girl i% he
said so White )ould keep good re-ords o% ho) #an! -hits ea-h
person had and ho) #an! she used (o #one! )as e>-hanged$
but %ive -hits )ere )orth S@66 to S1$666G Prostitutes )ere not
THEM UNWITTING> THE SAFEHOUSES &5
the onl! bene%i-iaries o% White?s largess "he nar-oti-s agent
)orked out a si#ilar s!ste# to %orgive the transgressions o%
s#all ti#e drug pushers )hen the 5;UL"DA #en )anted to
talk to the# about Gthe rules o% their ga#e$G a--ording to the
sour-e
"SS o%%i-ials )anted to %ind out ever!thing the! -ould about
ho) to appl! se> to sp!ing$ and the prostitute pro9e-t be-a#e
a general learning and then training ground %or +,A -arnal
operations A%ter all$ states one "SS o%%i-ial$ GWe did Buite a
stud! o% prostitutes and their behavior At %irst nobod! reall!
kne) ho) to use the# Ao) do !ou train the#O Ao) do !ou
)ork the#O Ao) do !ou take a )o#an )ho is )illing to use her
bod! to get #one! out o% a gu! to get things )hi-h are #u-h
#ore i#portant$ like state se-rets , don?t -are ho) beauti%ul
she isMedu-ating the ordinar! prostitute up to that level is not
a si#ple taskG
"he "SS #en -ontinuall! tried to re%ine their kno)ledge
"he! reali.ed that prostitutes o%ten )heedled e>tra #one! out
o% a -usto#er b! suggesting so#e additional servi-e as #ale
orgas# neared "he! )ondered i% this #ight not also be a good
ti#e to seek sensitive in%or#ation GBut no$G sa!s the sour-e$
G)e %ound the gu! )as %o-used solel! on hor#onal needs Ae
)as not thinking o% his -areer or an!thing else at that pointG
"he "SS e>perts dis-overed that the postse>ual$ light=up=a=
-igarette period )as #u-h better suited to their ulterior #o=
tives Sa!s the sour-eL
5ost #en )ho go to prostitutes are prepared %or the %a-t that
Qa%ter the a-tR she?s beginning to )ork to get hersel% out o% there$
so she -an get ba-k on the street to #ake so#e #ore #one!
"o %ind a prostitute )ho is )illing to sta! is a hell o% a sho-k
to an!one used to prostitutes ,t has a tre#endous e%%e-t on the
gu! ,t?s a boost to his ego i% she?s telling hi# he )as reall! neat$
and she )ants to sta! %or a %e) #ore hours 5ost o% the ti#e$
he gets prett! vulnerable What the hell?s he going to talk aboutO
(ot the se>$ so he starts talking about his business ,t?s at this
ti#e she -an lead hi# gentl! But !ou have to train prostitutes
to do that "heir natural in-lination is to do e>a-tl! the opposite
"he #en %ro# 5;UL"DA learned a great deal about var!ing
se>ual pre%eren-es One o% the# sa!sL
& INTELLIGENCE OR 7WITCHES 5OTIONS7
We didn?t kno) in those da!s about hidden sadis# and all that
sort o% stu%% We learned a lot about hu#an nature in the bed=
roo# We began to understand that )hen people )anted se>$ it
)asn?t 9ust )hat )e had thought o%M!ou kno)$ the #issionar!
position We started to pi-k up kno)ledge that -ould be used
in operations$ but )ith a lot o% it )e never %igured out an! )a!
to use it operationall! We 9ust learned All these ideas did not
-o#e to us at on-e But evolving over three or %our !ears in )hi-h
these studies )ere going on$ things e#erged )hi-h )e tried Our
kno)ledge o% prostitutes? behavior be-a#e prett! da#n
good
"his -o#es a-ross no) that so#eho) )e )ere 9ust pla!ing
around and )e 9ust %ound all these e>oti- )a!s to )aste the
ta>pa!ers? #one! on satis%!ing our hidden urges ,?# not sa!ing
that )at-hing prostitutes )as not e>-iting or so#ething like that
But )hat , a# sa!ing )as there )as a purpose to the )hole
businessP
,n the best tradition o% 5ata Aari$ the +,A did use se> as a
-landestine )eapon$ although apparentl! not so %reBuentl! as
the Dussians While #an! in the Agen-! believed that it si#pl!
did not )ork ver! )ell$ others like +,A operators in Berlin
during the #id=10<6s %elt prostitutes -ould be a pri#e sour-e o%
intelligen-e Agen-! #en in that -it! used a net)ork o% hookers
to good advantageMor so the! told visitors %ro# headBuarters
*et$ )ith its high proportion o% +atholi-s and 5or#onsMnot to
#ention the Protestant ethi- o% #an! o% its top leadersMthe
Agen-! de%initel! had li#its be!ond )hi-h pruder! took over
For instan-e$ a "SS veteran sa!s that a good nu#ber o% -ase
o%%i-ers )anted no part o% ho#ose>ual entrap#ent operations
And to go a step %urther$ he re-alls one senior ;GB #an )ho
told too #an! se>ual 9okes about !oung bo!s G,t didn?t take too
long to re-ogni.e that he )as #ore than a little %as-inated b!
!ouths$G sa!s the sour-e G, took the trouble to point out he )as
probabl! too good$ too )ell=trained$ to be either entrapped or to
give a)a! se-rets But he )ould have been te#pted to)ard a
-o#pro#ising position b! a preteen , #entioned this$ and the!
said$ ?As a ps!-hologi-al observer$ !ou?re probabl! Buite right
But )hat the hell are )e going to do about itO Where are )e
going to get a t)elve=!ear=old bo!O? G "he sour-e believes that
i% the Dussian had had a taste %or older #en$ US intelligen-e
P,n '&%41 George Or)ell )rote about govern#ent=en-ouraged prostitutionL
G5ere debau-her! did not #atter ver! #u-h$ so long as it )as %urtive and
9o!less$ and onl! involved the )o#en o% a sub#erged and despised -lassG
THEM UNWITTING> THE SAFEHOUSES &$
#ight have #ounted an operation$ Gbut the idea o% a t)elve=
!ear=old bo! )as 9ust #ore than an!bod! -ould sto#a-hG
As the "SS #en learned #ore about the San Fran-is-o hustlers$
the! ventured outside the sa%ehouse to tr! out various -landes=
tine=deliver! gi##i-ks in publi- pla-es like restaurants$ bars$
and bea-hes "he! pra-ti-ed )a!s to slip LSD to -iti.ens o% the
de#i#onde )hile bu!ing the# a drink or lighting up a -iga=
rette$ and the! then tried to observe the e%%e-ts )hen the drug
took hold Be-ause the 5;UL"DA s-ientists did not #ove
s#oothl! a#ong the ver! kinds o% people the! )ere testing$
the! o--asionall! lost an un)itting vi-ti# in a -ro)dMthereb!
sending a stranger o%% alone )ith a head %ull o% LSD
,n a larger sense$ a44 the test vi-ti#s )ould be-o#e lost As
a #atter o% poli-!$ Sid Gottlieb ordered that virtuall! no re-ords
be kept o% the testing ,n 1077$ )hen Gottlieb retired %ro# the
Agen-!$ he and Di-hard Ael#s agreed to destro! )hat the!
thought )ere the %e) e>isting do-u#ents on the progra# (ei=
ther Gottlieb nor an! other 5;UL"DA #an has o)ned up to
having given LSD to an unkno)ing sub9e-t$ or even to observ=
ing su-h an e>peri#entMe>-ept o% -ourse in the -ase o% Frank
Olson Olson?s death le%t behind a paper trail outside o% Gott=
lieb?s -ontrol and that hen-e -ould not be denied Other)ise$
Gottlieb and his -olleagues have put all the bla#e %or a-tual
testing on George White$ )ho is not alive to de%end hi#sel%
One reason the 5;UL"DA veterans have gone to su-h lengths
to -on-eal their role is obviousL %ear o% la)suits %ro# vi-ti#s
-lai#ing da#aged health
At the ti#e o% the e>peri#ents$ the sub9e-ts? health did not
-ause undue -on-ern At the sa%ehouse$ )here #ost o% the test=
ing took pla-e$ do-tors )ere seldo# present Dr 4a#es Aa#il=
ton$ a Stan%ord 5edi-al S-hool ps!-hiatrist and White?s OSS
-olleague$ visited the pla-e %ro# ti#e to ti#e$ apparentl! %or
studies -onne-ted to un)itting drug e>peri#ents and deviant
se>ual pra-ti-es *et neither Aa#ilton nor an! other do-tor
provided #u-h #edi-al supervision Fro# his per-h atop the
toilet seat$ George White -ould do no #ore than #ake sur%a-e
observations o% his drugged vi-ti#s :ven an e>perien-ed do-=
tor )ould have had di%%i-ult! handling White?s role ,n addition
to LSD$ )hi-h the! kne) -ould -ause serious$ i% not %atal prob=
le#s$ "SS o%%i-ials gave White even #ore e>oti- e>peri#ental
drugs to test$ drugs that other Agen-! -ontra-tors #a! or #a!
&% INTELLIGENCE OR 7WITCHES 5OTIONS7
not have alread! used on hu#an sub9e-ts G,% )e )ere s-ared
enough o% a drug not to tr! it out on ourselves$ )e sent it to San
Fran-is-o$G re-alls a "SS sour-e A--ording to a 10<7 report b!
+,A ,nspe-tor General 4ohn :ar#an$ G,n a nu#ber o% in=
stan-es$ ho)ever$ the test sub9e-t has be-o#e ill %or hours or
da!s$ in-luding hospitali.ation in at least one -ase$ and QWhiteR
-ould onl! %ollo) up b! guarded inBuir! a%ter the test sub9e-t?s
return to nor#al li%e Possible si-kness and attendant e-ono#i-
loss are inherent -ontingent e%%e-ts o% the testingG
"he ,nspe-tor General noted that the )hole progra# -ould
be -o#pro#ised i% an outside do-tor #ade a G-orre-t diagnosis
o% an illnessG "hus$ the 5;UL"DA tea# not onl! #ade so#e
people si-k but had a vested interest in keeping do-tors %ro#
%inding out )hat )as reall! )rong ,% that bothered the ,nspe-=
tor General$ he did not report his Bual#s$ but he did sa! he
%eared Gserious da#age to the Agen-!G in the event o% publi-
e>posure "he ,nspe-tor General )as onl! so#e)hat reassured
b! the %a-t that George White G#aintainQedR -lose )orking rela=
tions )ith lo-al poli-e authorities )hi-h -ould be utili.ed to
prote-t the a-tivit! in -riti-al situationsG
,% "SS o%%i-ials had been )illing to sti-k )ith their original
target group o% #arginal under)orld t!pes$ the! )ould have
had little to %ear %ro# the poli-e A%ter all$ George White was
the poli-e But in-reasingl! the! used the sa%ehouse to test
drugs$ in the ,nspe-tor General?s )ords$ Gon individuals o% all
so-ial levels$ high and lo)$ native A#eri-an and %oreignG
A%ter all$ the! )ere looking %or an operational pa!o%%$ and the!
kne) people rea-ted di%%erentl! to LSD a--ording to ever!thing
%ro# health and #ood to personalit! stru-ture ,% "SS o%%i-ials
)anted to slip LSD to %oreign leaders$ as the! -onte#plated
doing to Fidel +astro$ the! )ould tr! to spring an un)itting
dose on so#ebod! as si#ilar as possible "he! used the sa%e=
house %or Gdr! runsG in the inter#ediate stage bet)een the
laborator! and a-tual operations
For these dress rehearsals$ George White and his sta%% pro=
-urer$ ,ke Feld#an$ enti-ed #en to the apart#ent )ith prosti=
tutes An unsuspe-ting 4ohn )ould think he had bought a night
o% pleasure$ go ba-k to a strange apart#ent$ and )ind up
.onked A +,A do-u#ent that survived Sid Gottlieb?s shredding
re-orded this pro-ess ,ts author$ Gottlieb hi#sel%$ -ould not
break a li%elong habit o% using nondes-riptive language For
the 5;UL"DA -hie%$ the )hores )ere G-ertain individuals
)ho -overtl! ad#inister this #aterial to other people in a-=
-ordan-e )ith QWhite?sR instru-tionsG White nor#all! paid the
)o#en S166 in Agen-! %unds %or their night?s )ork$ and Gott=
lieb?s prose rea-hed ne) bureau-rati- heights as he e>plained
)h! the prostitutes did not sign %or the #one!L GDue to the
highl! unorthodo> nature o% these a-tivities and the -onsidera=
ble risk in-urred b! these individuals$ it is i#possible to re=
Buire that the! provide a re-eipt %or these pa!#ents or that the!
indi-ate the pre-ise #anner in )hi-h the %unds )ere spentG
"he +,A?s auditors had to settle %or -an-eled -he-ks )hi-h
White -ashed hi#sel% and #arked either GStor#!G or$ 9ust as
appropriatel!$ GUnder-over AgentG "he progra# )as also re=
%erred to as GOperation 5idnight +li#a>G
"SS o%%i-ials %ound the San Fran-is-o sa%ehouse so su--ess%ul
that the! opened a bran-h o%%i-e$ also under George White?s
auspi-es$ a-ross the Golden Gate on the bea-h in 5arin
+ount!P Unlike the do)nto)n apart#ent$ )here an 5;UL=
"DA #an sa!s G!ou -ould bring people in %or Bui-kies a%ter
lun-h$G the suburban 5arin +ount! outlet proved use%ul %or
e>peri#ents that reBuired relative isolation "here$ "SS s-ien=
tists tested su-h 5;UL"DA spe-ialties as stink bo#bs$ it-hing
and snee.ing po)ders$ and diarrhea indu-ers "SS?s Da!
"rei-hler$ the Stan%ord -he#ist$ sent these Gharass#ent sub=
stan-esG out to +ali%ornia %or testing b! White$ along )ith su-h
deliver! s!ste#s as a #e-hani-al laun-her that -ould thro) a
%oul=s#elling ob9e-t 166 !ards$ glass a#pules that -ould be
stepped on in a -ro)d to release an! o% "rei-hler?s po)ders$ a
%ine h!poder#i- needle to in9e-t drugs through the -ork in a
)ine bottle$ and a drug=-oated s)i..le sti-k
"SS #en also planned to use the 5arin +ount! sa%ehouse %or
an ill=%ated e>peri#ent that began )hen sta%% ps!-hologists
David Dhodes and Walter Pasternak spent a )eek -ir-ulating
in bars$ inviting strangers to
%ro# an aerosol -an on their guests$ but a--ording to Dhodes?
Senate testi#on!$ Gthe )eather de%eated usG ,n the heat o% the
su##er$ the! -ould not -lose the doors and )indo)s long
enough %or the LSD to hang in the air and be inhaled Sensing
P,n 10<1 5;UL"DA o%%i-ials started a third sa%ehouse in (e) *ork$
also under
the (ar-oti-s Bureau?s supervision "his one )as handled b! +harles
Siragusa$
)ho$ like White$ )as a senior agent and OSS veteran
'(( INTELLIGENCE OR 7WITCHES 5OTIONS7
a bot-hed operation$ their 5;UL"DA -olleague$ 4ohn Git=
tinger C)ho brought the drug out %ro# WashingtonE shut hi#=
sel% in the bathroo# and let go )ith the spra! Still$ Dhodes
testi%ied$ Gittinger did not get high$ and the +,A #en appar=
entl! s-rubbed the part!P
"he 5;UL"DA -re) -ontinued un)itting testing until the
su##er o% 10<7 )hen the Agen-!?s ,nspe-tor General stu#=
bled a-ross the sa%ehouses during a regular inspe-tion o% "SS
a-tivities "his happened not long a%ter Dire-tor 4ohn 5-+one
had appointed 4ohn :ar#an to the ,nspe-tor General positionX
5u-h to the displeasure o% Sid Gottlieb and Di-hard Ael#s$
:ar#an Buestioned the propriet! o% the sa%ehouses$ and he
insisted that Dire-tor 5-+one be given a %ull brie%ing Al=
though President ;enned! had put 5-+one in -harge o% the
Agen-! the !ear be%ore$ Ael#sMthe pro%essional?s pro%essional
Mhad not bothered to tell his outsider boss about so#e o% the
+,A?s #ost sensitive a-tivities$ in-luding the sa%ehouses and
the +,A=5a%ia assassination plotsU Fa-ed )ith :ar#an?s de=
#ands$ Ael#sMsurel! one o% histor!?s #ost -lever bureau-rats
Mvolunteered to tell 5-+one hi#sel% about the sa%ehouses
Crather than have :ar#an present a negative vie) o% the pro=
gra#E Sure enough$ Ael#s told :ar#an a%ter)ard$ 5-+one
raised no ob9e-tions to un)itting testing Cas Ael#s des-ribed
itE A deter#ined #an and a rather brave one$ :ar#an -oun=
tered )ith a %ull )ritten report to 5-+one re-o##ending that
the sa%ehouses be -losed "he ,nspe-tor General -ited the risks
PDhodes? testi#on! about this in-ident$ )hi-h had been set up in advan-e )ith
Senator :d)ard ;enned!?s sta%%$ brought on the inevitable GGang "hat
+ouldn?t Spra! StraightG headline in the Washington 5os-8 "his approa-h
turned the publi- per-eption o% a deadl! serious progra# into a kind o% pra-ti=
-al 9oke -arried out badl! b! a bun-h o% bu#blers
XL!#an ;irkpatri-k$ the longti#e ,nspe-tor General )ho had then re-entl!
le%t the 9ob to take a higher Agen-! post$ had personall! kno)n o% the sa%ehouse
operation sin-e right a%ter Olson?s death and had never raised an! noti-eable
ob9e-tion Ae no) states he )as Gsho-kedG b! the un)itting testing$ but that he
Gdidn?t have the authorit! to %ollo) up , )as tr!ing to deter#ine )hat the
tolerable li#its )ere o% )hat , -ould do and still keep #! 9obG
U"r!ing to e>plain )h! he had spe-i%i-all! de-ided not to in%or# the +,A
Dire-tor about the Agen-!?s relationship )ith the #ob$ Ael#s stated to the
+hur-h -o##ittee$ G5r 5-+one )as relativel! ne) to this organi.ation$ and
, guess , #ust have thought to #!sel%$ )ell this is going to look pe-uliar to
hi#
"his )as$ !ou kno) not a ver! savor! e%%ortG Presu#abl!$ Ael#s had
si#ilar reasons %or not telling 5-+one about the un)itting drug=testing in the
sa%ehouses
THEM UNWITTING> THE SAFEHOUSES '('
o% e>posure and pointed out that #an! people both inside and
outside the Agen-! %ound Gthe -on-epts involved in #anipulat=
ing hu#an behavior to be distaste%ul and unethi-alG
5-+one rea-ted b! putting o%% a %inal de-ision but suspending
un)itting testing in the #eanti#e Over the ne>t !ear$ Ael#s$
)ho then headed the +landestine Servi-es$ )rote at least three
#e#os urging resu#ption Ae -ited Gindi-ations o% an ap=
parent Soviet aggressiveness in the %ield o% -overtl! ad#inis=
tered -he#i-als )hi-h are$ to sa! the least$ ine>pli-able and
disturbing$G and he -lai#ed the +,A?s Gpositive operational -a=
pa-it! to use drugs is di#inishing o)ing to a la-k o% realisti-
testingGP "o Di-hard Ael#s$ the i#portan-e o% the progra#
e>-eeded the risks and the ethi-al Buestions$ although he did
ad#it$ GWe have no ans)er to the #oral issueG 5-+one si#pl!
did nothing %or t)o !ears "he dire-tor?s inde-ision had the
e%%e-t o% killing the progra#$ nevertheless "SS o%%i-ials -losed
the San Fran-is-o sa%ehouse in 10<@ and the (e) *ork one in
10<<
*ears later in a personal letter to Sid Gottlieb$ George White
)rote an epitaph %or his role )ith the +,AL G, )as a ver! #inor
#issionar!$ a-tuall! a hereti-$ but , toiled )holeheartedl! in
the vine!ards be-ause it )as %un$ %un$ %un Where else -ould
a red=blooded A#eri-an bo! lie$ kill$ -heat$ steal$ rape$ and
pillage )ith the san-tion and blessing o% the All=AighestOG
A%ter 16 !ears o% un)itting testing$ the #en %ro# 5;UL"DA
apparentl! s-ored no #a9or breakthroughs )ith LSD or other
drugs "he! %ound no e%%e-tive truth drug$ re-ruit#ent pill$ or
aphrodisia- LSD had not opened up the #ind to +,A -ontrol
GWe had thought at %irst that this )as the se-ret that )as going
to unlo-k the universe$G sa!s a "SS veteran GWe %ound that
hu#an beings had resour-es %ar greater than i#aginedG
*et despite the la-k o% pre-ision and un-ertaint!$ the +,A still
#ade %ield use o% LSD and other drugs that had )orked their
)a! through the 5;UL"DA testing progression A 10@7 report
sho)ed that "SS had alread! #oved < drugs out o% the e>peri=
PAel#s )as a #aster o% telling di%%erent people di%%erent stories to suit his
purposes At the pre-ise ti#e he )as raising the Soviet #ena-e to push 5-+one
into letting the un)itting testing -ontinue$ he )rote the Warren +o##ission
that not onl! did Soviet behavioral resear-h lag %ive !ears behind the West?s$
but that Gthere is no present eviden-e that the Soviets have an! singular$ ne)$
potent$ drugs to %or-e a -ourse o% a-tion on an individualG
'() INTELLIGENCE OR 7WITCHES 5OTIONS7
#ental stage and into a-tive use Up to that ti#e$ +,A operators
had utili.ed LSD and other ps!-ho-he#i-als against 77 targets
in < di%%erent operations Agen-! o%%i-ials hoped in these -ases
either to dis-redit the sub9e-t b! #aking hi# see# insane or to
G-reate )ithin the individual a #ental and e#otional situation
)hi-h )ill release hi# %ro# the restraint o% sel%=-ontrol and
indu-e hi# to reveal in%or#ation )illingl! under adroit #a=
nipulationG "he Agen-! has -onsistentl! re%used to release
details o% these operations$ and "SS sour-es )ho talk rather
%reel! about other #atters see# to develop a#nesia )hen the
sub9e-t o% %ield use -o#es up (evertheless$ it -an be said that
the +,A did establish a relationship )ith an unna#ed %oreign
se-ret servi-e to interrogate prisoners )ith LSD=like drugs +,A
operators parti-ipated dire-tl! in these interrogations$ )hi-h
-ontinued at least until 10<< O%ten the Agen-! sho)ed #ore
-on-ern %or the sa%et! o% its operational targets abroad than it
did %or its un)itting vi-ti#s in San Fran-is-o$ sin-e so#e o% the
%oreign sub9e-ts )ere given #edi-al e>a#inations be%ore
being slipped the drugP
,n these operations$ +,A #en so#eti#es brought in lo-al
do-tors %or reasons that had nothing to do )ith the )el%are o%
the patient ,nstead$ the do-tor?s role )as to -erti%! the apparent
insanit! o% a vi-ti# )ho had been un)ittingl! dosed )ith LSD
or an even #ore durable ps!-ho-he#i-al like BH C)hi-h
-auses trips lasting a )eek or #ore and )hi-h tends to indu-e
violent behaviorE ,% a do-tor )ere to pres-ribe hospitali.ation
or other severe treat#ent$ the e%%e-t on the sub9e-t -ould be
devastating Ae )ould su%%er not onl! the e>perien-e itsel%$
in-luding possible -on%ine#ent in a #ental institution$ but also
so-ial stig#a ,n #ost -ountries$ even the suggestion o% #ental
proble#s severel! da#ages an individual?s pro%essional and
personal standing Cas "ho#as :agleton$ the re-ipient o% so#e
sho-k therap!$ -an testi%!E G,t?s an old te-hniBue$G sa!s an
5;UL"DA veteran G*ou neutrali.e so#eone b! having their
-onstituen-! doubt the#G "he +hur-h -o##ittee -on%ir#s
P"SS o%%i-ials led b! Sid Gottlieb$ )ho )ere responsible %or the operational use
o% LSD abroad$ took the position that there )as Gno danger #edi-all!G in
un)itting doses and that neither giving a #edi-al e>a# or having a do-tor
present )as ne-essar! "he Agen-!?s 5edi-al O%%i-e disagreed$ sa!ing the drug
)as G#edi-all! dangerousG ,n 10@7 ,nspe-tor General L!#an ;irkpatri-k
noted it )ould be Gunrealisti-G to give the 5edi-al O%%i-e )hat a#ounted to
veto po)er over -overt operations b! letting Agen-! do-tors rule on the health
ha.ard to sub9e-ts in the %ield
THEM UNWITTING8 THE SAFEHOUSES '(*
that the Agen-! used this te-hniBue at least several ti#es to
assassinate a target?s -hara-terP
Still$ the +landestine Servi-es did not %reBuentl! -all on "SS
%or LSD or other drugs 5an! operators had pra-ti-al and ethi=
-al ob9e-tions ,n part to over-o#e su-h ob9e-tions and also to
%ind better )a!s to use -he#i-al and biologi-al substan-es in
-overt operations$ Sid Gottlieb #oved up in 10@0 to be-o#e
Assistant %or S-ienti%i- 5atters to the +landestine Servi-es
-hie% Gottlieb %ound that "SS had kept the 5;UL"DA pro=
gra#s so se-ret that #an! %ield people did not even kno) )hat
te-hniBues )ere available Ae )rote that tight -ontrols over
%ield use in 5;D:L"A operations G#a! have generated a gen=
eral de%eatis# a#ong -ase o%%i-ers$G )ho %eared the! )ould not
re-eive per#ission or that the pro-edure )as not )orth the
e%%ort Gottlieb tried to -orre-t these short-o#ings b! providing
#ore in%or#ation on the drug arsenal to senior operators and
b! strea#lining the approval pro-ess Ae had less lu-k in over=
-o#ing vie)s that drugs do not )ork or are not reliable$ and
that their operational use leads to la.iness and poor trade-ra%t
,% the 5;UL"DA progra# had ever %ound that LSD or an!
other drug reall! did turn a #an into a puppet$ Sid Gottlieb
)ould have had no trouble sur#ounting all those biases ,n=
stead$ Gottlieb and his %ello) sear-hers -a#e %rustratingl!
-lose but al)a!s %ell short o% %inding a reliable -ontrol #e-ha=
nis# LSD -ertainl! penetrated to the inner#ost regions o% the
#ind ,t -ould spring loose a )hole ga#ut o% %eelings$ %ro#
PWhile , )as doing the resear-h %or this book$ #an! people approa-hed #e
-lai#ing to be vi-ti#s o% +,A drugging plots Although , listened -are%ull! to
all and reali.ed that so#e #ight be authenti- vi-ti#s$ , had no )a! o% distin=
guishing bet)een so#eone a-ting strangel! and so#eone 0ade to a-t
strangel! Perhaps the #ost insidious aspe-t o% this )hole te-hniBue is that
an!one bla#ing his aberrant behavior on a drug or on the +,A gets labeled a
hopeless paranoid and his -ase is thro)n into the -rank %ile "here is no better
-over than operating on the edge o% #adness
One le%tist pro%essor in a Latin A#eri-an universit! )ho had opposed the
+,A sa!s that he )as )orking alone in his o%%i-e one da! in 107K )hen a strange
)o#an entered and 9abbed his )rist )ith a pin stu-k in a s#all round ob9e-t
Al#ost i##ediatel!$ he be-o#e irrational$ broke glasses$ and thre) )ater in
-olleagues? %a-es Ae sa!s his students spotted an a#bulan-e )aiting %or hi#
out %ront "he! spirited hi# out the ba-k door and took hi# ho#e$ )here he
tripped Cor had ps!-hoti- episodesE %or #ore than a )eek Ae -alls the e>peri=
en-e a #i> o% Gheaven and hell$G and he shudders at the thought that he #ight
have spent the ti#e in a hospital G)ith nurses and strait9a-ketsG Although he
eventuall! returned to his post at the universit!$ he states that it took hi#
several !ears to re-over the -redibilit! he lost the da! he G)ent -ra.! at the
o%%i-eG ,% the +,A )as involved$ it had neutrali.ed a %oe
'(4 INTELLIGENCE OR 7WITCHES 5OTIONS7
terror to insight But in the end$ the hu#an ps!-he proved so
-o#ple> that even the #ost skilled #anipulator -ould not an=
ti-ipate all the variables Ae -ould use LSD and other drugs to
-hip a)a! at %ree )ill Ae -ould s-ore te#porar! vi-tories$ and
he -ould alter #oods$ per-eptionMso#eti#es even belie%s Ae
had the po)er to -ause great har#$ but ulti#atel! he -ould not
-onBuer the hu#an spirit
CHAPTER
MUSHROOMS TO
COUNTERCULTURE
"he 5;UL"DA s-ientists
reaped little but disaster$
#is-hie%$
and disappoint#ent %ro# their
e%%orts to use LSD as a
#ira-le
)eapon against the #inds o%
their opponents
(evertheless$
their insatiable need to tr!
ever! possibilit! led the# to
test
hundreds o% other
substan-es$ in-luding all the
drugs that
)ould later be -alled
ps!-hedeli- "hese drugs )ere
kno)n to
have great poten-! "he! )ere
derived %ro# natural botani-al
produ-ts$ and the #en %ro#
5;UL"DA believed %ro# the
be=
ginning that rare organi-
#aterials #ight so#eho)
have the
greatest e%%e-t on the hu#an
#ind "he #ost a#a.ing o%
the
ps!-hedeli-s -a#e %ro# odd
-orners o% the natural )orld
Al=
bert Ao%#ann -reated LSD
largel! out o% ergot$ a %ungus
that
gro)s on r!eF #es-aline is
nothing #ore than the
s!ntheti-
essen-e o% pe!ote -a-tus
Psilo-!bin$ the drug that
"i#oth!
Lear! pre%erred to LSD %or his
Aarvard e>peri#ents$ )as
s!n=
thesi.ed %ro# e>oti- 5e>i-an
#ushroo#s that o--up! a
spe-ial
&
pla-e in +,A histor!
When the 5;UL"DA tea#
%irst e#barked on its #ind=
-on=
trol e>plorations$ the G#agi-
#ushroo#G )as onl! a ru#or
or
%able in the linear histor! o%
the Western )orld On
nothing
#ore than the possibilit! that
the legend )as based on %a-t$
the
Agen-!?s s-ientists tra-ked
the #ushroo# to the #ost
re#ote
parts o% 5e>i-o and then spent
lavishl! to test and develop its
#ind=altering properties
"he results$ like the LSD
lega-!$
'( INTELLIGENCE OR 7WITCHES 5OTIONS7
)ere as startling as the! )ere unintended
A#ong the botani-als that #ankind has al)a!s turned to %or
into>i-ants and poisons$ #ushroo#s stand out "here is so#e=
thing en-hantingl! odd about the da#p little buttons that -an
thrill a gour#et or kill one$ depending on the subtle di%%eren-es
a#ong the -ountless varieties "hese %ungi have a long re-ord
in unorthodo> )ar%are ")o thousand !ears be%ore the +,A
looked to unleash po)er%ul #ushroo#s in -overt operations$
the Do#an :#press Agrippina eli#inated her husband
+laudius )ith a dish o% poisonous #ushroo#s A--ording to
Do#an histor!$ Agrippina )anted the e#peror dead so that her
son (ero -ould take the throne She planned to take advantage
o% +laudius? love %or the deli-ious A0a"i-a !aesa.ea #ush=
roo#$ but she had to -hoose -are%ull! a#ong its deadl! look=
alikes "he poison -ould not be Gsudden and instantaneous in
its operation$ lest the desperate a-hieve#ent should be dis-ov=
ered$G )rote Gordon and Ialentina Wasson in their #onu#en=
tal and de%initive )ork$ M2s3.oo0s1 R2ssia a"d His-o.y8 "he
:#press settled on the lethal A0a"i-a ,3a44oides1 a %ungus the
Wassons -onsidered )ell suited to the -ri#eL G"he vi-ti#
)ould not give a)a! the ga#e b! abnor#al indispositions at
the #eal$ but )hen the sei.ure -a#e he )ould be so severel!
stri-ken that therea%ter he )ould no longer be in -o##and o%
his o)n a%%airsG Agrippina kne) her #ushroo#s$ and (ero
be-a#e :#peror
+,A #ind=-ontrol spe-ialists sought to e#ulate and surpass
that kind o% sophisti-ation$ as it #ight appl! to an! -on-eivable
drug "heir %i>ation on the G#agi- #ushroo#G gre) indire-tl!
out o% a #eeting bet)een drug e>perts and 5orse Allen$ head
o% the Agen-!?s AD",+AO;: progra#$ in O-tober 10@8 One
e>pert told Allen about a shrub -alled piule$ )hose seeds had
long been used as an into>i-ant b! 5e>i-an ,ndians at religious
-ere#onies Allen$ )ho )anted to kno) about an!thing that
distorted realit!$ i##ediatel! arranged %or a !oung +,A s-ien=
tist to take a 5e>i-an %ield trip and gather sa#ples o% piule as
)ell as other plants o% Ghigh nar-oti- and to>i- value o% interest
to AD",+AO;:G
"hat !oung s-ientist arrived in 5e>i-o +it! earl! in 10@7 Ae
-ould not advertise the true purpose o% his trip be-ause o% AD=
",+AO;:?s e>tre#e se-re-!$ so he assu#ed -over as a re=
sear-her interested in %inding native plants )hi-h )ere anes=
theti-s Fluent in Spanish and %a#iliar )ith 5e>i-o$ he had no
MUSHROOMS TO COUNTERCULTURE '($
trouble #oving around the -ountr!$ #eeting )ith leading e>=
perts on botani-als "hen he )as o%% into the #ountains south
o% the -apital )ith his o)n %ield=testing eBuip#ent$ gathering
spe-i#ens and testing the# -rudel! on the spot B! Februar!$
he had -olle-ted sa-ks %ull o% #aterial$ in-luding 16 pounds o%
piule Be%ore leaving 5e>i-o to look %or #ore sa#ples around
the +aribbean$ the !oung s-ientist heard a#a.ing tales about
spe-ial #ushroo#s that gre) onl! in the hot and rain! su##er
#onths Su-h stories had -ir-ulated a#ong :uropeans in 5e>=
i-o sin-e +orte. had -onBuered the -ountr! earl! in the si>=
teenth -entur! Spanish %riars had reported that the A.te-s
used strange #ushroo#s in their religious -ere#onies$ )hi-h
these -onverters o% the heathens des-ribed as Gde#oni- hol!
-o##unionsG A.te- priests -alled the spe-ial #ushroo#s
-eo"a"a!-41 GGod?s %leshG But +orte.?s plunderers soon lost
tra-k o% the rite$ as did the traders and anthropologists )ho
%ollo)ed in their )ake Onl! the legend survived
Ba-k in Washington$ the !oung s-ientist?s sa#ples )ent
straight to the labs$ and Agen-! o%%i-ials s-oured the histori-al
re-ord %or a--ounts o% the strange #ushroo#s 5orse Allen
hi#sel%$ though responsible in AD",+AO;: resear-h %or ev=
er!thing %ro# the pol!graph to h!pnosis$ took the trouble to go
through the ,ndian lore GIer! earl! a--ounts o% the -ere#o=
nies o% so#e tribes o% 5e>i-an ,ndians sho) that #ushroo#s
are used to produ-e hallu-inations and to -reate into>i-ation in
-onne-tion )ith religious %estivals$G he )rote G,n addition$ this
literature sho)s that )it-h do-tors or ?divinators? used so#e
t!pes o% #ushroo#s to produ-e -on%essions or to lo-ate stolen
ob9e-ts or to predi-t the %utureG Aere )as a possible truth drug$
5orse Allen reasoned GSin-e it had been deter#ined that no
area o% hu#an kno)ledge is to be le%t une>plored in -onne-tion
)ith the AD",+AO;: progra#$ it )as there%ore regarded as
essential that the pe-uliar Bualities o% the #ushroo# be e>=
plored G Allen de-lared GFull -onsideration$G he -on-luded$
should be given to sending an Agen-! #an ba-k to 5e>i-o
during the su##er "he +,A had begun its Buest %or GGod?s
%leshG
+hara-teristi-all!$ 5orse Allen )as planning ahead in -ase
the +,A?s sear-hers -a#e up )ith a #ushroo# )orth having in
large Buantities Ae kne) that the suppl! %ro# the tropi-s var=
ied b! season$ and$ an!)a!$ it )ould be i#pra-ti-al to go to
5e>i-o %or %ungi ea-h ti#e an operational need popped up So
'(% INTELLIGENCE OR 7WITCHES 5OTIONS7
Allen de-ided to see i% it )ere possible to gro) the #ushroo#s
at ho#e$ either outdoors or in hothouses On 4une 8K$ 10@7$ he
and an asso-iate drove %ro# Washington to "oughkena#on$
Penns!lvania$ in the heart o% Gthe largest #ushroo#=gro)ing
area in the )orldG At a three=hour session )ith the -aptains o%
the #ushroo# industr!$ Allen e>plained the govern#ent?s in=
terest in poisonous and nar-oti- %ungi Allen reported that the
#eeting G)as pri#aril! designed to obtain a ?%oothold? in the
-enter o% the #ushroo#=gro)ing industr! )here$ i% reBuire=
#ents %or #ushroo# gro)ing )ere de#anded$ it )ould be
done b! pro%essionals in the tradeG "he #ushroo# e>e-utives
)ere Buite relu-tant to gro) to>i- produ-ts be-ause the! kne)
that an! a--idental publi-it! )ould s-are their -usto#ers ,n
the end$ ho)ever$ their patriotis# )on out$ and the! agreed to
gro) an! kind o% %ungus the govern#ent desired Allen -onsid=
ered the trip a great su--ess
As use%ul as this -o##it#ent #ight be$ an ele#ent o% -han-e
re#ained as long as the +,A had to depend on the natural
pro-ess But i% the Agen-! -ould %ind s!ntheti- eBuivalents %or
the a-tive ingredients$ it -ould #anu%a-ture rather than gro)
its o)n suppl! "o)ard this goal o% b!passing nature$ 5orse
Allen had little -hoi-e but to turn %or help to the #an )ho the
%ollo)ing !ear )ould )rest #ost o% the AD",+AO;: %un-tions
%ro# his graspL Sid Gottlieb Gottlieb$ hi#sel% a PhD in -he#=
istr!$ had s-ientists )orking %or hi# )ho kne) )hat to do on
the level o% test tubes and beakers Allen ran AD",+AO;: out
o% the O%%i-e o% Se-urit!$ )hi-h )as not eBuipped %or )ork on
the %rontiers o% s-ien-e
Gottlieb and his -olleagues #oved Bui-kl! into the #!steries
o% the 5e>i-an hallu-inogens "he! )ent to )ork on the -he#i=
-al stru-tures o% the piule and other plants that 5orse Allen?s
e#issar! brought ba-k %ro# his %ield trip$ but the! negle-ted to
report their %indings to the bureau-rati-all! out%lanked Allen
Gottlieb and the 5;UL"DA -re) soon got -aught up in the
sear-h %or the #agi- #ushroo# While "SS had its o)n li#ited
laborator! %a-ilities$ it depended on se-ret -ontra-tors %or #ost
resear-h and develop#ent Working )ith an asso-iate$ a
-adaverousl! thin -he#istr! PhD na#ed Aenr! Bortner$ Gott=
lieb passed the tropi-al plants to a string o% -orporate and a-a=
de#i- resear-hers One o% the#$ Dr 4a#es 5oore$ a 80=!ear=
old -he#ist at Parke$ Davis / +o#pan! in Detroit$ )as
destined to be the %irst #an in the +,A -a#p to taste the #agi-
#ushroo#
MUSHROOMS TO COUNTERCULTURE '(&
5oore?s -areer )as t!pi-al o% the spe-ialists in the +,A?s
vast net)ork o% private -ontra-tors Ais path to the #ush=
roo# led through several 9obs and o%%beat assign#ents$ al=
)a!s )ith Agen-! %unds and dire-tion behind hi# A pre=
-ise$ #eti-ulous #an o% s-ienti%i- habits$ 5oore )as hardl!
the sort one )ould e>pe-t to %ind -hasing ps!-hedeli- drugs
Su-h pursuits began %or hi# in 5ar-h 10@7$ )hen he had
returned to his lab at Parke$ Davis a%ter a !ear o% postdo-=
toral resear-h at the Universit! o% Basel Ais supervisor had
-alled hi# in )ith an intriguing proposalL Ao) )ould he
like to )ork inside the -o#pan! on a +,A -ontra-tO G"hose
)ere not parti-ularl! prosperous ti#es$ and the -o#pan!
)as glad to get so#eone else to pa! #! salar! QSJ$666 a
!earR$G notes 5oore 8@ !ears later G,% , had thought , )as
parti-ipating in a s-he#e run b! a s#all band o% #ad in=
dividuals$ , )ould have de#urredG
Ae a--epted the 9ob
"he Agen-! -ontra-ted )ith Parke$ Davis$ as it did )ith nu=
#erous other drug -o#panies$ universities$ and govern#ent
agen-ies to develop behavioral produ-ts and poisons %ro#
botani-als +,A=%unded -he#ists e>tra-ted deadl! substan-es
like the arro)=poison -urare %ro# natural produ-ts$ )hile oth=
ers )orked on )a!s to deliver these poisons #ost e%%e-tivel!$
like the Gnondis-ernible #i-robioino-ulatorG Cor dart gunE that
the Ar#! +he#i-al +orps invented +,A=-onne-ted botanists
-olle-tedMand then -he#ists anal!.edMbotani-als %ro# all
over the tropi-sL a lea% that killed -attle$ several plants deadl!
to %ish$ another lea% that -aused hair to %all out$ sap that -aused
te#porar! blindness$ and a host o% other natural produ-ts that
-ould alter #oods$ dull or sti#ulate nerves$ or generall! disori=
ent people A#ong the plants 5oore investigated )as 4a#ai-a
dog)ood$ a plant used b! +aribbean natives to stun %ish so the!
-ould be easil! -aptured %or %ood "his )ork resulted in the
isolation o% several ne) substan-es$ one o% )hi-h 5oore na#ed
Glisetin$G in honor o% his daughter
5oore had no trouble ad9usting to the se-re-! de#anded b!
his +,A sponsors$ having )orked on the 5anhattan Pro9e-t as
a graduate student Ae dealt onl! )ith his o)n -ase o%%i-er$
Aenr! Bortner$ and t)o or three other +,A #en in "SS On-e
5oore -o#pleted his -he#i-al )ork on a parti-ular substan-e$
he turned the results over to Bortner and apparentl! never
learned o% the %ollo)=up 5oore )orked in his o)n little iso=
lated -o#part#ent$ and he soon re-ogni.ed that the Agen-!
''( INTELLIGENCE OR 7WITCHES 5OTIONS7
pre%erred -ontra-tors )ho did not ask Buestions about )hat
)as going on in the ne>t bo>
,n 10@@ 5oore le%t private industr! %or a-ade#ia$ #oving
%ro# Detroit to the relativel! pla-id setting o% the Universit! o%
Dela)are in (e)ark "he s-hool #ade hi# an assistant pro%es=
sor$ and he #oved into a lab in the Georgian red=bri-k building
that housed the -he#istr! depart#ent Along )ith his %a#il!$
5oore brought his +,A -ontra-tMthen )orth S1<$666 a !ear$ o%
)hi-h he re-eived S<@6 per #onth$ )ith the rest going to pa!
resear-h assistants and overhead Although the Agen-! al=
lo)ed a %e) top universit! o%%i-ials to be brie%ed on his se-ret
-onne-tion$ 5oore appeared to his -olleagues and students to
be a nor#al pro%essor )ho had a health! resear-h grant %ro#
the Ges-hi-kter Fund %or 5edi-al Desear-h in Washington
,n the )orld o% natural produ-tsMparti-ularl! #ushroo#sM
the +,A soon #ade 5oore a %ull=servi-e agent With so#e help
%ro# his +,A %riends$ he #ade -onta-t )ith the leading lights
in #!-olog! Cthe stud! o% #ushroo#sE$ attended pro%essional
#eetings$ and arranged %or others to send hi# sa#ples Fro#
the +,A?s point o% vie)$ he -ould not have had better -over As
Sid Gottlieb )rote$ 5oore G#aintains the %i-tion that the botan=
i-al spe-i#ens he -olle-ts are %or his o)n use sin-e his %ield
interest is natural=produ-t -he#istr!G Under this prete>t$
5oore had a per%e-t e>-use to #ake and pur-hase %or the +,A
-he#i-als that the Agen-! did not )ant tra-ed Over the !ears$
5oore billed the Agen-! %or hundreds o% pur-hases$ in-luding
@6 -ents %or an unidenti%ied pa#phlet$ SK7717 %or a parti-ular
ship#ent o% #es-aline$ S11K7<6 %or a large Buantit! o% #ush=
roo#s$ and S18$666 %or a Buarter=ton o% %luothane$ an inhalation
anestheti- Ae shipped his pur-hases on as Bortner dire-ted
5oore eventuall! be-a#e a kind o% short=order -ook %or )hat
+,A do-u#ents -all Go%%ensive +W$ BWG )eapons at Gver! lo)
-ost and in a %e) da!s? ti#e G ,% there )ere an operational
need$ Bortner had onl! to -all in the order$ and 5oore )ould
)hip up a bat-h o% a Greputed depilator!G or hallu-inogens like
D5" or the in-redibl! potent BH On one o--asion in 10<7$
5oore prepared a s#all dose o% a ver! lethal -arba#ate poison
Mthe sa#e substan-e that OSS used t)o de-ades earlier to tr!
to kill Adol% Aitler 5oore -harged the Agen-! his regular -on=
sulting %ee$ S166$ %or this servi-e
GDid , ever -onsider )hat )ould have happened i% this stu%%
)ere given to un)itting peopleOG 5oore asks$ re%le-ting on his
MUSHROOMS TO COUNTERCULTURE '''
+,A da!s G(o Parti-ularl! no Aad , been given that in%or#a=
tion$ , think , )ould have been prepared to a--ept that ,% , had
been knee=9erk about testing on un)itting sub9e-ts$ , )ouldn?t
have been the t!pe o% person the! )ould have used "here )as
nothing that , did that stru-k #e as being so sinister and
deadl! ,t )as all investigativeG
4a#es 5oore )as onl! one o% #an! +,A spe-ialists on the look=
out %or the #agi- #ushroo# For three !ears a%ter 5orse
Allen?s #an returned %ro# 5e>i-o )ith his tales o% )onder$
5oore and the others in the Agen-!?s net)ork pushed their
lines o% inBuir! a#ong -onta-ts and travelers into 5e>i-an
villages so re#ote that Spanish had barel! penetrated *et the!
%ound no #agi- #ushroo#s Given their e%%orts$ it )as ironi-
that the #an )ho beat the# to GGod?s %leshG )as neither a sp!
nor a s-ientist$ but a banker ,t )as D Gordon Wasson$ vi-e=
president o% 4 P 5organ / +o#pan!$ a#ateur #!-ologist$ and
-o=author )ith his )i%e Ialentina o% M2s3.oo0s1 R2ssia a"d
His-o.y8 (earl! 76 !ears earlier$ Wasson and his Dussian=born
)i%e had be-o#e %as-inated b! the di%%erent )a!s that so-ieties
deal )ith the #ushroo#$ and the! %ollo)ed their li%elong ob=
session )ith these %ungi$ in all their glor!$ all over the globeP
"he! %ound )hole nationalities$ su-h as the Dussians and the
+atalans$ )ere #!-ophiles$ )hile others like the Spaniards and
the Anglo=Sa>ons )ere not "he! learned that in an-ient
Gree-e and Do#e there )as a belie% that -ertain kinds o% #ush=
roo#s )ere brought into being b! lightning bolts "he! dis-ov=
ered that )idel! s-attered peoples$ in-luding desert Arabs$
Siberians$ +hinese$ and 5aoris o% (e) Healand$ have shared
POn their hone!#oon$ in the su##er o% 1087$ the Wassons )ere strolling along
a #ountain path )hen suddenl! Ialentina abandoned Gordon?s side GShe had
spied )ild #ushroo#s in the %orest$G )rote Wasson$ Gand ra-ing over the -ar=
pet o% dried leaves in the )oods$ she knelt in poses o% adoration be%ore one
-luster and then another o% these gro)ths ,n e-stas! she -alled ea-h kind b!
an endearing Dussian na#e Like all good Anglo=Sa>ons$ , kne) nothing about
the %ungal )orld and %elt the less , kne) about these putrid$ trea-herous e>-res=
-en-es the better For her the! )ere things o% gra-e in%initel! inviting to the
per-eptive #indG ,n spite o% his protests$ Ialentina gathered up the #ush=
roo#s and brought the# ba-k to the lodge )here she -ooked the# %or
dinner She ate the# allMalone Wasson )anted no part o% the %ungi While she
#o-ked his horror$ he predi-ted in the %a-e o% her laughter he )ould )ake up
a )ido)er the ne>t #orning When Ialentina survived$ the -ouple de-ided to
%ind an e>planation %or Gthe strange -ultural -leavageG that had -aused the#
to rea-t so di%%erentl! to #ushroo#s Fro# then on$ the! )ere hooked$ and
the )orld be-a#e the ri-her
'') INTELLIGENCE OR ''WITCHES 5OTIONS7
the idea that #ushroo#s have supernatural -onne-tions "heir
book appeared in li#ited edition$ selling ne) in 10@7 %or S18@
,t -ontains %a-ts and legends$ lovingl! told$ as )ell as beauti%ul
photographs o% nearl! ever! kno)n spe-ies o% #ushroo#
,nevitabl!$ the Wassons heard tell o% GGod?s %lesh$G and in
10@7 the! started spending their va-ations pursuing it "he!
took their %irst unsu--ess%ul trek to 5e>i-o about the ti#e
4a#es 5oore got -onne-ted to the +,A and 5orse Allen #et
)ith the Penns!lvania #ushroo# e>e-utives "he! had no lu-k
until their third e>pedition$ )hen Gordon Wasson and his trav=
eling -o#panion$ Allan Di-hardson$ %ound their hol! grail high
in the #ountains above Oa>a-a On 4une 80$10@@$ the! entered
the to)n hall in a village -alled Auautla de 4i#ene. "here$
the! %ound a !oung ,ndian about 7@$ sitting b! a large table in
an upstairs roo# Unlike #ost people in the village$ he spoke
Spanish GAe had a %riendl! #anner$G Wasson later )rote$ Gand
, took a -han-e Leaning over the table$ , asked hi# earnestl!
and in a lo) voi-e i% , -ould speak to hi# in -on%iden-e ,n=
stantl! -urious$ he en-ouraged #e ?Will !ou$? , )ent on$ ?help
#e learn the se-rets o% the divine #ushroo#O? and , used the
,ndian na#e "-i s3ee-o1 -orre-tl! pronoun-ing it )ith glottal
stop and tonal di%%erentiation o% the s!llables When QheR re-ov=
ered %ro# his surprise he said )ar#l! that nothing -ould be
easierG
Shortl! therea%ter$ the ,ndian led Wasson and Di-hardson
do)n into a deep ravine )here #ushroo#s )ere gro)ing in
abundan-e "he )hite #en snapped pi-ture a%ter pi-ture o% the
%ungi and pi-ked a -ardboard bo>=%ull "hen$ in the heav!
hu#id heat o% the a%ternoon$ the ,ndian led the# up the #oun=
tain to a )o#an )ho per%or#ed the an-ient #ushroo# rite
Aer na#e )as 5aria Sabina She )as not onl! a !2.a"de.a1 or
sha#an$ o% Gthe highest Bualit!$G )rote Wasson$ but a 7se"o.a
si" 0a"!3a1 a )o#an )ithout stainG Wasson des-ribed her as
#iddle=aged and short$ G)ith a spiritualit! in her e>pression
that stru-k us at on-e She had a presen-e We sho)ed our
#ushroo#s to the )o#an and her daughter "he! -ried out in
rapture over the %ir#ness$ the %resh beaut! and abundan-e o%
our !oung spe-i#ens "hrough the interpreter )e asked i% the!
)ould serve us that night "he! said !esG
"hat night$ Wasson$ Di-hardson$ and about 86 ,ndians gath=
ered in one o% the village?s adobe houses "he natives )ore their
best -lothes and )ere %riendl! to the )hite strangers "he host
MUSHROOMS TO COUNTERCULTURE ''*
provided -ho-olate drinks$ )hi-h evoked %or Wasson a--ounts
o% si#ilar beverages being served earl! Spanish )riters 5aria
Sabina sat on a #at be%ore a si#ple altar table that )as
adorned )ith the i#ages o% the +hild 4esus and the Baptis# in
4ordan A%ter -leaning the #ushroo#s$ she handed the# out to
all the adults present$ keeping 8< %or hersel% and giving Wasson
and Di-hardson 18 ea-h
5aria Sabina put out the last -andle about #idnight$ and she
-hanted haunting$ tightl! #easured #elodies "he ,ndian -ele=
brants responded )ith deep %eeling Both Wasson and Di-hard=
son began to e>perien-e intense hallu-inations that did not
di#inish until about KL66 A5 GWe )ere never #ore )ide
a)ake$ and the visions -a#e )hether our e!es )ere open or
-losed$G Wasson )roteL
"he! e#erged %ro# the -enter o% the %ield o% our vision$ opening
up as the! -a#e$ no) rushing$ no) slo)l! at the pa-e that our
)ill -hose "he! )ere vivid in -olor$ al)a!s har#onious "he!
began )ith art #oti%s$ su-h as #ight de-orate -arpets or te>tiles
or )allpaper or the dra)ing board o% an ar-hite-t "hen the!
evolved into pala-es )ith -ourts$ ar-ades$ gardensMresplendent
pala-es )ith se#ipre-ious stones +ould the #ira-ulous #o=
bilit! that , )as no) en9o!ing be the e>planation %or the %l!ing
)it-hes that pla!ed so#e i#portant part in the %olklore and %air!
tales o% northern :uropeO "hese re%le-tions passed through #!
#ind at the ver! ti#e that , )as seeing the vision$ %or the e%%e-t
o% the #ushroo#s is to bring about a %ission o% the spirit$ a split
in the person$ a kind o% s-hi.ophrenia$ )ith the rational side
-ontinuing to reason and to observe the sensations that the other
side is en9o!ing "he #ind is atta-hed b! an elasti- -ord to the
vagrant senses
"hus Gordon Wasson des-ribed the %irst kno)n #ushroo#
trip b! GoutsidersG in re-orded histor! "he +,A?s #en #issed
the event$ but the! Bui-kl! learned o% it$ even though Wasson?s
visit )as a private noninstitutional one to a pla-e )here #ate=
rial -ivili.ation had not rea-hed Su-h s)i%tness )as assured
b! the breadth o% the Agen-!?s in%or#ant net)ork$ )hi-h in=
-luded %or#al liaison arrange#ents )ith agen-ies like the Ag=
ri-ulture Depart#ent and the FDA and in%or#al -onta-ts all
over the )orld A botanist in 5e>i-o +it! sent the report that
rea-hed both +,A headBuarters and then 4a#es 5oore ,n the
best bureau-rati- %or#$ the +,A des-ription o% Wasson?s visions
''4 INTELLIGENCE OR 7WITCHES 5OTIONS7
stated sparsel! that the (e) *ork banker thought he sa) Ga
#ultitude o% ar-hite-tural %or#sG Still$ GGod?s %leshG had been
lo-ated$ and the 5;UL"DA leaders snat-hed up in%or#ation
that Wasson planned to return the %ollo)ing su##er and bring
ba-k so#e #ushroo#s
During the intervening )inter$ 4a#es 5oore )rote WassonM
Gout o% the blue$G as Wasson re-allsMand e>pressed a desire to
look into the -he#i-al properties o% 5e>i-an %ungi 5oore
eventuall! suggested that he )ould like to a--o#pan! Was=
son?s part!$ and$ to s)eeten the proposition$ he #entioned that
he kne) a %oundation that #ight be )illing to help under)rite
the e>pedition Sure enough$ the +,A?s -onduit$ the Ges-hi-kter
Fund$ #ade a S8$666 grant ,nside the 5;UL"DA progra#$ the
Buest %or the divine #ushroo# be-a#e Subpro9e-t @J
4oining 5oore and Wasson on the 10@< trip )ere the )orld=
reno)ned Fren-h #!-ologist Doger Aei# and a -olleague %ro#
the Sorbonne "he part! #ade the %inal leg o% the trip$ one at
a ti#e$ in a tin! +essna$ but )hen it )as 5oore?s turn$ the load
proved too #u-h %or the plane "he pilot suddenl! took a dra=
#ati- right angle turn through a narro) -an!on and #ade an
uns-heduled stop on the side o% a hill ,##ediatel! on landing$
an ,ndian girl ran out and slid blo-ks under the )heels$ so the
plane )ould not roll ba-k into a ravine "he pilot de-ided to
lighten the load b! leaving 5oore a#ong the lo-al ,ndians$ )ho
spoke neither :nglish nor Spanish Later in the da!$ the plane
returned and pi-ked up the shaken 5oore
Finall! in Auautla$ sleeping on a dirt %loor and eating lo-al
%ood$ ever!one reveled in the pri#itiveness o% the adventure
e>-ept 5oore$ )ho su%%ered ,n addition to diarrhea$ he re-alls$
G, had a terribl! bad -old$ )e da#ned near starved to death$
and , it-hed all overG Be!ond his ph!si-al )oes$ 5oore be-a#e
#ore and #ore alienated %ro# the others$ )ho got on %a#ousl!
5oore )as a G-o#plainer$G a--ording to Wasson GAe had no
e#path! %or )hat )as going on$G re-alls Wasson GAe )as like
a landlubber at sea Ae got si-k to his sto#a-h and hated it allG
5oore states$ GOur relationship deteriorated during the -ourse
o% the tripG
Wasson returned to the sa#e 5aria Sabina )ho had led hi#
to the high ground the !ear be%ore Again the ritual started )ell
a%ter dark and$ %or ever!one but 5oore$ it )as an en-hanted
evening Sings WassonL G, had the #ost superb %eelingMa %eel=
ing o% e-stas! *ou?re raised to a height )here !ou have not
been in ever!da! li%eMnot everG 5oore$ on the other hand$
MUSHROOMS TO COUNTERCULTURE ''5
never le%t the lo)lands Ais des-riptionL G"here )as all this
-hanting in the diale-t "hen the! passed the #ushroo#s
around$ and )e -he)ed the# up , did %eel the hallu-inogeni-
e%%e-t$ although ?disoriented? )ould be a better )ord to des-ribe
#! rea-tionG
Soon therea%ter$ 5oore returned to Dela)are )ith a bag o%
#ushroo#sM9ust in ti#e to take his pregnant )i%e to the hospi=
tal %or deliver! A%ter dropping her o%% )ith the obstetri-ian$ he
-ontinued do)n the hall to another do-tor about his digestion
Alread! a thin #an$ 5oore had lost 1@ pounds Over the ne>t
)eek$ he slo)l! nursed hi#sel% ba-k to health Ae reported in
to Bortner and started preli#inar! )ork in his lab to isolate the
a-tive ingredient in the #ushroo#s Bortner urged hi# onF the
#en %ro# 5;UL"DA )ere e>-ited at the prospe-t that the!
#ight be able to -reate Ga -o#pletel! ne) -he#i-al agentG
"he! )anted their o)n private suppl! o% GGod?s %leshG Sid
Gottlieb )rote that i% 5oore su--eeded$ it )as GBuite possibleG
that the ne) drugs -ould Gre#ain an Agen-! se-retG
Gottlieb?s drea# o% a +,A #onopol! on the divine #ushroo#
vanished Bui-kl! under the in%luen-e o% un)anted -o#petitors$
and indeed$ the Agen-! soon %a-ed a -ontrol proble# o% bur=
geoning proportions While 5oore toiled in his lab$ Doger Aei#
in Paris une>pe-tedl! pulled o%% the re#arkable %eat o% gro)=
ing the #ushroo#s in arti%i-ial -ulture %ro# spore prints he
had #ade in 5e>i-o Aei# then sent sa#ples to none other
than Albert Ao%#ann$ the dis-overer o% LSD$ )ho Bui-kl! iso=
lated and -he#i-all! reprodu-ed the a-tive -he#i-al ingredi=
ent Ae na#ed it psilo-!bin
"he digni%ied S)iss -he#ist had beaten out the +,A$P and the
#en %ro# 5;UL"DA %ound the#selves tr!ing to obtain %or=
PWithin t)o !ears$ Albert Ao%#ann )ould s-oop the +,A on-e again$ )ith so#e
help %ro# Gordon Wasson ,n 10<6 Ao%#ann broke do)n and -he#i-all! re=
-reated the a-tive ingredient in hallu-inator! ololiuBui seeds sent hi# b! Was=
son be%ore the Agen-!?s -ontra-tor$ Willia# Bo!d +ook o% 5ontana State Uni=
versit!$ -ould do the 9ob Ao%#ann?s and Wasson?s pro%essional relationship
soon gre) into %riendship$ and in 10<8 the! traveled together on horseba-k to
Auautla de 4i#ene. to visit 5aria Sabina Ao%#ann presented the !2.a"de.a
)ith so#e genuine Sando. psilo-!bin Wasson re-allsL GO% -ourse$ Albert Ao%=
#ann is so -onservative he al)a!s gives too little a dose$ and it didn?t have an!
e%%e-tG "he -rest%allen Ao%#ann believed he had dupli-ated GGod?s %lesh$G and
he doubled the dose "hen 5aria Sabina had her -usto#ar! visions$ and she
reported$ a--ording to Wasson$ the drug )as the Gsa#eG as the #ushroo#
States Wasson$ )hose pre9udi-e %or real #ushroo#s over -he#i-als is un#is=
takable$ G, don?t think she said it )ith ver! #u-h enthusias#G
'' INTELLIGENCE OR 7WITCHES 5OTIONS7
#ulas and supplies %ro# overseas ,nstead o% lo-king up the
)orld?s suppl! o% the drug in a sa%e so#e)here$ the! had to
keep tra-k o% disburse#ents %ro# Sando.$ as the! )ere doing
)ith LSD De%eated b! the old #aster$ 5oore laid his o)n )ork
aside and sent a)a! to Sando. %or a suppl! o% psilo-!bin
"his lapse in -ontrol still did not Buash the hopes o% Agen-!
o%%i-ials that the #ushroo# #ight be-o#e a po)er%ul )eapon
in -overt operations Agen-! s-ientists rushed it into the e>peri=
#ental stage Within three su##ers o% the %irst trip )ith 4a#es
5oore$ the +,A?s Bueas! pro%essor %ro# A#eri-a$ the #ush=
roo# had 9ourne!ed through laboratories on t)o -ontinents$
and its -he#i-al essen-e had )orked its )a! ba-k to Agen-!
-onduits and a -ontra-tor )ho )ould test it ,n ;entu-k!$ Dr
Aarris ,sbell ordered psilo-!bin in9e-ted into nine bla-k in=
#ates at the nar-oti-s prison Ais sta%% laid the sub9e-ts out on
beds as the drug took hold and #easured ph!si-al s!#pto#s
ever! hourL blood pressure$ knee=9erk re%le>es$ re-tal te#pera=
ture$ pre-ise dia#eter o% e!e pupils$ and so on ,n addition$ the!
re-orded the in#ates? various sub9e-tive %eelingsL
A%ter 76 #inutes$ an>iet! be-a#e Buite de%inite and )as e>=
pressed as -onsisting o% %ear that so#ething evil )as going to
happen$ %ear o% insanit!$ or o% death====At ti#es patients had the
sensation that the! -ould see the blood and bones in their o)n
bod! or in that o% another person "he! reported #an! %antasies
or drea#like states in )hi-h the! see#ed to be else)here Fan=
tasti- e>perien-es$ su-h as trips to the #oon or living in gorgeous
-astles )ere o--asionall! reported ")o o% the 0 patients
%elt their e>perien-es )ere -aused b! the e>peri#enters -on=
trolling their #inds
:>peri#ental data piled up$ )ith operational testing to %ollo)
But the #agi- #ushroo# never be-a#e a good sp! )eapon
,t #ade people behave strangel! but no one -ould predi-t
)here their trips )ould take the# Agen-! o%%i-ials -raved -er=
taint!
On the other hand$ Gordon Wasson %ound revelation A%ter a
li%eti#e o% e>ploring and adoring #ushroo#s$ he had dis-ov=
ered the greatest )onder o% all in that re#ote ,ndian village
Ais e>perien-e inspired hi# to )rite an a--ount o% his 9ourne!
%or the GGreat AdventuresG series in Li+e #aga.ine "he stor!$
spread a-ross 17 pages o% te>t and -olor photographs$ )as
MUSHROOMS TO COUNTERCULTURE ''$
-alled GSeeking the 5agi- 5ushroo#L A (e) *ork banker goes
to 5e>i-o?s #ountains to parti-ipate in the age=old rituals o%
,ndians )ho -he) strange gro)ths that produ-e visionsG ,n
10@7$ be%ore the Dussian s,2-"i6 shook A#eri-a later that
!ear$ Li+e introdu-ed its #illions o% readers to the #!steries o%
hallu-inogens$ )ith a tone o% glo)ing but digni%ied respe-t
Wasson )rote #ovingl! o% his long sear-h %or #ushroo# lore$
and he be-a#e positivel! rhapsodi- in re%le-ting on his 5e>i=
-an GtripGL
,n #an?s evolutionar! past$ as he groped his )a! out %ro# his
lo)l! past$ there #ust have -o#e a #o#ent in ti#e )hen he
dis-overed the se-ret o% the hallu-inator! #ushroo#s "heir
e%%e-t on hi#$ as , see it$ -ould onl! have been pro%ound$ a detona=
tor to ne) ideas For the #ushroo#s revealed to hi# )orlds
be!ond the hori.ons kno)n to hi#$ in spa-e and ti#e$ even
)orlds on a di%%erent plane o% being$ a heaven and perhaps a hell
For the -redulous$ pri#itive #ind$ the #ushroo#s #ust have
rein%or-ed #ightil! the idea o% the #ira-ulous 5an! e#otions
are shared b! #en )ith the ani#al kingdo#$ but a)e and rever=
en-e and the %ear o% God are pe-uliar to #en When )e bear in
#ind the beati%i- sense o% a)e and e-stas! and !a.i-as engen=
dered b! the divine #ushroo#s$ one is e#boldened to the point
o% asking )hether the! #a! not have planted in pri#itive #an
the ver! idea o% God
"he arti-le -aused a sensation in the United States$ )here
people had alread! been a)akened to ideas like these b! Al=
dous Au>le!?s T3e Doo.s o+ 5e.!e,-io"8 ,t lured )aves o% re=
spe-table adultsMpre-ursors o% later hippie travelersMto
5e>i-o in sear-h o% their o)n !2.a"de.as8 CWasson -a#e to
have #i>ed %eelings about the response to his stor!$ a%ter
several tin! 5e>i-an villages )ere all but tra#pled b!
A#eri-an tourists on the pro)l %or divinit!E One person
)hose -uriosit! )as sti#ulated b! the arti-le )as a !oung
ps!-holog! pro%essor na#ed "i#oth! Lear! ,n 10@0$ in
5e>i-o on va-ation$ he ate his %irst #ushroo#s Ae re-alls
he Ghad no idea it )as going to -hange #! li%eG Lear! had
9ust been pro#ised tenure at Aarvard$ but his li%e o% -onven=
tional prestige lost appeal %or hi# )ithin %ive hours o% s)al=
lo)ing the #ushroo#L G"he revelation had -o#e "he veil
had been pulled ba-k "he propheti- -all "he )orks
God had spokenG
''% INTELLIGENCE OR 7WITCHES 5OTIONS7
Aaving responded to a Li+e arti-le about an e>pedition that
)as partiall! %unded b! the +,A$ Lear! returned to a Aarvard
-a#pus )here students and pro%essors had %or !ears served as
sub9e-ts %or +,A= and #ilitar!=%unded LSD e>peri#ents Ais
-areer as a drug prophet la! be%ore hi# Soon he )ould be
Buoting in his o)n 9a0as2-.a %ro# the +,A?s -ontra-tor Aar=
old Abra#son and others$ brought together %or s-holarl! drug
-on%eren-es b! the so#eti#e Agen-! -onduit$ the 5a-! Foun=
dation
With LSD$ as )ith #ushroo#s$ the #en %ro# 5;UL"DA
re#ained oblivious$ %or the #ost part$ to the rebellious e%%e-t o%
the drug -ulture in the United States G, don?t think )e )ere
pa!ing an! attention to it$G re-alls a "SS o%%i-ial "he +,A?s
s-ientists looked at drugs %ro# a di%%erent perspe-tive and )ent
on tr!ing to %ashion their sp! arsenal "hrough the entire 10<6s
and into the 1076s$ the Agen-! )ould s-our Latin A#eri-a %or
poisonous and nar-oti- plantsP :arlier$ "SS o%%i-ials and -on=
tra-tors a-tuall! kept spreading the #agi- tou-h o% drugs b!
%orever pressing ne) universit! resear-hers into the %ield Bos=
ton Ps!-hopathi-?s 5a> Dinkel stirred up the interest o%
Do-hester?s Aarold Aodge and told hi# ho) to get a grant %ro#
the Agen-! -onduit$ the Ges-hi-kter Fund Aodge?s group
%ound a )a! to put a radioa-tive #arker into LSD$ and the
5;UL"DA -re) #ade sure that the spe-iall! treated sub=
stan-e %ound its )a! to still #ore s-ientists When a -ontra-tor
like Aarold Abra#son spoke highl! o% the drug at a ne) -on%er=
en-e or se#inar$ tens or hundreds o% s-ientists$ health pro%es=
sionals$ and sub9e-tsMusuall! studentsM)ould )ind up tr!ing
LSD
One da! in 10@K$ Dalph Blu#$ a senior at Aarvard on his )a!
to a -areer as a su--ess%ul author$ heard %ro# a %riend that
do-tors at Boston Ps!-hopathi- )ould pa! S8@ to an!one )illing
to spend a da! as a happ! s-hi.ophreni- Blu# -ould not resist
Ae applied$ passed the s-reening pro-ess$ took a )hole batter!
o% We-hsler ps!-hologi-al tests$ and )as told to report ba-k on
a given #orning "hat da!$ he )as sho)n into a roo# )ith %ive
other Aarvard students Pro9e-t dire-tor Bob A!de 9oined the#
and stru-k Blu# as a reassuring %ather %igure So#eone
brought in a tra! )ith si> little glasses %ull o% )ater and LSD
"he students drank up For Blu#$ the drug did not take hold %or
PSee +hapter 18
MUSHROOMS TO COUNTERCULTURE ''&
about an hour and a hal%Mso#e)hat longer than the average
While A!de )as in the pro-ess o% intervie)ing hi#$ Blu# %elt
his #ind shi%t gears G, looked at the -lo-k on the )all and
thought ho) )ell behaved it )as ,t didn?t pa! attention to
itsel% ,t 9ust sta!ed on the )all and told ti#eG Blu# %elt that
he )as looking at ever!thing around hi# %ro# a ne) perspe-=
tive G,t )as a ver! subtle thing$G he sa!s G5! ego %ilter had
been prett! #u-h re#oved , turned into a ver! a--essible state
Ma--essible to #!sel% , kne) )hen so#eone )as l!ing to #e$
and the ri-hness o% the e>perien-e )as su-h that , didn?t )ant
to su%%er %ools gladl!G ")ent!=%our !ears later$ Blu# -on=
-ludesL G,t )as undeniabl! a ver! i#portant e>perien-e %or #e
,t #ade a di%%eren-e in #! li%e ,t began to #ove the log 9a# o%
#! old -ons-iousness *ou -an?t do it )ith 9ust one blast ,t )as
the beginning o% reali.ing it )as sa%e to love again Although
, )ouldn?t use the# until #u-h later$ it gave #e a ne) set o%
opti-s ,t let #e kno) there )as so#ething do)nstrea#GP
5an! student sub9e-ts like Blu# thought LSD trans%or#ed
the Bualit! o% their lives Others had no positive %eelings$ and
so#e )ould later use the negative #e#ories o% their trips to
invalidate the )hole drug -ulture and stoned thinking pro-ess
o% the 10<6s ,n a universit! -it! like Boston )here both the +,A
and the Ar#! )ere -arr!ing on large testing progra#s at hospi=
tals -onne-ted to Aarvard$ volunteering %or an LSD trip be-a#e
Buite popular in a-ade#i- -ir-les Si#ilar rea-tions$ although
probabl! not as pronoun-ed$ o--urred in other intelle-tual -en=
ters "he intelligen-e agen-ies turned to A#eri-a?s %inest uni=
versities and hospitals to tr! LSD$ )hi-h #eant that the -rea#
o% the -ountr!?s students and graduate assistants be-a#e the
test sub9e-ts
,n 10<0 the Bureau o% (ar-oti-s and Dangerous Drugs pub=
lished a %as-inating little stud! designed to -urb illegal LSD
PLin-oln +lark$ a ps!-hiatrist )ho tested LSD %or the Ar#! at 5assa-husetts
General Aospital$ re%le-ts a %airl! -o##on vie) a#ong LSD resear-hers )hen
he belittles drug=indu-ed thinking o% the sort des-ribed b! Blu# G:ver!bod!
)ho takes LSD has an in-redible e>perien-e that !ou -an look at as having
positive -hara-teristi-s , vie) it as pseudo=insight "his is part o% the usual
response o% intelle-tuall! pretentious peopleG On the other hand$ ps!-hiatrist
Sidne! +ohen$ )ho has )ritten an i#portant book on LSD$ noted that to e>peri=
en-e a visionar! trip$ Gthe devotee #ust have %aith in$ or at least be open to the
possibilit! o% the ?other state? Ae #ust ?let go$? not o%%er too #u-h resistan-e
to losing his personal identit! "he abilit! to surrender onesel% is probabl! the
#ost i#portant operation o% allG
')( INTELLIGENCE OR 7WITCHES 5OTIONS7
use "he authors )rote that the drug?s Gearl! use )as a#ong
s#all groups o% intelle-tuals at large :astern and West +oast
universities ,t spread to undergraduate students$ then to other
-a#puses 5ost o%ten$ users have been introdu-ed to the drug
b! persons o% higher status "ea-hers have in%luen-ed studentsF
upper-lass#en have in%luen-ed lo)er-lass#enG +alling this a
Gtri-kle=do)n pheno#enon$G the authors see# to have -or=
re-tl! anal!.ed ho) LSD got around the -ountr! "he! le%t out
onl! one vital ele#ent$ )hi-h the! had no )a! o% kno)ingL
"hat so#ebod! had to in%luen-e the tea-hers and that up there
at the top o% the LSD distribution s!ste# -ould be %ound the
#en o% 5;UL"DA
Aarold Abra#son apparentl! got a great ki-k out o% getting
his learned %riends high on LSD Ae %irst turned on Frank Fre=
#ont=S#ith$ head o% the 5a-! Foundation )hi-h passed +,A
#one! to Abra#son ,n this -o.! little )orld )here ever!one
kne) ever!bod!$ Fre#ont=S#ith organi.ed the -on%eren-es
that spread the )ord about LSD to the a-ade#i- hinterlands
Abra#son also gave Gregor! Bateson$ 5argaret 5ead?s %or#er
husband$ his %irst LSD ,n 10@0 Bateson$ in turn$ helped arrange
%or a beat poet %riend o% his na#ed Allen Ginsberg to take the
drug at a resear-h progra# lo-ated o%% the Stan%ord -a#pus (o
stranger to the hallu-inogeni- e%%e-ts o% pe!ote$ Ginsberg
rea-ted badl! to )hat he des-ribes as Gthe -losed little do-tor?s
roo# %ull o% instru#ents$G )here he took the drug Although he
)as allo)ed to listen to re-ords o% his -hoi-e Che -hose a Ger=
trude Stein reading$ a "ibetan #andala$ and WagnerE$ Gins=
berg %elt he G)as being -onne-ted to Big Brother?s brainG Ae
sa!s that the e>perien-e resulted in Ga slight paranoia that
hung on all #! a-id e>perien-es through the #id=10<6s until
, learned %ro# #editation ho) to disperse thatG
Anthropologist and philosopher Gregor! Bateson then
)orked at the Ieterans Ad#inistration Aospital in Palo Alto
Fro# 10@0 on$ Dr Leo Aollister )as testing LSD at that sa#e
hospital Aollister sa!s he entered the hallu-inogeni- %ield re=
lu-tantl! be-ause o% the Guns-ienti%i-G )ork o% the earl! LSD
resear-hers Ae re%ers spe-i%i-all! to #ost o% the people )ho
attended 5a-! -on%eren-es "hus$ hoping to i#prove on +,A=
and #ilitar!=%unded )ork$ Aollister tried drugs out on student
volunteers$ in-luding a -ertain ;en ;ese!$ in 10<6 ;ese! said
he )as a 9o-k )ho had onl! been drunk on-e be%ore$ but on
three su--essive "uesda!s$ he tried di%%erent ps!-hedeli-s GSi>
MUSHROOMS TO COUNTERCULTURE ')'
)eeks later ,?d bought #! %irst oun-e o% grass$G ;ese! later
)rote$ adding$ GSi> #onths later , had a 9ob at that hospital as
a ps!-hiatri- aideG Out o% that e>perien-e$ using drugs )hile
he )rote$ ;ese! turned out O"e F4ew OAe. -3e C2!6oo's Nes-8
Ae )ent on to be-o#e the -ounter-ulture?s se-ond #ost %a#ous
LSD visionar!$ spreading the -reed thoughout the land$ as "o#
Wol%e )ould -hroni-le in T3e E4e!-.i! 9oo4-Aid A!id Tes-8
+,A o%%i-ials never #eant that the likes o% Lear!$ ;ese!$ and
Ginsberg should be turned on *et these #en )ere$ and the!$
along )ith #an! o% the lesser=kno)n e>peri#ental sub9e-ts$
like Aarvard?s Dalph Blu#$ -reated the -li#ate )hereb! LSD
es-aped the govern#ent?s -ontrol and be-a#e available b! the
earl! si>ties on the bla-k #arket (o one at the Agen-! appar=
entl! %oresa) that !oung A#eri-ans )ould voluntaril! take the
drugM)hether %or -ons-iousness e>pansion or re-reational
purposes "he 5;UL"DA e>perts )ere #ainl! on a -ontrol
trip$ and the! proved in-apable o% gaining insight %ro# their
o)n LSD e>perien-es o% ho) others less %i>ated on #aking
people do their bidding )ould rea-t to the drug
,t )ould be an e>aggeration to put all the bla#e onMor give
all the -redit toMthe +,A %or the spread o% LSD One -annot
%orget the nature o% the ti#es$ the Iietna# War$ the breakdo)n
in authorit!$ and the )ide availabilit! o% other drugs$ espe-iall!
#ari9uana But the %a-t re#ains that LSD )as one o% the -ata=
l!sts o% the trau#ati- upheavals o% the 10<6s (o one -ould
enter the )orld o% ps!-hedeli-s )ithout %irst passing$ una=
)ares$ through doors opened b! the Agen-! ,t )ould be-o#e
a supre#e iron! that the +,A?s enor#ous sear-h %or )eapons
a#ong drugsM%ueled b! the hope that spies -ould$ like Dr
Frankenstein$ -ontrol li%e )ith genius and #a-hinesM)ould
)ind up helping to -reate the )andering$ un-ontrollable #inds
o% the -ounter-ulture
PART
iii
SPELLS-
ELECTRODES AND
H'PNOSIS
,t is possible that a -ertain a#ount o% brain
da#age is o% therapeuti- value
DR0 .A4L /OC/$ )*56
"he )hole histor! o% s-ienti%i- advan-e is
%ull o% s-ientists investigating pheno#ena
the establish#ent did not even believe
)ere there M5ADGAD:" 5:AD$
10<0

(RAINASHING
,n Septe#ber 10@6$ the
5ia#i News published
an arti-le b!
:d)ard Aunter titled G
?Brain=Washing? "a-ti-s
For-e +hinese
into Danks o% +o##unist
Part!G ,t )as the %irst
printed use in
an! language o% the ter#
Gbrain)ashing$G )hi-h
Bui-kl! be=
-a#e a sto-k phrase in
+old War headlines
Aunter$ a +,A
propaganda operator
)ho )orked under -over
as a 9ournalist$
turned out a stead!
strea# o% books and
arti-les on the sub9e-t
Ae #ade up his -oined
)ord %ro# the +hinese
3si-"aoMGto
-leanse the #indGM
)hi-h had no politi-al
#eaning in +hi=
nese
A#eri-an publi-
opinion rea-ted
strongl! to Aunter?s
ideas$ no doubt be-ause
o% the hostilit! that
prevailed to)ard
-o##unist %oes$ )hose
)a!s )ere per-eived as
#!sterious
and alien 5ost
A#eri-ans kne)
so#ething about the %a=
#ous trial o% the
Aungarian 4ose%
+ardinal 5inds.ent!$ at
)hi-h the +ardinal
appeared .o#bielike$ as
though drugged
or h!pnoti.ed Other
de%endants at Soviet
Gsho) trialsG had
CHAPTER
)
displa!ed si#ilar
s!#pto#s as the!
re-ited unbelievable
-on%essions in dull$
-li-he=ridden
#onotones A#eri-ans
)ere %a#iliar )ith the
idea that the
-o##unists had )a!s
to -ontrol hapless
people$ and Aunter?s
ne) )ord helped
pull together the
unsettling eviden-e into
one sharp %ear
"he brain)ashing
-ontrovers! intensi%ied
during the heav!
10@8 %ighting in ;orea$
)hen the +hinese
govern#ent
laun-hed a propaganda
o%%ensive that %eatured
re-orded
state#ents b! -aptured
US pilots$ )ho
G-on%essedG to a va=
') S5ELLSBELECTRODES AND HC5NOSIS
riet! o% )ar -ri#es in-luding the use o% ger# )ar%are
"he o%%i-ial A#eri-an position on prisoner -on%essions )as
that the! )ere %alse and %or-ed As e>pressed in an Air
For-e AeadBuarters do-u#ent$ G+on%essions -an be o% truth=
%ul details For purposes o% this se-tion$ ?-on%essions? are
-onsidered as being the %or-ed ad#ission to a lieG But i% the
#ilitar! had understandable reasons to gloss over the truth
or %alsit! o% the -on%essions$ this still did not address the %a-t
that -on%essions had been #ade at all (or did it la! to rest
the %ears o% those like :d)ard Aunter )ho sa) the -on%es=
sions as proo% that the -o##unists no) had te-hniBues Gto
put a #an?s #ind into a %og so that he )ill #istake )hat is
true %or )hat is untrue$ )hat is right %or )hat is )rong$ and
-o#e to believe )hat did not happen a-tuall! had happened$
until he ulti#atel! be-o#es a robot %or the +o##unist
#anipulatorG
B! the end o% the ;orean War$ 76 per-ent o% the 7$106 US
prisoners held in +hina had either #ade -on%essions or signed
petitions -alling %or an end to the A#eri-an )ar e%%ort in Asia
Fi%teen per-ent -ollaborated %ull! )ith the +hinese$ and onl! @
per-ent stead%astl! resisted "he A#eri-an per%or#an-e -on=
trasted poorl! )ith that o% the British$ Australian$ "urkish$ and
other United (ations prisonersMa#ong )ho# -ollaboration
)as rare$ even though studies sho)ed the! )ere treated about
as badl! as the A#eri-ans Worse$ an alar#ing nu#ber o% the
prisoners stu-k b! their -on%essions a%ter returning to the
United States "he! did not$ as e>pe-ted$ re-ant as soon as the!
stepped on US soil Pu..led and dis#a!ed b! this )holesale
-ollapse o% #orale a#ong the POWs$ A#eri-an opinion leaders
settled in on :d)ard Aunter?s e>planationL "he +hinese had
so#eho) brain)ashed our bo!s
But ho)O At the height o% the brain)ashing %uror$ -onserva=
tive spokes#en o%ten sei.ed upon the ver! #!ster! o% it all to
give a religious -ast to the politi-al debate All -o##unists
have been$ b! de%inition$ brain)ashed through satani- %or-es$
the! arguedMthereb! #aking the ene#! see# like robots -o#=
pletel! devoid o% ordinar! hu#an %eelings and #otivation Lib=
erals %avored a #ore s-ienti%i- vie) o% the proble# Given the
in-ontrovertible eviden-e that the Dussians and the +hinese
-ould$ in a ver! short ti#e and o%ten under di%%i-ult -ir-u#=
stan-es$ alter the basi- belie% and behavior patterns o% both
do#esti- and %oreign -aptives$ liberals argued that there #ust
DRAINWASHING ')$
be a te-hniBue involved that )ould !ield its se-rets under ob=
9e-tive investigation
+,A Dire-tor Allen Dulles %avored the s-ienti%i- approa-h$
although he naturall! en-ouraged his propaganda e>perts to
e>ploit the #ore e#otional interpretations o% brain)ashing
Dulles and the heads o% the other A#eri-an se-urit! agen-ies
be-a#e al#ost %ranti- in their e%%orts to %ind out #ore about the
Soviet and +hinese su--esses in #ind -ontrol Under pressure
%or ans)ers$ Dulles turned to Dr Aarold Wol%%$ a )orld=%a#ous
neurologist )ith )ho# he had developed an intensel! personal
relationship Wol%% )as then treating Dulles? o)n son %or brain
da#age su%%ered %ro# a ;orean War head )ound "ogether
the! shared the trau#a o% the !ounger Dulles? %its and #ental
lapses Wol%%$ a skinn! little do-tor )ith an overpo)ering per=
sonalit!$ be-a#e %ast %riends )ith the tall$ patri-ian +,A Dire-=
tor Dulles #a! have seen brain)ashing as an indu-ed %or# o%
brain da#age or #ental illness ,n an! -ase$ in late 10@7$ he
asked Wol%% to -ondu-t an o%%i-ial stud! o% -o##unist brain=
)ashing te-hniBues %or the +,A Wol%%$ )ho had be-o#e %as=
-inated b! the Dire-tor?s tales o% the -landestine )orld$ eagerl!
a--epted
Aarold Wol%% )as kno)n pri#aril! as an e>pert on #igraine
heada-hes and pain$ but he had served on enough #ilitar! and
intelligen-e advisor! panels that he kne) ho) to pi-k up
Dulles? #andate and e>pand on it Ae %or#ed a )orking part=
nership )ith La)ren-e Ainkle$ his -olleague at +ornell Uni=
versit! 5edi-al +ollege in (e) *ork +it! Ainkle handled the
ad#inistrative part o% the stud! and shared in the substan-e
Be%ore going ahead$ the t)o do-tors #ade sure the! had the
approval o% +ornell?s president$ Deane W 5alott and other
high universit! o%%i-ials )ho -he-ked )ith their -onta-ts in
Washington to #ake sure the pro9e-t did indeed have the great
i#portan-e that Allen Dulles stated Ainkle re-alls a ke! White
Aouse aide urging +ornell to -ooperate "he universit! ad=
#inistration agreed$ and soon Wol%% and Ainkle )ere poring
over the Agen-!?s -lassi%ied %iles on brain)ashing +,A o%%i-ials
also helped arrange intervie)s )ith %or#er -o##unist inter=
rogators and prisoners alike G,t )as done )ith great se-re-!$G
re-alls Ainkle GWe )ent through a great deal o% hoop=de=do
and signed se-re-! agree#ents$ )hi-h ever!one took ver! seri=
ousl!G
')% S5ELLSBELECTRODES AND HC5NOSIS
"he tea# o% Wol%% and Ainkle be-a#e the -hie% brain)ashing
studiers %or the US govern#ent$ although the Air For-e and
Ar#! ran parallel progra#sP "heir se-ret report to Allen
Dulles$ later published in a de-lassi%ied version$ )as -onsid=
ered the de%initive US Govern#ent )ork on the sub9e-t ,n
%a-t$ i% allo)an-es are #ade %or the +old War rhetori- o% the
%i%ties$ the Wol%%=Ainkle report still re#ains one o% the better
a--ounts o% the #assive politi-al re=edu-ation progra#s in
+hina and the Soviet Union ,t stated %latl! that neither the
Soviets nor the +hinese had an! #agi-al )eaponsMno drugs$
e>oti- #ental ra!=guns$ or other %an-i%ul #a-hines ,nstead$
the report pi-tured -o##unist interrogation #ethods resting
on skill%ul$ i% brutal$ appli-ation o% poli-e #ethods ,ts portrait
o% the Soviet s!ste# anti-ipates$ in dr! and s-holarl! %or#$ the
)ork o% novelist Ale>ander Sol.henit.!n in T3e G24a/ A.-
!3i,e4a/o8 Ainkie and Wol%% sho)ed that the Soviet te-hniBue
rested on the -u#ulative )eight o% intense ps!-hologi-al pres=
sure and hu#an )eakness$ and this thesis alone earned the t)o
+ornell do-tors the en#it! o% the #ore right=)ing +,A o%%i-ials
su-h as :d)ard Aunter Several o% his %or#er a-Buaintan-es
re#e#ber that Aunter )as %ond o% sa!ing that the Soviets
brain)ashed people the )a! Pavlov had -onditioned dogs
,n spite o% so#e dissenters like Aunter$ the Wol%%=Ainkle
#odel be-a#e$ )ith later re%ine#ents$ the best available de=
s-ription o% e>tre#e %or#s o% politi-al indo-trination A--ord=
ing to the general -onsensus$ the Soviets started a ne) prisoner
o%% b! putting hi# in solitar! -on%ine#ent A rotating -orps o%
guards )at-hed hi# -onstantl!$ hu#iliating and de#eaning
hi# at ever! opportunit! and #aking it -lear he )as totall! -ut
o%% %ro# all outside support "he guards ordered hi# to stand
%or long periods$ let hi# sit$ told hi# e>a-tl! the position he
-ould take to lie do)n$ and )oke hi# i% he #oved in the slight=
est )hile sleeping "he! banned all outside sti#uliMbooks$
-onversation$ or ne)s o% the )orld
A%ter %our to si> )eeks o% this #ind=deadening routine$ the
prisoner usuall! %ound the stress unbearable and broke do)n
GAe )eeps$ he #utters$ and pra!s aloud in his -ell$G )rote Ain=
kle and Wol%% When the prisoner rea-hed this stage$ the inter=
PA#ong the Air For-e and Ar#! pro9e-t leaders )ere Dr Fred Willia#s o% the
Air For-e Ps!-hologi-al War%are Division$ Dobert 4a! Li%ton$ :dgar S-hein$
Albert Blder#an$ and Lieutenant +olonel 4a#es 5onroe Can Air For-e o%%i-er
)ho )ould later go to )ork %ull ti#e in +,A behavioral progra#sE
DRAINWASHING ')&
rogation began (ight a%ter night$ the guards brought hi# into
a spe-ial roo# to %a-e the interrogator Far %ro# -on%ronting
his -aptive )ith spe-i%i- #isdeeds$ the interrogator told hi#
that he kne) his o)n -ri#esMall too )ell ,n the #ost harro)=
ing ;a%kaesBue )a!$ the prisoner tried to prove his inno-en-e
to he kne) not )hat "ogether the interrogator and prisoner
revie)ed the prisoner?s li%e in detail "he interrogator sei.ed
on an! in-onsisten-!Mno #atter ho) #inuteMas %urther evi=
den-e o% guilt$ and he laughed at the prisoner?s e%%orts to 9usti%!
hi#sel% But at least the prisoner )as getting a response o%
so#e sort "he long )eeks o% isolation and un-ertaint! had
#ade hi# grate%ul %or hu#an -onta-tMeven grate%ul that his
-ase )as #oving to)ard resolution "rue$ it #oved onl! as %ast
as he )as )illing to in-ri#inate hi#sel%$ but Graduall!$ he
-a#e to see that he and his interrogator )ere )orking to)ard
the sa#e goal o% )rapping up his -ase ,n tande#$ the! ran=
sa-ked his soul "he interrogator )ould periodi-all! let up the
pressure Ae o%%ered a -igarette$ had a %riendl! -hat$ e>plained
he had a 9ob to doM#aking it all the #ore disappointing the
ne>t ti#e he had to tell the prisoner that his -on%ession )as
unsatis%a-tor!
As the -harges against hi# began to take shape$ the prisoner
reali.ed that he -ould end his ordeal onl! )ith a %ull -on%es=
sion Other)ise the grueling sessions )ould go on %orever G"he
regi#en o% pressure has -reated an overalldis-o#%ort )hi-h
is )ell nigh intolerable$G )rote Ainkle and Wol%% G"he pris=
oner invariabl! %eels that ?so#ething #ust be done to end this?
Ae #ust %ind a )a! outG A %or#er ;GB o%%i-er$ one o% #an!
%or#er interrogators and prisoners intervie)ed %or the +,A
stud!$ said that #ore than 00 per-ent o% all prisoners signed a
-on%ession at this stage
,n the Soviet s!ste# under Stalin$ these -on%essions )ere the
%inal step o% the interrogation pro-ess$ and the prisoners usu=
all! )ere shot or sent to a labor -a#p a%ter senten-ing "oda!$
Dussian leaders see# #u-h less insistent on e>a-ting -on%es=
sions be%ore 9ailing their %oes$ but the! still use the penal Cand
#ental healthE s!ste# to re#ove %ro# the population -lasses o%
people hostile to their rule
"he +hinese took on the #ore a#bitious task o% re=edu-ating
their prisoners For the#$ -on%ession )as onl! the beginning
(e>t$ the +hinese authorities #oved the prisoner into a group
-ell )here his indo-trination began Fro# #orning to night$ he
'*( S5ELLSBELECTRODES AND HC5NOSIS
and his %ello) prisoners studied 5ar> and 5ao$ listened to
le-tures$ and engaged in sel%=-riti-is# Sin-e the progress o%
ea-h #e#ber depended on that o% his -ell#ates$ the group
poun-ed on the slightest #is-ondu-t as an indi-ation o% ba-ksl=
iding Prisoners de#onstrated the .eal o% their -o##it#ent b!
%ero-iousl! atta-king deviations +onstant inti#a-! )ith peo=
ple )ho reviled hi# pushed the resistant prisoner to the li#its
o% his e#otional enduran-e Ainkle and Wol%% %ound that G"he
prisoner #ust -on%or# to the de#ands o% the group sooner or
later$G As the prisoner developed genuine -hanges o% attitude$
pressure on hi# rela>ed Ais -ell#ates re)arded hi# )ith
in-reasing a--eptan-e and estee# "heir a--eptan-e$ in turn$
rein%or-ed his -o##it#ent to the Part!$ %or he learned that
onl! this -o##it#ent allo)ed hi# to live su--ess%ull! in the
-ell ,n #an! -ases$ this pro-ess produ-ed an e>ultant sense o%
#ission in the prisonerMa %eeling o% having %inall! straight=
ened out his li%e and -o#e to the truth "o be sure$ this e>peri=
en-e$ )hi-h )as not so di%%erent %ro# religious -onversion$ did
not o--ur in all -ases or al)a!s last a%ter the prisoner returned
to a so-ial group that did not rein%or-e it
Fro# the %irst preli#inar! studies o% Wol%% and Ainkle$ the
US intelligen-e -o##unit! #oved to)ard the -on-lusion that
neither the +hinese nor the Dussians #ade appre-iable use o%
drugs or h!pnosis$ and the! -ertainl! did not possess the brain=
)ashing eBuivalent o% the ato#i- bo#b Cas #an! %earedE 5ost
o% their te-hniBues )ere rooted in age=old #ethods$ and +,A
brain)ashing resear-hers like ps!-hologist 4ohn Gittinger
%ound the#selves poring over an-ient do-u#ents on the Span=
ish ,nBuisition Further#ore$ the -o##unists used no ps!-hia=
trists or other behavioral s-ientists to devise their interrogation
s!ste# "he di%%eren-es bet)een the Soviet and +hinese s!s=
te#s see#ed to gro) out o% their respe-tive national -ultures
"he Soviet brain)ashing s!ste# rese#bled a heav!=handed
-op )hose 9ob )as to isolate$ break$ and then subdue all the
trouble#akers in the neighborhood "he +hinese s!ste# )as
#ortF like thousands o% skilled a-upun-turists$ )orking on ea-h
other and rel!ing on group pressure$ ideolog!$ and repetition
"o understand %urther the Soviet or +hinese -ontrol s!ste#s$
one had to plunge into the subtle #!steries o% national and
individual -hara-ter
While +,A resear-hers looked into those Buestions$ the #ain
thrust o% the Agen-!?s brain)ashing studies veered o%% in a
DRAINWASHING '*'
di%%erent dire-tion "he logi- behind the s)it-h )as %a#iliar in
the intelligen-e business 4ust be-ause the Soviets and the +hi=
nese had not invented a brain)ashing #a-hine$ o%%i-ials rea=
soned$ there )as no reason to assu#e that the task )as i#possi=
ble ,% su-h a #a-hine )ere even re#otel! %easible$ one had to
assu#e the -o##unists #ight dis-over it And in that -ase$
national se-urit! reBuired that the United States invent the
#a-hine %irst "here%ore$ the +,A built up its o)n elaborate
brain)ashing progra#$ )hi-h$ like the Soviet and +hinese ver=
sions$ took its o)n spe-ial t)ist %ro# o2. national -hara-ter ,t
)as a tin! repli-a o% the 5anhattan Pro9e-t$ grounded in the
-onvi-tion that the ke!s to brain)ashing la! in te-hnolog!
Agen-! o%%i-ials hoped to use old=%ashioned A#eri-an kno)=
ho) to produ-e short-uts and s-ienti%i- breakthroughs ,nstead
o% turning to tough -ops$ )hose #ethods repelled A#eri-an
sensibilities$ or the gurus o% #ass #otivation$ )hose ideolog!
A#eri-ans la-ked$ the Agen-!?s brain)ashing e>perts gravi=
tated to people #ore in the #old o% the brilliantMand so#e=
ti#es #adMs-ientist$ obsessed b! the )onders o% the brain
,n 10@7 +,A Dire-tor Allen Dulles #ade a rare publi- state=
#ent on -o##unist brain)ashingL GWe in the West are so#e=
)hat handi-apped in getting all the details$G Dulles de-lared
G"here are %e) survivors$ and )e have no hu#an guinea pigs
to tr! these e>traordinar! te-hniBuesG :ven as Dulles spoke$
ho)ever$ +,A o%%i-ials a-ting under his orders had begun to %ind
the s-ientists and the guinea pigs So#e o% their e>peri#ents
)ould )ander so %ar a-ross the ethi-al borders o% e>peri#ental
ps!-hiatr! C)hi-h are ha.! in their o)n rightE that Agen-!
o%%i-ials thought it prudent to have #u-h o% the )ork done
outside the United States
+all her Lauren G For 10 !ears$ her #ind has been blank about
her e>perien-e She re#e#bers her husband?s driving her up
to the old gra! stone #ansion that housed the hospital$ Allan
5e#orial ,nstitute$ and putting her in the -are o% its dire-tor$
Dr D :)en +a#eron "he ne>t thing she re-alls happened
three )eeks laterL
"he! gave #e a dressing go)n ,t )as )a! too big$ and , )as
tripping all over it , )as #ad , asked )h! did , have to go round
in this slopp! thing , -ould hardl! #ove be-ause , )as prett!
)eak , re#e#ber tr!ing to )alk along the hall$ and the )alls
'*) S5ELLSBELECTRODES AND HC5NOSIS
)ere all slanted ,t )as then that , said$ GAol! S#okes$ )hat a
ghastl! thingG , re#e#ber running out the door and going up
the #ountain in #! long dressing go)n
"he #ountain$ na#ed Mo"- Roya41 loo#ed high above 5ont=
real She stu#bled and staggered as she tried to -li#b higher
and higher Aospital sta%% #e#bers had no trouble -at-hing
her and dragging her ba-k to the ,nstitute ,n short order$ the!
shot her %ull o% sedatives$ atta-hed ele-trodes to her te#ples$
and gave her a dose o% ele-trosho-k Soon she slept like a bab!
Graduall!$ over the ne>t %e) )eeks$ Lauren G began to %un-=
tion like a nor#al person again She took basket=)eaving ther=
ap! and pla!ed bridge )ith her %ello) patients "he hospital
released her$ and she returned to her husband in another +ana=
dian -it!
Be%ore her #ental -ollapse in 10@0$ Lauren G see#ed to have
ever!thing going %or her A re%ined$ gla#orous horse)o#an o%
76$ )ho# people o%ten said looked like :li.abeth "a!lor$ she
had auditioned %or the lead in Na-io"a4 :e4Ae- at 17 and #ar=
ried the ri-h bo! ne>t door at 86 But she had never loved her
husband and had let her do#ineering #other push her into his
ar#s Ae drank heavil! G, )as reall! unhapp!$G she re-alls G,
had a horrible #arriage$ and %inall! , had a nervous break=
do)n ,t )as a -o#bination o% #! tr!ing to lose )eight$ sleep
loss$ and #! nervesG
"he %a#il! do-tor re-o##ended that her husband send her
to Dr +a#eron$ )hi-h see#ed like a logi-al thing to do$ -onsid=
ering his )ide %a#e as a ps!-hiatrist Ae had headed Allan
5e#orial sin-e 10K7$ )hen the Do-ke%eller Foundation had
donated %unds to set up a ps!-hiatri- %a-ilit! at 5-Gill Univer=
sit! With -ontinuing help %ro# the Do-ke%ellers$ 5-Gill had
built a hospital kno)n %ar be!ond +anada?s borders as innova=
tive and e>-iting +a#eron )as ele-ted president o% the A#eri=
-an Ps!-hiatri- Asso-iation in 10@7$ and he be-a#e the %irst
president o% the World Ps!-hiatri- Asso-iation Ais %riends
9oked that the! had run out o% honors to give hi#
+a#eron?s passion la! in the #ore Gob9e-tiveG %or#s o% ther=
ap!$ )ith )hi-h he -ould #ore easil! and s)i%tl! bring about
i#prove#ents in patients than )ith the notoriousl! slo)
Freudian #ethods An i#patient #an$ he drea#ed o% %inding
a -ure %or s-hi.ophrenia (o one -ould tell hi# he )as not on
the right tra-k +a#eron?s supporter at the Do-ke%eller Foun=
dation$ Dobert 5orrison$ re-orded in his private papers that he
%ound the ps!-hiatrist tense and ill=at=ease$ and 5orrison ven=
tured that this #a! a--ount %or Ghis la-k o% interest and e%%e-=
tiveness in ps!-hotherap! and %ailure to establish )ar# per=
sonal relations )ith %a-ult! #e#bers$ both o% )hi-h )ere
#entioned repeatedl! )hen , visited 5ontrealG Another Do-k=
e%eller observer noted that +a#eron Gappears to su%%er %ro#
deep inse-urit! and has a need %or po)er )hi-h he nourishes
b! #aintaining an e>traordinar! aloo%ness %ro# his asso-i=
atesG
When Lauren G?s husband delivered her to +a#eron$ the
ps!-hiatrist told hi# she )ould re-eive so#e ele-trosho-k$ a
standard treat#ent at the ti#e Besides that$ states her hus=
band$ G+a#eron )as not ver! -o##uni-ative$ but , didn?t
think she )as getting an!thing out o% the ordinar!G "he
hus=
band had no )a! o% kno)ing that +a#eron )ould use an un=
proved e>peri#ental te-hniBue on his )i%eM#u-h less that
the
ps!-hiatrist intended to GdepatternG her (or did he reali.e
that the +,A )as supporting this )ork )ith about S10$666 a !ear
in se-ret %undsP
+a#eron de%ined GdepatterningG as breaking up e>isting
pat=
terns o% behavior$ both the nor#al and the s-hi.ophreni-$ b!
#eans o% parti-ularl! intensive ele-trosho-ks$ usuall! -o#=
bined )ith prolonged$ drug=indu-ed sleep Aere )as a
ps!-hia=
trist )illingMindeed$ eagerMto )ipe the hu#an #ind totall!
-lean Ba-k in 10@1$ AD",+AO;:?S 5orse Allen had likened
the pro-ess to G-reation o% a vegetableG +a#eron 9usti%ied this
-a#24a .asa approa-h be-ause he had a theor! o% Gdi%%erential
a#nesia$G %or )hi-h he provided no statisti-al eviden-e )hen
he published it Ae postulated that a%ter he produ-ed G-o#plete
a#nesiaG in a sub9e-t$ the person )ould eventuall! re-over
#e#or! o% his nor#al but not his s-hi.ophreni- behavior
"hus$ +a#eron -lai#ed he -ould generate Gdi%%erential a#ne=
siaG +reating su-h a state in )hi-h a #an )ho kne) too #u-h
-ould be #ade to %orget had long been a pri#e ob9e-tive o% the
AD",+AO;: and 5;UL"DA progra#s
(eedless to sa!$ Lauren G does not re-all a thing toda! about
those )eeks )hen +a#eron depatterned her A%ter)ard$ unlike
P+a#eron hi#sel% #a! not have kno)n that the Agen-! )as the ulti#ate
sour-e o% these %unds )hi-h -a#e through a -onduit$ the So-iet! %or the ,nvesti=
gation o% Au#an :-olog! A +,A do-u#ent stated he )as un)itting )hen the
grants started in 10@7$ and it -annot be said )hether he ever %ound out
'*4 S5ELLSBELECTRODES AND HC5NOSIS
over hal% o% the ps!-hiatrist?s depatterning patients$ Lauren G
graduall! re-overed %ull re-all o% her li%e be%ore the treat#ent$
but then$ she re#e#bered her #ental proble#s$ tooP Aer hus=
band sa!s she -a#e out o% the hospital #u-h i#proved She
de-lares the treat#ent had no e%%e-t one )a! or another on her
#ental -ondition$ )hi-h she believes resulted dire-tl! %ro#
her #iserable #arriage She stopped seeing +a#eron a%ter
about a #onth o% outpatient ele-trosho-k treat#ents$ )hi-h
she despised Aer relationship )ith her husband %urther
deteriorated$ and t)o !ears later she )alked out on hi# G, 9ust
got up on #! o)n hind legs$G she states G, said the hell )ith it
,?# going to do )hat , )ant and take -harge o% #! o)n li%e ,
le%t and started overG (o) divor-ed and re#arried$ she %eels
she has been happ! ever sin-e
+a#eron?s depatterning$ o% )hi-h Lauren G had a -o#para=
tivel! #ild version$ nor#all! started )ith 1@ to 76 da!s o%
Gsleep therap!G As the na#e i#plies$ the patient slept al#ost
the )hole da! and night A--ording to a do-tor at the hospital
)ho used to ad#inister )hat he -alls the Gsleep -o-ktail$G a
sta%% #e#ber )oke up the patient three ti#es a da! %or #edi-a=
tion that -onsisted o% a -o#bination o% 166 #g "hora.ine$ 166
#g (e#butal$ 166 #g Se-onal$ 1@6 #g Ieronal$ and 16 #g
Phenergan Another sta%% do-tor )ould also a)aken the patient
t)o or so#eti#es three ti#es dail! %or ele-trosho-k treat=
#entsX "his do-tor and his assistant )heeled a portable #a=
-hine into the Gsleep roo#G and gave the sub9e-t a lo-al anes=
theti- and #us-le rela>ant$ so as not to -ause da#age )ith the
-onvulsions that )ere to -o#e A%ter atta-hing ele-trodes
soaked in saline solution$ the attendant held the patient do)n
and the do-tor turned on the -urrent ,n standard$ pro%essional
ele-trosho-k$ do-tors gave the sub9e-t a single dose o% 116 volts$
lasting a %ra-tion o% a se-ond$ on-e a da! or ever! other da! B!
P+a#eron )rote that )hen a patient re#e#bered his s-hi.ophreni- s!#p=
to#s$ the s-hi.ophreni- behavior usuall! returned ,% the a#nesia held %or
these s!#pto#s$ as +a#eron -lai#ed it o%ten did$ the sub9e-t usuall! did not
have a relapse :ven in his G-uredG patients$ +a#eron %ound that Dors-ha-h
tests -ontinued to sho) s-hi.ophreni- thinking despite the i#prove#ent in
overt behavior "o a la!#an$ this )ould see# to indi-ate that +a#eron?s ap=
proa-h got onl! at the s!#pto#s$ not the -auses o% #ental proble#s (ot de=
terred$ ho)ever$ +a#eron dis#issed this in-onsisten-! as a Gpersistent
enig#aG
X+a#eron )rote in a pro%essional 9ournal that he gave onl! t)o ele-trosho-ks
a da!$ but a do-tor )ho a-tuall! ad#inistered the treat#ent %or hi# sa!s that
three )ere -o##on at the beginning o% the therap!
DRAINWASHING '*5
-ontrast$ +a#eron used a %or# 86 to K6 ti#es #ore intense$ t)o
or three ti#es dail!$ )ith the po)er turned up to 1@6 volts
(a#ed the GPage=DussellG #ethod a%ter its British originators$
this te-hniBue %eatured an initial one=se-ond sho-k$ )hi-h
-aused a #a9or -onvulsion$ and then %ive to nine additional
sho-ks in the #iddle o% the pri#ar! and %ollo)=on -onvulsions
:ven Drs Page and Dussell li#ited their treat#ent to on-e a
da!$ and the! al)a!s stopped as soon as their patient sho)ed
Gpronoun-ed -on%usionG and be-a#e G%ault! in habitsG +a#=
eron$ ho)ever$ )el-o#ed this kind o% i#pair#ent as a sign the
treat#ent )as taking e%%e-t and plo)ed ahead through his rou=
tine
"he %reBuent s-rea#s o% patients that e-hoed through the
hospital did not deter +a#eron or #ost o% his asso-iates in their
atte#pts to GdepatternG their sub9e-ts -o#pletel! Other hospi=
tal patients report being petri%ied b! the Gsleep roo#s$G )here
the treat#ent took pla-e$ and the! )ould usuall! -reep do)n
the opposite side o% the hall
+a#eron des-ribed this -o#bined sleep=ele-trosho-k treat=
#ent as lasting bet)een 1@ to 76 da!s$ )ith so#e sub9e-ts sta!=
ing in up to <@ da!s Cin )hi-h -ase$ he reported$ he a)akened
the# %or three da!s in the #iddleE So#eti#es$ as in the -ase
o% Lauren G$ patients )ould tr! to es-ape )hen the sedatives
)ore thin$ and the sta%% )ould have to -hase a%ter the# G,t )as
a tre#endous nursing 9ob 9ust to keep these people going dur=
ing the treat#ent$G re-alls a do-tor inti#atel! %a#iliar )ith
+a#eron?s operation "his do-tor paints a pi-ture o% da.ed pa=
tients$ in-apable o% taking -are o% the#selves$ o%ten groping
their )a! around the hospital and urinating on the %loor
+a#eron )rote that his t!pi-al depatterning patientMusu=
all! a )o#anM#oved through three distin-t stages ,n the %irst$
the sub9e-t lost #u-h o% her #e#or! *et she still kne) )here
she )as$ )h! she )as there$ and )ho the people )ere )ho
treated her ,n the se-ond phase$ she lost her Gspa-e=ti#e
i#age$G but still )anted to re#e#ber ,n %a-t$ not being able to
ans)er Buestions like$ GWhere a# ,OG and GAo) did , get hereOG
-aused her -onsiderable an>iet! ,n the third stage$ all that
an>iet! disappeared +a#eron des-ribed the state as Gan e>=
tre#el! interesting -onstri-tion o% the range o% re-olle-tions
)hi-h one ordinaril! brings in to #odi%! and enri-h one?s state=
#ents Aen-e$ )hat the patient talks about are onl! his sensa=
tions o% the #o#ent$ and he talks about the# al#ost e>-lu=
'* S5ELLSBELECTRODES AND HC5NOSIS
sivel! in highl! -on-rete ter#s Ais re#arks are entirel! unin=
%luen-ed b! previous re-olle-tionsMnor are the! governed in
an! )a! b! his %or)ard anti-ipations Ae lives in the i##edi=
ate present All s-hi.ophreni- s!#pto#s have disappeared
"here is -o#plete a#nesia %or all events in his li%eG
Lauren G and @8 other sub9e-ts at Allan 5e#orial re-eived
this level o% depatterning in 10@J and 10@0 +a#eron had al=
read! developed the te-hniBue )hen the +,A %unding started
"he Agen-! sent the ps!-hiatrist resear-h #one! to take the
treat#ent #eyo"d -3is ,oi"-8 Agen-! o%%i-ials )anted to kno)
i%$ on-e +a#eron had produ-ed the blank #ind$ he -ould then
progra# in ne) patterns o% behavior$ as he -lai#ed he -ould
As earl! as 10@7Mthe !ear he headed the A#eri-an Ps!-hiatri-
Asso-iationM+a#eron -on-eived a te-hniBue he -alled Gps!=
-hi- driving$G b! )hi-h he )ould bo#bard the sub9e-t )ith
repeated verbal #essages Fro# tape re-ordings based on in=
tervie)s )ith the patient$ he sele-ted e#otionall! loaded G-ue
state#entsGM%irst negative ones to get rid o% un)anted behav=
ior and then positive to -ondition in desired personalit! traits
On the negative side$ %or e>a#ple$ the patient )ould hear this
#essage as she la! in a stuporL
5adeleine$ !ou let !our #other and %ather treat !ou as a -hild all
through !our single li%e *ou let !our #other -he-k !ou up se>u=
all! a%ter ever! date !ou had )ith a bo! *ou hadn?t enough
deter#ination to tell her to stop it *ou never stood up %or !our=
sel% against !our #other or %ather but )ould run a)a! %ro#
trouble "he! used to -all !ou G-r!ing 5adeleineG (o) that
!ou have t)o -hildren$ !ou don?t see# to be able to #anage the#
and keep a good relationship )ith !our husband *ou are dri%ting
apart *ou don?t go out together *ou have not been able to keep
hi# interested se>uall!
Leonard Dubenstein$ +a#eron?s prin-ipal assistant$ )hose
entire salar! )as paid %ro# +,A=%ront %unds$ put the #essage
on a -ontinuous tape loop and pla!ed it %or 1< hours ever! da!
%or several )eeks An ele-troni-s te-hni-ian$ )ith no #edi-al
or ps!-hologi-al ba-kground$ Dubenstein$ an ele-tri-al )hi.$
designed a giant tape re-order that -ould pla! J loops %or J
patients at the sa#e ti#e +a#eron had the speakers installed
literall! under the pillo)s in the Gsleep roo#sG GWe #ade sure
the! heard it$G sa!s a do-tor )ho )orked )ith +a#eron With
DRAINWASHING '*$
so#e patients$ +a#eron intensi%ied the negative e%%e-t b! run=
ning )ires to their legs and sho-king the# at the end o% the
#essage
When +a#eron thought the negative Gps!-hi- drivingG had
gone %ar enough$ he s)it-hed the patient over to 8 to @ )eeks
o% positive tapesL
*ou #ean to get )ell "o do this !ou #ust let !our %eelings -o#e
out ,t is all right to e>press !our anger *ou )ant to stop !our
#other bossing !ou around Begin to assert !oursel% %irst in little
things and soon !ou )ill be able to #eet her on an eBual basis
*ou )ill then be %ree to be a )i%e and #other 9ust like other
)o#en
+a#eron )rote that ps!-hi- driving provided a )a! to #ake
Gdire-t$ -ontrolled -hanges in personalit!$G )ithout having to
resolve the sub9e-t?s -on%li-ts or #ake her relive past e>peri=
en-es As %ar as is kno)n$ no present=da! ps!-hologist or ps!=
-hiatrist a--epts this vie) Dr Donald Aebb$ )ho headed
5-Gill?s ps!-holog! depart#ent at the ti#e +a#eron )as in
-harge o% ps!-hiatr!$ #in-es no )ords )hen asked spe-i%i-all!
about ps!-hi- drivingL G"hat )as an a)%ul set o% ideas +a#=
eron )as )orking )ith ,t -alled %or no intelle-tual respe-t ,%
!ou a-tuall! look at )hat he )as doing and )hat he )rote$ it
)ould #ake !ou laugh ,% , had a graduate student )ho talked
like that$ ,?d thro) hi# outG War#ing to his sub9e-t$ Aebb
-ontinuesL GLook$ +a#eron )as no good as a resear-her Ae
)as e#inent be-ause o% politi-sG (obod! said su-h things at
the ti#e$ ho)ever +a#eron )as a ver! po)er%ul #an
"he S-ottish=born ps!-hiatrist$ )ho never lost the burr in his
voi-e$ kept sear-hing %or )a!s to per%e-t depatterning and ps!=
-hi- driving Ae held out to the +,A %rontMthe So-iet! %or the
,nvestigation o% Au#an :-olog!Mthat he -ould %ind #ore
rapid and less da#aging )a!s to Gbreak do)n behavior Ae sent
the So-iet! a proposal that -o#bined his t)o te-hniBues )ith
sensor! deprivation and strong drugs Ais s#orgasbord ap=
proa-h brought together virtuall! all possible te-hniBues o%
#ind -ontrol$ )hi-h he tested individuall! and together When
his Agen-! grant -a#e through in 10@7$ +a#eron began )ork
on sensor! deprivation
For several !ears$ Agen-! o%%i-ials had been interested in the
interrogation possibilities o% this te-hniBue that Aebb hi#sel%
'*% S5ELLSBELECTRODES AND HC5NOSIS
had pioneered at 5-Gill )ith +anadian de%ense and Do-ke%el=
ler #one! ,t -onsisted o% putting a sub9e-t in a sealed environ=
#entMa s#all roo# or even a large bo>Mand depriving hi# o%
all sensor! inputL e!es -overed )ith goggles$ ears either -overed
)ith #u%%s or e>posed to a -onstant$ #onotonous sound$ pad=
ding to prevent tou-hing$ no s#ellsM)ith this e#pt! regi#e
interrupted onl! b! #eal and bathroo# breaks ,n 10@@ 5orse
Allen o% AD",+AO;: #ade -onta-t at the (ational ,nstitutes
o% Aealth )ith Dr 5aitland Bald)in )ho had done a rather
grueso#e e>peri#ent in )hi-h an Ar#! volunteer had sta!ed
in the Gbo>G %or K6 hours until he ki-ked his )a! out a%ter$ in
Bald)in?s )ords$ Gan hour o% -r!ing loudl! and sobbing in a
#ost heartrending %ashionG "he e>peri#ent -onvin-ed Bald=
)in that the isolation te-hniBue -ould break an! #an$ no #at=
ter ho) intelligent or strong=)illed Aebb$ )ho unlike Bald)in
released his sub9e-ts )hen the! )anted$ had never le%t an!one
in Gthe bo>G %or #ore than si> da!s Bald)in told 5orse Allen
that be!ond that sensor! deprivation )ould al#ost -ertainl!
-ause irreparable da#age (evertheless$ Bald)in agreed that
i% the Agen-! -ould provide the -over and the sub9e-ts$ he
)ould do$ a--ording to Allen?s report$ Gter#inal t!peG e>peri=
#ents A%ter nu#erous #eetings inside the +,A on ho) and
)here to %und Bald)in$ an Agen-! #edi-al o%%i-er %inall! shot
do)n the pro9e-t as being Gi##oral and inhu#an$G suggesting
that those pushing the e>peri#ents #ight )ant to Gvolunteer
their heads %or use in Dr Bald)in?s ?noble? pro9e-tG
With +a#eron$ Agen-! o%%i-ials not onl! had a do-tor )illing
to per%or# ter#inal e>peri#ents in sensor! deprivation$ but
one )ith his o)n sour-e o% sub9e-ts As part o% his +,A=%unded
resear-h$ he had a Gbo>G built in the -onverted stables behind
the hospital that housed Leonard Dubenstein and his behav=
ioral laborator! Undaunted b! the li#its set in Aebb?s )ork$
+a#eron le%t one )o#an in %or 7@ da!s$ although he had so
s-ra#bled her #ind )ith his other te-hniBues that one -annot
sa!$ as Bald)in predi-ted to the Agen-!$ i% the prolonged depri=
vation did spe-i%i- da#age "his sub9e-t?s na#e )as 5ar! +$
and$ tr! as he #ight$ +a#eron -ould not get through to her As
the aloo% ps!-hiatrist )rote in his notesL GAlthough the patient
)as prepared b! both prolonged sensor! isolation C7@ da!sE and
b! repeated depatterning$ and although she re-eived 161 da!s
o% positive driving$ no %avorable results )ere obtainedGP Be=
%ore pres-ribing this treat#ent$ +a#eron had diagnosed the
DRAINWASHING '*&
@8=!ear=old 5ar! +L G+onversion rea-tion in a )o#an o% the
involuvional age )ith #ental an>iet!F h!po-hondriati-G ,n
other )ords$ 5ar! + )as going through #enopause
,n his proposal to the +,A %ront$ +a#eron also said he )ould
test -urare$ the South A#eri-an arro) poison )hi-h$ )hen
liberall! applied$ kills b! paral!.ing internal bod! %un-tions ,n
nonlethal doses$ -urare -auses a li#ited paral!sis )hi-h blo-ks
but does not stop these %un-tions A--ording to his papers$ so#e
o% )hi-h )ound up in the ar-hives o% the A#eri-an Ps!-hiatri-
Asso-iation$ +a#eron in9e-ted sub9e-ts )ith -urare in -on9un-=
tion )ith sensor! deprivation$ presu#abl! to i##obili.e the#
%urther
+a#eron also tested LSD in -o#bination )ith ps!-hi- driv=
ing and other te-hniBues ,n late 10@< and earl! 10@7$ one o% his
sub9e-ts )as Ial Orliko)$ )hose husband David has be-o#e a
#e#ber o% the +anadian parlia#ent Su%%ering %ro# )hat she
-alls a G-hara-ter neurosis that started )ith postpartu# de=
pression$G she entered Allan 5e#orial as one o% +a#eron?s
personal patients Ae soon put her under his version o% LSD
therap! One to %our ti#es a )eek$ he or another do-tor )ould
-o#e into her roo# and give her a shot o% LSD$ #i>ed )ith
either a sti#ulant or a depressant and then leave her alone
)ith a tape re-order that pla!ed e>-erpts %ro# her last session
)ith hi# As %ar as is kno)n$ no other LSD resear-her ever
sub9e-ted his patients to unsupervised tripsM-ertainl! not over
the -ourse o% t)o #onths )hen her hospital re-ords sho) she
)as given LSD 1K ti#es G,t )as terri%!ing$G 5rs Orliko) re=
-alls G*ou?re a%raid !ou?ve gone o%% so#e)here and -an?t -o#e
ba-kG She )as supposed to )rite do)n on a pad )hatever -a#e
into her head )hile listening to the tapes$ but o%ten she be-a#e
so %rightened that she -ould not )rite at all G*ou be-o#e ver!
s#all$G she sa!s$ as her voi-e Bui-kens and starts to re%le-t so#e
o% her horror G*ou?re going to %all o%% the step$ and God$ !ou?re
going do)n into hell be-ause it?s so %ar$ and !ou are so little
Like Ali-e$ )here is the pill that #akes !ou big$ and !ou?re a
sBuirrel$ and !ou -an?t get out o% the -age$ and so#ebod!?s going
P,n his proposal to the Au#an :-olog! group$ +a#eron )rote that his sub9e-ts
)ould be spending o"4y 1< hours a da! in sensor! deprivation$ )hile the!
listened to ps!-hi- driving tapes Cthus providing so#e outside sti#uliE (ever=
theless$ one o% +a#eron?s -olleagues states that so#e patients$ in-luding 5ar!
+ )ere in -ontinuousl! Al)a!s looking %or a better )a!$ +a#eron al#ost
-ertainl! tried both variations
'4( S5ELLSBELECTRODES AND HC5NOSIS
to kill !ouG "hen$ suddenl!$ 5rs Orliko) pulls out o% it and
lu-idl! states$ GSo#e ver! )eird things happenedG
5rs Orliko) hated the LSD treat#ent Several ti#es she told
+a#eron she )ould take no #ore$ and the ps!-hiatrist )ould
put his ar# around her and ask$ GLassie$G )hi-h he -alled all
his )o#en patients$ Gdon?t !ou )ant to get )ell$ so !ou -an go
ho#e and see !our husbandOG She re#e#bers %eeling guilt!
about not %ollo)ing the do-tor?s orders$ and the thought o%
disappointing +a#eron$ )ho# she idoli.ed$ -rushed her Fi=
nall!$ a%ter +a#eron talked her out o% Buitting the treat#ent
several ti#es$ she had to end it She le%t the hospital but sta!ed
under his private -are ,n 10<7 he put her ba-k in the hospital
%or #ore intensive ps!-hi- driving G, thought he )as God$G she
states G, don?t kno) ho) , -ould have been so stupid A lot
o% us )ere na?ive We thought ps!-hiatrists had the ans)ers
Aere )as the greatest in the )orld$ )ith all these titlesG
,n de%ense o% +a#eron$ a %or#er asso-iate sa!s the #an trul!
-ared about the )el%are o% his patients Ae )anted to #ake
the# )ell As his %or#er sta%% ps!-hologist )roteL
Ae abhorred the )aste o% hu#an potential$ seen #ost dra#ati=
-all! in the !oung people )hose #inds )ere distorted b! )hat
)as then -onsidered to be s-hi.ophrenia Ae %elt eBuall! strongl!
about the loss o% )isdo# in the aged through #e#or! #al%un-=
tion For hi#$ the end 9usti%ied the #eans$ and )hen one is deal=
ing )ith the )aste o% hu#an potential$ it is eas! to adopt this
stan-e
+a#eron retired abruptl! in 10<K$ %or une>plained reasons
Ais su--essor$ Dr Dobert +leghorn$ #ade a virtuall! unpre-e=
dented #ove in the a-ade#i- )orld o% #utual ba-k=s-rat-hing
and praise Ae -o##issioned a ps!-hiatrist and a ps!-hologist$
un-onne-ted to +a#eron$ to stud! his ele-trosho-k )ork "he!
%ound that <6 per-ent o% +a#eron?s depatterned patients -o#=
plained the! still had a#nesia %or the period < #onths to 16
!ears be%ore the therap!P "he! -ould %ind no -lini-al proo% that
sho)ed the treat#ent to be an! #ore or less e%%e-tive than
other approa-hes "he! -on-luded that Gthe in-iden-e o% ph!si=
P+leghorn?s tea# %ound little loss o% #e#or! on ob9e-tive tests$ like the
We-hsler 5e#or! S-ale but spe-ulated that these tests #easured a di%%erent
#e#or! %un-tionMshort=ter# re-allMthan that the sub9e-ts -lai#ed to be
#issing
DRAINWASHING '4'
-al -o#pli-ations and the an>iet! generated in the patient be=
-ause o% real or i#agined #e#or! di%%i-ult! argue againstG
%uture use o% the te-hniBue
"he stud!=tea# #e#bers -ou-hed their report in densel!
a-ade#i- 9argon$ but one o% the# speaks #ore -learl! no) Ae
talks bitterl! o% one o% +a#eron?s %or#er patients )ho needs to
keep a list o% her si#plest household -hores to re#e#ber ho)
to do the# "hen he repeats several ti#es ho) po)er%ul a #an
+a#eron )as$ ho) he )as Gthe god%ather o% +anadian ps!-hia=
tr!G Ae -ontinues$ G, probabl! shouldn?t talk about this$ but
+a#eronM%or hi# to do )hat he didMhe )as a ver! s-hi.o=
phreni- gu!$ )ho totall! deta-hed hi#sel% %ro# the hu#an
i#pli-ations o% his )ork God$ )e talk about -on-entration
-a#ps , don?t )ant to #ake this -o#parison$ but God$ !ou talk
about ?)e didn?t kno) it )as happening$? and it )asMright in
our ba-k !ardG
+a#eron died in 10<7$ at age <<$ )hile -li#bing a #ountain
"he A0e.i!a" =o2."a4 o+ 5sy!3ia-.y published a long and
glo)ing obituar! )ith a %ull=page pi-ture o% his not=unpleasant
%a-e
D :)en +a#eron did not need the +,A to -orrupt hi# Ae
-learl! had his #ind set on doing unorthodo> resear-h long
be%ore the Agen-! %ront started to %und hi# With his o)n
hospital and sour-e o% sub9e-ts$ he -ould have %ound else)here
en-ourage#ent and #one! to repla-e the +,A?s -ontribution$
)hi-h never e>-eeded S86$666 a !ear Ao)ever$ Agen-! o%%i=
-ials kne) e>a-tl! )hat the! )ere pa!ing %or "he! traveled
periodi-all! to 5ontreal to observe his )ork$ and his proposal
)as -hillingl! e>pli-it ,n +a#eron$ the! had a do-tor$ -onven=
ientl! outside the United States$ )illing to do ter#inal e>peri=
#ents in ele-trosho-k$ sensor! deprivation$ drug testing$ and
all o% the above -o#bined B! literall! )iping the #inds o% his
sub9e-ts -lean b! depatterning and then tr!ing to progra# in
ne) behavior$ +a#eron -arried the pro-ess kno)n as Gbrain=
)ashingG to its logi-al e>tre#e
,t -annot be said ho) #an!Mi% an!Mother Agen-! brain=
)ashing pro9e-ts rea-hed the e>tre#es o% +a#eron?s )ork De=
tails are s-ar-e$ sin-e #an! o% the prin-ipal )itnesses have
died$ )ill not talk about )hat )ent on$ or lie about it ,n )hat
)a!s the +,A applied )ork like +a#eron?s is not kno)n What
is kno)n$ ho)ever$ is that the intelligen-e -o##unit!$ in-lud=
ing the +,A$ -hanged the %a-e o% the s-ienti%i- -o##unit! dur=
'4) S5ELLSBELECTR ODES AND HC5NOSIS
ing the 10@6s and earl! 10<6s b! its interest in su-h e>peri=
#ents (earl! ever! s-ientist on the %rontiers o% brain resear-h
%ound #en %ro# the se-ret agen-ies looking over his shoulders$
i#pinging on the resear-h "he e>perien-e o% Dr 4ohn Lill!
illustrates ho) this intrusion -a#e about
,n 10@7 Lill! )orked at the (ational ,nstitutes o% Aealth$
outside Washington$ doing e>peri#ental studies in an e%%ort to
G#apG the bod! %un-tions -ontrolled %ro# various lo-ations in
the brain Ae devised a #ethod o% pounding up to <66 tin!
se-tions o% h!poder#i- tubing into the skulls o% #onke!s$
through )hi-h he -ould insert ele-trodes Ginto the brain to an!
desired distan-e and at an! desired lo-ation %ro# the -orte>
do)n to the botto# o% the skull$G he later )rote Using ele-tri-
sti#ulation$ Lill! dis-overed pre-ise -enters o% the #onke!s?
brains that -aused pain$ %ear$ an>iet!$ and anger Ae also dis=
-overed pre-ise$ separate parts o% the brain that -ontrolled
ere-tion$ e9a-ulation$ and orgas# in #ale #onke!s Lill! %ound
that a #onke!$ given a--ess to a s)it-h operating a -orre-tl!
planted ele-trode$ )ould re)ard hi#sel% )ith nearl! -ontinu=
ous orgas#sMat least on-e ever! 7 #inutesM%or up to 1< hours
a da!
As Lill! re%ined his brain G#aps$G o%%i-ials o% the +,A and
other agen-ies des-ended upon hi# )ith a reBuest %or a
brie%ing Aaving a phobia against se-re-!$ Lill! agreed to the
brie%ing onl! under the -ondition that it and his )ork re#ain
un-lassi%ied$ -o#pletel! open to outsiders "he intelligen-e o%%i=
-ials sub#itted to the -onditions #ost relu-tantl!$ sin-e the!
kne) that Lill!?s openness )ould not onl! ruin the sp! value o%
an!thing the! learned but -ould also reveal the identities and
the interests o% the intelligen-e o%%i-ials to ene#! agents "he!
-onsidered Lill! anno!ing$ un-ooperativeMpossibl! even sus=
pi-ious
Soon Lill! began to have trouble going to #eetings and -on=
%eren-es )ith his -olleagues As part o% the -ooperation )ith
the intelligen-e agen-ies$ #ost o% the# had agreed to have
their pro9e-ts o%%i-iall! -lassi%ied as S:+D:"$ )hi-h #eant that
a--ess to the in%or#ation reBuired a se-urit! -learan-eP Lill!?s
se-urit! -learan-e )as )ithdra)n %or revie)$ then tangled up
GLill! and other veterans o% govern#ent=supported resear-h note that there is
a pra-ti-al advantage %or the s-ientist )ho allo)s his )ork to be -lassi%iedL it
gives hi# an added -lai# on govern#ent %unds Ae is then in a position to
argue that i% his )ork is i#portant enough to be S:+D:"$ it deserves #one!
and #ispla-edMall o% )hi-h he took as pressure to -ooperate
)ith the +,A Lill!$ )hose i#agination needed no
sti#ulation
to -on9ure up pi-tures o% +,A agents on deadl! #issions )ith
re#ote=-ontrolled ele-trodes strategi-all! i#planted in their
brains$ de-ided to )ithdra) %ro# that %ield o% resear-h Ae sa!s
he had de-ided that the ph!si-al intrusion o% the ele-trodes did
too #u-h brain da#age %or hi# to tolerate
,n 10@K Lill! began tr!ing to isolate the operations o% the
brain$ %ree o% outside sti#ulation$ through sensor! deprivation
Ae )orked in an o%%i-e ne>t to Dr 5aitland Bald)in$ )ho the
%ollo)ing !ear agreed to per%or# ter#inal sensor! deprivation
e>peri#ents %or AD",+AO;:?S 5orse Allen but )ho never told
Lill! he )as )orking in the %ield While Bald)in e>peri#ented
)ith his sensor!=deprivation Gbo>$G Lill! invented a spe-ial
GtankG Sub9e-ts %loated in a tank o% bod!=te#perature )ater$
)earing a %a-e #ask that provided air but -ut o%% sight and
sound ,nevitabl!$ intelligen-e o%%i-ials s)ooped do)n on Lill!
again$ interested in the use o% his tank as an interrogation tool
+ould involuntar! sub9e-ts be pla-ed in the tank and broken
do)n to the point )here their belie% s!ste#s or personalities
-ould be alteredO
,t )as -entral to Lill!?s ethi- that he hi#sel% be the %irst
sub9e-t o% an! e>peri#ent$ and$ in the -ase o% the -ons-ious=
ness=e>ploring tank )ork$ he and one -olleague )ere the
o"4y
ones Lill! reali.ed that the intelligen-e agen-ies )ere not in=
terested in sensor! deprivation be-ause o% its positive bene%its$
and he %inall! -on-luded that it )as i#possible %or hi# to
)ork
at the (ational ,nstitutes o% Aealth )ithout -o#pro#ising his
prin-iples Ae Buit in 10@J
+ontrar! to #ost people?s intuitive e>pe-tations$ Lill! %ound
sensor! deprivation to be a pro%oundl! integrating e>perien-e
%or hi#sel% personall! Ae -onsidered hi#sel% to be a s-ientist
)ho sub9e-tivel! e>plored the %ar )anderings o% the brain ,n
a series o% private e>peri#ents$ he pushed hi#sel% into the
-o#plete unkno)n b! in9e-ting pure Sando. LSD into his thigh
be%ore -li#bing into the sensor!=deprivation tankP When the
PAs )as the -ase )ith LSD )ork$ sensor! deprivation resear-h had
both a #ind
-ontrol and a trans-endental side Aldous Au>le! )rote thusl!
about the t)o
pioneers in the %ieldL GWhat #en like Aebb and Lill! are doing in
the laborator!
)as done b! the +hristian her#its in the "hebaid and else)here$
and b! Aindu
and "ibetan her#its in the re#ote %astness o% the Ai#ala!as 5!
o)n belie%
is that these e>perien-es reall! tell us so#ething about the nature
o% the uni=
'44 S5ELLSBELECTRODES AND HC5NOSIS
-ounter-ulture sprang up$ Lill! be-a#e so#ething o% a -ult
%igure$ )ith his uniBue approa-h to s-ienti%i- inBuir!Mthough
he )as -onsidered #ore o% an out-ast b! #an! in the pro%es=
sional resear-h -o##unit!
For #ost o% the outside )orld$ Lill! be-a#e %a#ous )ith the
release o% the popular %il#$ T3e Day o+ -3e Do4,3i"1 )hi-h the
%il##akers a-kno)ledged )as based on Lill!?s )ork )ith dol=
phins a%ter he le%t (,A A-tor George + S-ott portra!ed a s-ien=
tist$ )ho$ like Lill!$ loved dolphins$ did pioneering e>peri#ents
on their intelligen-e$ and tried to %ind )a!s to -o##uni-ate
)ith the# ,n the #ovie$ S-ott be-a#e dis#a!ed )hen the
govern#ent poun-ed on his breakthrough in talking to dol=
phins and turned it i##ediatel! to the servi-e o% )ar ,n real
li%e$ Lill! )as si#ilarl! dis#a!ed )hen (av! and +,A s-ien=
tists trained dolphins %or spe-ial )ar%are in the )aters o%% Iiet=
na#P
A %e) s-ientists like Lill! #ade up their #inds not to -ross
-ertain ethi-al lines in their e>peri#ental )ork$ )hile others
)ere prepared to go %urther even than their sponsors %ro#
AD",+AO;: and 5;UL"DA Within the Agen-! itsel%$ there
)as onl! one %inal BuestionL Will a te-hniBue )orkO +,A o%%i=
-ials .ealousl! tra-ked ever! lead$ sparing no e>pense to -he-k
ea-h angle #an! ti#es over
B! the ti#e the 5;UL"DA progra# ended in 10<7$ Agen-!
resear-hers had %ound no %oolproo% )a! to brain)ash another
personX GAll e>peri#ents be!ond a -ertain point al)a!s
%ailed$G sa!s the 5;UL"DA veteran$ Gbe-ause the sub9e-t
9erked hi#sel% ba-k %or so#e reason or the sub9e-t got a#=
nesia- or -atatoni-G Agen-! o%%i-ials %ound through )ork like
verse$ that the! are valuable in the#selves and$ above all$ valuable )hen
in-orporated into our )orld=pi-ture and a-ted upon QinR nor#al li%eG
P,n a progra# -alled Gs)i##er nulli%i-ation$G govern#ent s-ientists trained
dolphins to atta-k ene#! %rog#en )ith huge needles atta-hed to their snouts
"he dolphins -arried tanks o% -o#pressed air$ )hi-h )hen 9abbed into a deep=
diver -aused hi# to pop dead to the sur%a-e A s-ientist )ho )orked in this
+,A=(av! progra# states that so#e o% the dolphins sent to Iietna# during the
late 10<6s got out o% their pens and disappearedMunheard o% behavior %or
trained dolphins 4ohn Lill! -on%ir#s that a group o% the #arine #a##als
stationed at +a# Danh Ba! did go AWOL$ and he adds that he heard that so#e
eventuall! returned )ith their bodies and %ins -overed )ith atta-k #arks #ade
b! other dolphins
XA%ter 10<7 the Agen-!?s S-ien-e and "e-hnolog! Dire-torate -ontinued brain
resear-h )ith unkno)n results See +hapter 18
+a#eron?s that the! -ould -reate Gvegetables$G but su-h
people
served no operational use People -ould be tortured into
sa!ing
an!thing$ but no s-ien-e -ould guarantee that the! )ould tell
the truth
"he i#poten-! o% brain)ashing te-hniBues le%t the
Agen-!
in a di%%i-ult spot )hen *uri (osenko de%e-ted to the United
States in Februar! 10<K A ranking o%%i-ial o% the Soviet ;GB$
(osenko brought )ith hi# stunning in%or#ation Ae said
the
Dussians had bugged the A#eri-an e#bass! in 5os-o)$
)hi-h
turned out to be true Ae na#ed so#e Dussian agents in the
West And he said that he had personall! inspe-ted the ;GB %ile
o% Lee Aarve! Os)ald$ )ho onl! a %e) #onths earlier had been
#urdered be%ore he -ould be brought to trial %or the assassina=
tion o% President ;enned! (osenko said he learned that the
;GB had had no interest in Os)ald
Was (osenko telling the truth$ or )as he a ;GB GplantG sent
to thro) the United States o%% tra-k about Os)aldO Was his
in%or#ation about penetration -orre-t$ or )as (osenko hi#sel%
the penetrationO Was he a-ting in good %aithO Were the #en
)ithin the +,A )ho believed he )as a-ting in good %aith the#=
selves a-ting in good %aithO "hese and a thousand other Bues=
tions #ade up the -lassi-al tri-k de-k %or spiesMea-h -ard
having GtrueG on one side and G%alseG on the other
"op +,A o%%i-ials %elt a desperate need to resolve the issue o%
(osenko?s legiti#a-! With nu#erous Agen-! -ounterintelli=
gen-e operations hanging in the balan-e$ Di-hard Ael#s$
%irst
as Deput! Dire-tor and then as Dire-tor$ allo)ed +,A operators
to )ork (osenko over )ith the interrogation #ethod in )hi-h
Ael#s apparentl! had the #ost %aith ,t turned out to be not an!
truth seru# or ele-trosho-k depatterning progra# or an!thing
else %ro# the Agen-!?s brain)ashing sear-h Ael#s had
(osenko put through the tried=and=true Soviet #ethodL
isolate
the prisoner$ deaden his senses$ break hi# For #ore than three
!earsM1$877 da!s$ to be e>a-tMAgen-! o%%i-ers kept (osenko in
solitar! -on%ine#ent As i% the! )ere using the Ainkle=Wol%%
stud! as their instru-tion #anual and the +ardinal 5inds.ent!
-ase as their su--ess stor!$ the +,A #en had guards )at-h over
(osenko da! and night$ giving hi# not a #o#ent o% priva-!
A light bulb burned -ontinuousl! in his -ell Ae )as allo)ed
nothing to readMnot even the labels on toothpaste bo>es When
he tried to distra-t hi#sel% b! #aking a -hess set %ro# pie-es
o% lint in his -ell$ the guards dis-overed his ga#e and s)ept the
'4 S5ELLSBELECTRODES AND HC5NOSIS
area -lean (osenko had no )indo)$ and he )as eventuall! put
in a spe-iall! built 18? > 18? steel bank vault
(osenko broke do)n Ae hallu-inated Ae talked his head o%%
to his interrogators$ )ho Buestioned hi# %or 808 da!s$ o%ten
)hile the! had hi# strapped into a lie dete-tor ,% he told the
truth$ the! did not believe hi# While the Soviets and +hinese
had sho)n that the! -ould #ake a #an ad#it an!thing$ the
+,A interrogators apparentl! la-ked a -lear idea o% e>a-tl!
)hat the! )anted (osenko to -on%ess When it )as all over and
Di-hard Ael#s ordered (osenko %reed a%ter three and a hal%
!ears o% illegal detention$ so#e ke! Agen-! o%%i-ers still be=
lieved he )as a ;GB plant Others thought he )as on the level
"hus the big Buestions re#ained unresolved$ and to this da!$
+,A #enMpast and presentMare bitterl! split over )ho
(osenko reall! is
With the (osenko -ase$ the +,A?s brain)ashing progra#s
had -o#e %ull -ir-le Spurred b! the )idespread alar# over
-o##unist ta-ti-s$ Agen-! o%%i-ials had investigated the %ield$
started their o)n pro9e-ts$ and looked to the latest te-hnolog!
to #ake i#prove#ents A%ter 16 !ears o% resear-h$ )ith so#e
rather grueso#e results$ +,A o%%i-ials had -o#e up )ith no
te-hniBues on )hi-h the! %elt the! -ould rel! "hus$ )hen the
operational -run-h -a#e$ the! %ell ba-k on the basi- brutalit!
o% the Soviet s!ste#
HUMAN ECOLOG'
Well be%ore Aarold Wol%%
and La)ren-e Ainkle
%inished their
brain)ashing stud! %or
Allen Dulles in 10@<$ Wol%%
)as tr!ing
to e>pand his role in +,A
resear-h and operations Ae
o%%ered
Agen-! o%%i-ials the
-ooperation o% his
-olleagues at +ornell
Universit!$ )here he taught
neurolog! and ps!-hiatr!
in the
5edi-al +ollege ,n proposal
a%ter proposal$ Wol%% pressed
upon
the +,A his idea that to
understand hu#an behavior
Mand ho)
govern#ents #ight
#anipulate itMone had to
stud! #an in
relationship to his total
environ#ent +alling this
%ield Ghu#an
e-olog!$G Wol%% dre) into it
the dis-iplines o%
ps!-holog!$ #edi=
-ine$ so-iolog!$ and
anthropolog! ,n the
a-ade#i- )orld o% the
earl! 10@6s$ this -ross=
dis-iplinar! approa-h )as
so#e)hat
ne)$ as )as the )ord
Ge-olog!$G but it #ade sense
to +,A o%%i=
-ials Like Wol%%$ the! )ere
%ar in advan-e o% the trends
in the
behavioral s-ien-es
Wol%% -arved out vast
tra-ts o% hu#an kno)ledge$
so#e onl!
%reshl! dis-overed$ and
proposed a partnership
)ith the
CHAPTER
*
Agen-! %or the task o%
#astering that kno)ledge
%or opera=
tional use ,t )as a ti#e
)hen kno)ledge itsel%
see#ed bounti=
%ul and pro#ising$ and Wol%%
)as e>pansive about ho)
the +,A
-ould harness it On-e he
%igured out ho) the hu#an
#ind
reall! )orked$ he )rote$ he
)ould tell the Agen-! Gho)
a #an
-an be #ade to think$ ?%eel$?
and behave a--ording to the
)ishes
o% other #en$ and$
-onversel!$ ho) a #an -an
avoid being
in%luen-ed in this #annerG
Su-h notions$ )hi-h #a!
no) appear naive or
perverse$ did
'4% S5ELLSBELECTRODES AND HC5NOSIS
not see# so unlikel! at the height o% the +old War And Wol%%Vs
pro%essional stature added )eight to his ideas Like D :)en
+a#eron$ he )as no obs-ure a-ade#i- Ae had been President
o% the (e) *ork (eurologi-al Asso-iation and )ould be-o#e$
in 10<6$ President o% the A#eri-an (eurologi-al Asso-iation
Ae served %or several !ears as editor=in=-hie% o% the A#eri-an
5edi-al Asso-iation?s A.!3iAes o+ Ne2.o4o/y a"d 5sy!3ia-.y8
Both b! -redentials and %or-e o% personalit!$ Wol%% )as an i#=
pressive %igure +,A o%%i-ials listened respe-t%ull! to his grand
vision o% ho) spies and do-tors -ould )ork s!#bioti-all! to
helpMi% not saveMthe )orld Also$ the Agen-! #en never %or=
got that Wol%% had be-o#e -lose to Dire-tor Allen Dulles )hile
treating Dulles? son %or brain da#age
Wol%%Vs spe-iali.ed neurologi-al pra-ti-e led hi# to believe
that brain #aladies$ like #igraine heada-hes$ o--urred be=
-ause o% dishar#on! bet)een #an and his environ#ent ,n
this -ase$ he )rote to the Agen-!$ G"he proble# %a-ed b! the
ph!si-ian is Buite si#ilar to that %a-ed b! the +o##unist inter=
rogatorG Both )ould be tr!ing to put their sub9e-t ba-k in har=
#on! )ith his environ#ent )hether the proble# )as head=
a-he or ideologi-al dissent Wol%% believed that the bene%i-ial
e%%e-ts o% an! ne) interrogation te-hniBue )ould naturall!
spill over into the treat#ent o% his patients$ and vi-e versa
Follo)ing the Soviet #odel$ he %elt he -ould help his patients
b! putting the# into an isolated$ disoriented stateM%ro# )hi-h
it )ould be easier to -reate ne) behavior patterns Although
Dussian=st!le isolation -ells )ere i#pra-ti-al at +ornell$ Wol%%
hoped to get the sa#e e%%e-t #ore Bui-kl! through sensor! dep=
rivation Ae told the Agen-! that sensor!=deprivation -ha#=
bers had Gvalid #edi-al reasonG as part o% a treat#ent that
relieved #igraine s!#pto#s and #ade the patient G#ore re=
-eptive to the suggestions o% the ps!-hotherapistG Ae proposed
keeping his patients in sensor! deprivation until the! Gsho) an
in-reased desire to talk and to es-ape %ro# the pro-edureG
"hen$ he said$ do-tors -ould Gutili.e #aterial %ro# their o)n
past e>perien-e in order to -reate ps!-hologi-al rea-tions
)ithin the#G "his pro-edure dre) heavil! on the Stalinist
#ethod ,t -annot be said )hat su--ess$ i% an!$ Wol%% had )ith
it to the bene%it o% his patients at +ornell
Wol%% o%%ered to devise )a!s to use the broadest -ultural and
so-ial pro-esses in hu#an e-olog! %or -overt operations Ae
understood that ever! -ountr! had uniBue -usto#s %or -hild
HUMAN ECOLOGC '4&
rearing$ #ilitar! training$ and nearl! ever! other %or# o%
hu#an inter-ourse Fro# the +,A?s point o% vie)$ he noted$ this
kind o% so-iologi-al in%or#ation -ould be applied #ainl! to
indo-trinating and #otivating people Ae distinguished these
#otivating te-hniBues %ro# the Gspe-ial #ethodsG that he %elt
)ere G#ore relevant to subversion$ sedu-tion$ and interroga=
tionG Ae o%%ered to stud! those #ethods$ too$ and asked the
Agen-! to give hi# a--ess to ever!thing in its %iles on Gthreats$
-oer-ion$ i#prison#ent$ isolation$ deprivation$ hu#iliation$
torture$ ?brain)ashing$? ?bla-k ps!-hiatr!$? h!pnosis$ and -o#=
binations o% these )ith or )ithout -he#i-al agentsG Be!ond
#ere stud!$ Wol%% volunteered the un)itting use o% +ornell pa=
tients %or brain)ashing e>peri#ents$ so long as no one got hurt
Ae added$ ho)ever$ that he )ould advise the +,A on e>peri=
#ents that har#ed their sub9e-ts i% the! )ere per%or#ed else=
)here Ae obviousl! %elt that onl! the grandest s)eep o% kno)l=
edge$ %lo)ing %reel! bet)een s-holar and sp!$ -ould bring the
best available te-hniBues to bear on their respe-tive sub9e-ts
,n 10@@ Wol%% in-orporated his +,A=%unded stud! group as the
So-iet! %or the ,nvestigation o% Au#an :-olog!$ )ith hi#sel%
as presidentP "hrough the So-iet!$ Wol%% e>tended his e%%orts
%or the Agen-!$ and his organi.ation turned into a +,A=-on=
trolled %unding #e-hanis# %or studies and e>peri#ents in the
behavioral s-ien-es
,n the earl! da!s o% the So-iet!$ Agen-! o%%i-ials trusted Wol%%
and his untried ideas )ith a sensitive espionage assign#ent ,n
e%%e-t$ the ne) spe-ialt! o% hu#an e-olog! )as going to tele=
s-ope the stages o% resear-h and appli-ation into one -ontinu=
ing pro-ess Speeding up the traditional a-ade#i- #ethod )as
reBuired be-ause the +,A #en %a-ed an urgent proble# GWhat
)as bothering the#$G La)ren-e Ainkle e>plains$ G)as that the
+hinese had -leaned up their agents in +hina What the!
reall! )anted to do )as -o#e up )ith so#e +hinese Qin A#er=
i-aR$ steer the# to us$ and #ake the# into agentsG Wol%% a-=
-epted the -hallenge and suggested that the +ornell group hide
its real purpose behind the -over o% investigating Gthe e-ologi=
-al aspe-ts o% diseaseG a#ong +hinese re%ugees "he Agen-!
gave the pro9e-t a budget o% SJK$17@ Cabout 76 per-ent o% the
P,n 10<1 the So-iet! -hanged its na#e to the Au#an :-olog! Fund$ but %or
-onvenien-e sake it )ill be -alled the So-iet! throughout the book
'5( S5ELLSBELECTRODES AND HC5NOSIS
#one! it put into +ornell in 10@@E and supplied the stud! group
)ith 166 +hinese re%ugees to )ork )ith (earl! all these sub=
9e-ts had been stud!ing in the United States )hen the -o##u=
nists took over the #ainland in 10K0$ so the! tended to be dis=
lo-ated people in their thirties
On the Agen-! side$ the #ain -on-ern$ as e>pressed b! one
AD",+AO;: #an$ )as the Gse-urit! ha.ardG o% bringing to=
gether so #an! potential agents in one pla-e (evertheless$ +,A
o%%i-ials de-ided to go ahead Wol%% pro#ised to tell the# about
the inner rea-hes o% the +hinese -hara-ter$ and the! re-og=
ni.ed the operational advantage that insight into +hinese be=
havior patterns -ould provide 5oreover$ Wol%% said he )ould
pi-k out the #ost use%ul possible agents "he Au#an :-olog!
So-iet! )ould then o%%er these -andidates G%ello)shipsG and
sub9e-t the# to #ore intensive intervie)s and Gstress produ-=
ingG situations "he idea )as to %ind out about their personali=
ties$ past -onditioning$ and present #otivations$ in order to
%igure out ho) the! #ight per%or# in %uture predi-a#entsM
su-h as %inding the#selves ba-k in 5ainland +hina as A#eri=
-an agents ,n the pro-ess$ Wol%% hoped to #old these +hinese
into people )illing to )ork %or the +,A 5ind%ul o% leaving
so#e -over %or +ornell$ he )as ada#ant that Agen-! operators
not -onne-ted )ith the pro9e-t #ake the a-tual re-ruit#ent
pit-h to those +hinese )ho# the Agen-! #en )anted as agents
As a %inal t)ist$ Wol%% planned to provide ea-h agent )ith
te-hniBues to )ithstand the pre-ise %or#s o% hostile interroga=
tion the! -ould e>pe-t upon returning to +hina +,A o%%i-ials
)anted to Gpre-onditionG the agents in order to -reate long=
lasting #otivation Gi#pervious to lapse o% ti#e and dire-t ps!=
-hologi-al atta-ks b! the ene#!G ,n other )ords$ Agen-! #en
planned to brain)ash their agents in order to prote-t the#
against +hinese brain)ashing
:ver!thing )as -overedMin theor!$ at least Wol%% )as going
to take a -re) o% 166 re%ugees and turn as #an! o% the# as
possible into dete-tion=proo%$ live agents inside +hina$ and he
planned to do the 9ob Bui-kl! through hu#an e-olog! ,t )as a
head! -hore %or the +ornell pro%essor to take on a%ter -lasses
Wol%% hired a %ull -o#ple#ent o% ps!-hologists$ ps!-hiatrists$
and anthropologists to )ork on the pro9e-t Ae bulldo.ed his
)a! through his -olleagues? Bual#s and govern#ent red tape
alike Aaving hired an anthropologist be%ore learning that the
+,A se-urit! o%%i-e )ould not give her a -learan-e$ Wol%% si#pl!
HUMAN ECOLOGC '5'
lied to her about )here the #one! -a#e %ro# G,t )as a %un-=
tion o% Wol%%Vs i#perious nature$G sa!s his partner Ainkle G,%
a dog -a#e in and thre) up on the rug during a le-ture$ he
)ould -ontinueG :ven the +,A #en soon %ound that Aarold
Wol%% )as not to be tri%led )ith GFro# the Agen-! side$ , don?t
kno) an!one )ho )asn?t s-ared o% hi#$G re-alls a longti#e
+,A asso-iate GAe )as an auto-rati- #an , never kne) hi# to
-he) an!one out Ae didn?t have to We )ere da#ned respe-t=
%ul Ae #oved in high pla-es Ae )as 9ust a skinn! little #an$
but talk about #ind -ontrolY Ae )as one o% the -ontrollersG
,n the na#e o% the Au#an :-olog! So-iet!$ the +,A paid
S1$866 a #onth to rent a %an-! to)n house on 5anhattan?s :ast
7Jth Street to house the +ornell group and its resear-h pro9e-ts
Agen-! te-hni-ians traveled to (e) *ork in De-e#ber 10@K to
install eavesdropping #i-rophones around the building "hese
and other #ore obvious se-urit! devi-esMsa%es$ guards$ and
the likeM#ade the to)n house look di%%erent %ro# the a-a=
de#i- -enter it )as supposed to be +,A liaison personnel held
#eetings )ith Wol%% and the sta%% in the se-ure -on%ines o% the
to)n house$ and the! all -are%ull! )at-hed the 166 +hinese a
%e) blo-ks a)a! at the +ornell hospital "he So-iet! paid ea-h
sub9e-t S8@ a da! so the resear-hers -ould test the#$ probe
the#$ and generall! learn all the! -ould about +hinese people
Mor at least about #iddle=-lass$ displa-ed$ anti-o##unist
ones
,t is doubt%ul that an! o% Wol%%?s +hinese ever returned to
their ho#eland as +,A agents$ or that all o% Wol%%?s proposals
)ere put into e%%e-t ,n an! -ase$ the pro9e-t )as interrupted in
#idstrea# b! a #a9or shake=up in the +,A?s entire #ind=-on=
trol e%%ort :arl! in 10@@$ Sid Gottlieb and his PhD -re) %ro#
"SS took over #ost o% the AD",+AO;: %un-tions$ in-luding
the So-iet!$ %ro# 5orse Allen and the Pinkerton t!pes in the
O%%i-e o% Se-urit! "he 5;UL"DA #en #oved Bui-kl! to turn
the So-iet! into an entit! that looked and a-ted like a legiti#ate
%oundation First the! s#oothed over the ragged -overt edges
Out -a#e the bugs and sa%es so dear to 5orse Allen and -o#=
pan! "he ne) -re) even #ade so#e e%%ort Clargel! unsu--ess=
%ulE to attra-t non=+,A %unds "he biggest -hange$ ho)ever$ )as
the +ornell pro%essors no) had to deal )ith Agen-! representa=
tives )ho )ere s-ientists and )ho had strong ideas o% their o)n
on resear-h Buestions Up to this point$ the +ornellians had
been able to keep the +,A?s involve#ent )ithin bounds a--ept=
'5) S5ELLSBELECTRODES AND HC5NOSIS
able to the# While Aarold Wol%% never -eased )anting to e>=
plore the %urthest rea-hes o% behavior -ontrol$ his -olleagues
)ere )ar! o% going on to the outer li#itsMat least under +or=
nell -over
(o one )ould ever -on%use 5;UL"DA pro9e-ts )ith ivor!=
to)er resear-h$ but Gottlieb?s people did take a #ore a-ade#i-
Mand sophisti-atedMapproa-h to behavioral resear-h than
their prede-essors "he 5;UL"DA #en understood that not
ever! pro9e-t )ould have an i##ediate operational bene%it$
and the! believed less and less in the e>isten-e o% that one
9ust=over=the=hori.on te-hniBue that )ould turn #en into pup=
pets "he! %avored in-reasing their kno)ledge o% hu#an be=
havior in relativel! s#all steps$ and the! -on-entrated on the
redu-ed goal o% in%luen-ing and #anipulating their sub9e-ts
G*ou?re ahead o% the ga#e i% !ou -an get people to do so#ething
ten per-ent #ore o%ten than the! )ould other)ise$G sa!s an
5;UL"DA veteran
A--ordingl!$ in 10@<$ Sid Gottlieb approved a S7K$666 pro9e-t
to have the Au#an :-olog! So-iet! stud! the %a-tors that
-aused #en to de%e-t %ro# their -ountries and -ooperate )ith
%oreign govern#ents 5;UL"DA o%%i-ials reasoned that i% the!
-ould understand )hat #ade old turn-oats ti-k$ it #ight help
the# enti-e ne) ones While good -ase o%%i-ers instin-tivel!
see#ed to kno) ho) to handle a potential agentMor thought
the! didMthe 5;UL"DA #en hoped to -o#e up )ith s!ste#=
ati-$ even s-ienti%i- i#prove#ents Overtl!$ Aarold Wol%% de=
signed the progra# to look like a %ollo)=up stud! to the So-i=
et!?s earlier progra#s$ noting to the Agen-! that it )as
G%easible to stud! %oreign nationals under the -over o% a #edi=
-al=so-iologi-al stud!G CAe told his +,A %unders that G)hile
so#e in%or#ation o% general value to s-ien-e should be pro=
du-ed$ this in itsel% )ill not be a su%%i-ient 9usti%i-ation %or -ar=
r!ing out a stud! o% this natureGE +overtl!$ he de-lared the
purpose o% the resear-h )as to assess de%e-tors? so-ial and -ul=
tural ba-kground$ their li%e e>perien-e$ and their personalit!
stru-ture$ in order to understand their #otivations$ value s!s=
te#s$ and probable %uture rea-tions
"he 10@< Aungarian revolt o--urred as the de%e-tor stud!
)as getting under)a!$ and the Au#an :-olog! group$ )ith
+,A headBuarters approval$ de-ided to turn the de%e-tor )ork
into an investigation o% 76 Aungarian re%ugees %ro# that
HUMAN ECOLOGC '5*
upheaval B! then$ #ost o% Aarold Wol%%?s tea# had been to=
gether through the brain)ashing and +hinese studies While
not all o% the# kne) o% the +,A?s spe-i%i- interests$ the! had
strea#lined their pro-edures %or ans)ering the Buestions that
Agen-! o%%i-ials %ound interesting "he! ran the Aungarians
through the batter! o% tests and observations in si> #onths$
-o#pared to a !ear and a hal% %or the +hinese pro9e-t
"he Au#an :-olog! So-iet! reported that #ost o% their Aun=
garian sub9e-ts had %ought against the Dussians during the
Devolution and that the! had lived through e>traordinaril!
di%%i-ult -ir-u#stan-es$ in-luding arrest$ #istreat#ent$ and in=
do-trination "he ps!-hologists and ps!-hiatrists %ound that$
o%ten$ those )ho had survived )ith the %e)est proble#s had
been those )ith #arkedl! aberrant personalities G"his obser=
vation has added to the eviden-e that health! people are not
ne-essaril! ?nor#al$? but are people parti-ularl! adapted to
their spe-ial li%e situations$G the group de-lared
While +,A o%%i-ials liked the idea that their Aungarian sub=
9e-ts had not knu-kled under -o##unist in%luen-e$ the! re-og=
ni.ed that the! )ere )orking )ith a ske)ed sa#ple A#eri-an
visa restri-tions kept #ost o% the re%ugee le%t=)ingers and %or=
#er -o##unist o%%i-ials out o% the United StatesF so$ as a later
5;UL"DA do-u#ent )ould state$ the So-iet! )ound up stud!=
ing G)estern=tied rightist ele#ents )ho had never been a-=
-epted -o#pletel!G in post)ar Aungar! Agen-! resear-hers
reali.ed that these people )ould G-ontribute littleG to)ard in=
-reasing the +,A?s kno)ledge o% the pro-esses that #ade a -o#=
#unist o%%i-ial -hange his lo!alties
,n order to broaden their data base$ 5;UL"DA o%%i-ials de=
-ided in 5ar-h 10@7 to bring in so#e un)itting help "he! gave
a -ontra-t to Dutgers Universit! so-iologists Di-hard Stephen=
son and 4a! S-hul#an Gto thro) as #u-h light as possible on
the so-iolog! o% the -o##unist s!ste# in the throes o% revolu=
tionG "he Dutgers pro%essors started out b! intervie)ing the 76
Aungarians at +ornell in (e) *ork$ and S-hul#an )ent on to
:urope to talk to disillusioned +o##unists )ho had also %led
their -ountr! Fro# an operational point o% vie)$ these )ere
the people the Agen-! reall! -ared aboutF but$ as so-ialists$
#ost o% the# probabl! )ould have resisted sharing their e>=
perien-es )ith the +,AMi% the! had kno)nP
PAlso to gain a--ess to this sa#e group o% le%tist Aungarian re%ugees in :urope$
'54 S5ELLSBELECTRODES AND HC5NOSIS
4a! S-hul#an )ould have resisted$ too A%ter dis-overing al=
#ost 86 !ears later that the Agen-! had paid his )a! and seen
his -on%idential intervie)s$ he %eels #isused G,n 10@7 , )as
#!sel% a Buasi=5ar>ist and i% , had kno)n that this stud! )as
sponsored b! the +,A$ there is reall!$ obviousl!$ no )a! that ,
)ould have been asso-iated )ith it$G sa!s S-hul#an G5! vie)
is that so-ial s-ientists have a deep personal responsibilit! %or
Buestioning the sour-es o% %undingF and the %a-t that , didn?t do
it at the ti#e )as si#pl!$ in #! 9udg#ent$ indi-ation o% #! o)n
naivete and politi-al inno-en-e$ in spite o% #! ideologi-al
bentG
De-eiving S-hul#an and his Aungarian sub9e-ts did not
bother the #en %ro# 5;UL"DA in the slightest A--ording to
a Gottlieb aide$ one o% the strong argu#ents inside the +,A %or
the )hole Au#an :-olog! progra# )as that it gave the Agen-!
a #eans o% approa-hing and using politi-al #averi-ks )ho
-ould not other)ise get se-urit! -learan-es GSo#eti#es$G he
-hu-kles$ Gthese le%t=)ing so-ial s-ientists )ere da#ned goodG
"his 5;UL"DA veteran s-o%%s at the displeasure S-hul#an
e>pressesL G,% )e?d gone to a gu! and said$ ?We?re +,A$? he never
)ould have done it "he! )ere glad to get the #one! in a )orld
)here da#ned %e) people )ere )illing to support the#
"he! -an?t -o#plain about ho) the! )ere treated or that the!
)ere asked to do so#ething the! )ouldn?t have nor#all!
doneG
"he Au#an :-olog! So-iet! soon be-a#e a -onduit %or +,A
#one! %lo)ing to pro9e-ts$ like the Dutgers one$ outside +ornellP
For these grants$ the So-iet! provided onl! -over and ad#inis=
trative support behind the gold=plated na#es o% +ornell and
Aarold Wol%% Fro# 10@@ to 10@J$ Agen-! o%%i-ials passed %unds
through the So-iet! %or )ork on -ri#inal se>ual ps!-hopaths
at ,onia State Aospital$X a #ental institution lo-ated on the
the Au#an :-olog! So-iet! put S1@$666 in 10@J into an un)itting stud! b! Dr
A A 5 Struik o% the Universit! o% (i9#egen in the (etherlands An Agen-!
do-u#ent e>tolled this arrange#ent not onl! as a use%ul )a! o% stud!ing Aun=
garians but be-ause it provided GentreeG into a leading :uropean universit!
and ps!-hologi-al resear-h -enter$ adding Gsu-h a -onne-tion has #ani%old
-over and testing possibilities as )ell as providing a base %ro# )hi-h to take
advantage o% develop#ents in that area o% the )orldG
XPro%essor Lauren-e Ainkle states that it )as never his or +ornell?s intention
that the So-iet! )ould be used as a +,A %unding -onduit When told that he
hi#sel% had )ritten letters on the ,onia pro9e-t$ he replied that the So-iet!?s
+,A=supplied bookkeeper )as al)a!s putting papers in %ront o% hi# and that
he #ust have signed )ithout reali.ing the i#pli-ations
HUMAN ECOLOGC '55
banks o% the Grand Diver in the rolling %ar# -ountr! 186 #iles
north)est o% Detroit "his pro9e-t had an interesting h!pothe=
sisL "hat -hild #olesters and rapists had ugl! se-rets buried
deep )ithin the# and that their stake in not ad#itting their
perversions approa-hed that o% spies not )anting to -on%ess
"he 5;UL"DA #en reasoned that an! te-hniBue that )ould
)ork on a se>ual ps!-hopath )ould surel! have a si#ilar e%%e-t
on a %oreign agent Using ps!-hologists and ps!-hiatrists -on=
ne-ted to the 5i-higan #ental health and the Detroit -ourt
s!ste#s$ the! set up a progra# to test LSD and #ari9uana$
)ittingl! and un)ittingl!$ alone and in -o#bination )ith h!p=
nosis Be-ause o% ad#inistrative dela!s$ the 5i-higan do-tors
#anaged to e>peri#ent onl! on 8< in#ates in three !earsMall
se>ual o%%enders -o##itted b! 9udges )ithout a trial under a
5i-higan la)$ sin-e de-lared un-onstitutional "he sear-h %or
a truth drug )ent on$ under the auspi-es o% the Au#an :-olog!
So-iet!$ as )ell as in other 5;UL"DA -hannels
"he ,onia pro9e-t )as the kind o% e>pansionist a-tivit! that
#ade +ornell ad#inistrators$ i% not Aarold Wol%%$ uneas! B!
10@7$ the +ornellians had had enough At the sa#e ti#e$ the
Agen-! sponsors de-ided that the So-iet! had outgro)n its de=
penden-e on +ornell %or a-ade#i- -redentialsMthat in %a-t the
-lose ties to +ornell #ight inhibit the So-iet!?s %uture gro)th
a#ong a-ade#i-s notoriousl! sensitive to institutional -on=
%li-ts One +,A o%%i-ial )rote that the So-iet! G#ust be given
#ore established stature in the resear-h -o##unit! to be e%%e-=
tive as a -over organi.ationG On-e the So-iet! )as -ut loose in
the %oundation )orld$ Agen-! #en %elt the! )ould be %reer to
go an!)here in a-ade#ia to bu! resear-h that #ight assist
-overt operations So the +,A severed the So-iet!?s %or#al -on=
ne-tion to +ornell
"he Au#an :-olog! group #oved out o% its :ast 7Jth Street
to)n house$ )hi-h had al)a!s see# a little too plush %or a
universit! progra#$ and opened up a ne) headBuarters in For=
est Aills$ &ueens$ )hi-h )as an inappropriate neighborhood
%or a )ell=-onne-ted %oundationP Agen-! o%%i-ials hired a sta%%
o% %our led b! Lieutenant +olonel 4a#es 5onroe$ )ho had
PB! 10<1 the +,A sta%% had tired o% &ueens and #oved the So-iet! ba-k into
5anhattan to 861 :ast @7th Street ,n 10<@$ as the Agen-! )as -losing do)n the
%ront$ it s)it-hed its headBuarters to 1J7K +onne-ti-ut Avenue (W in Wash=
ington$ the sa#e building o)ned b! Dr +harles Ges-hi-kter that housed an=
other 5;UL"DA -onduit$ the Ges-hi-kter Fund %or 5edi-al Desear-h
'5 S5ELLSBELECTRODES AND HC5NOSIS
)orked -losel! )ith the +,A as head o% the Air For-e?s stud! o%
;orean War prisoners Sid Gottlieb and the "SS hierar-h! in
Washington still #ade the #a9or de-isions$ but 5onroe and the
So-iet! sta%%$ )hose salaries the Agen-! paid$ took over the
So-iet!?s dealings )ith the outside )orld and the #onitoring o%
several hundred thousand dollars a !ear in resear-h pro9e-ts
5onroe personall! supervised do.ens o% grants$ in-luding Dr
:)en +a#eron?s brain)ashing )ork in 5ontreal Soon the So=
-iet! )as %lourishing as an innovative %oundation$ attra-ting
resear-h proposals %ro# a )ide variet! o% behavioral s-ientists$
at a ti#e )hen these peopleMparti-ularl! the unorthodo> ones
M)ere still the step=-hildren o% the %und=granting )orld
A%ter the So-iet!?s e>it %ro# +ornell$ Wol%% and Ainkle sta!ed
on as president and vi-e=president$ respe-tivel!$ o% the So-iet!?s
board o% dire-tors Dr 4oseph Ainse!$ head o% the (e) *ork
Aospital=+ornell 5edi-al +enter also re#ained on the board
Allen Dulles -ontinued his personal interest in the So-iet!?s
)ork and -a#e to one o% the %irst #eetings o% the ne) board$
)hi-h$ as )as -usto#ar! )ith +,A %ronts$ in-luded so#e big
outside na#es "hese lu#inaries added )orthiness to the en=
terprise )hile pla!ing essentiall! %igurehead roles ,n 10@7 the
other board #e#bers )ere 4ohn Whitehorn$ -hair#an o% the
ps!-hiatr! depart#ent at 4ohns Aopkins Universit!$ +arl Do=
gers$ pro%essor o% ps!-holog! and ps!-hiatr! at the Universit!
o% Wis-onsin$ and Adol% A Berle$ oneti#e Assistant Se-retar!
o% State and -hair#an o% the (e) *ork Liberal Part!P Berle
had originall! put his -lose %riend Aarold Wol%% in tou-h )ith
the +,A$ and at Wol%%?s reBuest$ he -a#e on the So-iet! board
despite so#e reservations G, a# %rightened about this one$G
Berle )rote in his diar! G,% the s-ientists do )hat the! have
laid out %or the#selves$ #en )ill be-o#e #anageable ants But
, don?t think it )ill happenG
"here )as a lot o% old=%ashioned ba-ks-rat-hing a#ong the
+,A people and the a-ade#i-s as the! settled into the )ork o%
a--o##odating ea-h other :ven Aarold Wol%%$ the %irst and
the #ost enthusiasti- o% the s-holar=spies$ had #ade it -lear
%ro# the beginning that he e>pe-ted so#e pra-ti-al re)ards
POther establish#ent %igures )ho )ould gra-e the Au#an :-olog! board over
the !ears in-luded Leonard +ar#i-hael$ head o% the S#ithsonian ,nstitution$
Barnab! ;eene!$ president o% Bro)n Universit!$ and George A ;ell!$ ps!-hol=
og! pro%essor and So-iet! %und re-ipient at Ohio State Universit!
%or his servi-e A--ording to -olleague Ainkle$ )ho appre-iated
Wol%% as one the great grants#an o% his ti#e$ Wol%% e>pe-ted
that the Agen-! G)ould support our resear-h and )e )ould be
their -onsultantsG Woli% bluntl! in%or#ed the +,A that so#e o%
his )ork )ould have no dire-t use Ge>-ept that it vastl! en=
han-es our value as -onsultants and advisersG ,n other
)ords$ Wol%% %elt that his )orth to the +,A in-reased in propor=
tion to his pro%essional a--o#plish#ents and i#portan-eM
)hi-h in turn depended partl! on the resour-es he -o#=
#anded "he Agen-! #en understood$ and over the last hal% o%
the 10@6s$ the! )ere happ! to -ontribute al#ost S766$666 to
Wol%%?s o)n resear-h on the brain and -entral nervous s!ste#
,n turn$ Wol%% and his reputation helped the# gain a--ess to
other leading lights in the a-ade#i- )orld
Another person )ho bene%ited %ro# Au#an :-olog! %unds
)as +arl Dogers$ )ho# Wol%% had also asked to serve on the
board Dogers$ )ho later )ould be-o#e %a#ous %or his
nondi=
re-tive$ nonauthoritarian approa-h to ps!-hotherap!$ re=
spe-ted Wol%%s )ork$ and he had no ob9e-tion to helping the
+,A Although he sa!s he )ould have nothing to do )ith
se-ret
Agen-! a-tivities toda!$ he asks %or understanding in light
o%
the -li#ate o% the 10@6s GWe reall! did regard Dussia as the
ene#!$G de-lares Dogers$ Gand )e )ere tr!ing to do various
things to #ake sure the Dussians did not get the upper
handG
Dogers re-eived an i#portant pro%essional re)ard %or 9oining
the So-iet! board :>e-utive Dire-tor 4a#es 5onroe had let
hi# kno) that$ on-e he agreed to serve$ he -ould e>pe-t to
re-eive a So-iet! grant G"hat appealed to #e be-ause , )as
having trouble getting %unded$G sa!s Dogers GAaving gotten
that grant Qabout S76$666 over three !earsR$ it #ade it possible
to get other grants %ro# Do-ke%eller and (,5AG Dogers still
%eels grate%ul to the So-iet! %or helping hi# establish a %unding
Gtra-k re-ord$G but he e#phasi.es that the Agen-! never had
an! e%%e-t on his resear-h
Although 5;UL"DA ps!-hologist 4ohn Gittinger suspe-ted
that Dogers? )ork on ps!-hotherap! #ight provide insight into
interrogation #ethods$ the So-iet! did not give Dogers #one!
be-ause o% the -ontent o% his )ork "he grant ensured his ser=
vi-es as a -onsultant$ i% desired$ and$ a--ording to a +,A do-u=
#ent$ G%ree a--essG to his pro9e-t But above all$ the grant al=
lo)ed the Agen-! to use Dogers? na#e Ais standing in the
a-ade#i- -o##unit! -ontributed to the la!er o% -over around
'5% S5ELLSBELECTRODES AND HC5NOSIS
the So-iet! that Agen-! o%%i-ials %elt )as -ru-ial to #ask their
involve#ent
Pro%essor +harles Osgood?s status in ps!-holog! also i#=
proved the So-iet!?s -over$ but his resear-h )as #ore dire-tl!
use%ul to the Agen-!$ and the 5;UL"DA #en paid #u-h #ore
to get it ,n 10@0 Osgood$ )ho %our !ears later be-a#e president
o% the A#eri-an Ps!-hologi-al Asso-iation$ )anted to push %or=
)ard his )ork on ho) people in di%%erent so-ieties e>press the
sa#e %eelings$ even )hen using di%%erent )ords and -on-epts
Osgood )rote in Gan abstra-t -on-eptual %ra#e)ork$G but
Agen-! o%%i-ials sa) his resear-h as Gdire-tl! relevantG to -o=
vert a-tivities "he! believed the! -ould trans%er Osgood?s
kno)ledge o% Ghidden values and -uesG in the )a! people -o#=
#uni-ate into #ore e%%e-tive overseas propaganda Osgood?s
)ork gave the# a toolM-alled the Gse#anti- di%%erentialGMto
-hoose the right )ords in a %oreign language to -onve! a parti-=
ular #eaning
Like +arl Dogers$ Osgood got his %irst outside %unding %or
)hat be-a#e the #ost i#portant )ork o% his -areer %ro# the
Au#an :-olog! So-iet! Osgood had )ritten dire-tl! to the +,A
%or support$ and the So-iet! soon -onta-ted hi# and %urnished
S108$07@ %or resear-h over %ive !ears "he #one! allo)ed hi#
to travel )idel! and to e>pand his )ork into 76 di%%erent -ul=
tures Also like Dogers$ Osgood eventuall! re-eived (,5A
#one! to %inish his resear-h$ but he a-kno)ledges that the
Au#an :-olog! grants pla!ed an i#portant part in the prog=
ress o% his )ork Ae stresses that Gthere )as none o% the %eeling
then about the +,A that there is no)$ in ter#s o% subversive
a-tivities$G and he states that the So-iet! had no in%luen-e on
an!thing he produ-ed *et So-iet! #en -ould and did talk to
hi# about his %indings "he! asked Buestions that re%le-ted
their o)n -overt interests$ not his a-ade#i- pursuits$ and the!
dre) hi# out$ a--ording to one o% the#$ Gat great lengthG Os=
good had started stud!ing -ross=-ultural #eaning )ell be%ore
he re-eived the Au#an :-olog! #one!$ but the So-iet!?s sup=
port ensured that he )ould -ontinue his )ork on a s-ale that
suited the Agen-!?s purposes$ as )ell as his o)n
A )hole -ategor! o% So-iet! %unding$ -alled G-over grants$G
served no other purpose than to build the So-iet!?s %alse %ront
"hese in-luded a so-iologi-al stud! o% Levitto)n$ Long ,sland
Cabout SK$@66E$ an anal!sis o% the +entral 5ongoloid skull
CS766E$ and a look at the %oreign=poli-! attitudes o% people )ho
HUMAN ECOLOGC '5&
o)ned %allout shelters$ as opposed to people )ho did not CS8$=
@66E A S@66 Au#an :-olog! grant )ent to ,stanbul Universit!
%or a stud! o% the e%%e-ts o% -ir-u#-ision on "urkish bo!s "he
resear-her %ound that !oung "urks$ usuall! -ir-u#-ised be=
t)een the ages o% %ive and seven$ %elt Gsevere e#otional i#pa-t
)ith attending s!#pto#s o% )ithdra)alG "he -hildren sa)
the pain%ul operations as Gan a-t o% aggressionG that brought
out previousl! hidden %earsMor so the Au#an :-olog! So-iet!
reported
,n other instan-es$ the So-iet! put #one! into pro9e-ts )hose
-overt appli-ation )as so unlikel! that onl! an e>pert -ould see
the possibilities (onetheless$ in 10@J the So-iet! gave S@$@76 to
so-ial ps!-hologists 5u.a%er and +arol!n Wood Sheri% o% the
Universit! o% Oklaho#a %or )ork on the behavior o% teen=age
bo!s in gangs "he Sheri%s$ both ignorant o% the +,A -onne-=
tion$P studied the group stru-tures and attitudes in the gangs
and tried to devise )a!s to -hannel antiso-ial behavior into
#ore -onstru-tive paths "heir results )ere %iltered through
-landestine #inds at the Agen-! GWith gang )ar%are$G sa!s an
5;UL"DA sour-e$ G!ou tried to get so#e de%e-tors=in=pla-e
)ho )ould like to #odi%! so#e o% the group behavior and -ool
it (o)$ getting a 9uvenile delinBuent de%e-tor )as #otivation=
all! not all that #u-h di%%erent %ro# getting a Soviet oneG
5;UL"DA o%%i-ials )ere -learl! interested in using their
grants to build -onta-ts and asso-iations )ith prestigious a-a=
de#i-s "he So-iet! put S1$@66 a !ear into the Resea.!3 i" Me"-
-a4 Hea4-3 News4e--e. published 9ointl! at 5-Gill Universit! b!
the so-iolog! and ps!-hiatri- depart#ents Anthropologist
5argaret 5ead$ an international -ulture heroine$ sat on the
ne)sletter?s advisor! board C)ith$ a#ong others$ D :)en +a#=
eronE$ and the So-iet! used her na#e in its biennial report
Si#ilarl!$ the So-iet! gave grants o% S8<$666 to the )ell=kno)n
Universit! o% London ps!-hologist$ A 4 :!sen-k$ %or his )ork
on #otivation An 5;UL"DA do-u#ent a-kno)ledged that
this resear-h )ould have Gno i##ediate relevan-e %or Agen-!
needs$G but that it )ould Glend prestigeG to the So-iet! "he
PA--ording to Dr +arol!n Sheri%$ )ho sa!s she and her husband did not share
the +old War -onsensus and )ould never have kno)ingl! taken +,A %unds$
Au#an :-olog! e>e-utive dire-tor 4a#es 5onroe lied dire-tl! about the sour-e
o% the So-iet!?s #one!$ -lai#ing it -a#e %ro# ri-h (e) *ork do-tors and "e>as
#illionaires )ho gave it %or ta> purposes 5onroe used this standard -over
stor! )ith other grantees
7<6 S5ELLSBELECTRODES AND HC5NOSIS
grants to :!sen-k also allo)ed the So-iet! to take %unding
-redit %or no less than nine o% his publi-ations in its 10<7 report
"he %ollo)ing !ear$ the So-iet! #anaged to pur-hase a pie-e o%
the )ork o% the #ost %a#ous behaviorist o% all$ Aarvard?s B F
Skinner Skinner$ )ho had tried to train pigeons to guide bo#bs
%or the #ilitar! during World War ,,$ re-eived a S@$666 Au#an
:-olog! grant to pa! the -osts o% a se-retar! and supplies %or the
resear-h that led to his book$ F.eedo0 a"d Di/"i-y8 Skinner
has no #e#or! o% the grant or its origins but sa!s$ G, don?t like
se-ret involve#ent o% an! kind , -an?t see )h! it -ouldn?t have
been open and aboveboardG
A "SS sour-e e>plains that grants like these Gbought legiti=
#a-!G %or the So-iet! and #ade the re-ipients Ggrate%ulG Ae
sa!s that the #one! gave Agen-! e#plo!ees at Au#an :-olog!
a reason to phone SkinnerMor an! o% the other re-ipientsMto
pi-k his brain about a parti-ular proble# ,n a si#ilar vein$
another 5;UL"DA #an$ ps!-hologist 4ohn Gittinger #en=
tions the So-iet!?s relationship )ith :r)in Go%%#an o% the Uni=
versit! o% Penns!lvania$ )ho# #an! -onsider toda!?s leading
so-iologi-al theorist "he So-iet! gave hi# a s#all grant to
help %inish a book that )ould have been published an!)a! As
a result$ Gittinger )as able to spend hours talking )ith hi#
about$ a#ong other things$ an arti-le he had )ritten earlier on
-on%iden-e #en "hese hu-ksters )ere e>perts at #anipulating
behavior$ a--ording to Gittinger$ and Go%%#an un)ittingl!
Ggave us a better understanding o% the te-hniBues people use to
establish phon! relationshipsGMa sub9e-t o% interest to the +,A
"o keep tra-k o% ne) develop#ents in the behavioral
s-ien-es$ So-iet! representatives regularl! visited grant re-ipi=
ents and %ound out )hat the! and their -olleagues )ere doing
So#e o% the kno)ing pro%essors be-a#e -ons-ious spies 5ost
si#pl! rela!ed the latest pro%essional gossip to their visitors
and sent along unpublished papers "he prestige o% the Au#an
:-olog! grantees also helped give the Agen-! a--ess to behav=
ioral s-ientists )ho had no -onne-tion to the So-iet! G*ou
-ould )alk into so#eone?s o%%i-e and sa! !ou )ere 9ust talking
to Skinner$G sa!s an 5;UL"DA veteran GWe didn?t hesitate to
do this ,t )as a )a! to na#e=dropG
"he So-iet! did not li#it its intelligen-e gathering to the
United States As one Agen-! sour-e puts it$ G"he So-iet! gave
us a legiti#ate basis to approa-h an!one in the a-ade#i-
#unit! an!)here in the )orldG +,A o%%i-ials regularl! used
as -over )hen the! traveled abroad to stud! the behavior o%
%oreigners o% interest to the Agen-!$ in-luding su-h leaders as
(ikita ;hrush-hev "he So-iet! %unded %oreign resear-hers
and also gave #one! to A#eri-an pro%essors to -olle-t
in%or#a=
tion abroad ,n 10<6$ %or instan-e$ the So-iet! sponsored a
sur=
ve! o% Soviet ps!-holog! through the si#ple devi-e o% putting
up S1@$666 through the o%%i-ial auspi-es o% the A#eri-an Ps!=
-hologi-al Asso-iation to send ten pro#inent ps!-hologists
on
a tour o% the Soviet Union (ine o% the ten had no idea o% the
Agen-! involve#ent$ but +,A o%%i-ials )ere apparentl! able to
debrie% ever!one )hen the group returned "hen the So-iet!
sponsored a -on%eren-e and book %or )hi-h ea-h ps!-hologist
-ontributed a -hapter "he book added another S@$666 to the
+,A?s -ost$ but S86$666 all told see#ed like a s#all pri-e to pa!
%or the in%or#ation gathered "he ps!-hologistsMe>-ept per=
haps the kno)ledgeable oneMdid nothing the! )ould not ordi=
naril! have done during their trip$ and the s-holarl! -o##u=
nit! bene%ited %ro# in-reased kno)ledge on an i#portant
sub9e-t "he onl! thing violated )as the openness and trust
nor#all! asso-iated )ith a-ade#i- pursuits B! turning s-hol=
ars into spiesMeven unkno)ing onesM+,A o%%i-ials risked the
reputation o% A#eri-an resear-h )ork and -ontributed poten=
tial a##unition to)ard the belie% in #an! -ountries that the
US notion o% a-ade#i- %reedo# and independen-e %ro# the
state is sel%=serving and h!po-riti-al
Se-re-! allo)ed the Agen-! a #easure o% %reedo# %ro# nor=
#al a-ade#i- restri-tions and red tape$ and the #en %ro#
5;UL"DA used that %reedo# to #ake their pro9e-ts #ore at=
tra-tive "he So-iet! de#anded Gno stupid progress reports$G
re-alls ps!-hologist and ps!-hiatrist 5artin Orne$ )ho re=
-eived a grant to support his Aarvard resear-h on h!pnotis#
As a %urther sign o% generosit! and trust$ the So-iet! gave
Orne
a %ollo)=on S76$666 grant )ith no spe-i%ied purposeP Orne
-ould use it as he )ished Ae believes the #one! )as Ga
-ontin=
gen-! invest#entG in his )ork$ and 5;UL"DA o%%i-ials agree
GWe -ould go to Orne an!ti#e$G sa!s one o% the#$ Gand sa!$
PA 10<8 report o% Orne?s laborator!$ the ,nstitute %or :>peri#ental Ps!-hiatr!$
sho)ed that it re-eived t)o si.able grants be%ore the end o% that !earL S76$666
%ro# Au#an :-olog! and S76$666 %ro# S-ienti%i- :ngineering ,nstitute$ an=
other +,A %ront organi.ation Orne sa!s he )as not a)are o% the latter group?s
Agen-! -onne-tion at the ti#e$ but learned o% it later Ae used its grant to stud!
ne) )a!s o% using the pol!graph
') S5ELLSBELECTRODES AND HC5NOSIS
?Oka!$ here is a situation and here is a kind o% gu! What )ould
!ou e>pe-t )e #ight be able to a-hieve i% )e -ould h!pnotise
hi#O? "hrough his #assive kno)ledge$ he -ould spe-ulate and
adviseG A hand%ul o% other So-iet! grantees also served in si#i=
lar roles as -overt Agen-! -onsultants in the %ield o% their e>per=
tise
,n general$ the Au#an :-olog! So-iet! served as the +,A?s
)indo) on the )orld o% behavioral resear-h (o pheno#enon
)as too ar-ane to es-ape a -are%ul look %ro# the So-iet!$
)hether e>trasensor! per-eption or A%ri-an )it-h do-tors
G"here )ere so#e unbelievable s-he#es$G re-alls an 5;UL=
"DA veteran$ Gbut !ou also kne) :instein )as -onsidered
-ra.! *ou -ouldn?t be so biased that !ou )ouldn?t leave open
the possibilit! that so#e -ra.! idea #ight )orkG 5;UL"DA
#en reali.ed$ a--ording to the veteran$ that Gninet! per-ent o%
)hat )e )ere doing )ould %ailG to be o% an! use to the Agen-!
*et$ )ith a spirit o% inBuir! #u-h %reer than that usuall! %ound
in the a-ade#i- )orld$ the So-iet! took earl! stabs at -ra-king
the geneti- -ode )ith -o#puters and %inding out )hether ani=
#als -ould be -ontrolled through ele-trodes pla-ed in their
brains
"he So-iet!?s unrestrained$ s-attershot approa-h to behav=
ioral resear-h )ent against the prevailing )isdo# in A#eri=
-an universitiesMboth as to #ethods and to sub9e-ts o% interest
During the 10@6s one s-hool o% thoughtMso=-alled Gbehavior=
is#$GM)as a--epted on -a#pus$ virtuall! to the e>-lusion o%
all others "he Gbehaviorists$G led b! Aarvard?s B F Skinner$G
looked at ps!-holog! as the stud! o% learned observable re=
sponses to outside sti#ulation "o oversi#pli%!$ the! -ha#pi=
oned the approa-h in )hi-h ps!-hologists gave re)ards to rats
s-urr!ing through #a.es$ and the! tended to dis#iss #atters o%
great interest to the Agen-!L eg$ the e%%e-t o% drugs on the
ps!-he$ sub9e-tive pheno#ena like h!pnosis$ the inner )ork=
ings o% the #ind$ and personalit! theories that took geneti-
di%%eren-es into a--ount
B! investing up to SK66$666 a !ear into the earl!$ innovative
)ork o% #en like +arl Dogers$ +harles Osgood$ and 5artin
Orne$ the +,A?s Au#an :-olog! So-iet! helped liberate the
behavioral s-ien-es %ro# the )orld o% rats and -heese With a
push %ro# the Agen-! as )ell as other %or-es$ the %ield opened
up For#er i-ono-lasts be-a#e e#inent$ and$ %or better or
)orse$ the Skinnerian near=#onopol! gave )a! to a8 #ultipli-a=
HUMAN ECOLOGC '*
tion o% -ontending s-hools :ventuall!$ a reputable behavioral
s-ientist -ould be doing al#ost an!thingL holding hands )ith
his students in sensitivit! sessions$ -olle-ting surve! data on
spanking habits$ or sub9e-tivel! e>ploring ne) #odes o% -on=
s-iousness "he +,A?s #one! undoubtedl! -hanged the a-a=
de#i- )orld to so#e degree$ though no one -an sa! ho) #u-h
As usual$ the +,A #en )ere ahead o% their ti#e and had
started to #ove on be%ore the ne) approa-hes be-a#e estab=
lished ,n 10<7$ having sa#pled ever!thing %ro# pal# reading
to subli#inal per-eption$ Sid Gottlieb and his -olleagues sat=
is%ied the#selves that the! had overlooked no area o% kno)l=
edgeMho)ever esoteri-Mthat #ight be pro#ising %or +,A op=
erations "he So-iet! had served its purposeF no) the #one!
-ould be better spent else)here Agen-! o%%i-ials trans%erred
the still=use%ul pro9e-ts to other -overt -hannels and allo)ed
the rest to die Buietl! B! the end o% 10<@$ )hen the re#aining
resear-h )as -o#pleted$ the So-iet! %or the ,nvestigation o%
Au#an :-olog! )as gone
CHAPTER
10
THE GITTINGER
ASSESSMENT S'STEM
With one e>-eption$ the +,A?s behavioral resear-hM)hether
on LSD or on ele-trosho-kMsee#s to have had #ore i#pa-t on
the outside )orld than on Agen-! operations "hat e>-eption
gre) out o% the )ork o% the 5;UL"DA progra#?s resident
genius$ ps!-hologist 4ohn Gittinger While on the +,A pa!roll$
toiling to %ind )a!s to #anipulate people$ Gittinger -reated a
uniBue s!ste# %or assessing personalit! and predi-ting %uture
behavior Ae -alled his #ethodMappropriatel!Mthe Personal=
it! Assess#ent S!ste# CPASE "op Agen-! o%%i-ials have been so
i#pressed that the! have given the Gittinger s!ste# a pla-e in
#ost agent=-onne-ted a-tivities "o be sure$ #ost +,A operators
)ould not go nearl! so %ar as a %or#er Gittinger aide )ho sa!s$
G"he PAS )as the ke! to the )hole -landestine businessG Still$
a%ter #ost o% the touted #ind -ontrollers had given up or been
sent ba-k ho#e$ it )as Gittinger$ the sta%% ps!-hologist$ )ho
sold his PAS s!ste# to -!ni-al$ anti=gi##i-k -ase o%%i-ers in the
Agen-!?s +landestine Servi-es And during the +uban #issile
-risis$ it )as Gittinger )ho )as su##oned to the White Aouse
to give his advi-e on ho) ;hrush-hev )ould rea-t to A#eri-an
pressure
A heav!=set$ goateed native o% Oklaho#a )ho in his later
!ears -a#e to rese#ble a-tor Walter Sle.ak$ Gittinger looked
#u-h #ore like so#eone?s kindl! grand%ather than a -al-ulat=
ing theoreti-ian Ae had an al#ost insatiable -uriosit! about
personalit!$ and he spent #ost o% his )aking hours tinkering
)ith and tr!ing to per%e-t his s!ste# So obsessed did he be=
-o#e that he al)a!s had the %eelingMeven a%ter other re=
sear-hers had veri%ied large -hunks o% the PAS and a%ter the
+,A had put it into operational useMthat the )hole thing )as
Ga kind o% paranoid delusionG
Gittinger started )orking on his s!ste# even be%ore he 9oined
the +,A in 10@6 Prior to that$ he had been dire-tor o% ps!-holog=
i-al servi-es at the state hospital in (or#an$ Oklaho#a Ais
high=sounding title did not re%le-t the %a-t that he )as the onl!
ps!-hologist on the sta%% A %or#er high s-hool guidan-e -oun=
selor and (aval lieutenant -o##ander during World War ,,$
he )as starting out at age 76 )ith a #aster?s degree :ver! da!
he sa) several hundred patients )hose #ental proble#s in=
-luded virtuall! ever!thing in the -lini-al te>tbooks
(u#erous tra#ps and other itinerants$ heading West in
sear-h o% the good li%e in +ali%ornia$ got stu-k in Oklaho#a
during the -old )inter #onths and #anaged to get the#selves
ad#itted to Gittinger?s hospital ,n )ar#er seasons o% the !ear$
Buite a %e) o% the# )orked$ )hen the! had to$ as -ooks or
dish)ashers in the short=order ha#burger stands that dotted
the high)a!s in the da!s be%ore %ast %ood "he! %un-tioned
per%e-tl! )ell in these 9obs until %ree.ing nights drove the#
%ro# their outdoor beds "he hospital sta%% usuall! -alled the#
Gseasonal s-hi.ophreni-sG and gave the# shelter until spring
Gittinger in-luded the# in the ps!-hologi-al tests he )as so
%ond o% running on his patients
As he #easured the itinerants on the We-hsler intelligen-e
s-ale$ a standard ,& test )ith 11 parts$P Gittinger #ade a
-han-e observation that be-a#e$ he sa!s$ the Gbedro-kG o% his
)hole s!ste# Ae noti-ed that the short=order -ooks tended to
do )ell on the digit=span subtest )hi-h rated their abilit! to
re#e#ber nu#bers "he dish)ashers$ in -ontrast$ had a poor
#e#or! %or digits Sin-e the -ooks had to keep tra-k o% #an!
-o#ple> ordersM)ith -ountless variations o% #ediu# rare$ on=
ions$ and hold=the=#a!oMtheir retentive Bualit! served the#
)ell
PDeveloped b! ps!-hologist David We-hsler$ this testing s!ste# is -alled$ in
di%%erent versions$ the We-hsler=Bellevue and the We-hsler Adult ,ntelligen-e
S-ale As Gittinger )orked )ith it over the !ears$ he #ade #odi%i-ations that
he in-orporated in )hat he na#ed the We-hsler=Bellevue=G For si#pli-it!?s
sake$ it is si#pl! re%erred to as the We-hsler s!ste# throughout the book
' S5ELLSBELECTRODES AND HC5NOSIS
Gittinger also noti-ed that the -ooks had di%%erent personalit!
traits than the dish)ashers "he -ooks see#ed able to #aintain
a high degree o% e%%i-ien-! in a distra-ting environ#ent )hile
-usto#ers )ere -onstantl! barking ne) orders at the# "he!
kept their -o#posure b! %alling ba-k on their internal re=
sour-es and generall! shutting the#selves o%% %ro# the -o##o=
tion around the# Gittinger dubbed this personalit! t!pe$
)hi-h )as basi-all! inner=dire-ted$ an G,nternali.erG Cab=
breviated G,GE "he dish)ashers$ on the other hand$ did not
have the abilit! to separate the#selves %ro# the e>ternal
)orld ,n order to per%or# their 9obs$ the! had to be pla-ed o%%
in so#e %ar -orner o% the kit-hen )ith their dirt! pots and pans$
or else all the tu#ult o% the pla-e diverted the# %ro# their
dut! Gittinger -alled the dish)asher t!pe an G:>ternali.erG
C:E Ae %ound that i% he #easured a high digit span in a"y
personMnot 9ust a short=order -ookMhe -ould #ake a basi-
9udg#ent about personalit!
Fro# observation$ Gittinger -on-luded that babies )ere born
)ith distin-t personalities )hi-h then )ere #odi%ied b! envi=
ron#ental %a-tors "he ,nternali.edMor ,Mbab! )as -aught up
in hi#sel% and tended to be seen as a passive -hildF hen-e$ the
)orld usuall! -alled hi# a Ggood bab!G "he : tot )as #ore
interested in outside sti#uli and attention$ and thus )as #ore
likel! to -ause his parents proble#s b! #aking de#ands Git=
tinger believed that the )a! parents and other authorit! %igures
rea-ted to the -hild helped to shape his personalit! Adults
o%ten pressured or dire-ted the , -hild to be-o#e #ore outgoing
and the : one to be-o#e #ore sel%=su%%i-ient Gittinger %ound he
-ould #easure the -o#pensations$ or ad9ust#ents$ the -hild
#ade on another We-hsler subtest$ the one that rated arith#e=
ti- abilit! Ae noti-ed that in later li%e$ )hen the person )as
sub9e-t to stress$ these -o#pensations tended to disappear$ and
the person reverted to his original personalit! t!pe Gittinger
)rote that his s!ste# G#akes possible the assess#ent o% %unda=
#ental dis-repan-ies bet)een the sur%a-e personalit! and the
underl!ing personalit! stru-tureMdis-repan-ies that produ-e
tension$ -on%li-t$ and an>iet!G
Besides the :=, di#ensions$ Gittinger identi%ied t)o other
%unda#ental sets o% personalit! -hara-teristi-s that he -ould
#easure )ith still other We-hsler subtests Depending on ho)
a sub9e-t did on the blo-k design subtest$ Gittinger -ould tell i%
he )ere Degulated CDE or Fle>ible CFE "he Degulated person
THE GITTINGER ASSESSMENT SCSTEM '$
had no trouble learning b! rote but usuall! did not understand
)hat he learned "he Fle>ible individual$ on the other hand$
had to understand so#ething be%ore he learned it Gittinger
noted that D -hildren -ould learn to pla! the piano #oderatel!
)ell )ith -o#parativel! little e%%ort "he F -hild #ost o%ten
hated the drudger! o% piano lessons$ but Gittinger observed that
the great -on-ert pianists tended to be Fs )ho had persevered
and #astered the instru#ent
Other ps!-hologists had thought up personalit! di#ensions
si#ilar to Gittinger?s : and ,$ D and F$ even i% the! de%ined the#
so#e)hat di%%erentl! Gittinger?s #ost original -ontribution
-a#e in a third personalit! di#ension$ )hi-h revealed ho)
)ell people )ere able to adapt their so-ial behavior to the de=
#ands o% the -ulture the! lived in Gittinger %ound he -ould
#easure this di#ension )ith the pi-ture arrange#ent
We-hsler subtest$ and he -alled it the Dole Adaptive CAE or Dole
Uni%or# CUE ,t -orresponded to G-haris#a$G sin-e other people
)ere naturall! attra-ted to the A person )hile the! tended to
ignore the U
All this be-a#e i##ensel! #ore -o#pli-ated as Gittinger
#easured -o#pensations and #odi%i-ations )ith other
We-hsler subtests "his -o#ple>it! alone )orked against the
a--eptan-e o% his s!ste# b! the outside )orld$ as did the %a-t
that he based #u-h o% it on ideas that ran -ontrar! to a--epted
ps!-hologi-al do-trineMsu-h as his hereti-al notion that ge=
neti- di%%eren-es e>isted ,t did not help$ either$ that Gittinger
)as a non=PhD )hose theor! sprang %ro# the kit-hen habits
o% vagrants in Oklaho#a
An! one o% these dra)ba-ks #ight have sti%led Gittinger in
the a-ade#i- )orld$ but to the prag#atists in the +,A$ the!
)ere irrelevant Gittinger?s strange ideas see#ed to )ork With
un-ann! a--ura-!$ he -ould look at nothing #ore than a sub=
9e-t?s We-hsler nu#bers$ pinpoint his )eaknesses$ and sho)
ho) to turn hi# into an Agen-! sp! On-e Gittinger?s boss$ Sid
Gottlieb$ and other high +,A o%%i-ials reali.ed ho) Gittinger?s
PAS -ould be used to help -ase o%%i-ers handle agents$ the! gave
the ps!-hologist both the ti#e and #one! to i#prove his s!s=
te# under the auspi-es o% the Au#an :-olog! So-iet!
Although he )as a %ull=ti#e +,A e#plo!ee$ Gittinger )orked
under Au#an :-olog! -over through the 10@6s Agen-! o%%i=
-ials -onsidered the PAS to be one o% the So-iet!?s greatest
triu#phs$ de%initel! )orth -ontinuing a%ter the So-iet! )as
'% S5ELLSBELECTRODES AND HC5NOSIS
phased out ,n 10<8 Gittinger and his -o=)orkers #oved their
base o% operations %ro# the Au#an :-olog! headBuarters in
(e) *ork to a +,A proprietar! -o#pan!$ set up espe-iall! %or
the# in Washington and -alled Ps!-hologi-al Assess#ent As=
so-iates Gittinger served as president o% the -o#pan!$ )hose
-over )as to provide ps!-hologi-al servi-es to A#eri-an %ir#s
overseas Ae personall! opened a bran-h o%%i-e in "ok!o Clater
#oved to Aong ;ongE to servi-e +,A stations in the Far :ast
"he Washington sta%%$ )hi-h gre) to about 1@ pro%essionals
during the 10<6s$ handled the rest o% the )orld b! sending as=
sess#ent spe-ialists o%% %or te#porar! visits
Aundreds o% thousands o% dollars in Au#an :-olog! grants
and then even #ore #one! in Ps!-hologi-al Assess#ent -on=
tra-tsMall +,A %undsM%lo)ed out to veri%! and e>pand the PAS
For e>a#ple$ the So-iet! gave about S1K6$666 to David Saun=
ders o% the :du-ational "esting Servi-e$ the -o#pan! that pre=
pares the +ollege Board e>a#s Saunders$ )ho kne) about the
Agen-!?s involve#ent$ %ound a -orrelation bet)een brain
C::+E patterns and results on the digit=span test$ and he helped
Gittinger appl! the s!ste# to other -ountries ,n this regard$
Gittinger and his -olleagues understood that the We-hsler bat=
ter! o% subtests had a -ultural bias and that a 4apanese : had
a ver! di%%erent personalit! %ro#$ sa!$ a Dussian : "o -o#pen=
sate$ the! )orked out lo-ali.ed versions o% the PAS %or various
nations around the )orld
While at the Au#an :-olog! group$ Gittinger supervised
#u-h o% the So-iet!?s other resear-h in the behavioral s-ien-es$
and he al)a!s tried to interest So-iet! grantees in his s!ste#
Ae looked %or )a!s to #esh their resear-h )ith his theoriesM
and vi-e versa So#e$ like +arl Dogers and +harles Osgood$
listened politel! and did not %ollo) up *et Gittinger )ould
al)a!s learn so#ething %ro# their )ork that he -ould appl! to
the PAS A -har#ing #an and a skill%ul ra-onteur$ Gittinger
-onvin-ed Buite a %e) o% the other grantees o% the validit! o% his
theories and the i#portan-e o% his ideas +are%ul not to
threaten the egos o% his %ello) pro%essionals$ he never pro9e-ted
an air o% superiorit! O%ten he )ould leave peopleMeven the
skepti-alMopen#outhed in a)e as he painted unnervingl! a-=
-urate personalit! portraits o% people he had never #et ,ndeed$
people %reBuentl! a--used hi# o% so#eho) having -heated b!
kno)ing the sub9e-t in advan-e or peeking at his %ile
Gittinger patientl! and -are%ull! taught his s!ste# to his
THE GITTINGER ASSESSMENT SCSTEM '&
-olleagues$ )ho all see# to have vie)s o% hi# that range %ro#
great respe-t to pure idolatr! For all his )illingness to share
the PAS$ Gittinger )as never able to sho) an!one ho) to use
the s!ste# as skill%ull! as he did (ot that he did not tr!F he
si#pl! )as a #ore talented natural assessor than an! o% the
others 5oreover$ his s!ste# )as %ull o% interrelations and vari=
ables that he instin-tivel! understood but had not bothered to
arti-ulate As a result$ he -ould look at We-hsler s-ores and
pi-k out behavior patterns )hi-h )ould be valid and )hi-h no
one else had seen :ven a%ter Agen-! o%%i-ials spent a s#all
%ortune tr!ing to -o#puteri.e the PAS$ the! %ound$ as one ps!=
-hologist puts it$ the #a-hine G-ouldn?t tie do)n all the varia=
blesG that Gittinger )as -arr!ing around in his head
So#e Au#an :-olog! grantees$ like ps!-hiatrist Dobert
A!de$ )ere so i#pressed )ith Gittinger?s s!ste# that the!
#ade the PAS a #a9or part o% their o)n resear-h A!de rou=
tinel! gave We-hslers to his sub9e-ts be%ore pl!ing the# )ith
liBuor$ as part o% the Agen-!?s e%%orts to %ind out ho) people
rea-t to al-ohol ,n 10@7 A!de #oved his resear-h tea# %ro#
Boston Ps!-hopathi- Aospital$ )here he had been A#eri-a?s
%irst LSD tripper$ to Butler Aealth +enter in Providen-e "here$
)ith Agen-! %unds$ A!de built an e>peri#ental part! roo# in
the hospital$ -o#plete )ith pinball #a-hine$ dartboard$ and
ba#boo bar stools Fro# behind a t)o=)a! #irror$ ps!-holo=
gists )at-hed the sub9e-ts get tips! and #ade -are%ul notes on
their rea-tion to al-ohol (ot surprisingl!$ the observers %ound
that pure ,nternali.ers be-a#e #ore )ithdra)n a%ter several
drinks$ and that un-o#pensated :s )ere #ore likel! to be-o#e
garrulousMin essen-e$ slopp! drunks "hus Gittinger )as able
to #ake generali.ations about the di%%erent )a!s an , or an :
responded to al-oholP Si#pl! b! kno)ing ho) people s-ored
on the We-hsler digit=span test$ he -ould predi-t ho) the!
)ould rea-t to liBuor A!de and Aarold Abra#son at 5ount
Sinai Aospital #ade the sa#e kind o% observations %or LSD$
%inding$ a#ong other things$ that an : )as #ore likel! than an
, to have a bad trip CApparentl!$ an , is #ore a--usto#ed than
PAs )ith #ost o% the des-riptions o% the PAS #ade in the book$ this is an
oversi#pli%i-ation o% a #ore -o#pli-ated pro-ess "he s!ste#$ as Gittinger
used it$ !ielded #illions o% distin-t personalit! t!pes Ais observations on al-o=
hol )ere based on #u-h #ore than a straight , and : -o#parison For the #ost
-o#plete des-ription o% the PAS in the open literature$ see the arti-le b! Git=
tinger and Winne -ited in the -hapter notes
'$( S5ELLSBELECTRODES AND HC5NOSIS
an : to Gbeing into his o)n headG and losing tou-h )ith e>ter=
nal realit!E
At Gittinger?s urging$ other Au#an :-olog! grantees gave
the We-hsler batter! to their e>peri#ental sub9e-ts and sent
hi# the s-ores Ae )as building a uniBue data base on all
phases o% hu#an behavior$ and he needed sa#ples o% as #an!
distin-t groups as possible B! getting the s-ores o% a-tors$ he
-ould #ake generali.ations about )hat sort o% people #ade
good role=pla!ers 5artin Orne at Aarvard sent in s-ores o%
h!pnosis sub9e-ts$ so Gittinger -ould separate the personalit!
patterns o% those )ho easil! )ent into a tran-e %ro# those )ho
-ould not be h!pnoti.ed Gittinger -olle-ted We-hslers o% busi=
ness#en$ students$ high=pri-ed %ashion #odels$ do-tors$ and
9ust about an! other dis-rete group he -ould %ind a )a! to have
tested ,n huge nu#bers$ the We-hslers -a#e %lo)ing inM80$=
666 sets in all b! the earl! 1076sMea-h one a--o#panied b!
biographi- data With the 16 subtests he used and at least 16
possible s-ores on ea-h o% those$ no t)o We-hsler results in the
)hole sa#ple ever looked e>a-tl! the sa#e Gittinger kept a
-o#puter printout o% all 80$666 on his desk$ and he )ould %iddle
)ith the# al#ost ever! da!Mlooking -onstantl! %or ne) truths
that -ould be dra)n out o% the#
4ohn Gittinger )as interested in all %a-ets o% personalit!$ but
be-ause he )orked %or the +,A$ he e#phasi.ed deviant %or#s
Ae parti-ularl! sought out We-hslers o% people )ho had re=
9e-ted the values o% their so-iet! or )ho had so#e vi-eMhidden
or other)iseMthat -aused others to re9e-t the# B! stud!ing
the s-ores o% the de%e-tors )ho had -o#e over to the West$
Gittinger hoped to identi%! -o##on -hara-teristi-s o% #en
)ho had be-o#e traitors to their govern#ents ,% there )ere
identi%iable traits$ Agen-! operators -ould look %or the# in pro=
spe-tive spies Aarris ,sbell$ )ho ran the 5;UL"DA drug=test=
ing progra# at the Le>ington$ ;entu-k! detention hospital$
sent in the s-ores o% heroin addi-ts Gittinger )anted to kno)
)hat to look %or in people sus-eptible to drugs "he Au#an
:-olog! pro9e-t at ,onia State Aospital in 5i-higan %urnished
We-hslers o% se>ual ps!-hopaths "hese s-ores sho)ed that
people )ith un-ontrollable urges have di%%erent personalit!
patterns than so=-alled nor#als Gittinger hi#sel% 9ourne!ed to
the West +oast to test ho#ose>uals$ lesbians$ and the prosti=
tutes he intervie)ed under George White?s auspi-es in the San
THE GITTINGER ASSESSMENT S CSTEM '$'
Fran-is-o sa%ehouse With ea-h group$ he separated out the
telltale signs that #ight be a %uture indi-ator o% their se>ual
pre%eren-e in others Gittinger understood that si#pl! b! look=
ing at the We-hsler s-ores o% so#eone ne)l! tested$ he -ould
pi-k out patterns that -orresponded to behavior o% people in the
data base
"he Gittinger s!ste# )orked best )hen the "SS sta%% had a
sub9e-t?s We-hsler s-ores to anal!.e$ but Agen-! o%%i-ials -ould
not ver! )ell ask a Dussian diplo#at or an! other %oreign target
to sit do)n and take the tests During World War ,,$ OSS -hie%
Willia# Donovan had %a-ed a si#ilar proble# in tr!ing to %ind
out about Adol% Aitler?s personalit!$ and Donovan had -o##is=
ioned ps!-hoanal!st Walter Langer to #ake a long=distan-e
ps!-hiatri- pro%ile o% the Ger#an leader Langer had si%ted
through all the available data on the Fiihrer$ and that )as
e>a-tl! )hat Gittinger?s "SS assess#ents sta%% did )hen the!
la-ked dire-t -onta-t Cand )hen the! had it$ tooE "he! pored
over all the intelligen-e gathered b! operators$ agents$ bugs$
and taps and looked at sa#ples o% a #an?s hand)ritingP "he
+,A #en took the the pro-ess o% Gindire-t assess#entG one step
%urther than Langer had$ ho)ever "he! observed the target?s
behavior and looked %or revealing patterns that -orresponded
)ith traits alread! re-orded a#ong the sub9e-ts o% the 80$666
We-hsler sa#ples
Along this line$ Gittinger and his sta%% had a good idea ho)
various personalit! t!pes a-ted a%ter -onsu#ing a %e) drinks
"hus$ the! reasoned$ i% the! )at-hed a guest at a -o-ktail part!
and he started to behave in a re-ogni.able )a!Mb! )ithdra)=
PGrapholog! Chand)riting anal!sisE appealed to +,A o%%i-ials as a )a! o% sup=
ple#enting PAS assess#ents or #aking 9udg#ents )hen onl! a )ritten letter
)as available Grapholog! )as one o% the see#ingl! ar-ane %ields )hi-h the
Au#an :-olog! So-iet! had investigated and %ound operational uses %or "he
So-iet! )ound up %unding hand)riting resear-h and a publi-ation in West
Ger#an! )here the sub9e-t )as taken #u-h #ore seriousl! than in the United
States$ and it sponsored a stud! to -o#pare hand)riting anal!ses )ith
We-hsler s-ores o% a-tors Cin-luding so#e ho#ose>ualsE$ patients in ps!-ho=
therap!$ -ri#inal ps!-hopaths$ and %ashion #odels Gittinger )ent on to hire
a resident graphologist )ho -ould do the sa#e sort o% a#a.ing things )ith
hand)riting as the Oklaho#a ps!-hologist -ould do )ith We-hsler s-ores One
%or#er -olleague re-alls her spottingMa--uratel!Ma sto#a-h ail#ent in a
%oreign leader si#pl! b! reading one letter Asked in an intervie) about ho)
the Agen-! used her )ork$ she replied$ G,% the! think the! -an #anipulate a
person$ that?s none o% #! business , don?t kno) )hat the! do )ith it 5!
anal!sis )as not done )ith that intention So#ething , learned ver! earl!
in govern#ent )as not to ask BuestionsG
'$) S5ELLSBELECTR ODES AND HC5NOSIS
ing$ %or instan-eMthe! -ould #ake an edu-ated guess about his
personalit! t!peMin this -ase$ that he )as an , ,n -ontrast$ the
drunken Dussian diplo#at )ho be-a#e louder and began
pin-hing ever! )o#an )ho passed b! probabl! )as an : ,n=
stead o% using the test s-ores to predi-t ho) a person )ould
behave$ the assess#ents sta%% )as$ in e%%e-t$ looking at behavior
and )orking ba-k)ard to predi-t ho) the person )ould have
s-ored i% he had taken the test "he Gittinger sta%% developed a
)hole -he-klist o% 76 to K6 patterns that the skilled observer
-ould look %or :a-h o% these traits re%le-ted one o% the We-hsler
subtests$ and it -orresponded to so#e insight pi-ked up %ro#
the 80$666 s-ores in the data base
Was the target slopp! or neatO Did he relate to )o#en sti%%l!
or easil!O Ao) did he hold a -igarette and put it into his #outhO
When he )ent through a re-eiving line$ did he i##ediatel!
repeat the na#e o% ea-h person introdu-ed to hi#O "aken as a
)hole$ all these observations allo)ed Gittinger to #ake a rea=
soned esti#ate about a sub9e-t?s personalit!$ )ith e#phasis on
his vulnerabilities As Gittinger des-ribes the s!ste#$ G,% !ou
-ould get a sa#ple o% several kinds o% situations$ !ou -ould
begin to get so#e prett! good in%or#ationG (evertheless$ Git=
tinger had his doubts about indire-t assess#ent G, never
thought )e )ere good at this$G he sa!s
"he "SS assess#ent sta%%$ along )ith the Agen-!?s #edi-al
o%%i-e use the PAS indire-tl! to keep up the OSS tradition o%
#aking ps!-hologi-al portraits o% )orld leaders like Aitler
+o#bining anal!ti-al te-hniBues )ith gossip! intelligen-e$ the
assessors tried to give high=level US o%%i-ials a better idea o%
)hat #oved the prin-ipal international politi-al %iguresP One
su-h stud! o% an A#eri-an -iti.en spilled over into the legall!
%orbidden do#esti- area )hen in 1071 the #edi-al o%%i-e pre=
pared a pro%ile o% Daniel :llsberg at the reBuest o% the White
Aouse "o get ra) data %or the Agen-! assessors$ 4ohn :hrli-h=
#an authori.ed a break=in at :llsberg?s ps!-hiatrist?s o%%i-e in
+ali%ornia 4ohn Gittinger vehe#entl! denies that his sta%%
PA pro%ile o% Ferdinand 5ar-os %ound the Filipino president?s #assive personal
enri-h#ent )hile in o%%i-e to be a natural outgro)th o% his -ountr!?s tradition
o% putting lo!alt! to one?s %a#il! and %riends ahead o% all other -onsiderations
Agen-! assessors %ound the Shah o% ,ran to be a brilliant but dangerous
#egalo#ania- )hose proble#s resulted %ro# an overbearing %ather$ the hu=
#iliation o% having served as a puppet ruler$ and his inabilit! %or #an! !ears
to produ-e a #ale heir
THE GITTINGER ASSESSMENT SCSTEM '$*
pla!ed an! role in preparing this pro%ile$ )hi-h the White
Aouse plu#bers intended to use as a kind o% ps!-hologi-al road
#ap to -o#pro#ise :llsbergM9ust as +,A operators regularl!
)orked %ro# su-h assess#ents to e>ploit the )eaknesses o%
%oreigners
Whether used dire-tl! or indire-tl!$ the PAS gave Agen-!
-ase o%%i-ers a tool to get a better reading o% the people )ith
)ho# the! dealt +,A %ield stations overseas routinel! sent all
their %indings on a target$ along )ith indire-t assess#ent
-he-klists$ ba-k to Washington$ so headBuarters personnel
-ould de-ide )hether or not to tr! re-ruit#ent "he "SS assess=
#ent sta%% -ontributed to this pro-ess b! atte#pting to predi-t
)hat plo!s )ould )ork best on the #an in the -ase o%%i-ers?
sights GOur 9ob )as to re-o##end )hat strateg! to tr!$G sa!s
a oneti#e Gittinger -olleague "his sour-e states he had dire-t
kno)ledge o% -ases )here "SS re-o##endations led to se>ual
entrap#ent operations$ both hetero= and ho#ose>ual GWe had
)o#en read!M-alled the# a stable$G he sa!s$ and the! %ound
)illing #en )hen the! had to
One +,A ps!-hologist stresses that the PAS onl! provided
G-luesG on ho) to -o#pro#ise people G,% so#ebod!?s assess=
#ent -a#e in like the se>ual ps!-hopaths?$ it )ould raise red
%lags$G he notes But "SS sta%% assessors -ould onl! -on-lude that
the target had a potentiall! serious se> proble# "he! -ould b!
no #eans guarantee that the target?s de%enses -ould be broken
(evertheless$ the PAS helped di-tate the best )eapons %or the
atta-k G,?ve heard 4ohn QGittingerR sa! there?s al)a!s so#e=
thing that so#eone )ants$G sa!s another %or#er Agen-! ps!=
-hologist GAnd )ith the PAS !ou -an %ind out )hat it is ,t?s not
ne-essaril! se> or boo.e So#eti#es it?s status or re-ognition or
se-urit!G *et another Gittinger -olleague des-ribes this pro=
-ess as Glooking %or so%t spotsG Ae states that a%ter !ears o%
)orking )ith the s!ste#$ he still bridled at a %e) o% the #ore
%iendish )a!s Gto get at peopleG that his -olleagues drea#ed up
Ae sta!ed on until retire#ent$ ho)ever$ and he adds$ G(one o%
this )as personal ,t )as %or national se-urit! reasonsG
A %e) !ears ago$ e>=+,A ps!-hologist 4a#es ;eehner told
reporter 5aureen Orth that he personall! )ent to (e) *ork in
10<0 to give We-hsler tests to an A#eri-an nurse )ho had
volunteered her bod! %or her -ountr! GWe )anted her to sleep
)ith this Dussian$G e>plained ;eehner G:ither the Dussian
)ould %all in love )ith her and de%e-t$ or )e?d bla-k#ail hi#
'$4 S5ELLSBELECTRODES AND HC5NOSIS
, had to see i% she -ould sleep )ith hi# over a period o% ti#e
and not get involved e#otionall! Bo!$ )as she toughYG ;eehner
noted that he be-a#e disgusted )ith entrap#ent te-hniBues$
espe-iall! a%ter )at-hing a %il# o% an agent in bed )ith a Gre=
-ruit#ent targetG Ae pointed out that Agen-! -ase o%%i-ers$
#an! o% )ho# Ggot their 9olliesG %ro# su-h )ork$ used a hid=
den -a#era to get their shots "he se>ual te-hnolog! developed
in the 5;UL"DA sa%ehouses in (e) *ork and San Fran-is-o
had been put to )ork "he operation )orked no better in the
10<6s$ ho)ever$ than "SS o%%i-ials predi-ted su-h a-tivities
)ould a de-ade earlier G*ou don?t reall! re-ruit agents )ith
se>ual bla-k#ail$G ;eehner -on-luded G"hat?s )h! , -ouldn?t
even take reading the %iles a%ter a )hile , )as si-kened at
seeing people take pleasure in other people?s inadeBua-ies
First o% all$ , thought it )as 9ust du#b For all the #one! going
out$ nothing ever -a#e ba-kG
;eehner be-a#e disgusted b! the pi-king=at=s-abs aspe-t o%
"SS assess#ent )ork On-e the PAS had identi%ied a target as
having potential #ental instabilities$ sta%% #e#bers so#e=
ti#es suggested )a!s to break hi# do)n$ reasoning that b!
using a rat-hetlike approa-h to put hi# under in-reased pres=
sure$ the! #ight be able to break the lines that tied hi# to his
-ountr!$ i% not to his sanit! ;eehner stated$ G, )as sent to deal
)ith the #ost negative aspe-ts o% the hu#an -ondition ,t )as
planned destru-tiveness First$ !ou?d -he-k to see i% !ou -ould
destro! a #an?s #arriage ,% !ou -ould$ then that )ould be
enough to put a lot o% stress on the individual$ to break hi#
do)n "hen !ou #ight start a #inor ru#or -a#paign against
hi# Aarass hi# -onstantl! Bu#p his -ar in tra%%i- A lot o% it
is ridi-ulous$ but it #a! have a -u#ulative e%%e-tG Agen-! -ase
o%%i-ers #ight also use this sa#e sort o% stress=produ-ing -a#=
paign against a parti-ularl! e%%e-tive ene#! intelligen-e
o%%i-er )ho# the! kne) the! -ould never re-ruit but )ho#
the! hoped to neutrali.e
5ost operationsMin-luding #ost re-ruit#entsMdid not rel!
on su-h nast! #ethods "he -ase o%%i-er still bene%ited %ro# the
"SS sta%%s assess#ent$ but he usuall! )anted to #ini#i.e
stress rather than a--entuate it +,A operators tended to agree
that the best )a! to re-ruit an agent )as to #ake the relation=
ship as produ-tive and satis%!ing as possible %or hi#$ operating
%ro# the old adage about -at-hing #ore %lies )ith hone! than
vinegar G*ou pi-k the thing #ost %ear%ul to hi#Mthe things
)hi-h )ould -ause hi# the #ost doubt$G sa!s the sour-e G,%
his
greatest %ear is that he -an?t trust !ou to prote-t hi# and his
%a#il!$ !ou overload !our pit-h )ith !our abilit! to do it
Other
people need stru-ture$ so !ou tell the# e>a-tl! )hat the! )ill
need to do ,% !ou leave it open=ended$ the!?ll be s-ared !ou?ll
ask the# to do things the!?re in-apable o%GP
Soon a%ter the su--ess%ul re-ruit#ent o% a %oreigner to sp!
%or the +,A$ either a +,A sta%% #e#ber or a spe-iall! trained
-ase o%%i-er nor#all! sat do)n )ith the ne) agent and gave
hi# the %ull batter! o% We-hsler subtestsMa pro-ess that
took several hours "he tester never #entioned that the e>=
er-ise had an!thing to do )ith personalit! but -alled it an
GaptitudeG testM)hi-h it also is "he assess#ents o%%i-e in
Washington then anal!.ed the results As )ith the pol!=
graph$ the PAS helped tell i% the agent )ere l!ing ,t -ould
o%ten delve deeper than sur%a-e -on-epts o% true and %alse
"he PAS #ight sho) that the agent?s #otivations )ere not
in line )ith his behavior ,n that -ase$ i% the gap )ere too
great$ the -ase o%%i-er -ould e>pe-t to run up against -onsid=
erable de-eptionMresulting either %ro# espionage #otives or
ps!-hoti- tenden-ies
"he "SS sta%% assessors sent a report ba-k to the %ield on the
best )a! to deal )ith the ne) agent and the #ost e%%e-tive
#eans to e>ploit hi# "he! )ould re-o##end )hether his
-ase o%%i-er should treat hi# sternl! or per#issivel! ,% the
agent )ere an :>ternali.er )ho needed -onsiderable -o#pan=
ionship$ the assessors #ight suggest that the -ase o%%i-er tr! to
spend as #u-h ti#e )ith hi# as possibleX "he! )ould proba=
bl! re-o##end against sending this : agent on a long #ission
P"his sour-e reports that -ase o%%i-ers usuall! used this sort o%
nonthreatening
approa-h and s)it-hed to the rougher stu%% i% the target de-ided he
did not )ant
to sp! %or the +,A ,n that -ase$ sa!s the e>=+,A #an$ G!ou don?t
)ant the person
to sa! no and run o%% and tattle *ou lose an asset that )a!Mnot
in the sense
o% the -ase o%%i-er being shot$ but b! being nulli%iedG "he
spurned operator
#ight then o%%er not to reveal that the target )as -heating on his
)i%e or had
had a ho#ose>ual a%%air$ in return %or the target not dis-losing
the re-ruit#ent
atte#pt to his o)n intelligen-e servi-e
XWhile Agen-! o%%i-ials #ight also have used the PAS to sele-t
the right -ase
o%%i-er to deal )ith the : agentMone )ho )ould be able to
sustain the agent?s
need %or a -lose relationship over a long period o% ti#eMthe!
al#ost never used
the s!ste# )ith this degree o% pre-ision An Agen-! o%%i-e outside
"SS did keep
We-hslers and other test s-ores on %ile %or #ost -ase o%%i-ers$ but
the +landes=
tine Servi-es #anage#ent )as not )illing to turn over the
sele-tion o% A#eri=
-an personnel to the ps!-hologists
'$ S5ELLSBELECTRODES AND HC5NOSIS
into a hostile -ountr!$ )here he -ould not have the %riendl!
-o#pan! he -raved
Without an! help %ro# 4ohn Gittinger or his s!ste#$ -overt
operators had long been de-iding #atters like these$ )hi-h
)ere$ a%ter all$ rooted in -o##on sense 5ost -ase o%%i-ers
prided the#selves on their abilit! to pla! their agents like a
#usi-al instru#ent$ at 9ust the right te#po$ and the Gittinger
s!ste# did not shake their belie% that nothing -ould beat their
o)n intuition For#er +,A Deput! Dire-tor Da! +line e>=
presses a -o##on vie) )hen he sa!s the PAS G)as part o% the
s!ste#Mkind o% a -he-k=and=balan-eMa supposedl! s-ienti%i-
tool that )as not )eighed ver! heavil! , never put as #u-h
)eight on the ps!-hologi-al assess#ent reports as on a -ase
o%%i-er?s vie) ,n the end$ people )ent )ith their o)n opin=
ionG For#er Dire-tor Willia# +olb! %ound the assess#ent re=
ports parti-ularl! use%ul in s#oothing over that Gtrau#ati-G
period )hen a -ase o%%i-er had to pass on his agent to a repla-e=
#ent Understandabl!$ the agent o%ten sa) the s)it-h as a dan=
ger or a hardship G"he ne) gu! has to sho) so#e understand=
ing and s!#path!$G sa!s +olb!$ )ho had 76 !ears o% operational
e>perien-e hi#sel%$ Gbut it doesn?t )ork i% these %eelings are
not realG
For those Agen-! o%%i-ers )ho !earned to re#ove as #u-h o%
the hu#an ele#ent as possible %ro# agent operations$ Git=
tinger?s s!ste# )as a natural ,t redu-ed behavior to a )ork=
able %or#ula o% shorthand letters that$ )hile not insight%ul in
all respe-ts$ gave a reasonabl! a--urate des-ription o% a person
Like So-ial Se-urit! nu#bers$ su-h %or#ulas %itted )ell )ith a
-o#puteri.ed approa-h While not )anting to overe#phasi.e
the Agen-!?s relian-e on the PAS$ %or#er Dire-tor +olb! states
that the s!ste# #ade dealing )ith agents G#ore s!ste#ati.ed$
#ore pro%essionalG
,n 10<7 the +,A?s ,nspe-tor General gave the "SS assess#ent
sta%% high #arks and des-ribed ho) it %it into operationsL
"he Q+landestine Servi-esR -ase o%%i-er is %irst and %ore#ost$ per=
haps$ a pra-titioner o% the art o% assessing and e>ploiting hu#an
personalit! and #otivations %or ulterior purposes "he ingredi=
ents o% advan-ed skill in this art are highl! individualisti- in
nature$ in-luding su-h Bualities as per-eptiveness and i#agina=
tion Q"he PASR seeks to enhan-e the -ase o%%i-er?s skill b! bring=
ing the #ethods and dis-iplines o% ps!-holog! to bear "he
THE GITTINGER ASSESSMENT SCSTEM '$$
pri#e ob9e-tives are -ontrol$ e>ploitation$ or neutrali.ation
"hese ob9e-tives are innatel! anti=ethi-al rather than therapeu=
ti- in their intent
,n other )ords$ the PAS is dire-ted to)ard the relationship
bet)een the A#eri-an -ase o%%i-er and his %oreign agent$ that
lies at the heart o% espionage ,n that sense$ it a#ounts to its
o)n a-ade#i- dis-iplineMthe ps!-holog! o% sp!ingM-o#plete
)ith a>io#s and rea#s o% e#piri-al data "he business o% the
PAS$ like that o% the +,A$ is -ontrol
One %or#er +,A ps!-hologist$ )ho still %eels guilt! about his
parti-ipation in -ertain Agen-! operations$ believes that the
+,A?s %i>ation on -ontrol and #anipulation #irrors$ in a #ore
virulent %or#$ the )a! A#eri-ans deal )ith ea-h other gener=
all! G, don?t think the +,A is too %ar re#oved %ro# the -ulture$G
he sa!s G,t?s 9ust a #atter o% degree ,% !ou put a lot o% #one!
out there$ there are #an! people )ho are la-king the ethi-s
even o% the +,A At least the Agen-! had an ideologi-al basisG
"his ps!-hologist believes that the United States has be-o#e
an e>tre#el! -ontrol=oriented so-iet!M%ro# the -lassroo# to
politi-s to television advertising Sp!ing and the PAS te-h=
niBues are uniBue onl! in that the! are #ore s!ste#ati- and
se-ret
Another "SS s-ientist believes that the Agen-!?s behavioral
resear-h )as a logi-al e>tension o% the e%%orts o% A#eri-an
ps!-hologists$ ps!-hiatrists$ and so-iologists to -hange behav=
iorM)hi-h he -alls their Gsole #otivationG Su-h people #a=
nipulate their sub9e-ts in tr!ing to #ake #entall! disturbed
people )ell$ in turning -ri#inals into la)=abiding -iti.ens$ in
i#proving the )ork o% students$ and in pushing poor people to
get o%% )el%are "he sour-e -ites all o% these as e>a#ples o%
Gbehavior #odi%i-ationG %or so-iall! a--eptable reasons$ )hi-h$
like publi- attitudes to)ard sp!ing$ -hange %ro# ti#e to ti#e
GDon?t get the idea that all these behavioral s-ientists )ere ni-e
and pure$ that the! didn?t )ant to -hange an!thing$ and that
the! )ere deta-hed in their s-ien-e$G he )arns G"he! )ere up
to their ne-ks in -hanging people ,t 9ust happened that the
things the! )ere interested in )ere not al)a!s the sa#e as
)hat )e )ereG Perhaps the saving gra-e o% the behavioral
s-ientists is su##ed up b! longti#e 5;UL"DA -onsultant
5artin OrneL GWe are su%%i-ientl! ine%%e-tive so that our
%indings -an be publishedG
'$% S5ELLSBELECTRODES AND HC5NOSIS
With the PAS$ +,A o%%i-ials had a hand! tool %or so-ial engineer=
ing "he Gittinger sta%% %ound one use %or it in the sensitive area
o% sele-ting #e#bers o% %oreign poli-e and intelligen-e agen=
-ies All over the globe$ Agen-! operators have %reBuentl!
#aintained inti#ate )orking relations )ith se-urit! servi-es
that have -onsistentl! #istreated their o)n -iti.ens "he as=
sess#ents sta%% pla!ed a ke! role in -hoosing #e#bers o% the
se-ret poli-e in at least t)o -ountries )hose hu#an=rights re-=
ords are a#ong the )orld?s )orst
,n 10<1$ a--ording to "SS ps!-hologist 4ohn Winne$ the +,A
and the ;orean govern#ent )orked together to establish the
ne)l! -reated ;orean +entral ,ntelligen-e Agen-! C;+,AE "he
A#eri-an +,A station in Seoul asked headBuarters to send out
an assessor to Gsele-t the initial -adreG o% the ;+,A O%% )ent
Winne on te#porar! dut! G, set up an o%%i-e )ith t)o transla=
tors$G he re-alls$ Gand used a ;orean version o% the We-hslerG
"he Agen-! ps!-hologist gave the tests to 8@ to 76 poli-e and
#ilitar! o%%i-ers and )rote up a hal%=page report on ea-h$ list=
ing their strengths and )eaknesses Winne )anted to kno)
about ea-h -andidate?s Gabilit! to %ollo) orders$ -reativit!$ la-k
o% personalit! disorders$ #otivationM)h! he )anted out o% his
-urrent 9ob ,t )as #ostl! %or the #one!$ espe-iall! )ith the
-iviliansG "he test results )ent to the ;orean authorities$
)ho# Winne believes #ade the personnel de-isions Gin -on=
9un-tion )ith our operational peopleG
GWe )ould do a 9ob like this and never get %eedba-k$ so )e
)ere never sure )e?d done a good 9ob$G Winne -o#plains Si>=
teen !ears a%ter the end o% his #ission to Seoul and a%ter ne)s
o% ;+,A repression at ho#e and bribes to A#eri-an -ongress=
#en abroad$ Winne %eels that his best e%%orts had Gboo#er=
angedG Ae states that "ongsun Park )as not one o% the ;+,A
#en he tested
,n 10<< +,A sta%%ers$ in-luding Gittinger hi#sel%$ took part in
sele-ting #e#bers o% an eBuall! -ontroversial poli-e unit in
Urugua!Mthe anti=terrorist se-tion that %ought the "upa#aro
urban guerrillas A--ording to 4ohn +assid!$ the +,A?s deput!
station -hie% there at the ti#e$ Agen-! operators )orked to set
up this spe-ial %or-e together )ith the Agen-! %or ,nternational
Develop#ent?s Publi- Sa%et! 5ission C)hose #e#bers in=
-luded Dan 5itrione$ later kidnapped and killed b! the
"upa#arosE "he +,A=assisted poli-e -lai#ed the! )ere in a
li%e=and=death struggle against the guerrillas$ and the! used
THE GITTINGER ASSESSMENT SCSTEM '$&
in-redibl! brutal #ethods$ in-luding torture$ to sta#p out #ost
o% the Urugua!an le%t along )ith the guerrillas
While the spe-ial poli-e )ere being organi.ed$ G4ohn QGit=
tingerR -a#e do)n %or three da!s to get the progra# under=
)a!$G re-alls +assid! "hen Aans Greiner$ a Gittinger asso-i=
ate$ ran We-hslers on 86 Urugua!an -andidates One Buestion
on the in%or#ation subtest )as GAo) #an! )eeks in the !earOG
:ighteen o% the 86 said it )as KJ$ and onl! one #an got the
ans)er right CLater he )as asked about his ans)er$ and he
said he had #ade a #istakeF he #eant KJE But )hen Greiner
asked this sa#e group o% poli-e -andidates$ GWho )rote
Fa2s-E7 1J o% the 86 kne) it )as Goethe G"his tells !ou so#e=
thing about the -ulture$G notes +assid!$ )ho served the Agen-!
all over Latin A#eri-a ,t also points up the di%%i-ult! Gittinger
had in #aking the PAS )ork a-ross -ultural lines
,n an! -ase$ +,A #an +assid! %ound the assess#ent pro-ess
#ost use%ul %or sho)ing ho) to train the anti=terrorist se-tion
GA--ording to the results$ these #en )ere sho)n to have ver!
dependent ps!-hologies and the! needed strong dire-tion$G re=
-alls the no)=retired operator +assid! )as Buite pleased )ith
the -ontribution Gittinger and Greiner #ade GFor !ears , had
been dealing )ith Latin A#eri-ans$G sa!s +assid!$ Gand here$
largel! b! ps!-hologi-al tests$ one o% QGittinger?sR #en )as able
to anal!.e people he had no e>perien-e )ith and give #e so#e
insight into the# Ordinaril!$ )e )ould have 9ust sele-ted
the #en and gone to )ork on the#G
,n helping -ountries like South ;orea and Urugua! pi-k their
se-ret poli-e$ "SS sta%% #e#bers o%ten inserted a devilish t)ist
)ith the PAS "he! -ould not onl! -hoose -andidates )ho
)ould #ake good investigators$ interrogators$ or )hatever$ but
the! -ould also spot those )ho )ere #ost likel! to su--u#b to
%uture +,A blandish#ents G+ertain t!pes )ere #ore re-ruita=
ble$G states a %or#er assessor G, looked %or the# )hen , )rote
#! reports An!ti#e the +o#pan! Qthe +,AR spent #one! %or
training a %oreigner$ the ob9e-t )as that he )ould ulti#atel!
serve our -ontrol purposesG "hus$ +,A o%%i-ials )ere not -on=
tent si#pl! to )ork -losel! )ith these %oreign intelligen-e
agen-iesF the! insisted on penetrating the#$ and the PAS pro=
vided a use%ul aid
,n 1077 4ohn Gittinger and his longti#e asso-iate 4ohn Winne$
)ho pi-ked ;+,A #en$ published a basi- des-ription o% the
'%( S5ELLSBELECTRODES AND HC5NOSIS
PAS in a pro%essional 9ournal Although others had )ritten
publi-l! about the s!ste#$ this arti-le apparentl! disturbed
so#e o% the Agen-!?s po)ers$ )ho )ere then -utting ba-k on
the nu#ber o% +,A e#plo!ees at the order o% short=ti#e Dire-=
tor 4a#es S-hlesinger
Shortl! therea%ter$ Gittinger$ then @<$ stopped being presi=
dent o% Ps!-hologi-al Assess#ent Asso-iates but sta!ed on as a
-onsultant ,n 107K , )rote about Gittinger?s )ork$ albeit in-o#=
pletel!$ in Ro44i"/ S-o"e #aga.ine Gittinger )as disturbed
that dis-losure o% his +,A +onne-tion )ould hurt his pro%es=
sional reputation GAre )e tarred b! a brush be-ause )e
)orked %or the +,AOG he asked during one o% several rather
e#otional e>-hanges G,?# proud o% itG Ae sa) no ethi-al prob=
le#s in Glooking %or people?s )eaknessesG i% it helped the +,A
obtain in%or#ation$ and he de-lared that %or #an! !ears #ost
A#eri-ans thought this )as a use%ul pro-ess At %irst$ he o%%ered
to give #e the We-hsler tests and prepare a personalit! assess=
#ent to e>plain the s!ste#$ but Agen-! o%%i-ials prohibited his
doing so G, )as given no e>planation$G said the obviousl!
disappointed Gittinger G,?# ver! proud o% #! pro%essional
)ork$ and , had looked %or)ard to being able to e>plain itG
,n August 1077 Gittinger publi-l! testi%ied in Senate hearings
While he obviousl! )ould have pre%erred talking about his
ps!-hologi-al resear-h$ his #ost persistent Buestioner$ Senator
:d)ard ;enned!$ )as #u-h #ore interested in bringing out
sensational details about prostitutes and drug testing A proud
#an$ Gittinger %elt Ghu#iliatedG b! the e>perien-e$ )hi-h
ended )ith hi# looking %oolish on national television "he ne>t
#onth$ the testi#on! o% his %or#er asso-iate$ David Dhodes$
%urther bruised Gittinger Dhodes told the ;enned! sub-o#=
#ittee about Gittinger?s role in leading the GGang that +ouldn?t
Spra! StraightG in an abortive atte#pt to test LSD in aerosol
-ans on un)itting sub9e-ts Gittinger does not )ant his pla-e in
histor! to be deter#ined b! this kind o% a-tivit! Ae )ould like
to see his Personalit! Assess#ent S!ste# a--epted as an i#por=
tant -ontribution to s-ien-e
"ired o% the -ontrovers! and )orn do)n b! tr!ing to e>plain
the PAS$ Gittinger has #oved ba-k to his native Oklaho#a Ae
took a -op! o% the 80$666 We-hsler results )ith hi#$ but he has
lost his ardor %or )orking )ith the# A hand%ul o% ps!-holo=
gists around the -ountr! still s)ear b! the s!ste# and tr! to
pass it on to others One$ )ho uses it in private pra-ti-e$ sa!s
THE GITTINGER ASSESSMENT SCSTEM '%'
that in therap! it saves si> #onths in understanding the pa=
tient "his ps!-hologist takes a %ull reading o% his patient?s
personalit! )ith the PAS$ and then he varies his treat#ent to
%it the person?s proble#s Ae believes that #ost A#eri-an ps!=
-hologists and ps!-hiatrists treat their patients the sa#e$
)hereas the PAS is designed to identi%! the di%%eren-es be=
t)een people Gittinger ver! #u-h hopes that others )ill a-=
-ept this vie) and #ove his s!ste# into the #ainstrea# G,t
#eans nothing unless , -an get so#eone else to )ork on it$G he
de-lares Given the pre-on-eptions o% the ps!-hologi-al -o#=
#unit!$ the inevitable taint arising %ro# the +,A?s role in de=
veloping the s!ste#$ and Gittinger?s la-k o% a-ade#i- -reden=
tials and energ!$ his )ish )ill probabl! not be %ul%illed
CHAPTER
11
H'PNOSIS
(o #ind=-ontrol te-hniBue has #ore -aptured popular i#agi=
nationMand kindled %earsMthan h!pnosis 5en have long
drea#ed the! -ould use over)hel#ing h!pnoti- po)ers to
-o#pel others to do their bidding And )hen +,A o%%i-ials insti=
tutionali.ed that drea# in the earl! +old War Da!s$ the! tried$
like #odern=da! Svengalis$ to use h!pnosis to %or-e their %avors
on un)itting vi-ti#s
One group o% pro%essional e>perts$ as )ell as popular novel=
ists$ argued that h!pnosis )ould lead to #a9or breakthroughs
in sp!ing Another bod! o% e>perts believed the opposite "he
Agen-! #en$ )ho did not %ull! trust the a-ade#i-s an!)a!$
listened to both points o% vie) and kept looking %or appli-ations
)hi-h %it their o)n spe-ial needs "o the#$ h!pnosis o%%ered too
#u-h pro#ise not to be pursued$ but %inding the ans)ers )as
su-h an elusive and dangerous pro-ess that 16 !ears a%ter the
progra# started +,A o%%i-ials )ere still sear-hing %or pra-ti-al
uses
"he +,A?s %irst behavioral resear-h -.ar$ 5orse Allen o% AD=
",+AO;:$ )as intrigued b! h!pnosis Ae read ever!thing he
-ould get his hands on$ and in 10@1 he )ent to (e) *ork %or a
%our=da! -ourse %ro# a )ell=kno)n stage h!pnotist "his h!p=
notist had taken the Svengali legend to heart$ and he bo#=
barded Allen )ith tales o% ho) he used h!pnosis to sedu-e
!oung )o#en Ae told the AD",+AO;: -hie% that he had -on=
vin-ed one #es#eri.ed lad! that he )as her husband and that
she desperatel! )anted hi# "hat kind o% de-eption has a pla-e
HC5NOSIS '%*
in -overt operations$ and 5orse Allen )as su%%i-ientl! i#=
pressed to report ba-k to his bosses the h!pnotist?s -lai# that
Ghe spent appro>i#atel! %ive nights a )eek a)a! %ro# ho#e
engaging in se>ual inter-ourseG
Apart %ro# the bragging$ the stage h!pnotist did give 5orse
Allen a short edu-ation in ho) to -apture a sub9e-t?s attention
and indu-e a tran-e Allen returned to Washington #ore -on=
vin-ed than ever o% the bene%its o% )orking h!pnosis into the
AD",+AO;: repertor! and o% the need to build a de%ense
against it With per#ission %ro# above$ he de-ided to take his
h!pnosis studies %urther$ right in his o)n o%%i-e Ae asked
!oung +,A se-retaries to sta! a%ter )ork and ran the# through
the h!pnoti- pa-esMproving to his o)n satis%a-tion that he
-ould #ake the# do )hatever he )anted Ae had se-retaries
steal S:+D:" %iles and pass the# on to total strangers$ thus
violating the #ost basi- +,A se-urit! rules Ae got the# to steal
%ro# ea-h other and to start %ires Ae #ade one o% the# report
to the bedroo# o% a strange #an and then go into a deep sleep
G"his a-tivit! -learl! indi-ates that individuals under h!pnosis
#ight be -o#pro#ised and bla-k#ailed$G Allen )rote
On Februar! 10$ 10@K$ 5orse Allen si#ulated the ulti#ate
e>peri#ent in h!pnosisL the -reation o% a G5an-hurian +andi=
date$G or progra##ed assassin Allen?s Gvi-ti#G )as a se-re=
tar! )ho# he put into a deep tran-e and told to keep sleeping
until he ordered other)ise Ae then h!pnoti.ed a se-ond se-re=
tar! and told her that i% she -ould not )ake up her %riend$ Gher
rage )ould be so great that she )ould not hesitate to ?kill? G
Allen le%t a pistol nearb!$ )hi-h the se-retar! had no )a! o%
kno)ing )as unloaded :ven though she had earlier e>pressed
a %ear o% %irear#s o% an! kind$ she pi-ked up the gun and GshotG
her sleeping %riend A%ter Allen brought the GkillerG out o% her
tran-e$ she had apparent a#nesia %or the event$ den!ing she
)ould ever shoot an!one
With this e>peri#ent$ 5orse Allen took the testing as %ar as
he -ould on a #ake=believe basis$ but he )as neither satis%ied
nor -onvin-ed that h!pnosis )ould produ-e su-h spe-ta-ular
results in an operational setting All he %elt he had proved )as
that an i#pressionable !oung volunteer )ould a--ept a -o#=
#and %ro# a legiti#ate authorit! %igure to take an a-tion she
#a! have sensed )ould not end in traged! She presu#abl!
trusted the +,A enough as an institution and 5orse Allen as an
individual to believe he )ould not let her do an!thing )rong
'%4 S5ELLSBELECTRODES AND HC5NOSIS
"he e>peri#ental setting$ in e%%e-t$ legiti#ated her behavior
and prevented it %ro# being trul! antiso-ial
:arl! in 10@K$ Allen al#ost got his -han-e to tr! the -ru-ial
test A--ording to a +,A do-u#ent$ the sub9e-t )as to be a
7@=!ear=old$ )ell=edu-ated %oreigner )ho had on-e )orked %or
a %riendl! se-ret servi-e$ probabl! the +,A itsel% Ae had no)
shi%ted his lo!alt! to another govern#ent$ and the +,A )as
Buite upset )ith hi# "he Agen-! plan )as to h!pnoti.e hi#
and progra# hi# into #aking an assassination atte#pt Ae
)ould then be arrested at the least %or atte#pted #urder and
Gthereb! disposed o%G "he s-enario had several holes in it$ as
the operators presented it to the AD",+AO;: tea# First$ the
sub9e-t )as to be involuntar! and un)itting$ and as !et no one
had -o#e up )ith a -onsistentl! e%%e-tive )a! o% h!pnoti.ing
su-h people Se-ond$ the AD",+AO;: tea# )ould have onl!
li#ited -ustod! o% the sub9e-t$ )ho )as to be snat-hed %ro# a
so-ial event Allen understood that it )ould probabl! take
#onths o% painstaking )ork to prepare the #an %or a sophis=
ti-ated -overt operation "he sub9e-t )as highl! unlikel! to
per%or# a%ter 9ust one -o##and *et$ so an>ious )ere the AD=
",+AO;: #en to tr! the e>peri#ent that the! )ere )illing to
go ahead even under these un%avorable -onditionsL G"he %inal
ans)er )as that in vie) o% the %a-t that su--ess%ul -o#pletion
o% this proposed a-t o% atte#pted assassination )as insigni%i=
-ant to the overall pro9e-tF to )it$ )hether it )as even -arried
out or not$ that under ?-rash -onditions? and appropriate au=
thorit! %ro# AeadBuarters$ the AD",+AO;: tea# wo24d un=
dertake the proble# in spite o% the operational li#itationsG
"his operation never took pla-e :ager to be unleashed$
5orse Allen kept reBuesting prolonged a--ess to operational
sub9e-ts$ su-h as the double agents and de%e-tors on )ho# he
)as allo)ed to )ork a da! or t)o (ot ever! double agent )ould
do "he -andidate had to be a#ong the one person in %ive )ho
#ade a good h!pnoti- sub9e-t$ and he needed to have a disso-ia=
tive tenden-! to separate part o% his personalit! %ro# the #ain
bod! o% his -ons-iousness "he hope )as to take an e>isting ego
stateMsu-h as an i#aginar! -hildhood pla!#ateMand build it
into a separate personalit!$ unkno)n to the %irst "he h!pnotist
)ould -o##uni-ate dire-tl! )ith this s-hi.ophreni- o%%shoot
and -o##and it to -arr! out spe-i%i- deeds about )hi-h the
#ain personalit! )ould kno) nothing "here )ould be inevita=
ble leakage bet)een the t)o personalities$ parti-ularl! in
HC5NOSIS '%5
drea#sF but i% the h!pnotists )ere -lever enough$ he -ould
build in -over stories and sa%et! valves )hi-h )ould prevent
the sub9e-t %ro# a-ting in-onsistentl!
All during the spring and su##er o% 10@K$ 5orse Allen lob=
bied %or per#ission to tr! )hat he -alled Gter#inal e>peri=
#entsG in h!pnosis$ in-luding one along the %ollo)ing s-e=
narioL
+,A o%%i-ials )ould re-ruit an agent in a %riendl! %oreign
-ountr! )here the Agen-! -ould -ount on the -ooperation o% the
lo-al poli-e %or-e +,A -ase o%%i-ers )ould train the agent to
pose as a le%tist and report on the lo-al -o##unist part! Dur=
ing training$ a skilled h!pnotist )ould h!pnoti.e hi# under the
guise o% giving hi# #edi-al treat#ent Cthe %avorite AD",=
+AO;: -over %or h!pnosisE "he h!pnotist )ould then provide
the agent )ith in%or#ation and tell hi# to %orget it all )hen he
snapped out o% the tran-e On-e the agent had been properl!
-onditioned and prepared$ he )ould be sent into a-tion as a +,A
sp! "hen Agen-! o%%i-ials )ould tip o%% the lo-al poli-e that the
#an )as a dangerous -o##unist agent$ and he )ould be ar=
rested "hrough their liaison arrange#ent )ith the poli-e$
Agen-! -ase o%%i-ers )ould be able to )at-h and even guide the
-ourse o% the interrogation ,n this )a!$ the! -ould ans)er
#an! o% their Buestions about h!pnosis on a live guinea pig
)ho believed his li%e )as in danger Spe-i%i-all!$ the #en %ro#
AD",+AO;: )anted to kno) ho) )ell h!pnoti- a#nesia held
up against torture +ould the a#nesia be broken )ith drugsO
One do-u#ent noted that the Agen-! -ould even send in a ne)
h!pnotist to tr! his hand at -ra-king through the -o##ands o%
the %irst one Perhaps the #ost -!ni-al part o% the )hole s-he#e
-a#e at the end o% the proposalL G,n the event that the agent
should break do)n and ad#it his -onne-tion )ith US intelli=
gen-e$ )e aE den! this absolutel! and advise the agent?s dis=
posal$ or bE indi-ate that the agent #a! have been dispat-hed
b! so#e other organ o% US intelligen-e and that )e should
therea%ter run the agent 9ointl! )ith Qthe lo-al intelligen-e ser=
vi-eRG
An AD",+AO;: tea# )as s-heduled to -arr! out %ield tests
along these lines in the su##er o% 10@K "he planning got to an
advan-ed stage$ )ith the AD",+AO;: -o##and -enter in
Washington -abling overseas %or the Gti#e$ pla-e$ and bodies
available %or ter#inal e>peri#entsG "hen another -able -o#=
plained o% the Gdi#inishing nu#bersG o% sub9e-ts available %or
'% S5ELLSBELECTRODES AND HC5NOSIS
these tests At this point$ the available re-ord be-o#es ver!
%u..! "he #inutes o% an AD",+AO;: )orking group #eeting
indi-ate that a ke! Agen-! o%%i-ialMprobabl! the station -hie%
in the -ountr! )here the e>peri#ents )ere going to take pla-e
Mhad se-ond thoughts One parti-ipant at the #eeting$ obvi=
ousl! rankled b! the obstru-tionis#$ said i% this na!=sa!er did
not -hange his attitude$ AD",+AO;: o%%i-ials )ould have the
Dire-tor hi#sel% order the o%%i-ial to go along
Although short=ter# interrogations o% un)itting sub9e-ts
)ith drugs and h!pnosis Cthe GAG treat#entE -ontinued$ the
#ore -o#pli-ated tests apparentl! never did get going under
the AD",+AO;: banner B! the end o% the !ear$ 10@K$ Allen
Dulles took the behavioral=resear-h %un-tion a)a! %ro# 5orse
Allen and gave it to Sid Gottlieb and the #en %ro# 5;UL"DA
Allen had dire-tl! pursued the goal o% -reating a 5an-hurian
+andidate$ )hi-h he -learl! believed )as possible 5;UL"DA
o%%i-ials )ere 9ust as interested in %inding )a!s to assert -ontrol
over people$ but the! had #u-h less %aith in the %rontal=assault
approa-h pushed b! Allen For the#$ %inding the 5an-hurian
+andidate be-a#e a %igurative e>er-ise "he! did not give up
the drea# "he! si#pl! pursued it in s#aller steps$ al)a!s
hoping to in-rease the per-entages in their %avor 4ohn Git=
tinger$ the 5;UL"DA -ase o%%i-er on h!pnosis$ states$ GPredi-t=
able absolute -ontrol is not possible on a parti-ular individual
An! ps!-hologist$ ps!-hiatrist$ or prea-her -an get -ontrol over
-ertain kinds o% individuals$ but that?s not a predi-table$ de%i=
nite thingG Gittinger adds that despite his belie% to this e%%e-t$
he %elt he had to give Ga %air shakeG to people )ho )anted to
tr! out ideas to the -ontrar!
Gottlieb and his -olleagues had alread! been doing h!pnosis
resear-h %or t)o !ears "he! did a %e) basi- e>peri#ents in the
o%%i-e$ as 5orse Allen did$ but the! %ar#ed out #ost o% the )ork
to a !oung PhD -andidate at the Universit! o% 5innesota$
Alden Sears Sears$ )ho later #oved his +,A stud! pro9e-t to the
Universit! o% Denver$ )orked )ith student sub9e-ts to de%ine
the nature o% h!pnosis A#ong #an! other things$ he looked
into several o% the areas that )ould be building blo-ks in the
-reation o% a 5an-hurian +andidate +ould a h!pnotist indu-e
a totall! separate personalit!O +ould a sub9e-t be sent on #is=
sions he )ould not re#e#ber unless -ued b! the h!pnotistO
Sears$ )ho has sin-e be-o#e a 5ethodist #inister$ re%used to
talk about #ethods he e>peri#ented )ith to build se-ond iden=
HC5NOSIS '%$
titlesP B! 10@7$ he )rote that the e>peri#ents that needed to be
done G-ould not be handled in the Universit! situationG Unlike
5orse Allen$ he did not )ant to per%or# the ter#inal e>peri=
#ents
5ilton ;line$ a (e) *ork ps!-hologist )ho sa!s he also did
not )ant to -ross the ethi-al line but is sure the intelligen-e
agen-ies have$ served as an unpaid -onsultant to Sears and
other +,A h!pnosis resear-h (othing Sears or others %ound
disabused hi# o% the idea that the 5an-hurian +andidate is
possible G,t -annot be done b! ever!one$G sa!s ;line$ G,t -annot
be done -onsistentl!$ but it -an be doneG
A oneti#e president o% the A#eri-an So-iet! %or +lini-al and
:>peri#ental A!pnosis$ ;line )as one o% #an! outside e>perts
to )ho# Gittinger and his -olleagues talked Other -onsultants$
)ith eBuall! i#pressive -redentials$ re9e-ted ;line?s vie)s ,n
no other area o% the behavioral s-ien-es )as there so little
a--ord on basi- Buestions G*ou -ould %ind an e>pert )ho )ould
agree )ith ever!thing$G sa!s Gittinger G"here%ore$ )e tried to
get ever!bod!G
"he 5;UL"DA #en state that the! got too #an! unsoli-ited
suggestions on ho) to use h!pnosis in -overt operations G"he
operators )ould ask us %or eas! solutions$G re-alls a veteran
GWe there%ore kept a laundr! list o% )h! the! -ouldn?t have
)hat the! )anted We spent a lot o% ti#e telling so#e !oung kid
)hose idea )e had heard a hundred ti#es )h! it )ouldn?t
)ork We )ould )ind up e>plaining )h! !ou -ouldn?t have a
%ree lun-hG "his veteran #entions an e>a#pleL +,A operators
put a great deal o% ti#e and #one! into servi-ing Gdead dropsG
C-overt #ail pi-kup points$ su-h as a hollo) treeE in the Soviet
Union ,% a -olle-tor )as -aptured$ he )as likel! to give a)a!
the lo-ations "here%ore Agen-! #en suggested that "SS %ind a
)a! to h!pnoti.e these se-ret #ail#en$ so the! -ould )ithstand
interrogation and even torture i% arrested
5orse Allen had )anted to per%or# the Gter#inal e>peri=
#entG to see i% a h!pnoti-all! indu-ed a#nesia )ould stand up
to torture Gittinger sa!s that as %ar as he kno)s$ this e>peri=
PSears still #aintains the %i-tion that he thought he )as dealing onl! )ith a
private %oundation$ the Ges-hi-kter Fund$ and that he kne) nothing o% the +,A
involve#ent in %unding his )ork *et a +,A do-u#ent in his 5;UL"DA suh=
pro9e-t sa!s he )as Ga)are o% the real purposeG o% the pro9e-tG 5oreover$ Sid
Gottlieb brought hi# to Washington in 10@K to de#onstrate h!pnosis to a sele-t
group o% Agen-! o%%i-ials
'%% S5ELLSBELECTRODES AND HC5NOSIS
#ent )as never -arried out G, still like to think )e )ere
hu#an beings enough that this )as not so#ething )e pla!ed
)ith$G sa!s Gittinger Su-h an e>peri#ent -ould have been per=
%or#ed$ as Allen suggested$ b! %riendl! poli-e in a -ountr! like
"ai)an or Paragua! +,A #en did at least dis-uss 9oint )ork in
h!pnosis )ith a %oreign se-ret servi-e in 10<8P Whether the!
)ent %urther si#pl! -annot be said
Assu#ing the a#nesia )ould hold$ the 5;UL"DA veteran
sa!s the proble# )as ho) to trigger it Perhaps the Dussian
phrase #eaning G*ou?re under arrestG -ould be used as a pre=
progra##ed -ue$ but )hat i% the poli-e did not use these )ords
as the! -aptured the -olle-torO Perhaps the ph!si-al sensation
o% hand-u%%s being snapped on -ould do it$ but a #etal )at-h=
band -ould have the sa#e e%%e-t A--ording to the veteran$ in
the abstra-t$ the s-he#e sounded %ine$ but in pra-ti-alit!$ a
%oolproo% )a! o% triggering the a#nesia -ould not be %ound
G*ou had to a--ept that )hen so#eone is -aught$ the!?re going
to tell so#e things$G he sa!s
5;UL"DA o%%i-ials$ in-luding Gittinger$ did re-o##end the
use o% h!pnosis in operational e>peri#ents on at least one o--a=
sion ,n 10@0 an i#portant double agent$ operating outside his
ho#eland$ told his Agen-! -ase o%%i-er that he )as a%raid to go
ho#e again be-ause he did not think he -ould )ithstand the
tough interrogation that his govern#ent used on returning
overseas agents ,n Washington$ the operators approa-hed the
"SS #en about using h!pnosis$ ba-ked up )ith drugs$ to
-hange the agent?s attitude "he! hoped the! -ould instill in
hi# the Gabilit! or the ne-essar! )illG to hold up under Bues=
tioning
An 5;UL"DA o%%i-ialMal#ost -ertainl! GittingerMheld a
series o% #eetings over a t)o=)eek period )ith the operators
and )rote that the agent )as Ga better than averageG h!pnoti-
sub9e-t$ but that his goal )as to get out o% intelligen-e )orkL
"he agent Gprobabl! -an be #otivated to #ake at least one
return visit to his ho#eland b! appli-ation o% an! one o% a
PUnder #! Freedo# o% ,n%or#ation suit$ the +,A spe-i%i-all! denied a--ess to
the do-u#ents -on-erning the testing o% h!pnosis and ps!-hedeli- drugs in
-ooperation )ith %oreign intelligen-e agen-ies "he 9usti%i-ation given )as that
releasing su-h do-u#ents )ould reveal intelligen-e sour-es and #ethods$
)hi-h are e>e#pted b! la) "he h!pnosis e>peri#ent )as never -arried out$
a--ording to the generi- des-ription o% the do-u#ent )hi-h the Agen-! had to
provide in e>plaining )h! it had to be )ithheld
HC5NOSIS '%&
nu#ber o% te-hniBues$ in-luding h!pnosis$ but he #a! rede%e-t
in the pro-essG "he 5;UL"DA o%%i-ial -ontinued that h!pno=
sis probabl! -ould not produ-e an Goperationall! use%ulG de=
gree o% a#nesia %or the events o% the re-ent past or %or the
h!pnoti- treat#ent itsel% that the agent Gprobabl! has the na=
tive abilit! to )ithstand ordinar! interrogation provided it
is to his advantage to do soG
"he 5;UL"DA o%%i-e re-o##ended that despite the rela=
tivel! negative outlook %or the h!pnosis$ the Agen-! should
pro-eed an!)a! "he operation had the advantage o% having a
G%ail=sa%eG #e-hanis# be-ause the level o% h!pnosis -ould be
tested out be%ore the agent a-tuall! had to return 5oreover$ the
5;UL"DA #en %elt Gthat a -onsiderable a#ount o% use%ul
e>perien-e -an be gained %ro# this operation )hi-h -ould be
used to i#prove Agen-! -apabilit! in %uture appli-ationsG ,n
e%%e-t$ the! )ould be using h!pnosis not as the lin-hpin o% the
operation$ but as an ad9un-t to help #otivate the agent
Sin-e the proposed operation involved the use o% h!pnosis
and drugs$ %inal approval -ould onl! be given b! the high=level
+landestine Servi-es -o##ittee set up %or this purpose and
-haired b! Di-hard Ael#s Per#ission )as not %orth-o#ing
,n 4une 10<6 "SS o%%i-ials laun-hed an e>panded progra# o%
operational e>peri#ents in h!pnosis in -ooperation )ith the
Agen-!?s +ounterintelligen-e Sta%% "he legendar! 4a#es An=
gletonMthe protot!pe %or the title -hara-ter Sa>onton in Aaron
Latha#?s O.!3ids +o. Mo-3e. and %or Wellington in Ii-tor
5ar-hetti?s T3e Ro,e Da"!e.Mheaded +ounterintelligen-e$
)hi-h took on so#e o% the +,A?s #ost sensitive #issions Cin=
-luding the illegal Agen-! sp!ing against do#esti- dissidentsE
+ounterintelligen-e o%%i-ials )rote that the h!pnosis progra#
-ould provide a Gpotential breakthrough in -landestine te-h=
nolog!G "heir arrange#ent )ith "SS )as that the 5;UL"DA
#en )ould develop the te-hniBue in the laborator!$ )hile the!
took -are o% G%ield e>peri#entationG
"he +ounterintelligen-e progra# had three goalsL C1E to in=
du-e h!pnosis ver! rapidl! in un)itting sub9e-tsF C8E to -reate
durable a#nesiaF and C7E to i#plant durable and operationall!
use%ul posth!pnoti- suggestion "he Agen-! released no in%or=
#ation on an! G%ield e>peri#entationG o% the latter t)o goals$
)hi-h o% -ourse are the building blo-ks o% the 5an-hurian
+andidate Agen-! o%%i-ials provided onl! one heavil! -ensored
do-u#ent on the %irst goal$ rapid indu-tion
'&( S5ELLSBELECTRODES AND HC5NOSIS
,n O-tober 10<6 the 5;UL"DA progra# invested S0$666 in
an outside -onsultant to develop a )a! o% Bui-kl! h!pnoti.ing
an un)itting sub9e-t 4ohn Gittinger sa!s the pro-ess -onsisted
o% surprising Gso#ebod! sitting in a -hair$ putting !our hands
on his %orehead$ and telling the gu! to go to sleepG "he #ethod
)orked G%antasti-all!G on -ertain people$ in-luding so#e on
)ho# no other te-hniBue )as e%%e-tive$ and not on others G,t
)asn?t that predi-table$G notes Gittinger$ )ho states he kno)s
nothing about the %ield testing
"he test$ noted in that one released do-u#ent$ did not take
pla-e until 4ul! 10<7Ma %ull three !ears a%ter the +ounterintel=
ligen-e e>peri#ental progra# began$ during )hi-h interval
the Agen-! is -lai#ing that no other %ield e>peri#ents took
pla-e A--ording to a +,A #an )ho parti-ipated in this test$ the
+ounterintelligen-e Sta%% in Washington asked the +,A station
in 5e>i-o +it! to %ind a suitable -andidate %or a rapid indu-tion
e>peri#ent "he station proposed a lo)=level agent$ )ho# the
Soviets had apparentl! doubled A +ounterintelligen-e #an
%le) in %ro# Washington and a h!pnoti- -onsultant arrived
%ro# +ali%ornia Our sour-e and a %ello) -ase o%%i-er brought
the agent to a #otel roo# on a prete>t G, pu%%ed hi# up )ith
his i#portan-e$G sa!s the Agen-! #an G, said the bosses
)anted to see hi# and o% -ourse give hi# #ore #one!G Wait=
ing in an ad9oining roo# )as the h!pnoti- -onsultant At a
prearranged ti#e$ the t)o -ase o%%i-ers gentl! grabbed hold o%
the agent and tipped his -hair over until the ba-k )as tou-hing
the %loor "he -onsultant )as supposed to rush in at that pre-ise
#o#ent and appl! the te-hniBue (othing happened "he -on=
sultant %ro.e$ unable to do the deed G*ou -an i#agine )hat )e
had to do to -over=up$G sa!s the o%%i-ial$ )ho )as literall! le%t
holding the agent GWe e>plained )e had heard a noise$ got
e>-ited$ and tipped hi# do)n to prote-t hi# Ae )as so grubb!
%or #one! he )ould have believed an! e>-useG
"here -ertainl! is a huge di%%eren-e bet)een the li#ited ai#
o% this bungled operation and one ai#ed at building a 5an=
-hurian +andidate "he 5;UL"DA veteran #aintains that he
and his -olleagues )ere not interested in a progra##ed assas=
sin be-ause the! kne) in general it )ould not )ork and$ spe-i%i=
-all!$ that the! -ould not e>ert total -ontrol G,% !ou have one
hundred per-ent -ontrol$ !ou have one hundred per-ent depen=
den-!$G he sa!s G,% so#ething happens and !ou haven?t pro=
gra##ed it in$ !ou?ve got a proble# ,% !ou tr! to put %le>ibilit!
HC5NOSIS '&'
in$ !ou lose -ontrol "o the e>tent !ou let the agent -hoose$ !ou
don?t have -ontrolG Ae ad#its that he and his -olleagues spent
hours running the argu#ents on the 5an-hurian +andidate
ba-k and %orth G+astro )as naturall! our dis-ussion point$G he
de-lares G+ould !ou get so#ebod! gung=ho enough that the!
)ould go in and get hi#OG ,n the end$ he states$ the! de-ided
there )ere #ore reliable )a!s to kill people G*ou -an get e>=
a-tl! the sa#e thing %ro# people )ho are h!pnoti.able b!
#an! other )a!s$ and !ou -an?t get an!thing out o% people )ho
are not h!pnoti.able$ so it has no use$G sa!s Gittinger
"he onl! real gain in e#plo!ing a h!pnoti.ed killer )ould be$
in theor!$ that he )ould not re#e#ber )ho ordered hi# to pull
the trigger *et$ at least in the +astro -ase$ the +uban leader
alread! kne) )ho )as a%ter hi# 5oreover$ there )ere plent!
o% people around )illing to take on the +astro -ontra-t GA
)ell=trained person -ould do it )ithout all this #u#bo=9u#bo$G
sa!s the 5;UL"DA veteran B! going to the 5a%ia %or hit#en$
+,A o%%i-ials in an! -ase %ound killers )ho had a built=in a#ne=
sia #e-hanis# that had nothing to do )ith h!pnosisP
"he 5;UL"DA veteran gives #an! reasons )h! he believes
the +,A never a-tuall! tried a 5an-hurian +andidate opera=
tion$ but he a-kno)ledges that he does not kno)X ,% the ulti=
#ate e>peri#ents )ere per%or#ed$ the! )ould have been han=
dled )ith in-redible se-re-! ,t )ould see#$ ho)ever$ that the
sa#e kind o% reasoning that i#pelled Sid Gottlieb to re-o#=
#end testing po)er%ul drugs on un)itting sub9e-ts )ould have
led to e>peri#entation along su-h lines$ i% not to -reate the
5an-hurian +andidate itsel%$ on so#e o% the building blo-ks$
PDe%erring to this +,A=#ob relationship$ author Dobert Sa# Anson has )rit=
ten$ G,t )as inevitableL Gentle#en )ishing to be killers gravitated to killers
)ishing to be gentle#enG
X"he veteran ad#its that none o% the argu#ents he uses against a -onditioned
assassin )ould appl! to a progra##ed Gpats!G )ho# a h!pnotist -ould )alk
through a series o% see#ingl! unrelated eventsMa visit to a store$ a -onversa=
tion )ith a #ail#an$ pi-king a %ight at a politi-al rall! "he sub9e-t )ould
re#e#ber ever!thing that happened to hi# and be a#nesi- onl! %or the %a-t
the h!pnotist ordered hi# to do these things "here )ould be no gaping in-on=
sisten-! in his li%e o% the sort that -an ruin an atte#pt b! a h!pnotist to -reate
a se-ond personalit! "he purpose o% this e>er-ise is to leave a -ir-u#stantial
trail that )ill #ake the authorities think the pats! -o##itted a parti-ular
-ri#e "he )eakness #ight )ell be that the a#nesia )ould not hold up under
poli-e interrogation$ but that )ould not #atter i% the poli-e did not believe his
preposterous stor! about being h!pnoti.ed or i% he )ere shot resisting arrest
A!pnosis e>pert 5ilton ;line sa!s he -ould -reate a pats! in three #onthsF an
assassin )ould take hi# si>
'&) S5ELLSBELECTRODES AND HC5NOSIS
or lesser antiso-ial a-ts :ven i% the 5;UL"DA #en did not
think h!pnosis )ould )ork operationall!$ the! had not let that
-onsideration prevent the# %ro# tr!ing out nu#erous other
te-hniBues "he 5;UL"DA -hie% -ould even have used a de=
%ensive rationaleL Ae had to %ind out i% the Dussians -ould plant
a GsleeperG killer in our #idst$ 9ust as Di-hard +ondon?s novel
dis-ussed
,% the assassin s-enario see#ed e>aggerated$ Gottlieb still
)ould have )anted to kno) )hat other uses the Dussians
#ight tr! +ertainl!$ he -ould have %ound relativel! Ge>pend=
ableG sub9e-ts$ as he and 5orse Allen had %or other behavior=
-ontrol e>peri#ents And even i% the 5;UL"DA #en reall!
did restrain the#selves$ it is unlikel! that 4a#es Angleton and
his -ounterintelligen-e -re) )ould have a-ted in su-h a li#=
ited %ashion )hen the! %elt the! )ere on the verge o% a Gbreak=
through in -landestine te-hnolog!G
PART
IV
CONCLUSIONS
,? # a pro%essional and , 9ust don?t talk
about these things Lots o% things are not %it
%or the publi- "his has nothing to do )ith
de#o-ra-! ,t has to do )ith -o##on
sense MGDA",O( A *AS:":I,"+A$ 107J
Ce>plaining )h! he did not )ant to be
intervie)ed %or this bookE
"o hope that the po)er that is being #ade
available b! the behavioral s-ien-es )ill
be e>er-ised b! the s-ientists$ or b! a be=
nevolent group$ see#s to #e to be a hope
little supported b! either re-ent or distant
histor! ,t see#s %ar #ore likel! that be=
havioral s-ientists$ holding their present
attitudes$ )ill be in the position o% the Ger=
#an ro-ket s-ientists spe-iali.ing in
guided #issiles First the! )orked devot=
edl! %or Aitler to destro! the USSD and the
United States (o)$ depending on )ho -ap=
tured the# the! )ork devotedl! %or the
USSD in the interest o% destro!ing the
United States$ or devotedl! %or the United
States in the interest o% destro!ing the
USSD ,% behavioral s-ientists are -on=
-erned solel! )ith advan-ing their s-ien-e$
it see#s #ost probable that the! )ill serve
the purpose o% )hatever group has the
po)er M+ADL DOG:DS$
10<1

THE
SEARCH
FOR THE TRUTH
Sid Gottlieb )as one o%
#an! +,A o%%i-ials )ho
tried to %ind a
)a! to assassinate Fidel
+astro +astro survived$ o%
-ourse$ and
his vi-tor! over the
Agen-! in April 10<1 at
the Ba! o% Pigs put
the Agen-! in the
headlines %or the %irst ti#e$
in a ver! un%avor=
able light A#ong the
%ias-o?s #an!
-onseBuen-es )as Gott=
lieb?s loss o% the resear-h
part o% the +,A?s
behavior=-ontrol
progra#s Still$ he and
the others kept tr!ing to
kill +astro
,n the a%ter#ath o% the
Ba! o% Pigs$ President
;enned! re=
portedl! vo)ed to splinter
the +,A into a thousand
pie-es ,n
the end$ he settled %or
%iring Allen Dulles and his
top deputies
"o head the Agen-!$
)hi-h lost none o% its
po)er$ ;enned!
brought in 4ohn 5-+one$
a de%ense -ontra-tor and
%or#er head
o% the Ato#i- :nerg!
+o##ission With no
operational ba-k=
ground$ 5-+one had a
di%%erent notion than
Dulles o% ho) to
#anage the +,A$
parti-ularl! in the
s-ienti%i- area G5-+one
never %elt akin to the
-overt )a! o% doing
CHAPTER
1
2
things$G re-alls Da!
+line$ )ho# the ne)
Dire-tor #ade his Deput!
%or ,ntelli=
gen-e 5-+one
apparentl! believed that
s-ien-e should be in
the hands o% the
s-ientists$ not the
-landestine operators$ and
he brought in a %ello)
+ali%ornian$ an aerospa-e
G)hi. kidG
na#ed Albert GBudG
Wheelon to head a ne)
Agen-! Dire-tor=
ate %or S-ien-e and
"e-hnolog!
Be%ore then$ the
"e-hni-al Servi-es Sta%%
C"SSE$ although
lo-ated in the +landestine
Servi-es$ had been the
Agen-!?s larg=
'& CONCLUSIONS
est s-ienti%i- -o#ponent 5-+one de-ided to strip "SS o% its
#ain resear-h %un-tionsMin-luding the behavioral oneMand
let it -on-entrate solel! on providing operational support ,n
10<8 he approved a reorgani.ation o% "SS that brought in Se!=
#our Dussell$ a tough -overt operator$ as the ne) -hie% G"he
idea )as to get a -lose inter%a-e )ith operations$G re-alls an
e>=+,A #an :>perien-ed "SS te-hni-ians re#ained as depu=
ties to the in-o#ing %ield #en$ and the highest deput!ship in
all "SS )ent to Sid Gottlieb$ )ho be-a#e nu#ber=t)o #an
under Dussell For Gottlieb$ this )as another signi%i-ant pro#o=
tion helped along b! his old %riend Di-hard Ael#s$ )ho#
5-+one had elevated to be head o% the +landestine Servi-es
,n his ne) 9ob$ Gottlieb kept -ontrol o% 5;UL"DA *et$ in
order to -o#pl! )ith 5-+one?s -o##and on resear-h pro=
gra#s$ Gottlieb had to preside over the partial dis#antling o%
his o)n progra# "he loss )as not as di%%i-ult as it #ight have
been$ be-ause$ a%ter 16 !ears o% e>ploring the %rontiers o% the
#ind$ Gottlieb had a -lear idea o% )hat )orked and )hat did
not in the behavioral %ield "hose areas that still )ere in the
resear-h stage tended to be e>tre#el! esoteri- and te-hni-al$
and Gottlieb #ust have kno)n that i% the S-ien-e Dire-torate
s-ored an! breakthroughs$ he )ould be brought ba-k into the
pi-ture i##ediatel! to appl! the advan-es to -overt operations
GSid )as not the kind o% bureau-rat )ho )anted to hold on
to ever!thing at all -osts$G re-alls an ad#iring -olleague Gott=
lieb -are%ull! pruned the 5;UL"DA lists$ turning over to the
S-ien-e Dire-torate the e>oti- sub9e-ts that sho)ed no short=
ter# operational pro#ise and keeping %or hi#sel% those ps!=
-hologi-al$ -he#i-al$ and biologi-al progra#s that had alread!
passed the resear-h stage As previousl! stated$ he #oved 4ohn
Gittinger and the personalit!=assess#ent sta%% out o% the
Au#an :-olog! So-iet! and kept the# under "SS -ontrol in
their o)n proprietar! -o#pan!
While Gottlieb )as e%%e-ting these -hanges$ his progra#s
)ere -o#ing under atta-k %ro# another Buarter ,n 10<7 the
+,A ,nspe-tor General did the stud! that led to the suspension
o% un)itting drug testing in the San Fran-is-o and (e) *ork
sa%ehouses "his )as a blo) to Gottlieb$ )ho -learl! intended
to hold on to -3is kind o% resear-h At the sa#e ti#e$ the ,nspe-=
tor General also re-o##ended that Agen-! o%%i-ials dra%t a ne)
-harter %or the )hole 5;UL"DA progra#$ )hi-h still )as
e>e#pt %ro# #ost internal +,A -ontrols Ae %ound that #an!
THE SEARCH FOR THE TRUTH '&$
o% the 5;UL"DA subpro9e-ts )ere o% Ginsu%%i-ient sensitivit!G
to 9usti%! b!passing the Agen-!?s nor#al pro-edures %or ap=
proving and storing re-ords o% highl! -lassi%ied progra#s
Di-hard Ael#s$ still the prote-tor o% un%ettered behavioral re=
sear-h$ responded b! agreeing that there should be a ne) -har=
terMon the -ondition that it be al#ost the sa#e as the old one
G"he basi- reasons %or reBuesting )aiver o% standardi.ed ad=
#inistrative -ontrols over these sensitive a-tivities are as valid
toda! as the! )ere in April$ 10@7$G Ael#s )rote Ael#s agreed
to su-h -hanges as having the +,A Dire-tor brie%ed on the
progra#s t)i-e a !ear$ but he kept the approval pro-ess )ithin
his -ontrol and #ade sure that all the %iles )ould be retained
inside "SS And as govern#ent o%%i-ials so o%ten do )hen the!
do not )ish to alter an!thing o% substan-e$ he proposed a ne)
na#e %or the a-tivit! ,n 4une 10<K 5;UL"DA be-a#e
5;S:AD+AP
Gottlieb a-kno)ledged that se-urit! did not reBuire trans%er=
ring all the surviving 5;UL"DA subpro9e-ts over to
5;S:AD+A Ae #oved 1J subpro9e-ts ba-k into regular
Agen-! %unding -hannels$ in-luding ones dealing )ith the
snee.ing po)ders$ stink bo#bs$ and other Gharass#ent sub=
stan-esG "SS o%%i-ials had en-ouraged the develop#ent o%
these as a )a! to #ake a target ph!si-all! un-o#%ortable and
hen-e to -ause short=range -hanges in his behavior
Other 5;UL"DA subpro9e-ts dealt )ith )a!s to #a>i#i.e
stress on )hole so-ieties 4ust as Gittinger?s Personalit! Assess=
#ent S!ste# provided a ps!-hologi-al road #ap %or e>ploiting
an individual?s )eaknesses$ +,A Gdestabili.ationG plans pro=
vided guidelines %or destro!ing the internal integrit! o% target
-ountries like +astro?s +uba or Allende?s +hile +ontrolM
)hether o% individuals or nationsMhas been the Agen-!?s #ain
business$ and "SS o%%i-ials supplied tools %or the G#a-roG as
)ell as the G#i-roG atta-ks
For e>a#ple$ under 5;UL"DA Subpro9e-t U 1K7$ the Agen-!
gave Dr :d)ard Bennett o% the Universit! o% Aouston about
S86$666 a !ear to develop ba-teria to sabotage petroleu# pro=
PAt 1077 Senate hearings$ +,A Dire-tor Stans%ield "urner su##ed up so#e o%
5;UL"DA?s a--o#plish#ents over its 11=!ear e>isten-eL "he progra# -on=
tra-ted out )ork to J6 institutions$ )hi-h in-luded KK -olleges or universities$
1@ resear-h %a-ilities or private -o#panies$ 18 hospitals or -lini-s$ and 7 penal
institutions , esti#ate that 5;UL"DA -ost the ta>pa!ers so#e)here in the
neighborhood o% S16 #illion
'&% CONCLUSIONS
du-ts Bennett %ound a substan-e that$ )hen added to oil$ %ouled
or destro!ed an! engine into )hi-h it )as poured +,A opera=
tors used e>a-tl! this kind o% produ-t in 10<7 )hen the! sent a
sabotage tea# #ade up o% +uban e>iles into Fran-e to pollute
a ship#ent o% lubri-ants bound %or +uba "he idea )as that the
tainted oil )ould Ggrind out #otors and -ause breakdo)ns$G
sa!s an Agen-! #an dire-tl! involved "his operation$ )hi-h
su--eeded$ )as part o% a )orld)ide +,A e%%ort that lasted
through the 10<6s into the 1076s to destro! the +uban e-on=
o#!P Agen-! o%%i-ials reasoned$ at least in the %irst !ears$ that
it )ould be easier to overthro) +astro i% +ubans -ould be #ade
unhapp! )ith their standard o% living GWe )anted to keep
bread out o% the stores so people )ere hungr!$G sa!s the +,A
#an )ho )as assigned to anti=+astro operations GWe )anted
to keep rationing in e%%e-t and keep leather out$ so people got
onl! one pair o% shoes ever! 1J #onthsG
Leaving this broader sort o% progra# out o% the ne) stru-=
ture$ Gottlieb regrouped the #ost sensitive behavioral a-tivi=
ties under the 5;S:AD+A u#brella Ae -hose to -ontinue
seven pro9e-ts$ and the ones he pi-ked give a good indi-ation o%
those parts o% 5;UL"DA that Gottlieb -onsidered i#portant
enough to save "hese in-luded none o% the so-iologi-al studies$
nor the sear-h %or a truth drug Gottlieb put the e#phasis on
-he#i-al and biologi-al substan-esMnot be-ause he thought
these -ould be used to turn #en into robots$ but be-ause he
valued the# %or their predi-table abilit! to disorient$ dis-redit$
in9ure$ or kill people Ae kept a-tive t)o private labs to produ-e
su-h substan-es$ %unded -onsultants )ho had se-ure )a!s to
P"his e-ono#i- sabotage progra# started in 10<1$ and the -hain o% -o##and
Gran up to the President$G a--ording to ;enned! adviser Di-hard Good)in On
the +,A side$ Agen-! Dire-tor 4ohn 5-+one G)as ver! strong on it$G sa!s his
%or#er deput! Da! +line +line notes that 5-+one had the standing orders to
all +,A stations abroad re)ritten to in-lude Ga senten-e or t)oG authori.ing a
-ontinuing progra# to disrupt the +uban e-ono#! +uba?s trade thus be-a#e
a standing target %or Agen-! operators$ and )ith the authorit! on the books$
+,A o%%i-ials apparentl! never )ent ba-k to the White Aouse %or rene)ed ap=
proval a%ter ;enned! died$ in +line?s opinion "hree %or#er Assistant Se-retar=
ies o% State in the 4ohnson and (i>on ad#inistrations sa! the sabotage$ )hi-h
in-luded ever!thing %ro# driving do)n the pri-e o% +uban sugar to ta#pering
)ith -ane=-utting eBuip#ent$ )as not brought to their attention For#er +,A
Dire-tor Willia# +olb! states that the Agen-! %inall! stopped the e-ono#i-
sabotage progra# in the earl! 1076s +uban govern#ent o%%i-ials -ounter that
+,A agents )ere still )orking to -reate epide#i-s a#ong +uban -attle in 1077
and that as o% spring 107J$ Agen-! #en )ere -o##itting a-ts o% sabotage
against -argo destined %or +uba
THE SEARCH FOR THE TRUTH '&&
test the# and read! a--ess to sub9e-ts$ and #aintained a %und=
ing -onduit to pass #one! on to these other -ontra-tors Aere
are the seven surviving 5;S:AD+A subpro9e-tsL
T First on the "SS list )as the sa%ehouse progra# %or drug
testing run b! George White and others in the Federal Bureau
o% (ar-oti-s :ven in 10<K$ Gottlieb and Ael#s had not given
up hope that un)itting e>peri#ents -ould be resu#ed$ and the
Agen-! paid out S76$666 that !ear to keep the sa%ehouses open
,n the #eanti#e$ so#ething )as going on at the GpadGMor at
least George White kept on sending the +,A vou-hers %or
unorthodo> e>pensesMS1$166 )orth in Februar! 10<@ alone
under the old euphe#is# %or prostitutes$ Gunder-over agents
%or operationsG What White )as doing )ith or to these agents
-annot be said$ but he kept the San Fran-is-o operation a-tive
right up until the ti#e it %inall! -losed in 4une Gottlieb did not
give up on the (e) *ork sa%ehouse until the %ollo)ing !earP
T 5;S:AD+A Subpro9e-t U8 involved -ontinuing a S1@6$666=
a=!ear -ontra-t )ith a Balti#ore biologi-al laborator! "his
lab$ run b! at least one %or#er +,A ger# e>pert$ gave "SS Ga
Bui-k=deliver! -apabilit! to #eet anti-ipated %uture opera=
tional needs$G a--ording to an Agen-! do-u#ent A#ong other
things$ it provided a private pla-e %or Glarge=s-ale produ-tion
o% #i-roorganis#sG "he Agen-! )as pa!ing the Ar#! Biologi=
-al Laborator! at Fort Detri-k about S166$666 a !ear %or the
sa#e servi-es With its #ore -o#plete %a-ilities$ Fort Detri-k
-ould be used to -reate and pa-kage #ore esoteri- ba-teria$ but
Gottlieb see#s to have kept the Balti#ore %a-ilit! going in
order to have a )a! o% produ-ing biologi-al )eapons )ithout
the Ar#!?s ger# )arriors kno)ing about it "his se-re-!=)ith=
in=se-re-! )as not unusual )hen "SS #en )ere dealing )ith
sub9e-ts as sensitive as in%e-ting targets )ith diseases :>-ept
on the #ost general level$ no )ritten re-ords )ere kept on the
P,n 10<7 a Senate -o##ittee -haired b! Senator :d)ard Long )as inBuiring
into )iretapping b! govern#ent agen-ies$ in-luding the (ar-oti-s Bureau "he
+o##issioner o% (ar-oti-s$ then Aarr! Giordano told a senior "SS #anM
al#ost -ertainl! GottliebMthat i% +,A o%%i-ials )ere G-on-ernedG about its deal=
ings )ith the Bureau involving the sa%ehouses -o#ing out during the hearings$
the #ost Ghelp%ul thingG the! -ould do )ould be to Gturn the Long -o##ittee
o%%G Ao) the +,A #en rea-ted to this not ver! subtle bla-k#ail atte#pt is
un-lear %ro# the do-u#ents$ but )hat does -o#e out is that the "SS #an and
another top=level +,A o%%i-er #isled and lied to the top e-helon o% the "reasur!
Depart#ent Cthe (ar-oti-s Bureau?s parent organi.ationE about the sa%ehouses
and ho) the! )ere used
866 CONCLUSIONS
sub9e-t Whenever an operational unit in the Agen-! asked "SS
about obtaining a biologi-al )eapon$ Gottlieb or his aides auto=
#ati-all! turned do)n the reBuest unless the head o% the +lan=
destine Servi-es had given his prior approval Gottlieb handled
these operational needs personall!$ and during the earl! 10<6s
C)hen +,A assassination atte#pts probabl! )ere at their peakE
even Gottlieb?s boss$ the "SS -hie%$ )as not told )hat )as hap=
pening
T With his biologi-al arsenal assured$ Gottlieb also se-ured his
-he#i-al %lank in 5;S:AD+A Another subpro9e-t -ontinued
a relationship set up in 10@0 )ith a pro#inent industrialist
)ho headed a -o#ple> o% -o#panies$ in-luding one that -us=
to#=#anu%a-tured rare -he#i-als %or phar#a-euti-al produ-=
ers "his #an$ )ho# on several o--asions +,A o%%i-ials gave
S166 bills to pa! %or his produ-ts$ )as able to per%or# spe-i%i-
lab 9obs %or the Agen-! )ithout -onsulting )ith his board o%
dire-tors ,n 10<6 he supplied the Agen-! )ith 7 kilos C<<
poundsE o% a deadl! -arba#ateMthe sa#e poison OSS?s Stanle!
Lovell tried to use against AitlerP "his -o#pan! president also
)as use%ul to the Agen-! be-ause he )as a read! sour-e o%
in%or#ation on )hat )as going on in the -he#i-al )orld "he
-he#i-al servi-es he o%%ered$ -oupled )ith his biologi-al -oun=
terpart$ gave the +,A the #eans to )age GinstantG -he#i-al and
biologi-al atta-ksMa -apabilit! that )as %reBuentl! used$ 9udg=
ing b! the large nu#bers o% re-eipts and invoi-es that the +,A
released under the Freedo# o% ,n%or#ation A-t
T With ne) -he#i-als and drugs -onstantl! -o#ing to their
attention through their -ontinuing relations )ith the #a9or
phar#a-euti-al -o#panies$ "SS o%%i-ials needed pla-es to test
the#$ parti-ularl! a%ter the sa%ehouses -losed Dr 4a#es
Aa#ilton$ the San Fran-is-o ps!-hiatrist )ho )orked )ith
George White in the original OSS #ari9uana da!s$ provided a
)a! Ae be-a#e 5;S:AD+A Subpro9e-t U7
Aa#ilton had 9oined 5;UL"DA in its earliest da!s and had
been used as a West +oast supervisor %or Gottlieb and -o#pan!
Aa#ilton )as one o% the renaissan-e #en o% the progra#$
)orking on ever!thing %ro# ps!-ho-he#i-als to kink! se> to
-arbon=dio>ide inhalation B! the earl! 10<6s$ he had arranged
P4a#es 5oore o% the Universit! o% Dela)are$ )ho also produ-ed -arba#ates
)hen he )as not seeking the #agi- #ushroo#$ served at ti#es as an inter#e=
diar! bet)een the industrialist and the +,A
THE SEARCH FOR THE TRUTH )('
to get a--ess to prisoners at the +ali%ornia 5edi-al Fa-ilit! at
Ia-avilleP Aa#ilton )orked through a nonpro%it resear-h in=
stitute -onne-ted to the Fa-ilit! to -arr! out$ as a do-u#ent puts
it$ G-lini-al testing o% behavioral -ontrol #aterialsG on in#ates
Aa#ilton?s 9ob )as to provide Gans)ers to spe-i%i- Buestions
and solutions to spe-i%i- proble#s o% dire-t interest to the
Agen-!G ,n a si>=#onth span in 10<7 and 10<J$ the ps!-hiatrist
spent over S16$666 in +,A %unds si#pl! to pa! volunteersM
)hi-h at nor#al rates #eant he e>peri#ented on bet)een K66
to 1$666 in#ates in that ti#e period alone
T Another 5;S:AD+A subpro9e-t provided S86$666 to S8@$666
a !ear to Dr +arl P%ei%%er P%ei%%er?s Agen-! -onne-tion )ent
ba-k to 10@1$ )hen he headed the Phar#a-olog! Depart#ent
at the Universit! o% ,llinois 5edi-al S-hool Ae then #oved to
:#or! Universit! and tested LSD and other drugs on in#ates
o% the Federal penitentiar! in Atlanta$ Fro# there$ he #oved to
(e) 4erse!$ )here he -ontinued drug e>peri#ents on the pris=
oners at the Bordento)n re%or#ator! An internationall!
kno)n phar#a-ologist$ P%ei%%er provided the 5;S:AD+A pro=
gra# )ith data on the preparation$ use$ and e%%e-t o% drugs Ae
)as readil! available i% Gottlieb or a -olleague )anted a stud!
#ade o% the properties o% a parti-ular substan-e$ and like #ost
o% "SS?s -ontra-tors$ he also )as an intelligen-e sour-e P%ei%%er
)as use%ul in this last -apa-it! during the latter part o% the
10<6s be-ause he sat on the Food and Drug Ad#inistration
-o##ittee that allo-ated LSD %or s-ienti%i- resear-h in the
United States B! this ti#e$ LSD )as so )idel! available on the
bla-k #arket that the Federal Govern#ent had repla-ed the
+,A?s in%or#al -ontrols o% the 10@6s )ith la)s and pro-edures
%orbidding all but the #ost stri-tl! regulated resear-h With
P%ei%%er on the governing -o##ittee$ the +,A -ould keep up its
traditional role o% #onitoring above=ground LSD e>peri#enta=
tion around the United States
T "o -over so#e o% the #ore e>oti- behavioral %ields$ another
5;S:AD+A progra# -ontinued "SS?s relationship )ith Dr
5aitland Bald)in$ the brain surgeon at the (ational ,nstitutes
o% Aealth )ho had been so )illing in 10@@ to per%or# Gter#inal
e>peri#entsG in sensor! deprivation %or 5orse Allen and the
?During the late 10<6s and earl! 1076s$ it see#ed that ever! radi-al on the West
+oast )as sa!ing that the +,A )as up to strange things in behavior #odi%i-a=
tion at Ia-aville Like #an! o% !esterda!?s -onspira-! theories$ this one turned
out to be true
)() CONCLUSIONS
AD",+AO;: progra# A%ter Allen )as pushed aside b! the
#en %ro# 5;UL"DA$ the ne) "SS tea# hired Bald)in as a
-onsultant A--ording to one o% the#$ he )as %ull o% bright ideas
on ho) to -ontrol behavior$ but the! )ere )ar! o% hi# be-ause
he )as su-h an Geager beaverG )ith an obvious streak o% G-ra.i=
nessG Under "SS auspi-es$ Bald)in per%or#ed loboto#ies on
apes and then put these si#ian sub9e-ts into sensor! depriva=
tionMpresu#abl! in the sa#e Gbo>G he had built hi#sel% at
(,A and then had to repair a%ter a desperate soldier ki-ked his
)a! out "here is no in%or#ation available on )hether Bald)in
e>tended this )ork to hu#ans$ although he did dis-uss )ith an
outside -onsultant ho) loboto#i.ed patients rea-ted to pro=
longed isolation Like Aa#ilton$ Bald)in )as a 9a-k=o%=all
trades )ho in one e>peri#ent bea#ed radio %reBuen-! energ!
dire-tl! at the brain o% a -hi#pan.ee and in another -ut o%% one
#onke!?s head and tried to transplant it to the de-apitated bod!
o% another #onke! Bald)in used S8@6 in Agen-! #one! to bu!
his o)n ele-trosho-k #a-hine$ and he did so#e kind o% un=
spe-i%ied )ork at a "SS sa%ehouse that -aused the +,A to shell
out S1K@6 to renovate and repair the pla-e
T "he last 5;S:AD+A subpro9e-t -overed the )ork o% Dr
+harles Ges-hi-kter$ )ho served "SS both as resear-her and
%unding -onduit +,A do-u#ents sho) that Ges-hi-kter tested
po)er%ul drugs on #ental de%e-tives and ter#inal -an-er pa=
tients$ apparentl! at the Georgeto)n Universit! Aospital in
Washington ,n all$ the Agen-! put S<@@$666 into Ges-hi-kter?s
resear-h on kno-kout drugs$ stress=produ-ing -he#i-als$ and
#ind=altering substan-es (evertheless$ the do-tor?s prin-ipal
servi-e to "SS o%%i-ials see#s to have been putting his %a#il!
%oundation at the disposal o% the +,AMboth to -hannel %unds
and to serve as a sour-e o% -over to Agen-! operators About S81
#illion %lo)ed through this tightl! -ontrolled %oundation to
other resear-hersP Under 5;S:AD+A$ Ges-hi-kter -ontinued
PGes-hi-kter )as an e>tre#el! i#portant "SS asset )ith -onne-tions in high
pla-es ,n 10@@ he -onvin-ed Agen-! o%%i-ials to -ontribute S77@$666 in se-ret
%unds to)ard the -onstru-tion o% a ne) resear-h building at Georgeto)n Uni=
versit! Aospital CSin-e this #one! see#ed to be -o#ing %ro# private sour-es$
un)itting Federal bureau-rats doubled it under the #at-hing grant progra#
%or hospital -onstru-tionE "he Agen-! #en had a -lear understanding )ith
Ges-hi-kter that in return %or their -ontribution$ he )ould #ake sure the!
re-eived use o% one=si>th o% the beds and total spa-e in the %a-ilit! %or their o)n
Ghospital sa%ehouseG "he! then )ould have a read! sour-e o% Ghu#an patients
and volunteers %or e>peri#ental use$G a--ording to a +,A do-u#ent$ and the
THE SEARCH FOR THE TRUTH )(*
to provide "SS )ith a #eans to assess drugs rapidl!$ and he
bran-hed out into tr!ing to kno-k out #onke!s )ith radar
)aves to the head Ca te-hniBue )hi-h )orked but risked %r!ing
vital parts o% the brainE "he Ges-hi-kter Fund %or 5edi-al
Desear-h re#ained available as a -onduit until 10<7P
As part o% the e%%ort to keep %inding ne) substan-es to test
)ithin 5;S:AD+A$ Agen-! o%%i-ials -ontinued their sear-h
%or #agi- #ushroo#s$ leaves$ roots$ and barks ,n 10<<$ )ith
-onsiderable +,A ba-king$ 4 + ;ing$ the %or#er head o% the
Agen-!?s Western Ae#isphere Division )ho )as eased out
a%ter the Ba! o% Pigs$ %or#ed an ostensibl! private %ir# -alled
A#a.on (atural Drug +o#pan! ;ing$ )ho loved to %loat do)n
9ungle rivers on the de-k o% his houseboat )ith a glass o% s-ot-h
in hand$ sear-hed the ba-k)aters o% South A#eri-a %or plants
o% interest to the Agen-! and'or #edi-al s-ien-e "o do the
)ork$ he hired A#a.on #en and )o#en$ plus at least t)o +,A
para#ilitar! operators )ho )orked out o% A#a.on o%%i-es in
,Buitos$ Peru "he! shipped ba-k to the United States %inds that
in-luded C3o"dode"d.o" -oxi!o+e.201 a paral!ti- agent
)hi-h is Gabsolutel! lethal in high doses$G a--ording to Dr
"i#oth! Plo)#an$ a Aarvard botanist )ho like #ost o% the
sta%% )as un)itting o% the +,A involve#ent Another plant that
)as -olle-ted and gro)n b! A#a.on e#plo!ees )as the hallu=
-inogen kno)n as ya/e1 )hi-h author Willia# Burroughs has
des-ribed as Gthe %inal %i>G
5;S:AD+A )ent on through the 10<6s and into the earl!
1076s$ but )ith a steadil! de-reasing budget ,n 10<K it -ost the
resear-h progra# in the building )ould provide -over %or up to three "SS sta%%
#e#bers Allen Dulles personall! approved the -ontribution and then$ to #ake
sure$ he took it to President :isenho)er?s spe-ial -o##ittee to revie) -overt
operations "he -o##ittee also gave its assent$ )ith the understanding that
Ges-hi-kter -ould provide Ga reasonable e>pe-tationG that the Agen-! )ould
indeed have use o% the spa-e he pro#ised Ae obviousl! did$ be-ause the +,A
#one! )as %orth-o#ing C"his$ in-identall!$ )as the onl! ti#e in a )hole
Buarter=-entur! o% Agen-! behavior=-ontrol a-tivities )hen the do-u#ents
sho) that +,A o%%i-ials )ent to the White Aouse %or approval o% an!thing "he
+hur-h -o##ittee %ound no eviden-e that either the e>e-utive bran-h or +on=
gress )as in%or#ed o% the progra#sE
P,n 10<7$ a%ter Ra0,a.-s #aga.ine e>posed se-ret +,A %unding o% the (ational
Student Asso-iation and nu#erous nonpro%it organi.ations$ President 4ohnson
%orbade +,A support o% %oundations or edu-ational institutions ,nside the
Agen-! there )as no notion that this order #eant ending relationships$ su-h
as the one )ith Ges-hi-kter ,n his -ase$ the agile +,A #en si#pl! trans%erred
the %unding %ro# the %oundation to a private -o#pan!$ o% )hi-h his son )as
the se-retar!=treasurer
)(4 CONCLUSIONS
Agen-! about S8@6$666 ,n 1078 it )as do)n to %our subpro9e-ts
and S116$666 Gottlieb )as a ver! bus! #an b! then$ having
taken over all "SS in 10<7 )hen his patron$ Di-hard Ael#s
%inall! #ade it to the top o% the Agen-! ,n 4une 1078 Gottlieb
de-ided to end 5;S:AD+A$ thus bringing do)n the -urtain on
the Buest he hi#sel% had started t)o de-ades be%ore Ae )rote
this epitaph %or the progra#L
As a %inal -o##entar!$ , )ould like to point out that$ b! #eans
o% Pro9e-t 5;S:AD+A$ the +landestine Servi-e has been able to
#aintain -onta-t )ith the leading edge o% develop#ents in the
%ield o% biologi-al and -he#i-al -ontrol o% hu#an behavior ,t
has be-o#e in-reasingl! obvious over the last several !ears that
this general area had less and less relevan-e to -urrent -landes=
tine operations "he reasons %or this are #an! and -o#ple>$ but
t)o o% the# are perhaps )orth #entioning brie%l! On the s-ien=
ti%i- side$ it has be-o#e ver! -lear that these #aterials and te-h=
niBues are too unpredi-table in their e%%e-t on individual hu#an
beings$ under spe-i%i- -ir-u#stan-es$ to be operationall! use%ul
Our operations o%%i-ers$ parti-ularl! the e#erging group o% ne)
senior operations o%%i-ers$ have sho)n a dis-erning and perhaps
-o##endable distaste %or utili.ing these #aterials and te-h=
niBues "he! see# to reali.e that$ in addition to #oral and ethi=
-al -onsiderations$ the e>tre#e sensitivit! and se-urit! -on=
straints o% su-h operations e%%e-tivel! rule the# out
About the ti#e Gottlieb )rote these )ords$ the Watergate
break=in o--urred$ setting in train %or-es that )ould alter his
li%e and that o% Di-hard Ael#s A %e) #onths later$ Di-hard
(i>on )as re=ele-ted Soon a%ter the ele-tion$ (i>on$ %or rea=
sons that have never been e>plained$ de-ided to purge Ael#s
Be%ore leaving to be-o#e A#bassador to ,ran$ Ael#s presided
over a )holesale destru-tion o% do-u#ents and tapesMpresu#=
abl! to #ini#i.e in%or#ation that #ight later be used against
hi# Sid Gottlieb de-ided to %ollo) Ael#s into retire#ent$ and
the t)o #en #utuall! agreed to get rid o% all the do-u#entar!
tra-es o% 5;UL"DA "he! had never kept %iles on the sa%e=
house testing or si#ilarl! sensitive operations in the %irst pla-e$
but the! )ere deter#ined to erase the e>isting re-ords o% their
sear-h to -ontrol hu#an behavior Gottlieb later told a Senate
-o##ittee that he )anted to get rid o% the #aterial be-ause o%
THE SEARCH FOR THE TR UTH )(5
a Gburgeoning paper proble#G )ithin the Agen-!$ be-ause the
%iles )ere o% Gno -onstru-tive useG and #ight be G#isunder=
stood$G and be-ause he )anted to prote-t the reputations o% the
resear-hers )ith )ho# he had -ollaborated on the assuran-e
o% se-re-! Gottlieb got in tou-h )ith the #en )ho had ph!si-al
-ustod! o% the re-ords$ the Agen-!?s ar-hivists$ )ho pro-eeded
to destro! )hat he and Ael#s thought )ere the onl! tra-es o%
the progra# "he! #ade a #istake$ ho)everMor the ar-hivists
did Seven bo>es o% substantive re-ords and reports )ere in=
-inerated$ but seven #ore -ontaining invoi-es and %inan-ial
re-ords survivedMapparentl! due to #is%iling
(i>on na#ed 4a#es S-hlesinger to be the ne) head o% the
Agen-!$ a post in )hi-h he sta!ed onl! a %e) #onths be%ore the
in-reasingl! beleaguered President #oved hi# over to be Se-=
retar! o% De%ense at the height o% Watergate During his short
stop at +,A$ S-hlesinger sent an order to all Agen-! e#plo!ees
asking the# to let his o%%i-e kno) about an! instan-es )here
Agen-! o%%i-ials #ight have -arried out an! i#proper or illegal
a-tions So#ebod! #entioned Frank Olson?s sui-ide$ and it )as
dul! in-luded in the #an! hundreds o% pages o% #isdeeds re=
ported )hi-h be-a#e kno)n )ithin the +,A as the G%a#il!
9e)elsG
S-hlesinger$ an outsider to the -areer +,A operators$ had
opened a Pandora?s bo> that the pro%essionals never #anaged
to shut again Sa#ples o% the G%a#il! 9e)elsG )ere slipped out
to New Co.6 Ti0es reporter Se!#our Aersh$ )ho -reated a
national %uror in De-e#ber 107K )hen he )rote about the
+,A?s illegal sp!ing on do#esti- dissidents during the 4ohnson
and (i>on !ears President Gerald Ford appointed a -o##is=
sion headed b! Ii-e=President (elson Do-ke%eller to investi=
gate the past +,A abusesMand to li#it the da#age ,n-luded in
the %inal Do-ke%eller report )as a se-tion on ho) an unna#ed
Depart#ent o% the Ar#! e#plo!ee had 9u#ped out o% a (e)
*ork hotel )indo) a%ter Agen-! #en had slipped hi# LSD
"hat revelation #ade headlines around the -ountr! "he press
sei.ed upon the sensational details and virtuall! ignored t)o
even #ore revealing senten-es buried in the Do-ke%eller te>tL
G"he drug progra# )as part o% a #u-h larger +,A progra# to
stud! possible #eans %or -ontrolling hu#an behavior Other
studies e>plored the e%%e-ts o% radiation$ ele-tri-=sho-k$ ps!=
-holog!$ ps!-hiatr!$ so-iolog!$ and harass#ent substan-esG
At this point$ , entered the stor! , )as intrigued b! those t)o
)( CONCLUSIONS
senten-es$ and , %iled a Freedo# o% ,n%or#ation reBuest )ith
the +,A to obtain all the do-u#ents the Agen-! had %urnished
the Do-ke%eller +o##ission on behavior -ontrol Although the
la) reBuires a govern#ent agen-! to respond )ithin 16 da!s$
it took the Agen-! #ore than a !ear to send #e the %irst @6
do-u#ents on the sub9e-t$ )hi-h turned out to be heavil! -en=
sored
,n the #eanti#e$ the -o##ittee headed b! Senator Frank
+hur-h )as looking into the +,A$ and it -alled in Sid Gottlieb$
)ho )as then spending his retire#ent )orking as a volunteer
in a hospital in ,ndia Gottlieb se-retl! testi%ied about +,A as=
sassination progra#s C,n des-ribing his role in its %inal report$
the +hur-h +o##ittee used a %alse na#e$ GIi-tor S-heiderGE
Asked about the behavioral=-ontrol progra#s$ Gottlieb appar=
entl! -ould notMor )ould notMre#e#ber #ost o% the details
"he -o##ittee had al#ost no do-u#ents to )ork )ith$ sin-e
the #ain re-ords had been destro!ed in 1077 and the %inan-ial
%iles had not !et been %ound
"he issue la! dor#ant until 1077$ )hen$ about 4une 1$ +,A
o%%i-ials noti%ied #! la)!ers that the! had %ound the 7 bo>es o%
5;UL"DA %inan-ial re-ords and that the! )ould send #e the
releasable portions over the %ollo)ing #onths As , )aited$ +,A
Dire-tor Stans%ield "urner noti%ied President +arter and then
the Senate Sele-t +o##ittee on ,ntelligen-e that an Agen-!
o%%i-ial had lo-ated the 7 bo>es Ad#iral "urner publi-l! de=
s-ribed 5;UL"DA as onl! a progra# o% drug e>peri#entation
and not one ai#ed at behavior -ontrol On 4ul! 86 , held a press
-on%eren-e at )hi-h , -riti-i.ed Ad#iral "urner %or his several
distortions in des-ribing the 5;UL"DA progra# "o prove #!
various points$ , released to the reporters a s-ore o% the +,A
do-u#ents that had alread! -o#e to #e and that gave the
%lavor o% the behavioral e%%orts Perhaps it )as a slo) ne)s da!$
or perhaps people si#pl! )ere interested in govern#ent at=
te#pts to ta#per )ith the #ind ,n an! event$ the do-u#ents
set o%% a #edia band)agon that had the stor! reported on all
three net)ork television ne)s sho)s and pra-ti-all! ever!=
)here else
"he Senate Sele-t +o##ittee on ,ntelligen-e and Senator
:d)ard ;enned!?s Sub-o##ittee on Aealth and S-ienti%i- De=
sear-h soon announ-ed the! )ould hold publi- hearings on the
sub9e-t Both panels had looked into the se-ret resear-h in 107@
but had been ha#pered b! the la-k o% do-u#ents and %orth=
THE SEARCH FOR THE TRUTH )($
-o#ing )itnesses At %irst the t)o -o##ittees agreed to )ork
together$ and the! held one 9oint hearing "hen$ Senator Barr!
Gold)ater brought behind=the=s-enes pressure to get the ,ntel=
ligen-e panel$ o% )hi-h he )as vi-e=-hair#an$ to drop out o%
the pro-eedings Ae -lai#ed$ a#ong other things$ that the -o#=
#ittee )as 9ust rehashing old progra#s and that the ti#e had
-o#e to stop du#ping on the +,A Senator ;enned! plo)ed
ahead an!)a! Ae )as li#ited$ ho)ever$ b! the s#all si.e o%
the sta%% he assigned to the investigation$ and his people )ere
literall! buried in paper b! +,A o%%i-ials$ )ho released J$666
pages o% do-u#ents in the )eeks be%ore the hearings As the
hearings started$ the sta%% still not had read ever!thingMlet
alone put it all in -onte>t
As ;enned!?s sta%% prepared %or the publi- sessions$ the %or=
#er #en %ro# 5;UL"DA also got read! A--ording to one o%
the#$ the! agreed a#ong the#selves to Gkeep the inBuir!
)ithin bounds that )ould satis%! the -o##itteeG Spe-i%i-all!$
he sa!s that #eant volunteering no #ore in%or#ation than the
;enned! panel alread! had +harles Siragusa$ the nar-oti-s
agent )ho ran the (e) *ork sa%ehouse$ reports he got a tele=
phone -all during this period %ro# Da! "rei-hler$ the Stan%ord
PhD )ho spe-iali.ed in -he#i-al )ar%are %or the 5;UL"DA
progra# GAe )anted #e to den! kno)ing about the sa%e=
house$G sa!s Siragusa GAe didn?t )ant #e to ad#it that he )as
the gu! , said there )as no )a! , -ould do thatG Whether
an! other e>="SS #en also suborned per9ur! -annot be said$ but
several o% the# appear to have -o##itted per9ur! at the hear=
ingsP As previousl! noted$ Dobert Lashbrook denied %irsthand
kno)ledge o% the sa%ehouse operation )hen$ in %a-t$ he had
supervised one o% the GpadsG and been present$ a--ording to
George White?s diar!$ at the ti#e o% an GLSD surpriseG e>peri=
#ent Dr +harles Ges-hi-kter testi%ied he had not tested stress=
produ-ing drugs on hu#an sub9e-ts )hile both his o)n 10<6
proposal to the Agen-! and the +,A?s do-u#ents indi-ate the
opposite
PL!ing to +ongress %ollo)ed the pattern o% l!ing to the press that so#e 5;UL=
"DA veterans adopted a%ter the %irst revelations -a#e out For e>a#ple$ %or#er
Au#an :-olog! So-iet! dire-tor 4a#es 5onroe told T3e New Co.6 Ti0es on
August 8$ 1077 that Gonl! about 8@ to 76 per-entG o% the So-iet!?s budget -a#e
%ro# the +,AMa state#ent he kne) to be %alse sin-e the a-tual %igure )as )ell
over 06 per-ent Ais untruth allo)ed so#e other grantees to -lai# that their
parti-ular pro9e-t )as %unded out o% the non=Agen-! part o% the So-iet!
)(% CONCLUSIONS
Despite the presen-e o% a ke! aide )ho -onstantl! -ued hi#
during the hearings$ Senator ;enned! )as not prepared to deal
)ith these and other in-onsisten-ies Ae took no a-tion to %ol=
lo) up obviousl! per9ured testi#on!$ and he see#ed -ontent to
)in headlines )ith reports o% G"he Gang "hat +ouldn?t Spra!
StraightG Although that parti-ular testi#on! had been set up
in advan-e b! a ;enned! sta%%er$ the Senator still #anaged to
a-t surprised )hen e>=5;UL"DA o%%i-ial David Dhodes told o%
the ill=%ated LSD e>peri#ent at the 5arin +ount! sa%ehouse
"he ;enned! hearings added little to the general state o%
kno)ledge on the +,A?s behavior=-ontrol progra#s +,A o%%i=
-ials$ both past and present$ took the position that basi-all!
nothing o% substan-e )as learned during the 8@=odd !ears o%
resear-h$ the bulk o% )hi-h had ended in 10<7$ and the! )ere
not -hallenged "hat proposition is$ on its %a-e$ ridi-ulous$ but
neither Senator ;enned! nor an! other investigator has !et put
an! real pressure on the Agen-! to reveal the -ontent o% the
resear-hM)hat )as a-tuall! learnedMas opposed to the e>per=
i#ental #eans o% -arr!ing it out ,n this book$ , have tried to
get at so#e o% the substantive Buestions$ but , have had a--ess
to neither the s-ienti%i- re-ords$ )hi-h Gottlieb and Ael#s de=
stro!ed$ nor the prin-ipal people involved Gottlieb$ %or in=
stan-e$ )ho #oved %ro# ,ndia to Santa +ru.$ +ali%ornia and
then to parts unkno)n$ turned do)n repeated reBuests to be
intervie)ed G, a# interested in ver! di%%erent #atters than the
sub9e-t o% !our book these da!s$G he )rote$ Gand do not have
either the ti#e or the in-lination to repro-ess #atters that hap=
pened a long ti#e agoG
Fa-ed )ith these obsta-les$ , have tried to )eave together a
representative sa#ple o% )hat )ent on$ but having dealt )ith
a group o% people )ho regularl! in-orporated l!ing into their
dail! )ork$ , -annot be sure , -annot be positive that the! never
%ound a te-hniBue to -ontrol people$ despite #! de%inite bias in
%avor o% the idea that the hu#an spirit de%eated the #anipula=
tors Onl! a -ongressional -o##ittee -ould -o#pel truth%ul
testi#on! %ro# people )ho have so %ar re%used to be %orth-o#=
ing$ and even +ongress? re-ord has not been good so %ar A
deter#ined investigative -o##ittee at least -ould #ake sure
that the people being probed do not deter#ine the GboundsG o%
the inBuir!
A ne) investigation )ould probabl! not be )orth the e%%ort
9ust to take another stab at 5;UL"DA and AD",+AO;: De=
THE SEARCH FOR THE TRUTH )(&
spite #! belie% that there are so#e skeletons hiddenMliterall!
Mthe publi- probabl! no) kno)s the basi- para#eters o% these
progra#s "he %a-t is$ ho)ever$ that +,A o%%i-ials a-tivel! e>=
peri#ented )ith behavior=-ontrol #ethods %or another de-ade
a+-e. Sid Gottlieb and -o#pan! lost the resear-h a-tion "he
Dire-torate o% S-ien-e and "e-hnolog!Mspe-i%i-all! its O%%i-e
o% Desear-h and Develop#ent CODDEMdid not re#ain idle
a%ter Dire-tor 5-+one trans%erred the behavioral resear-h
%un-tion in 10<8
,n ODD$ Dr Stephen Aldri-h$ a graduate o% A#herst and
(orth)estern 5edi-al S-hool$ took over the role that 5orse
Allen and then Sid Gottlieb had pla!ed be%ore hi# Aldri-h had
been the #edi-al dire-tor o% the O%%i-e o% S-ienti%i- ,ntelligen-e
ba-k in the da!s )hen that o%%i-e )as 9o-ke!ing )ith 5orse
Allen %or -ontrol o% AD",+AO;:$ so he )as no stranger to the
progra#s Under his leadership$ ODD o%%i-ials kept probing %or
)a!s to -ontrol hu#an behavior$ and the! )ere doing so )ith
spa-e=age te-hnolog! that #ade the da!s o% 5;UL"DA look
like the horse=and=bugg! era ,% #an -ould get to the #oon b!
the end o% the 10<6s$ -ertainl! the )ell=%inan-ed s-ientists o%
ODD -ould #ake a good shot at -onBuering inner spa-e
"he! brought their te-hnolog! to bear on sub9e-ts like the
ele-tri- sti#ulation o% the brain 4ohn Lill! had done e>tensive
)ork in this %ield a de-ade earlier$ be%ore -on-luding that to
#aintain his integrit! he #ust %ind another %ield +,A #en had
no su-h Bual#s$ ho)ever "he! a-tivel! e>peri#ented )ith
pla-ing ele-trodes in the brain o% ani#als andMprobabl!M
#en "hen the! used ele-tri- and radio signals to #ove their
sub9e-ts around "he %ield )ent %ar be!ond giving #onke!s
orgas#s$ as Lill! had done ,n the +,A itsel%$ Sid Gottlieb and
the 5;UL"DA -re) had #ade so#e preli#inar! studies o% it
"he! started in 10<6 b! having a -ontra-tor sear-h all the avail=
able literature$ and then the! had #apped out the parts o%
ani#als? brains that produ-ed rea-tions )hen sti#ulated B!
April 10<1 the head o% "SS )as able to report G)e no) have a
?produ-tion -apabilit!? G in brain sti#ulation and G)e are -lose
to having debugged a protot!pe s!ste# )hereb! dogs -an be
guided along spe-i%i- -oursesG Si> #onths later$ a +,A do-u=
#ent noted$ G"he %easibilit! o% re#ote -ontrol o% a-tivities in
several spe-ies o% ani#als has been de#onstrated Spe-ial
investigations and evaluations )ill be -ondu-ted to)ard the
appli-ation o% sele-ted ele#ents o% these te-hniBues to #anG
)'( CONCLUSIONS
Another si> #onths later$ "SS o%%i-ials had %ound a use %or
ele-tri- sti#ulationL this ti#e putting ele-trodes in the brains
o% -old=blooded ani#alsMpresu#abl! reptiles While #u-h o%
the e>peri#entation )ith dogs and -ats )as to %ind a )a! o%
)iring the ani#al and then dire-ting it b! re#ote -ontrol into$
sa!$ the o%%i-e o% the Soviet a#bassador$ this -old=blooded pro=
9e-t )as designed instead %or the deliver! o% -he#i-al and bio=
logi-al agents or %or Ge>e-utive a-tion=t!pe operations$G a-=
-ording to a do-u#ent G:>e-utive a-tionG )as the +,A?s
euphe#is# %or assassination
With the brain ele-trode te-hnolog! at this level$ Steve Al=
dri-h and ODD took over the resear-h %un-tion %ro# "SS What
the ODD #en %ound -annot be said$ but the open literature
)ould indi-ate that the %ield progressed -onsiderabl! during
the 10<6s +an the hu#an brain be )ired and -ontrolled b! a
big enough -o#puterO Aldri-h -ertainl! tried to %ind out
+reating a#nesia re#ained a Gbig goalG %or the ODD re=
sear-her$ states an e>=+,A #an Advan-es in brain surger!$
su-h as the develop#ent o% three=di#ensional$ Gstereota>i-G
te-hniBues$ #ade ps!-hosurger! a #u-h si#pler #atter and
-reated the possibilit! that a pre-isel! pla-ed ele-trode probe
-ould be used to -ut the link bet)een past #e#or! and present
re-all As %or sub9e-ts to be used in behavioral e>peri#ents o%
this sort$ the e>=+,A #an states that ODD had a--ess to prison=
ers in at least one A#eri-an penal institution A %or#er Ar#!
do-tor stationed at the :dge)ood -he#i-al laborator! states
that the lab )orked )ith +,A #en to develop a drug that -ould
be used to help progra# in ne) #e#ories into the #ind o% an
a#nesi- sub9e-t Ao) %ar did the Agen-! take this resear-hO ,
don?t kno)
"he #en %ro# ODD tried to -reate their o)n latter=da! ver=
sion o% the So-iet! %or the ,nvestigation o% Au#an :-olog!
Lo-ated outside Boston$ it )as -alled the S-ienti%i- :ngineering
,nstitute$ and Agen-! o%%i-ials had set it up originall! in 10@< as
a proprietar! -o#pan! to do resear-h on radar and other te-h=
ni-al #atters that had nothing to do )ith hu#an behavior ,ts
president$ )ho sa!s he )as a G%igurehead$G )as Dr :d)in
Land$ the %ounder o% Polaroid ,n the earl! 10<6s$ ODD o%%i-ials
de-ided to bring it into the behavioral %ield and built a ne)
)ing to the ,nstitute?s #odernisti- building %or the Gli%e
s-ien-esG "he! hired a group o% behavioral and #edi-al s-ien=
tists )ho )ere allo)ed to -arr! on their o)n independent re=
THE SEARCH FOR THE TRUTH )''
sear-h as long as it #et ,nstitute standards "hese s-ientists
)ere available to -onsult )ith %reBuent visitors %ro# Washing=
ton$ and the! )ere en-ouraged to take long lun-hes in the ,nsti=
tute?s dining roo# )here the! #i>ed )ith the ph!si-al s-ien=
tists and brainstor#ed about virtuall! ever!thing One veteran
re-alls a -olleague 9oking$ G,% !ou -ould %ind the natural radio
%reBuen-! o% a person?s sphin-ter$ !ou -ould #ake hi# run out
o% the roo# real %astG "urning serious$ the veteran states the
te-hniBue )as Gplausible$G and he notes that #an! o% the -ra.!
ideas bandied about at lun-h developed into -on-rete pro9e-ts
So#e o% these pro9e-ts #a! have been )orked on at the ,nsti=
tute?s o)n several hundred=a-re %ar# lo-ated in the 5assa-hu=
setts -ountr!side But o% the several do.en people -onta-ted in
an e%%ort to %ind out )hat the ,nstitute did$ the #ost an!one
)ould sa! about e>peri#ents at the %ar# )as that one involved
sti#ulating the pleasure -enters o% -ro)s? brains in order to
-ontrol their behavior Presu#abl!$ ODD #en did other things
at their isolated rural lab
4ust as the 5;UL"DA progra# had been !ears ahead o% the
s-ienti%i- -o##unit!$ ODD a-tivities )ere si#ilarl! advan-ed
GWe looked at the #anipulation o% genes$G states one o% the
resear-hers GWe )ere interested in gene splintering "he rest
o% the )orld didn?t ask until 107< the t!pe o% Buestions )e )ere
%a-ing in 10<@ :ver!bod! )as a%raid o% building the super=
soldier )ho )ould take orders )ithout Buestioning$ like the
ka#ika.e pilot +reating a subservient so-iet! )as not out o%
sightG Another ,nstitute #an des-ribes the )ork o% a -olleague
)ho bo#barded ba-teria )ith ultraviolet radiation in order to
-reate deviant strains ODD also sponsored )ork in paraps!=
-holog! Along )ith the #ilitar! servi-es$ Agen-! o%%i-ials
)anted to kno) )hether ps!-hi-s -ould read #inds or -ontrol
the# %ro# a%ar Ctelepath!E$ i% the! -ould gain in%or#ation
about distant pla-es or people C-lairvo!an-e or re#ote vie)=
ingE$ i% the! -ould predi-t the %uture Cpre-ognitionE$ or in%lu=
en-e the #ove#ent o% ph!si-al ob9e-ts or even the hu#an
#ind CphotokinesisE "he last -ould have in-redibl! destru-tive
appli-ations$ i% it )orked For instan-e$ s)it-hes setting o%%
nu-lear bo#bs )ould have to be #oved onl! a %e) in-hes to
laun-h a holo-aust Or$ ene#! ps!-hi-s$ )ith #inds honed to
laser=bea# sharpness$ -ould laun-h atta-ks to burn out the
brains o% A#eri-an nu-lear s-ientists An! or all o% these te-h=
niBues have nu#erous appli-ations to the sp! trade
)') CONCLUSIONS
While ODD o%%i-ials apparentl! le%t #u-h o% the drug )ork
to Gottlieb$ the! -ould not keep their hands totall! out o% this
%ield ,n 10<J the! set up a 9oint progra#$ -alled Pro9e-t OF":($
)ith the Ar#! +he#i-al +orps at :dge)ood$ 5ar!land to
stud! the e%%e-ts o% various drugs on ani#als and hu#ans "he
Ar#! helped the Agen-! put together a -o#puteri.ed data base
%or drug testing and supplied #ilitar! volunteers %or so#e o%
the e>peri#ents ,n one -ase$ )ith a parti-ularl! e%%e-tive in=
-apa-itiating agent$ the Ar#! arranged %or in#ate volunteers
at the Aol#esburg State Prison in Philadelphia Pro9e-t
OF":( had both o%%ensive and de%ensive sides$ a--ording to an
ODD #an )ho des-ribed it in a #e#orandu# Ae -ited as an
e>a#ple o% )hat he and his -o)orkers hoped to %ind Ga -o#=
pound that -ould si#ulate a heart atta-k or a stroke in the
targeted individualG ,n 4anuar! 1077$ 9ust as Di-hard Ael#s
)as leaving the Agen-! and 4a#es S-hlesinger )as -o#ing in$
Pro9e-t OF":( )as abruptl! -an-eled
WhatMi% an!Msu--ess the ODD #en had in -reating heart
atta-ks or in an! o% their other behavioral e>peri#ents si#pl!
-annot be said Like Sid Gottlieb$ Steve Aldri-h is not sa!ing$
and his -olleagues see# even #ore -lose#outhed than Gott=
lieb?s ,n De-e#ber 1077$ having gotten )ind o% the ODD pro=
gra#s$ , %iled a Freedo# o% ,n%or#ation reBuest %or a--ess to
ODD %iles Gon behavioral resear-h$ in-luding but not li#ited to
an! resear-h or operational a-tivities related to bio=ele-tri-s$
ele-tri- or radio sti#ulation o% the brain$ ele-troni- destru-tion
o% #e#or!$ stereota>i- surger!$ ps!-hosurger!$ h!pnotis#$
paraps!-holog!$ radiation$ #i-ro)aves$ and ultrasoni-sG , also
asked %or do-u#entation on behavioral testing in US penal
institutions$ and , later added a reBuest %or all available %iles on
a#nesia "he Agen-! )rote ba-k si> #onths later that ODD
had Gidenti%ied 176 bo>es Cappro>i#atel! 176 -ubi- %eetE o%
#aterial that are reasonabl! e>pe-ted to -ontain behavioral
resear-h do-u#entsG
+onsidering that Ad#iral "urner and other +,A o%%i-ials had
tried to leave the i#pression )ith +ongress and the publi- that
behavioral resear-h had al#ost all ended in 10<7 )ith the
phaseout o% 5;UL"DA$ this )as an a#a.ing ad#ission "he
sheer volu#e o% #aterial )as staggering "his book is based on
the 7 bo>es o% heavil! -ensored 5;UL"DA %inan-ial re-ords
plus another 7 or so o% AD",+AO;: do-u#ents$ supple#ented
b! intervie)s ,t has taken #e over a !ear$ )ith signi%i-ant
THE SEARCH FOR THE TRUTH )'*
resear-h help$ to digest this #u-h s#aller bulk +learl!$
greater resour-es than an individual )riter -an bring to bear
)ill be needed to to get to the botto# o% the ODD progra#s
A %ree so-iet!?s best de%ense against unethi-al behavior
#odi%i-ation is publi- dis-losure and a)areness "he #ore peo=
ple understand -ons-iousness=altering te-hnolog!$ the #ore
likel! the! are to re-ogni.e its appli-ation$ and the less likel!
it )ill be used When behavioral resear-h is -arried out in
se-ret$ it -an be turned against the govern#ent?s ene#ies$ both
%oreign and do#esti- (o #atter ho) pure or de%ense=oriented
the #otives o% the resear-hers$ on-e the te-hnolog! e>ists$ the
de-ision to use it is out o% their hands Who -an doubt that i% the
(i>on ad#inistration or 4 :dgar Aoover had had so#e %ool=
proo% )a! to -ontrol people$ the! )ould not have used the te-h=
niBue against their politi-al %oes$ 9ust as the +,A %or !ears tried
to use si#ilar ta-ti-s overseasO
As )ith the Agen-!?s se-rets$ it is no) too late to put behav=
ioral te-hnolog! ba-k in the bo> Desear-hers are bound to keep
#aking advan-es "he te-hnolog! has alread! spread to our
s-hools$ prisons$ and #ental hospitals$ not to #ention the ad=
vertising -o##unit!$ and it has also been pi-ked up b! poli-e
%or-es around the )orld Pla-ing hoods over the heads o% politi=
-al prisonersMa #odi%ied %or# o% sensor! deprivationMhas be=
-o#e a standard ta-ti- around the )orld$ %ro# (orthern ,re=
land to +hile "he Soviet Union has -onsistentl! used
ps!-hiatri- treat#ent as an instru#ent o% repression Su-h
#ethods violate basi- hu#an rights 9ust as #u-h as ph!si-al
abuse$ even i% the! leave no #arks on the bod!
"otalitarian regi#es )ill probabl! -ontinue$ as the! have in
the past$ to sear-h se-retl! %or )a!s to #anipulate the #ind$ no
#atter )hat the United States does "he prospe-t o% being able
to -ontrol people see#s too enti-ing %or #ost t!rants to give up
*et$ )e as a -ountr! -an de%end ourselves )ithout sending our
o)n s-ientistsM#ad or other)iseMinto a hidden )ar that vio=
lates our basi- ethi-al and -onstitutional prin-iples A%ter all$
)e -reated the (ure#berg +ode to sho) there )ere li#its on
s-ienti%i- resear-h and its appli-ation Ad#ittedl!$ A#eri-an
intelligen-e o%%i-ials have violated our o)n standard$ but the
US Govern#ent has no) o%%i-iall! de-lared violations )ill no
longer be per#itted "he ti#e has -o#e %or the United States
to lead b! e>a#ple in voluntaril! renoun-ing se-ret govern=
#ent behavioral resear-h Other -ountries #ight even %ollo)
)'4 CONCLUSIONS
suit$ parti-ularl! i% )e )ere to propose an international agree=
#ent )hi-h provides the# )ith a %ra#e)ork to do so
"a#pering )ith the #ind is #u-h too dangerous to be le%t to
the spies (or should it be the e>-lusive provin-e o% the behav=
ioral s-ientists$ )ho have given us -ause %or suspi-ion "ake
this state#ent b! their #ost %a#ous #e#ber$ B F SkinnerL
G5! i#age in so#e pla-es is o% a #onster o% so#e kind )ho
)ants to pull a string and #anipulate people (othing -ould be
%urther %ro# the truth People are #anipulatedF , 9ust )ant
the# to be #anipulated #ore e%%e-tivel!G Su-h notions are
#u-h #ore a--eptable in prestigious -ir-les than people tend
to thinkL D :)en +a#eron read papers about GdepatterningG
)ith ele-trosho-k be%ore #eetings o% his %ello) ps!-hiatrists$
and the! ele-ted hi# their president Au#an behavior is so
i#portant that it #ust -on-ern us all "he #ore vigilant )e and
our representatives are$ the less -han-e )e )ill be un)itting
vi-ti#s
NOTES
+AAP":D 1
"he in%or#ation on Albert Ao%#ann?s %irst LSD trip and ba-kground
on LSD -a#e %ro# an intervie) b! the author )ith Ao%#ann$ a paper
b! Ao%#ann -alled G"he Dis-over! o% LSD and SubseBuent ,nvestiga=
tions on (aturall! O--urring Aallu-inogens$G another intervie) )ith
Ao%#ann b! 5i-hael Aoro)it. printed in the 4une 107< Hi/3 Ti0es
#aga.ine$ and %ro# a +,A do-u#ent on LSD produ-ed b! the O%%i-e
o% S-ienti%i- ,ntelligen-e$ August 76$ 10@@$ titled G"he Strategi- 5edi=
-al Signi%i-an-e o% LSD=8@G
,n%or#ation on the Ger#an #es-aline and h!pnosis e>peri#ents at
Da-hau -a#e %ro# G"e-hni-al Deport no 771=K@$ Ger#an Aviation
Desear-h at tne Da-hau +on-entration +a#p$G O-tober$ 10K@$ US
(aval "e-hni-al 5ission in :urope$ %ound in the papers o% Dr Aenr!
Bee-her Additional in%or#ation -a#e %ro# T.ia4s o+ Wa. C.i0i"a4s
De+o.e -3e N2.e0#e./ T.i#2"a41 the book Do!-o.s o+ I"+a0y b! Ale>=
ander 5its-herli-h and Fred 5ielke C(e) *orkL A S-hu#an$ 10K0E$
intervie)s )ith prose-ution tea# #e#bers "el%ord "a!lor$ Leo Ale>=
ander$ and 4a#es 5-Aane!$ and an arti-le b! Dr Leo Ale>ander$
GSo-iops!-hologi- Stru-ture o% the SS$G A.!3iAes o+ Ne2.o4o/y a"d
5sy!3ia-.y1 5a!$ 10KJ$ Iol @0$ pp <88=7K
"he OSS e>perien-e in testing #ari9uana )as des-ribed in inter=
vie)s )ith several %or#er 5anhattan Pro9e-t -ounterintelligen-e
#en$ an OSS do-u#ent dated 4une 81$ 10K7$ Sub9e-tL Develop#ent o%
Gtruth drug$G given the +,A identi%i-ation nu#ber A'B$ ,$ 18'1F %ro#
do-u#ent A'B$ ,$ <K'7K$ undated$ Sub9e-tL 5e#orandu# Delative to
the use o% truth drug in interrogationF do-u#ent dated 4une 8$ 10K7$
Sub9e-tL 5e#orandu# on " D A G-on%idential #e#orandu#$G dated
)' NOTES
April K$ 10@K$ %ound in the papers o% George White$ also )as help%ul
"he Buote on US prisoners passing through 5an-huria -a#e %ro#
do-u#ent 10$ 1J 4une 10@7$ Sub9e-tL AD",+AO;: +on%eren-e
"he in%or#ation on Stanle! Lovell -a#e %ro# his book$ O+ S,ies a"d
S-.a-e/e0s C:ngle)ood +li%%s$ (4L Prenti-e=Aall$ 10<7E$ %ro# inter=
vie)s )ith his son Di-hard$ a perusal o% his re#aining papers$ inter=
vie)s )ith George ;istiako)sk! and several OSS veterans$ and %ro#
GS-ien-e in World War ,,$ the O%%i-e o% S-ienti%i- Desear-h and Devel=
op#entG in C3e0is-.y> A His-o.y o+ -3e C3e0is-.y Co0,o"e"-s o+ -3e
Na-io"a4 De+e"se Resea.!3 Co00i--ee1 edited b! W A (o!es$ 4r
CBostonL Little$ Bro)n / +o#pan!$ 10KJE
Dr Walter Langer provided in%or#ation about his ps!-hoanal!ti-
portrait o% Aitler$ as did his book$ T3e Mi"d o+ Ado4+ Hi-4e. C(e) *orkL
Basi- Books$ 1078E Dr Aenr! 5urra! also gave an intervie)$ as did
several OSS #en )ho had been through his assess#ent -ourse 5ur=
ra!?s )ork is des-ribed at length in a book published a%ter the )ar b!
the OSS Assess#ent sta%%$ Assess0e"- o+ Me" C(e) *orkL Dinehart /
+o#pan!$ 10KJE
5aterial on George :stabrooks -a#e %ro# his books$ Hy,"o-is0
C(e) *orkL : P Dutton and +o$ 10K@E and Dea-3 i" -3e Mi"d1 -o=
authored )ith Di-hard Lo-kridge C(e) *orkL : P Dutton$ 10K@E$ and
intervie)s )ith his daughter$ Doreen :stabrooks 5i-hl$ %or#er -ol=
leagues$ and Dr 5ilton ;line
+AAP":D 8
"he origins o% the +,A?s AD",+AO;: progra# and a--ounts o% the
earl! testing -a#e %ro# the %ollo)ing Agen-! Do-u#ents U 108$ 1@
4anuar! 10@7F U7$17 5a! 10K0F A'B$ ,$ J'1$ 8K Februar! 10K0F Februar!
16$ 10@1 #e#o on Spe-ial ,nterrogations Cno do-u#ent UEF A'B$ ,,$
76'8$ 8J Septe#ber 10K0F U@$ 1@ August 10K0F UJ$ 87 Septe#ber 10K0F
U<$ 87 August 10K0F U17$ @ April 10@6F U1J$ 0 5a! 10@6F U1K8 Ctrans=
#ittal slipE$ 10 5a! 10@8F U18K$ 8@ 4anuar! 10@8F A'B$ ,I$ 87'78$ 7
5ar-h 10@8F U87$ 81 4une 10@6F U16$ 87 Februar! 10@6F U77$ 87 O-to=
ber 10@6F A'B$ ,$ 70'1$ 18 De-e#ber 10@6F A'B$ ,,$ 8'8$ @ 5ar-h 10@8F
A'B$ ,,$ 8'1$ 1@ Februar! 10@8F A'B$ I$ 17K'7$ 7 De-e#ber 10@1F A'B$ ,$
7J'@$ 1 4une 10@1F and UK66$ undated$ GSpe-i%i- +ases o% Overseas
"esting and Appli-ations o% Behavioral DrugsG
"he do-u#ents )ere supple#ented b! intervie)s )ith Da! +line$
Aarr! Dosit.ke$ 5i-hael Burke$ Augh +unningha#$ and several other
e>=+,A #en )ho asked to re#ain anon!#ous T3e Fi"a4 Re,o.- o+ -3e
Se4e!- Co00i--ee -o S-2dy GoAe."0e"-a4 O,e.a-io"s wi-3 Res,e!- -o
I"-e44i/e"!e Chen-e%orth -alled the +hur-h +o##ittee DeportE pro=
vided use%ul ba-kground
NOTES )'$
Do-u#ents giving ba-kground on ter#inal e>peri#ents in-lude
UA'B$ ,,$ 16'@7F UA'B$ ,,$ 16'@J$ 71 August$ 10@KF UA'B$ ,,$ 16' 17$ 87
Septe#ber 10@KF and UA'B$ ,$ 7<'K$ 81 5ar-h 10@@
+AAP":D 7
"he pri#ar! sour-es %or the #aterial on Pro%essor Wendt?s trip to
Frank%urt )ere Dr Sa#uel I "ho#pson then o% the (av!$ the +,A
ps!-hiatri- -onsultant$ several o% Wendt?s %or#er asso-iates$ as )ell as
three +,A do-u#ents that des-ribed the testingL Do-u#ent U1<J$ 10
Septe#ber 10@8$ Sub9e-tL GPro9e-t LG&GF Do-u#ent F 1<J$ 1J Septe#=
ber 10@8$ Sub9e-tL Field "rip o% AD",+AO;: tea#$ 86 August=Septe#=
ber 10@8F and UA'B$ ,,$ 77'81$ undated$ Sub9e-tL Spe-ial +o##ents
,n%or#ation on the (av!?s Pro9e-t +AA"":D -a#e %ro# the
+hur-h +o##ittee Deport$ Book ,$ pp 777=7J De-lassi%ied (av!
Do-u#ents (=87$ Februar! 17$ 10@1$ Sub9e-tL Pro-ure#ent o% +ertain
DrugsF (=87$ undated$ Sub9e-tL Pro9e-t +AA"":DF (=80$ undated$ Sub=
9e-tL Status DeportL Studies o% 5otion Si-kness$ Iestibular Fun-tion$
and :%%e-ts o% DrugsF (=7@$ O-tober 87$ 10@1$ ,nteri# DeportF (=7J$ 76
Septe#ber$ 10@8$ 5e#orandu# %or FileF and (=70$ 8J O-tober$ 10@8$
5e#orandu# %or File
"he in%or#ation on the heroin %ound in Wendt?s sa%e -o#es %ro#
the Do-hester De0o!.a- a"d C3.o"i!4e1 O-tober 8$1077 and -onsider=
able ba-kground on Wendt?s Do-hester testing progra# )as %ound in
the Do-hester Ti0es-U"io"1 4anuar! 8J$ 10@@ "he +,A Buote on her=
oin -a#e %ro# 5a! 1@$10@8 OS, 5e#orandu# to the Deput! Dire-tor$
+,A$ Sub9e-tL Spe-ial ,nterrogation
,n%or#ation on the Agen-!?s interest in a#nesia -a#e %ro# 1K 4anu=
ar! 10@8 #e#o$ Sub9e-tL BLU:B,DD'AD",+AO;:$ Proposed De=
sear-hF 7 5ar-h 10@1$ Sub9e-tL ,n%or#al Dis-ussion )ith +hie% Qde=
letedR Degarding GDisposalGF 1 5a! 10@1$ Sub9e-tL De-o##endation
%or Disposal o% 5a>i#u# +ustod! De%e-torsF and U A'B$ ,$ 7@'17$ un=
dated$ Sub9e-tL A#nesia
"he Buote %ro# Ao#er on nepenthe )as %ound in Sidne! +ohen?s
T3e Deyo"d Wi-3i"> T3e LSD S-o.y C(e) *orkL Atheneu#$ 1078E
"he se-tion on -ontrol -a#e %ro# intervie)s )ith 4ohn Sto-k)ell
and several other %or#er +,A #en
+AAP":D K
"he des-ription o% Dobert A!de?s %irst trip -a#e %ro# intervie)s )ith
Dr 5ilton Greenblatt$ Dr 4 Aerbert DeShon$ and a talk b! 5a> Din=
)'% NOTES
kel at the 8nd 5a-! +on%eren-e on (europhar#a-olog!$ pp 87@=7<$
edited b! Aarold A Abra#son$ 10@@L 5adison Printing +o#pan!
"he des-riptions o% "SS and Sidne! Gottlieb -a#e %ro# intervie)s
)ith Da! +line$ 4ohn Sto-k)ell$ about 16 other e>=+,A o%%i-ers$ and
other %riends o% Gottlieb
5e#os Buoted on the earl! 5;UL"DA progra# in-lude 5e#oran=
du# %ro# ADDP Ael#s to D+, Dulles$ K'7'@7$ "ab A$ pp 1=8 CBuoted
in +hur-h +o##ittee Deport$ Book ,EF APF A=l$ April 17$ 10@7$ 5e#o=
randu# %or Deput! Dire-tor CAd#inistration$ Sub9e-tL Pro9e-t 5;UL=
"DAM:>tre#el! Sensitive Desear-h and Develop#ent Progra#F
UA'B$,$<K'<$ < Februar! 10@8$ 5e#orandu# %or the De-ord$ Sub9e-tL
+ontra-t )ith QdeletedR UA'B$,$<K'80$ undated$ 5e#orandu# %or
"e-hni-al Servi-es Sta%%$ Sub9e-tL Al-ohol Antagonists and A--elera=
tors$ Desear-h and Develop#ent Pro9e-t "he Gottlieb Buote is %ro#
Aearing be%ore the Sub-o##ittee on Aealth and S-ienti%i- Desear-h
o% the Senate +o##ittee on Au#an Desour-es$ Septe#ber 81$1077$ p
86<
"he ba-kground data on LSD -a#e parti-ularl! %ro# T3e Deyo"d
Wi-3i"> T3e LSD S-o.y b! Sidne! +ohen C(e) *orkL Atheneu#$ 1078E
Other sour-es in-luded O.i/i"s o+ 5sy!3o,3a.0a!o4o/y> F.o0 C5G -o
LSD b! Anne : +ald)ell CSpring%ield$ 111L +harles + "ho#as$ 1076E
and Do-u#ent 7@8$ GAn OS, Stud! o% the Strategi- 5edi-al ,#por=
tan-e o% LSD=8@$G 76 August 10@@
"SS?s use o% outside resear-hers -a#e %ro# intervie)s )ith %our
%or#er "SSers 5;UL"DA Subpro9e-ts J$ 16$ <7$ and << des-ribed
Dobert A!de?s )ork Subpro9e-ts 7$ 87X and K6 -on-erned Aarold
Abra#son Aodge?s )ork )as in subpro9e-ts 17 and K< +arl P%ei%%er?s
Agen-! -onne-tion$ along )ith A!de?s$ Abra#son?s$ and ,sbell?s$ )as
laid out b! L!#an B ;irkpatri-k$ 5e#orandu# %or the De-ord$ 1
De-e#ber 10@7$ Sub9e-tL +onversation )ith Dr Willis Gibbons o% "SS
re Olson +ase C%ound at p 1676$ ;enned! Sub-o##ittee 107@ Bio#edi=
-al and Behavioral Desear-h AearingsE ,sbell?s testing progra# )as
also des-ribed at those hearings$ as it )as in Do-u#ent F 1K$ 8K 4ul!$
10@7$ 5e#o ForL Liaison / Se-urit! O%%i-er'"SS$ Sub9e-t U71 An A-=
-ount o% the +he#i-al Division?s +onta-ts in the (ational ,nstitute o%
AealthF Do-u#ent U77$ 1K 4ul! 10@K$ sub9e-t QdeletedRF and Do-u#ent
UK1$71 August$ 10@<$ sub9e-tF trip to Le>ington$ ;!$ 81=87 August 10@<
,sbell?s progra# )as %urther des-ribed in a GDeport on ADA5AA
,nvolve#ent in LSD Desear-h$G %ound at p 007 o% 107@ ;enned! sub=
-o##ittee hearings "he %irsthand a--ount o% the a-tual testing -a#e
%ro# an intervie) )ith :d)ard 5 Flo)ers$ Washington$ D+
"he se-tion on "SS?s non-ontra-t in%or#ants -a#e %ro# inter=
vie)s )ith "SS sour-es$ reading the pro-eedings o% the 5a-! +on=
%eren-es on GProble#s o% +ons-iousnessG and G(europhar=
#a-olog!$G and intervie)s )ith several parti-ipants in-luding
NOTES )'&
Sidne! +ohen$ Au#phre! Os#ond$ and Audson Aoagland
"he #aterial on +,A?s relations )ith Sando. and :li Lill! -a#e
%ro# Do-u#ent U8K$ 1< (ove#ber$ 10@7$ Sub9e-tL AD",+AO;: +on=
%eren-eF Do-u#ent U8<J$ 87 O-tober$ 10@7$ Sub9e-tL 5eeting in Dire-=
tor?s O%%i-e at 1166 hours on 87 O-tober )ith 5r Wisner and QdeletedRF
Do-u#ent U71<$< 4anuar!$ 10@K$ Sub9e-tL L!sergi- A-id Dieth!la#ide
CLSD=8@EF and Do-u#ent U77J$ 8< O-tober 10@K$ Sub9e-tL Potential
Large S-ale Availabilit! o% LSD through ne)l! dis-overed s!nthesis
b! QdeletedRF intervie)s )ith Sando. and Lill! %or#er e>e-utivesF inter=
vie)s )ith "SS sour-esF and Sidne! Gottlieb?s testi#on! be%ore
;enned! sub-o##ittee$ 1077$ p 867
Aenr! Bee-her?s US govern#ent -onne-tions )ere detailed in his
private papers$ in a report on the S)iss=LSD death to the +,A at p 70<$
+hur-h +o##ittee Deport$ Book ,$ and in intervie)s )ith t)o o% his
%or#er asso-iates
"he des-ription o% "SS?s internal testing progression -o#es %ro#
intervie)s )ith %or#er sta%% #e#bers "he short re%eren-e to Sid
Gottlieb?s arranging %or LSD to be given a speaker at a politi-al rall!
-o#es %ro# Do-u#ent UA'B$ ,,$ 8<'J$ 0 4une 10@K$ Sub9e-tL 5;UL=
"DA Aenr! Bee-her?s report to the +,A on the S)iss sui-ide is %ound
at p 70<$ +hur-h +o##ittee Deport$ Book ,
+AAP":D @
"he des-ription o% the +,A?s relationship )ith SOD at Fort Detri-k
-o#es %ro# intervie)s )ith several e>=Fort Detri-k e#plo!eesF
+hur-h +o##ittee hearings on GUnauthori.ed Storage o% "o>i-
Agents$ Iolu#e 1F +hur-h +o##ittee GSu##ar! Deport on +,A ,nves=
tigation o% 5;(AO5,G %ound in Deport$ Book ,$ pp 7<6=<7F and'
;enned! sub-o##ittee hearings on Biologi-al "esting ,nvolving
Au#an Sub9e-ts b! the Depart#ent o% De%ense$ 1077 "he details o%
Sid Gottlieb?s involve#ent in the plot to kill Patri-e Lu#u#ba are
%ound in the +hur-h +o##ittee?s ,nteri# Deport on GAlleged Assassi=
nation Plots ,nvolving Foreign Leaders$G pp 86=81 "he +hur-h -o#=
#ittee allo)ed Gottlieb to be listed under the pseudon!# Ii-tor
S-heider$ but several sour-es -on%ir# Gottlieb?s true identit!$ as does
the biographi- data on hi# sub#itted to the ;enned! sub-o##ittee
b! the +,A$ )hi-h puts hi# in the sa#e 9ob attributed to GS-heiderG
at the sa#e ti#e "he plot to give botulinu# to Fidel +astro is outlined
in the Assassination report$ pp 70=J7 "he in-ident )ith the ,raBi
-olonel is on p 1J1 o% the sa#e report
"he several in-hes o% +,A do-u#ents on the Olson -ase )ere
released b! the Olson %a#il! in 107< and -an be %ound in the printed
volu#e o% the 107@ ;enned! sub-o##ittee hearings on Bio#edi-al
))( NOTES
and Behavioral Desar-h$ pp166@=1178 "he! %or# the base o% #u-h o%
the narrative$ along )ith intervie)s )ith Ali-e Olson$ :ri- Olson$
Ben9a#in Wilson$ and several other e>=SOD #en C)ho added ne>t to
nothingE ,n%or#ation also )as gleaned %ro# Iin-ent Du)et?s testi=
#on! be%ore the ;enned! sub-o##ittee in 107@$ pp 17J=K@ and the
+hur-h -o##ittee?s su##ar! o% the a%%air$ Book ,$ pp 70K=K67 "he
Buote on Aarold Abra#son?s intention to give his patients un)itting
doses o% LSD is %ound in 5;UL"DA subpro9e-t 7$ 4une J$ 10@7$ letter
to Dr QdeletedR 5agi-ian 4ohn 5ulholland?s )ork %or the Agen-! is
des-ribed in 5;UL"DA subpro9e-ts 10 and 7K
+AAP":D <
"he +,A?s rea-tion to Frank Olson?s death is des-ribed in nu#erous
#e#os released b! the Agen-! to the Olson %a#il!$ )hi-h -an be
%ound at pp 166@=1178 o% the ;enned! Sub-o##ittee 107@ hearings on
Bio#edi-al and Behavioral Desear-h See parti-ularl! at p 1677$ 1J
De-e#ber 10@7$ Sub9e-tL "he Sui-ide o% Frank Olson and at p 1687$ 1
De-e#ber 10@7$ Sub9e-tL Use o% LSD
Di-hard Ael#s? vie)s on un)itting testing are %ound in Do-u#ent
UKKJ$ 17 De-e#ber 10<7$ Sub9e-tL "esting o% Ps!-ho-he#i-als and
Delated 5aterials and in a #e#orandu# to the +,A Dire-tor$ 4une 0$
10<K$ Buoted %ro# on page K68 o% the +hur-h +o##ittee Deport$ Book
,
George White?s diar! and letters )ere donated b! his )ido) to
Foothills 4unior +ollege$ Los Altos$ +ali%ornia and are the sour-e o% a
treasure -hest o% #aterial on hi#$ in-luding his letter to a %riend
e>plaining his al#ost being Gbla-kballedG %ro# the +,A$ the various
diar! entries -ited$ in-luding re%eren-es to %olk=dan-ing )ith Gottlieb$
the intervie) )ith Aal Lipset )here he e>plains his philosoph! on
-hasing -ri#inals$ and his letter to Sid Gottlieb dated (ove#ber 81$
Cprobabl!E 1078
"he (e) *ork and San Fran-is-o sa%ehouses run b! George White
are the sub9e-ts o% 5;UL"DA subpro9e-ts 7$1K$1<$K8$ and 1K0 White?s
tips to the landlord are des-ribed in K8=1@<$ his liBuor bills in K8=1@7$
Gdr!=runsG in K8=01 "he (e) *ork sa%ehouse run b! +harles Siragusa
is subpro9e-t 178 "he Ginter#ediateG tests are des-ribed in do-u#ent
178=@0
Paul Aver!$ a San Fran-is-o %reelan-e )riter asso-iated )ith the
+enter %or ,nvestigative Deporting in Oakland$ +ali%ornia inter=
vie)ed Willia# Aa)kins and provided assistan-e on the details o%
the San Fran-is-o sa%ehouse and George White?s ba-kground Addi=
tional in%or#ation on White -a#e %ro# intervie)s )ith his )ido)$
NOTES ))'
several %or#er -olleagues in the (ar-oti-s Bureau$ and other kno)=
ledgeable sour-es in various San Fran-is-o la)=en%or-e#ent agen=
-ies An e>=(ar-oti-s Bureau o%%i-ial told o% Dr 4a#es Aa#ilton?s
stud! o% unusual se>ual pra-ti-es and the des-ription o% his un)it=
ting drug testing -o#es %ro# 5;UL"DA subpro9e-t 8$ )hi-h is his
subpro9e-t
Da! "rei-hler dis-ussed so#e o% his )ork )ith harass#ent sub=
stan-es in testi#on! be%ore the ;enned! sub-o##ittee on Septe#ber
86$ 1077$ pp 16@=J Ae delivered his testi#on! under the pseudon!#
GPhilip Gold#anG
G"he Gang that +ouldn?t Spra! StraightG arti-le appeared in the
Septe#ber 86$ 1077 Washington 5os-8
Di-hard Ael#s? de-ision not to tell 4ohn 5-+one about the +,A?s
-onne-tion to the 5a%ia in assassination atte#pts against +astro
is des-ribed in the +hur-h +o##ittee?s Assassination report$ pp
168=7
"he 10@7 ,nspe-tor General?s Deport on "SS$ Do-u#ent UK17 and
the 10<7 inspe-tion o% 5;UL"DA$ 1K August 10<7$ Do-u#ent U@0
provided -onsiderable detail throughout the entire -hapter "he
+hur-h +o##ittee Deport on 5;UL"DA in Book ,$ pp 7J@=K88 also
provided -onsiderable in%or#ation
Sid Gottlieb?s 9ob as Assistant to the +landestine Servi-es -hie% %or
S-ienti%i- 5atters is des-ribed in Do-u#ent U7K Coperational seriesE$
86 O-tober 10@0$ Sub9e-tL Appli-ation o% ,#aginative Desear-h on the
Behavioral and Ph!si-al S-ien-es to QdeletedR Proble#sG and in the
10<7 ,nspe-tor General?s report
,ntervie)s )ith e>=+,A ,nspe-tor General L!#an ;irkpatri-k$ an=
other %or#er ,nspe-tor General?s sta%% e#plo!ee$ and several e>="SS
sta%%ers -ontributed signi%i-antl! to this -hapter
Ael#s? letter to the Warren +o##ission on GSoviet Brain)ashing
"e-hniBues$G dated 10 4une 10<K$ )as obtained %ro# the (ational
Ar-hives
"he #aterial on the +,A?s operational use o% LSD -a#e %ro# the
+hur-h +o##ittee Deport$ Book ,$ pp 700=K67 and %ro# an a%%ida=
vit %iled in the Federal +ourt +ase o% =o3" D8 Ma.6s H8 Ce"-.a4 I"-
-e44i/e"!e A/e"!y1 e-8 a41 +ivil A-tion (o 7<=8677 b! :loise D
Page$ +hie%$ Poli-! and +oordination Sta%% o% the +,A?s Dire-torate
o% Operations ,n listing all the reasons )h! the Agen-! should not
provide the operational do-u#ents$ 5s Page gave so#e in%or#a=
tion on )hat )as in the do-u#ents "he passages on "SS?s and the
5edi-al O%%i-e?s positions on the use o% LSD -a#e %ro# a #e#o
)ritten b! 4a#es Angleton$ +hie%$ +ounterintelligen-e Sta%% on De=
-e#ber 18$ 10@7 Buoted in part at p K61 o% the +hur-h +o##ittee
Deport$ Book ,
))) NOTES
+AAP":D 7
D Gordon and Ialentina Wasson?s #a##oth )ork$ M2s3.oo0s1
R2ssia a"d His-o.y1 C(e) *orkL Pantheon$ 10@7E$ )as the sour-e %or
the a--ount o% the :#press Agrippina?s #urderous use o% #ushroo#s
Wasson told the stor! o% his various 9ourne!s to 5e>i-o in a series o%
intervie)s and in a 5a! 87$ 10@7 Li+e #aga.ine arti-le$ GSeeking the
5agi- 5ushroo#G
5orse Allen learned o% piule in a seBuen-e des-ribed in do-u#ent
UA'B$,$77'7$ 1K (ove#ber 10@8$ Sub9e-tL Piule "he sending o% the
!oung +,A s-ientist to 5e>i-o )as outlined in U A'B$ ,$ 77'7$ @ De-e#=
ber 10@8 5orse Allen -o##ented on #ushroo# histor! and -overt
possibilities in UA'B$ ,$ 7K'K$ 8< 4une 10@7$ Sub9e-tL 5ushroo#s=
(ar-oti- and Poisonous Iarieties Ais trip to the A#eri-an #ush=
roo#=gro)ing -apital )as des-ribed in Do-u#ent Qnu#ber illegibleR$
8@ 4une 10@7$ Sub9e-tL "rip to "oughkena#on$ Penns!lvania "he %ail=
ure o% "SS to tell 5orse Allen about the results o% the botani-al lab
)ork is outlined in UA'B$ ,$ 70'@$ 16 August 10@K Sub9e-tL DeportsF
DeBuest %or %ro# "SS QdeletedR
4a#es 5oore told #u-h about hi#sel% in a long intervie) and in an
e>-hange o% -orresponden-e 5;UL"DA Subpro9e-t @1 dealt )ith
5oore?s -onsulting relationship )ith the Agen-! and Subpro9e-t @8
)ith his ties as a pro-urer o% -he#i-als See espe-iall! Do-u#ent
@1=K<$ J April 10<7$ Sub9e-tL 5;UL"DA Subpro9e-t @1F @1=8K$ 87 Au=
gust 10@<$ Sub9e-tL 5;UL"DA Subpro9e-t @1=BF @8=0K$ 86 Februar!
10<7$ Sub9e-tL CBBE +he#i-al and Ph!si-al 5anipulantsF @8=10$ 86 De=
-e#ber 10<8F @8=17$ 1 5ar-h 10<7F @8=87$ < De-e#ber 10<8F @8=<K$ 8K
August 10@0
"he +,A?s arrange#ents )ith the Depart#ent o% Agri-ulture are
detailed in UA'B$ ,$ 7K'K$ 8< 4une$ 10@7$ Sub9e-tL 5ushroo#sM(ar=
-oti- and Poisonous varieties and Do-u#ent Qnu#ber illegibleR$ 17
April 10@7$ Sub9e-tL ,ntervie) )ith +leared +onta-ts
Dr Aarris ,sbell?s )ork )ith psilo-!bin is detailed in ,sbell do-u=
#ent F 1@@$ G+o#parison o% the Dea-tion ,ndu-ed b! Psilo-!bin and
LSD=8@ in 5anG
,n%or#ation on the -ounter-ulture and its inter%a-e )ith +,A drug=
testing -a#e %ro# intervie)s )ith "i#oth! Lear!$ Allen Ginsburg$
Au#phre! Os#ond$ 4ohn Lill!$ Sidne! +ohen$ Dalph Blu#$ Aerbert
;el#an$ Leo Aollister$ Aerbert DeShon$ and nu#erous others ;en
;ese! des-ribed his %irst trip in Ga.a/e Sa4e C(e) *orkL Iiking Press$
1077E "i#oth! Lear!?s 9a0as2-.a )as a-tuall! a book hand=pro=
du-ed in %our -opies and -alled 5sy!3ede4i! T3eo.y> Wo.6i"/ 5a,e.s
+.o0 -3e Ha.Aa.d IFIF5sy!3ede4i! Resea.!3 5.oIe!-1 '&(-'&*8 Susan
Berns Wol% Doth-hild kindl! #ade her -op! available "he #aterial
about Aarold Abra#son?s turning on Frank Fre#ont=S#ith and Greg=
or! Bateson -a#e %ro# the pro-eedings o% a -on%eren-e on LSD spon=
NOTES ))*
sored b! the 4osiah 5a-!$ 4r Foundation on April 88$ 87$ and 8K$ 10@0$
pp J=88
+AAP":D J
:d)ard Aunter?s arti-le G ?Brain=Washing? "a-ti-s For-e +hinese into
Danks o% +o##unist Part!G appeared in the 5ia#i News on Septe#=
ber 8K$ 10@6 Ais book )as D.ai"was3i"/ i" Red C3i"a C(e) *orkL
Ianguard Press$ 10@1E Other #aterial -a#e %ro# several intervie)s
)ith Aunter 9ust be%ore he died in 4une 107J
"he Air For-e do-u#ent -ited on brain)ashing )as -alled GAir
For-e AeadBuarters Panel +onvened to De-ord Air For-e Position De=
garding +ondu-t o% Personnel in :vent o% +apture$G De-e#ber 1K$
10@7 Desear-her Sa# Hu-ker#an %ound it and sho)ed it to #e
"he %igures on A#eri-an prisoners in ;orea and the Buote %ro#
:d)ard Aunter -a#e %ro# hearings be%ore the Senate Per#anent
Sub-o##ittee on ,nvestigations$ JKth +ongress$ 4une 10$86$8<$ and 87$
10@<
"he #aterial on the setting up o% the +ornell=Ainkle=Wol%% stud!
-a#e %ro# intervie)s )ith Ainkle$ Aelen Goodell$ and several +,A
sour-es Ainkle?s and Wol%%s stud! on brain)ashing appeared in -las=
si%ied %or# on 8 April 10@< as a "e-hni-al Servi-es Division publi-a=
tion -alled Co002"is- Co"-.o4 Te!3"i<2es and in substantiall! the
sa#e %or# but un-lassi%ied as G+o##unist ,nterrogation and ,ndo-=
trination o% ?:ne#ies o% the State?MAn Anal!sis o% 5ethods Used b!
the +o##unist State Poli-eG AMA A.!3iAes o+ Ne2.o4o/y a"d 5sy!3i-
a-.y1 August$ 10@<$ Iol 7<
Allen Dulles spoke on GBrain War%areG be%ore the Alu#ni +on%er=
en-e o% Prin-eton Universit!$ Aot Springs$ Iirginia on April 16$ 10@7$
and the Buote on guinea pigs -a#e %ro# that spee-h
"he -o##ents o% Do-ke%eller Foundation o%%i-ials about D :)en
+a#eron and the re-ord o% Do-ke%eller %unding )ere %ound in Dobert
S 5orrison?s diar!$ lo-ated in the Do-ke%eller Foundation Ar-hives$
Po-anti-o Aills$ (e) *ork
"he ke! arti-les on +a#eron?s )ork on depatterning and ps!-hi-
driving )ere GProdu-tion o% Di%%erential A#nesia as a Fa-tor in the
"reat#ent o% S-hi.ophrenia$G Co0,.e3e"siAe 5sy!3ia-.y1 10<6$ 1$ p
8< and G:%%e-ts o% Depetition o% Ierbal Signals upon the Behavior o%
+hroni- Ps!-honeuroti- PatientsG b! +a#eron$ Leonard Lev!$ and
Leonard Dubenstein$ =o2."a4 o+ Me"-a4 S!ie"!e1 10<6$ 16<$ 7K8 "he
ba-kground on Page=Dussell ele-trosho-ks -a#e %ro# G,ntensi%ied
:le-tri-al +onvulsive "herap! in the "reat#ent o% 5ental DisordersG
b! L G 5 Page and D 4 Dussell$ La"!e-1 Iolu#e 8@K$ 4anM4une$
10KJ Dr 4ohn+avanagh o% Washington$ D+ provided ba-kground on
))4 NOTES
the use o% ele-trosho-k and sedatives in ps!-hiatr!
+a#eron?s 5;UL"DA subpro9e-t )as U<J See espe-iall! do-u=
#ent <J=77$ GAppli-ation %or Grant to Stud! the :%%e-ts upon Au#an
Behavior o% the Depetition o% Ierbal Signals$G 4anuar! 81$ 10@7
Part o% +a#eron?s papers are in the ar-hives o% the A#eri-an Ps!=
-hiatri- Asso-iation in Washington$ and the! provided -onsiderable
in%or#ation on the treat#ent o% 5ar! +$ as )ell as a general look at
his )ork ,ntervie)s )ith at least a do.en o% his %or#er -olleagues also
provided -onsiderable in%or#ation
,ntervie)s )ith 4ohn Lill! and Donald Aebb provided ba-kground
on sensor! deprivation 5aitland Bald)in?s )ork in the %ield )as dis=
-ussed in a )hole series o% AD",+AO;: do-u#ents in-luding UA'B$
1$7<'K$ 81 5ar-h 10@@$ Sub9e-tL "otal ,solationF F A'B$ 1$7<'18$10 5a!
10@@$ Sub9e-tL "otal ,solationMAdditional +o##entsF and UA'B$ ,$
7<'17$87 April 10@@$ Sub9e-tL "otal ,solation$ Supple#ental Deport U8
"he Buote %ro# Aldous Au>le! on sensor! deprivation is taken %ro#
the book o% his )ritings$ Mo6s3a> W.i-i"/s o" 5sy!3ede4i!s a"d -3e
:isio"a.y Ex,e.ie"!e J'&*'-'&*K1 edited b! 5i-hael Aoro)it. and
+!nthia Pal#er C(e) *orkL Stonehill$ 107JE
"he #aterial on Ial Orliko)?s e>perien-es )ith Dr +a#eron -a#e
%ro# intervie)s )ith her and her husband David and %ro# portions
o% her hospital re-ords$ )hi-h she %urnished
+a#eron?s sta%% ps!-hologist Barbara Winrib?s -o##ents on hi#
)ere %ound in a letter to the 5ontreal S-a.1 August 11$ 1077
"he stud! o% +a#eron?s ele-trosho-k )ork ordered b! Dr +leghorn
)as published as G,ntensive :le-tro-onvulsive "herap!L A Follo)=up
Stud!$G b! A : S-h)art.#an and P : "er#ansen$ Ca"adia" 5sy!3i-
a-.i! Asso!ia-io"1 Iolu#e 18$ 10<7
,n addition to several intervie)s$ #u-h #aterial on 4ohn Lill! -a#e
%ro# his autobiograph!$ T3e S!ie"-is- CPhiladelphiaL 4 B Lippin-ott
+o#pan!$ 107JE
"he +,A?s handling o% *uri (osenko )as dis-ussed at length in
hearings be%ore the Aouse Assassinations +o##ittee on Septe#ber
1@$107J "he best press a--ount o% this testi#on! )as )ritten b! 4ere=
#iah O?Lear! o% the Washington S-a. on Septe#ber 1<$ 107JL GAo)
+,A "ried to Break De%e-tor in Os)ald +aseG
+AAP":D 0
5;UL"DA subpro9e-ts KJ and <6 provided the basi- do-u#ents on the
So-iet! %or the ,nvestigation o% Au#an :-olog! "hese )ere supple=
#ented b! the three biennial reports o% the So-iet! that -ould be
%oundL 10@7$10<1$ and 10<1=10<7 WoL"s o)n resear-h )ork is 5;UL=
"DA subpro9e-t <1 Wol%%s proposals to the Agen-! are in UA'B$ ,,$
NOTES ))5
16'<J$ undated GProposed Plan %or ,#ple#enting QdeletedRG in t)o
do-u#ents in-luded in KJ=80$ 5ar-h @$ 10@<$ GGeneral Prin-iples
Upon Whi-h these Proposals Are BasedG "he Agen-!?s plans %or the
+hinese Pro9e-t are des-ribed in UA'B$ ,,$ 16'KJ$ undated$ Sub9e-tL
+r!pton!# QdeletedR A'B$ ,,16'78$0 De-e#ber$ 10@K$ Sub9e-tL Letter o%
,nstru-tions$ and F A'B$ ,,$ 16'116$ undated$ untitled
Details o% the logisti-s o% renting the Au#an :-olog! headBuarters
and bugging it are in U A'B$ ,,$ 16'87$ 76 August$ 10@K$ Sub9e-tL 5eet=
ing o% Working +o##ittee o% QdeletedR$ (o @ and UA'B$ ,,$ 16'08$ J
De-e#ber$ 10@K$ Sub9e-tL "e-hni-al ,nstallation
"he Aungarian pro9e-t$ as )ell as being des-ribed in the 10@7 bien=
nial report$ )as dealt )ith in 5;UL"DA subpro9e-ts <@ and J8$ espe=
-iall! <@=18$ 8J 4une 10@<$ Sub9e-tL 5;UL"DA subpro9e-t <@F <@=11$
undated$ Sub9e-tL Dr QdeletedR?s Pro9e-tMPlans %or the +o#ing *ear$
4ul!$ 10@7=4une$ 10@JF and J8=1@$11 April 10@J$ Sub9e-tL Pro9e-t 5;UL=
"DA$ Subpro9e-t J8
"he ,onia State se>ual ps!-hopath resear-h )as 5;UL"DA Sub=
pro9e-t 70$ espe-iall! 70=K$ 0 April 10@J$ Sub9e-tL "rip Deport$ Iisit to
QdeletedR$ 7 April 10@J Paul 5agnusson o% the Detroit F.ee 5.ess and
David Pearl o% the Detroit A+LU o%%i-e both %urnished in%or#ation
+arl Dogers? 5;UL"DA subpro9e-t )as U07 Ae also re-eived %unds
under Subpro9e-t 7K See espe-iall! 7K=8@<$ 7 O-tober 10@J$ Supple=
#ent to ,ndividual Grant under 5;UL"DA$ Subpro9e-t (o 7K and
07=81$ < August 10@0$ Sub9e-tL 5;UL"DA Subpro9e-t 07
A 4 :!sen-k?s 5;UL"DA subpro9e-t )as U111 See espe-iall!
111=7$ 7 April 10<1$ Sub9e-tL +ontinuation o% 5;UL"DA Subpro9e-t
111
"he A#eri-an Ps!-hologi-al Asso-iation=sponsored trip to the So=
viet Union )as des-ribed in Subpro9e-t 167 "he book that -a#e out
o% the trip )as -alled So0e :iews o" SoAie- 5sy!3o4o/y1 Da!#ond
Bauer CeditorE$ CWashingtonL A#eri-an Ps!-hologi-al Asso-iationF
10<8E
"he Sheri%s? resear-h on teenage gangs )as des-ribed in Subpro9e-t
U 168 and the 10<1 Au#an :-olog! biennial report Dr +arol!n Sheri%
also )rote a letter to -3e A0e.i!a" 5sy!3o4o/i!a4 Asso!ia-io" Mo"i-o.1
Februar! 107J Dr Sheri% talked about her )ork )hen she and , ap=
peared on an August 107J panel at the A#eri-an Ps!-hologi-al Asso-i=
ation?s -onvention in "oronto
5artin Orne?s )ork %or the Agen-! )as des-ribed in Subpro9e-t JK
Ae -ontributed a -hapter to the So-iet!=%unded book$ T3e Ma"i,24a-
-io" o+ H20a" De3aAio.1 edited b! Albert Bider#an and Aerbert
Hi##er=C(e) *orkL 4ohn Wile! / SonsF 10<1E$ pp 1<0=81@ Finan-ial
data on Orne?s ,nstitute %or :>peri#ental Ps!-hiatr! -a#e %ro# a
%iling )ith the +o##on)ealth o% 5assa-husetts$ Atta-h#ent to For#
1687
)) NOTES
"he Buote %ro# 4ohn Gittinger -a#e %ro# an intervie) )ith hi#
-ondu-ted b! Dr Patri-ia Green%ield Dr Green%ield also intervie)ed
4a! S-hul#an$ +arl Dogers$ and +harles Osgood %or an arti-le in the
De-e#ber 1077 issue o% the A0e.i!a" 5sy!3o4o/i!a4 Asso!ia-io" Mo"-
i-o.1 %ro# )hi-h #! Buotes o% S-hul#an?s -o##ents are taken She
dis-ussed :rving Go%%#an?s role in a presentation to a panel o% the
A#eri-an Ps!-hologi-al Asso-iation -onvention in "oronto in August
107J "he talk )as titled G+,A Support o% Basi- Desear-h in Ps!-hol=
og!L Poli-! ,#pli-ationsG
+AAP":D 16
"he #aterial on the Gittinger Personalit! Assess#ent S!ste# CPASE
-o#es %ro# GAn ,ntrodu-tion to the Personalit! Assess#ent S!ste#G
b! 4ohn Winne and 4ohn Gittinger$ 5onograph Supple#ent (o 7J$
+lini-al Ps!-holog! Publishing +o$ ,n- 1077F an intervie) )ith 4ohn
WinneF intervie)s )ith three other %or#er +,A ps!-hologistsF 107K
intervie)s )ith 4ohn Gittinger b! the authorF and an e>tended inter=
vie) )ith Gittinger b! Dr Patri-ia Green%ield$ Asso-iate Pro%essor o%
Ps!-holog! at U+LA So#e o% the #aterial )as used %irst in a Ro44i"/
S-o"e arti-le$ 4ul! 1J$ 107K$ G"he +,A Won?t &uite Go Publi-G Dobert
A!de?s al-ohol resear-h at Butler Aealth +enter )as 5;UL"DA Sub=
pro9e-t << See espe-iall! <<=17$ 87 August$ 10@J Sub9e-tL Proposed
Al-ohol Stud!M10@J=10@0 and <<=@ undated$ Sub9e-tL :Buip#ent=
:-olog! Laborator!
"he 10<7 ,nspe-tor General?s report on "SS$ as %irst released under
the Freedo# o% ,n%or#ation A-t$ did not in-lude the se-tion on person=
alit! assess#ent Buoted %ro# in the -hapter An undated$ untitled
do-u#ent$ )hi-h )as obviousl! this se-tion$ )as #ade available in
one o% the +,A?s last releases
5;UL"DA subpro9e-t J7 dealt )ith grapholog! resear-h$ as did
part o% Subpro9e-t <6$ )hi-h -overed the )hole Au#an :-olog! So-i=
et! See espe-iall! J7=7$ De-e#ber 11$ 10@0$ Sub9e-tL QdeletedR Grapho=
logi-al Devie) and <6=8J$ undated$ Sub9e-t QdeletedR A-tivities Deport$
5a!$ 10@0=April$ 10<6
,n%or#ation on the ps!-hologi-al pro%ile o% Ferdinand 5ar-os -a#e
%ro# a US Govern#ent sour-e )ho had read it ,n%or#ation on the
pro%ile o% the Shah o% ,ran -a#e %ro# a -olu#n b! 4a-k Anderson and
Les Whitten G+,A Stud! Finds Shah ,nse-ure$G Washington 5os-1 4ul!
11$ 107@
"he Buotes %ro# 4a#es ;eehner -a#e %ro# an arti-le in New Ti0es
b! 5aureen Orth$ G5e#oirs o% a +,A Ps!-hologist$G 4une 8@$ 107@
For related reports on the +,A?s role in training %oreign poli-e and
its a-tivities in Urugua!$ see an arti-le b! "a!lor Bran-h and 4ohn
NOTES ))$
5arks$ G"ra-king the +,A$G Ha.,e.'s Wee64y1 4anuar! 8@$ 107@ and
Philip Agee?s book$ I"side -3e Co0,a"y> CIA Dia.y CLondonL PenguinF
107@E
"he Buote %ro# 5artin Orne )as taken %ro# Patri-ia Green%ield?s
APA Mo"i-o. arti-le -ited in the last -hapter?s notes
Gittinger?s testi#on! be%ore the Senate Sele-t +o##ittee on ,ntelli=
gen-e and the ;enned! sub-o##ittee on August 7$ 1077 appeared on
pages @6=<7 David Dhodes? testi#on! on Gittinger?s role in the abort=
ive San Fran-is-o LSD spra!ing appeared in hearings be%ore the
;enned! sub-o##ittee$ Septe#ber 86$ 1077$ pp 166=116
+AAP":D 11
5orse Allen?s training in h!pnosis )as des-ribed in Do-u#ent U A'B$
I$ 8J'1$ 0 4ul! 10@1$ Sub9e-t QDeletedR Ais h!pnosis e>peri#ents in the
o%%i-e are des-ribed in a long series o% #e#os See espe-iall! F A'B$ ,,,$
8'1J$ 16 Februar! 10@K$ A!pnoti- :>peri#entation and Desear-h and
UA'B$ ,,$ 16'71$ 10 August 10@K$ Sub9e-tL Operational'Se-urit! Qde=
letedR and unnu#bered do-u#ent$ @ 5a! 10@@$ Sub9e-tL A!pnotis#
and +overt Operations
"he Buote on US prisoners passing through 5an-huria -a#e %ro#
do-u#ent F 10$ 1J 4une 10@7$ AD",+AO;: +on%eren-e
Alden Sears? h!pnosis )ork )as the sub9e-t o% 5;UL"DA sub=
pro9e-ts @$ 8@$ 80$ and K0 See espe-iall! K0=8J$ undated$ Proposal %or
Desear-h in A!pnosis at the QdeletedR$ 4une 1$ 10@< to 5a! 71$ 10@7$
K0=7K$ undated$ Proposals %or Desear-h in A!pnosis at the QdeletedR$
4une 1$ 10@< to 5a! 71$ 10@7F @=11$ 8J 5a! 10@7$ Pro9e-t 5;UL"DA$
Subpro9e-t @ and @=17$ 86 April 10@K$ Sub9e-tL QdeletedR See also Patri-k
Osier?s arti-le in the +hi-ago S2"-Ti0es1 Septe#ber K$ 1077$ GAo)
+,A ?Aid? A!pnosis Desear-hG
General ba-kground on h!pnosis -a#e %ro# intervie)s )ith Alden
Sears$ 5artin Orne$ 5ilton ;line$ :rnest Ailgard$ Aerbert Spiegel$
Willia# ;roger$ 4a-k "ra-ktir$ 4ohn Watkins$ and Aarold +rasilne-k
See Orne?s -hapter on h!pnosis in T3e Ma"i,24a-io" o+ H20a" De-
3aAio.1 edited b! Albert Bider#an and Aerbert Hi##er C(e) *orkL
4ohn Wile! / SonsF 10<1E$ pp 1<0=81@
"he -onte#plated use o% h!pnosis in an operation involving a %or=
eign intelligen-e servi-e is re%erred to in the A%%idavit b! :loise D
Page$ in the -ase =o3" D8 Ma.6s v Ce"-.a4 I"-e44i/e"!e A/e"!y e- a48
+ivil A-tion no 7<=8677
"he 10@0 proposed use o% h!pnosis that )as approved b! "SS is
des-ribed in do-u#ents UK77$ 81 August 10@0$ Possible Use o% Drugs
and A!pnosis in QdeletedR Operational +aseF UK7K$ 87 August 10@0$
+o##ents on QdeletedRF and UK7@$ 1@ Septe#ber 10@0$ Possible Use o%
))% NOTES
Drugs and A!pnosis in QdeletedR Operational +ase
5;UL"DA Subpro9e-t 18J dealt )ith the rapid indu-tion te-hniBue
See espe-iall! 18J=1$ undated$ Sub9e-tL "o test a #ethod o% rapid h!p=
noti- indu-tion in si#ulated and real operational settings C5;UL"DA
18JE
A long intervie) )ith 4ohn Gittinger added -onsiderabl! to this
-hapter 5r Gittinger had re%used earlier to be intervie)ed dire-tl!
b! #e %or this book Our -onversation )as li#ited solel! to h!pnosis
+AAP":D 18
"he reorgani.ation o% "SS )as des-ribed in do-u#ent U@0$ 8< 4ul!
10<7$ Deport o% the ,nspe-tion o% 5;UL"DA and in intervie)s )ith
Da! +line$ Aerbert S-oville$ and several other %or#er +,A o%%i-ials
Di-hard Ael#s? re-o##endations %or a ne) 5;UL"DA -harter
)ere des-ribed in do-u#ent UK@6$ 0 4une$ 10<K$ Sensitive Desear-h
Progra#s C5;UL"DAE
Ad#iral Stans%ield "urner?s state#ent on the 5;UL"DA progra#
)as #ade be%ore a 9oint session o% the ;enned! sub-o##ittee and the
Senate Sele-t +o##ittee on ,ntelligen-e$ August 7$ 1077$ pp K=J
5;S:AD+A progra#s and their origins in 5;UL"DA are de=
s-ribed in do-u#ents UKK0$ J April 10<K$ Devision o% Pro9e-t 5;UL=
"DA and US=l=7$ untitled$ undated
Dr :d)ard Bennett?s )ork is the sub9e-t o% 5;UL"DA subpro9e-ts
16K and 1K7 See espe-iall! 1K7=87$11 De-e#ber 10<8$ Sub9e-tL 5;UL=
"DA Subpro9e-t 1K7 Other in%or#ationP on the +,A?s e-ono#i- sabo=
tage progra# against +uba -a#e %ro# intervie)s )ith 5a9or General
:d)ard Lansdale$ Da! +line$ Willia# +olb!$ Lin-oln Gordon$ +ove!
Oliver$ +harles 5e!er$ Di-hard Good)in$ Doger 5orris$ several %or=
#er +,A and State Depart#ent o%%i-ials$ and +uban govern#ent o%%i=
-ials
"he -ontinued sa%ehouse operation is 5;S:AD+A subpro9e-t K See
espe-iall! S=18=1$ bank state#ents and re-eipts o% sa%ehouse "he
+,A?s dealings )ith the "reasur! Depart#ent over the Long -o##it=
tee?s investigations o% )iretaps are detailed in do-u#ents UK@1$ 76
4anuar! 10<7$ A Deport on a Series o% 5eetings )ith Depart#ent o% the
"reasur! o%%i-ials and UK@8$ undated$ 5eeting )ith Depart#ent o%
"reasur! O%%i-ial
"he biologi-al laborator! is the sub9e-t o% 5;UL"DA subpro9e-ts 7J
and 116 and 5;S:AD+A 8 See espe-iall! Do-u#ents 7J=8J$ Septe#=
ber 8J$ 10<8$ Sub9e-tL P5 Support and Biologi-al QdeletedR and S=@=<$ J
Septe#ber 10<@$ Sub9e-tL Airing b! +hie% "SD'BB o% QdeletedR$ For#er
Sta%% :#plo!ee in a +onsultant +apa-it! on an Agen-! +ontra-t "he
-osts o% the Fort Detri-k operations -a#e %ro# p 1J and p 86K o% the
NOTES ))&
+hur-h -o##ittee hearings on Unauthori.ed Storage o% "o>i- Agents$
Septe#ber 1<$17$ and 1J$107@ "he des-ription o% "SS?s pro-edures %or
dealing )ith biologi-al )eapons -a#e %ro# Do-u#ent 7J=8J C-ited
aboveE and do-u#ent U@60$ undated Cbut -learl! 4une 107@E$ Sub9e-tL
Dis-ussions o% 5;(AO5, )ith QdeletedR
"he -he#i-al -o#pan! subpro9e-t is 5;UL"DA subpro9e-t 11< and
5;S:AD+A @ See espe-iall! 11<=@7$76 4anuar! 10<1$ Sub9e-tL 5;UL=
"DA$ Subpro9e-t 11<F 11<=<8$ O-tober 8J$ 10<6$ shipping invoi-eF and
11<=<1$ K (ove#ber 10<6$ Sub9e-tL 5;UL"DA Subpro9e-t 11< Also see
4a#es 5oore?s subpro9e-t$ 5;UL"DA @8F espe-iall! @8=@7$ invoi-e U7$
118@=660=1068$ April 87$ 10<6
4a#es Aa#ilton?s )ork is the sub9e-t o% 5;UL"DA subpro9e-ts 18K
and 1K6 and 5;S:AD+A Subpro9e-t 7 See espe-iall! 1K6=@7$ < 5a!
10<@$ Sub9e-tL Behavioral +ontrol and 1K6=J7$ 80 5a! 10<7$ Sub9e-tL
5;UL"DA Subpro9e-t 1K6
+arl P%ei%%er?s subpro9e-ts are 5;UL"DA 0$ 8<$ 8J$ and K7 and
5;S:AD+A 7 See espe-iall! S=7=K$ undated$ Sub9e-tL Approval o% Pro=
9e-t QdeletedR
5aitland Bald)in?s Subpro9e-ts are 5;UL"DA <8 and 5;S:AD+A
1 See espe-iall! <8=8$ undated QdeletedR Spe-ial Budget and <8=7$ un=
dated$ 10@<$ Sub9e-tL DeL "rip to QdeletedR$ O-tober 16=1K$ 10@<
+harles Ges-hi-kter?s subpro9e-ts are 5;UL"DA 87$ 7@$ and K@ and
5;S:AD+A < See espe-iall! 7@=16$ 5a! 1<$10@@$ Sub9e-tL "o provide
%or Agen-!=Sponsored Desear-h ,nvolving +overt Biologi-al and
+he#i-al War%areF K@=7J$ undated$ Desear-h ProposalL 10<6F K@=16K$
undated$ Sub9e-tL Desear-h ProposalL 10@J=10@0F K@=0@$ 8< 4anuar!
10@0$ +oninuation o% 5;UL"DA$ Subpro9e-t (o K@F K@=16K$81 4anuar!
10@J$ +ontinuation o% 5;UL"DA$ Subpro9e-t (o K@F K@=@8$ J Februar!
10<8$ +ontinuation o% 5;UL"DA$ Subpro9e-t (o K@F S=17=7$ 17 August
Sub9e-t$ Approval o% QdeletedRF and S=17=0$ 17 Septe#ber 10<7$ Sub9e-tL
Approval o% QdeletedR See also Ges-hi-kter?s testi#on! be%ore the
;enned! sub-o##ittee$ Septe#ber 86$ 1077$ pp KK=K0
"he la-k o% -ongressional or e>e-utive bran-h kno)ledge o% +,A
behavioral a-tivities )as #entioned on p 7J<$ +hur-h +o##ittee
Deport$ Book ,
A#a.on (atural Drug?s +,A -onne-tion )as des-ribed b! an e>=+,A
o%%i-ial and -on%ir#ed b! the #other o% another %or#er Agen-! #an
Several %or#er e#plo!ees des-ribed its a-tivities in intervie)s
Gottlieb?s ter#ination o% 5;S:AD+A -a#e %ro# Do-u#ent S=1K=7$
16 4ul! 1078$ "er#ination o% 5;S:AD+A
"he destru-tion o% 5;UL"DA do-u#ents )as des-ribed in Do-u=
#ent UK10$ 7 O-tober$ 107@$ Sub9e-tL Destru-tion o% Drug and "o>in
Delated Files and K<6$ 71 4anuar!$ 1077$ Sub9e-tL Pro9e-t FilesL C10@1=
10<7E
"he 5;UL"DA subpro9e-ts on ele-tri- sti#ulation o% the brain are
8@6 NOTES
16< and 1K8 See espe-iall! 16<=1$ undated$ Sub9e-tL ProposalF 1K8=1K$
88 5a! 10<8$ Sub9e-tL Pro9e-t 5;UL"DA$ Subpro9e-t (o 1K8F and
do-u#ent U7< C5;D:L"A releaseE$ 81 April 10<1$ Sub9e-tL GGuided
Ani#alG Studies
"he list o% paraps!-holog! goals )as taken %ro# an e>-ellent arti-le
b! 4ohn Wilhel# in the August 8$ 1077 Washington 5os-> GPs!-hi-
Sp!ingOG
Pro9e-t OF":( in%or#ation )as taken %ro# do-u#ent UK@@$< 5a!
107K$ Sub9e-tL Pro9e-t OF":( and 5e#orandu# %or the Se-retar! o%
De%ense %ro# Deanne P Sie#er$ Septe#ber 86$ 1077$ Sub9e-tL :>=
peri#entation Progra#s +ondu-ted b! the Depart#ent o% De%ense
"hat Aad +,A Sponsorship or Parti-ipation and "hat ,nvolved the
Ad#inistration to Au#an Sub9e-ts o% Drugs ,ntended %or 5ind=-on=
trol or Behavior=#odi%i-ation Purposes
"he Buote %ro# B F Skinner )as taken %ro# Peter S-hrag?s book$
Mi"d Co"-.o4 C(e) *orkL Pantheon$ 107JE p 16
INDE+
A=bo#b$ 7@
GAG treat#ent$ K6=K1$ KK$ 1J<
Aboure.k$ Sen 4a#es$ i>
Abra#son$ Aarold$ @0=<8
LSD ps!-hosis vi-ti#$ <8n$ <K$
<J$11J$ 186$ 1<0
treats Dr Frank Olson %or
a--idental LSD dose$ 70=J8
Abra#son$ 5rs Aarold$ <8n
A-upun-ture$ 176
Addi-tion Desear-h +enter$ @0
Agen-! %or ,nternational
Develop#ent CA,DE
Publi- Sa%et! 5ission$ 17J=170
Agrippina$ 16<
Albania$ KK
Al-ohol$ 7@$ 76$ 01=08
G:>tender$G @Jn
Aldri-h$ Dr Stephen$ 860$ 816$ 818
Ale>ander$ Dr Leo$ i>$ 16
Allan 5e#orial ,nstitute$ 171=178$
17<$ 170
Allen$ 5orse$ 87=8<$ 78$ 7J$ K1n$
K8=K7$ 16<=16J$ 111=117$ 177$
17J$ 1K7$ 1@7$ 1J8=108$
861=868$ 860
Allende$ Salvador$ 107
Alt#e!er$ Paul$ i>
A0a"i-a !a!sa.ea1 16<
A0a"i-a ,3a44oides1 16<
A#a.on (atural Drug +o#pan!$
867
A0e.i!a" =o2."a4 o+ 5s-L!3ia-.-i1 1K1
A#eri-an 5edi-al Asso-iation$
A.!3iAes o+ Ne2.o4o/y a"d
5sy!3ia-.y1 1KJ
A#eri-an (eurologi-al Asso-iation$
1KJ
A#eri-an Ps!-hiatri- Asso-$ 178$
17<
ar-hives$ 170
A#eri-an Ps!-hologi-al Asso-iation$
1@J$1<1
A#eri-an So-iet! %or +lini-al and
:>peri#ental A!pnosis$ 1J7
A#eri-an "elephone and "elegraph$
CA"/"E$ 1J
A#herst +ollege$ 860
A#nesia$ 17$ KJ$ 816$ 818
G-o#plete$G 177
Gdi%%erential$G 177
indu-tion b! drugs$ K1
indu-tion b! h!pnosis$ K8$ 1J7$
1J@$ 1J7=1J0
produ-ed b! ele-trosho-k$ 87$ 177$
1K6
A#pheta#ines$ 7@
Andres$ 5oni-a$ viii
Angleton$ 4a#es$ 1J0$ 108
Angola$ K<
Anslinger$ Aarr!$ J0
Anson$ Dobert Sa#$ 101n
Anthra>$ 7<$ 7J
Anthropolog!$ 1@$ 1K7
Ar#! Biologi-al Laborator!
See US Ar#!
878 INDEM
Ar#! +he#i-al +orps
See US Ar#!
Ar#! ,ntelligen-e
See US Ar#!
AD",+AO;:$ 80=77$ 77=K7$ @@$
16<=16J$ 177$ 17J$ 1K7=1KK$
1J8=1J<$868$86J=860$818
di%%i-ult! re-ruiting ph!-hiatrist$
76=71
ethi-al and #oral -onsiderations$
78=77
)o#en e>-luded as e>peri=
#enters$ K7
)ork )ith +hinese re%ugees$
1@6=1@1$ 1@7
use o% -ollege students in tests$ 71
Ato#i- :nerg! +o##ission$ 10@
GAunt 4e#i#a$G 1K
Aver!$ Paul$ i>
A.ores$ 7K
A.te-s$ 167
Badala#enti$ Dosal!n "$ i>
Bald)in$ Dr 5aitland$ 17J$ 1K7$
861=868
Barbiturates$ <$ 7@
Basel$ S)it.erland$ 7
Bateson$ Gregor!$ 186
Ba!lor Universit!$ <7n
Ba! o% Pigs$ 10@$867
Be-ker$ :ddie$ i>
Bee-her$ Aenr!$ <7n$ 78n
Behavior
Gbehavioris#$G 1<8
=-ontrol$ 80$ 76
#odi%i-ation$ unethi-al$ 817
See a4so #ind=-ontrol
#anipulation$ 1K7
resear-h$ 76
s-ien-es$ 1K7
Bennett$ Dr :d)ard$ 107=10J
Ben.edrine$ K6$ J6
Berle$ Adol% A$1@<
Berlin airli%t$ @7
Bevis$ Penn!$ viii
Bider#an$ Albert$ 18Jn
Bio=ele-tri-s$ 818
Bissell$ Di-hard$ 7<
Bla-k#ail$ K<=K7
Blauer$ Aarold$ <7n
Blo)ba-k$ KJ
BLU:B,DD$ 88=8<$ 8J=80
rena#ed AD",+AO;:$ 80
Blu#$ Dalph$ 11J=110$181
Bordento)n$ (4$ re%or#ator!$ 861
Borosage$ Dobert$ viii
Bortner$ Aenr!$ J<$ 16J=116$ 11@
Boston Ps!-hopathi- Aospital$ @7$
@K$@J$@0$ 11J$1<0
Botani-als$ 160
Botulinu#$ 7K=7@
Botulinus to>in$ 1<
Brain)ashing$ 8J
+hinese -redited )ith$ 18@=18<
+,A investigations$ 187=1K<
#ethods$ 18J=176
tested b! Dr D : +a#eron$
170=1K1
Bran-h$ "a!lor$ viii
Brandt$ Dr ;arl$ 16
Braun$ Wernher von$ 0
Brothel$ 07=0<
Bro)n Universit!$ 1@<n
Bru-ellosis$ 7@
Bu%ontenine$ <7
GBugs$G @J
Bur-h$ (eil$ <7n
Bureau o% (ar-oti-s and Dangerous
Drugs See Federal Bureau o%
(ar-oti-s
Bureau o% Prisons See US Bureau
o% Prisons
Burke$ 5i-hael$ 8J
Burroughs$ Willia#$ JKn$ 867
Butler Aealth +enter CProviden-eE$
1<0
PBH Cps!-ho-he#i-alE$ 168$ 116
+ali%ornia 5edi-al Fa-ilit!
CIa-avilleE$861
+al "e-h C+ali%ornia ,nstitute o%
"e-hnolog!E$ @@
+a#eras$ in toba--o pou-hes$ @@
+a#eron$ Dr D :)en$ viii$ 171=170$
1K@$ 1KJ$ 1@<$ 1@0$81K
LSD testing$ 170=1K1
+a# Danh Ba!$ 1KKn
Ca""a#is i"di!a1 <
See a4so 5ari9uana
+arba#ate poison$ 116$ 866
+arbon=dio>ide inhalation$ 866
+ar#i-hael$ Leonard$ 1@<n
+arter$ Pres 4i##!$ 86<
+assXdv$ 4ohn 17J=170
+AS",GA":$ 77
+astro$ Fidel$ 17$ 7K=7<$ 0J$ 101$
10@$ 107$ 10J
+attell$ 4a#es$ <7n
+avanagh$ Dr 4ohn$ i>
+entral 5ongoloid skull$ 1@J
INDEX 233
+enter %or (ational Se-urit! Studies$
viii
+entral ,ntelligen-e Agen-! C+,AE
abuses investigated$ 160$ 86@=867
Ar#! +he#i-al +orps
Spe-ial Operations Division
CSODE )ork %or$ 77=J<
AD",+AO;:$ 80$ 77$ @@$ JJ
auditors$ 00
behavioral resear-h$ 1<K$ 86<=860
BLU:B,DD$ 88=8<$ 8J=80
brain)ashing studies$ 187=1K<
%unding o%$ 178$ 177$ 17<$
177=17J$ 1K1
-arnal operations$ 0@
+AS",GA":$ 77
+AA"":D$ 7@=70$ K7
+landestine Servi-es division
CDire-torate o% OperationsE$
a4so Gdirt! tri-ks depart#ent$G
@<=@7$ 77=7@$ 161$ 167$ 1<K$
17<=177$ 1J0$ 10@=10<$
866$ 86K
Assistant %or S-ienti%i- 5atters$
167
Aealth Alteration +o##ittee$
7@n
-ooperation )ith British and
+anadian govern#ents$ 76
+ounterintelligen-e$ 1K@$ 1J0=106
D=l!sergi- a-id dieth!la#ide
CLSDE$ use o%
e>peri#ents$ <1=77$ 110=188$
1<0$ 1J6
a--idental$ 76=78
%unding o% resear-h$ @J=@0$ 70$
111
#ilitar! servi-es interest$ @0
(ational ,nstitute o% 5ental
Aealth interest$ @0
testing$ 77=J<$ J7=07$ 00=16K$
16@$ 1@K=1@@$ 1<K
drugs$ use o%$ 81=77$ 7K=KK
e>peri#ents )ith 5e>i-an
#ushroo#s$ 16<=117
use o% prison in#ates in$ 117
Frank%urt base$ 7@=7J
%unding o% botani-al poison
resear-h$ 111
%unding o% So-iet! %or the
,nvestigation o% Au#an
:-olog!$ 1K0
General +ounsel$ J7
hu#an behavior #anipulation$
)57")89$ )85")6)
hy%nos#s e:%er#ments0 )6;")*;
in%or#ants$ <K
,nspe-tor General$ 0J$ 166=161$
168n$17<$10<
liason With Ar#!$ (av!$ and
Air For-e ,ntelligen-e$ 76
5a%ia operations$ 88$ 161
#aterial deleted %ro# OSS
do-u#ents$ 7
#edi-al sta%%$ 80
5edi-al O%%i-e$ 168n
#ethods a%ter World War ,,$ 86
#ind=-ontrol )ork$ vii$ J=17$ 17$
1J$81=77$7K=KK
5;D:L"A$ @7$ 167
5;(AO5,$ @7$ 77=7K
5;S:AD+A$ 107=866
5;UL"DA$ @7 et al
O%%i-e o% Se-urit!$ 88=8K$ 80$ 76=78$
7J$ @@$J6$J8$ 16J$ 1@6=1@7
O%%i-e o% S-ienti%i- ,ntelligen-e$
81=87$8<$8J$80$860
O%%i-e o% "e-hni-al Servi-es$ 80n
GOperation 5idnight +li#a>$G 166
Personalit! Assess#ent S!ste#$ ,>
Desear-h +hair#an$ JK=J@
responsibilit! in Dr Frank Olson?s
death$ J@$ J7
S-ien-e and "e-hnolog! Dire-=
torate$ 1KKn$10<$860
O%%i-e o% Desear-h and Devel=
op#ent CODDE 860$ 817
Se-urit! 5e#orandu#$ 10K0$ 81
Soviet Division$ 8J
GSpe-ialG interrogation$ 88
"e-hni-al Servi-es Division 80n
"e-hni-al Servi-es Sta%% C"SSE$
80$ @@$ @7=@J$ <1=<8$ <K=<@$
<7$ 76=78 et al
assess#ent sta%%$ 178=17@$ 170
+he#i-al Division$ @@
per9ur! Buestioned$ 867
tests )ith dolphins$ 1KK
use o% -ollege students in tests$ 71
Western Ae#isphere Division$ 867
)ith respe-t to Freedo# o%
,n%or#ation A-t$ 811
)ork )ith (av!$ 10@8$ 7K=KK
G+haris#a$G 1<7
+AA"":D$ 7@=70$ K7
+,A ps!-hiatri- -onsultants?
report on$ K7=KK
+he#i-al and biologi-al )ar%are
C+BWE$ 1<=17$ @@$ @7$ 7Kn
+heshire$ 5ark$ i>
+hestnut Lodge$ J1=JK
+hile$ 107$ 817
234 INDEX
+hina
-redited )ith brain)ashing$ 18@=
18<$171$1@6
use o% drugs in$ 176
politi-al re=edu-ation progra#s
in$ 18J=176
C3o"dode"d.o" -oxi!o+e.20 867
+hur-h$ Sen Frank$ 86<
+o##ittee See US Senate
+ir-u#-ision$ e%%e-t on "urkish
bo!s$ 1@0
+it! +ollege C+ollege o% the +it! o%
(e)*ork$++(*E$@<
+ivil Servi-e +o##ission$ 87
+landestine Servi-es$ 7K=7<
Aealth Alteration +o##ittee$ 7<n
+lark$ Lin-oln$ 110n
+laudius$ 16<
+leghorn$ Dr Dobert$ 1K6
+line$ Da!$ 8J$ @<$ 17<$ 10Jn
+o-aine$ @7n
+ohen$ Sidne!$ i>$ 110n
+ointreau$ 77
+olb!$ Willia#$ 7<$ 17<$10Jn
+old War$ viii$ 0$ 11$ 18@$ 18J$ 1KJ
h!steria$ 87
in%luen-e on #ind=-ontrol
e>peri#ents$ 8<=87$ @7
use o% h!pnotis# in$ 1J8
+olgate Universit!$ 10
+ollege Board e>a#s$ 1<J
+olu#bia +ollege$ 18
La) S-hool$ 18
Universit!$ @0
+o##issioner o% (ar-oti-s$ 7<
+onant$ 4a#es$ 1K
+ondon$ Di-hard$ 0n$ 108
+ongo$ 17$7@
+onklin$ 5 4$ i>
+ook$ Willia# Bo!d$ 11@n
+ooper$ Gar!$ 7K
+ornell Universit!$ 17$ 187
5edi-al S-hool$ 77$ 187=18J$
1K7=1@7$ 1@K=1@<
patients used in e>peri#ents$ 1K0
+orte.$ 167
+or!nanthine$ <1
+ounter=intelligen-e$ KJ
G+over grants$G 1@J
+uba$ 107$ 10J
#issile -risis$ 1<K
+u##ins$ ;en$ viii
+unningha#$ Augh$ 8J
C2.a"de.a Csha#anE$ 118$ 11@n$
117
+urare$ 160$ 170
Da-hau$ K=<$J=11
Day o+ -3e Do4,3i"1 T3e1 1KK
GDead drops$G 1J7
Dea-3 i" -3e Mi"d1 86
Deep +reek Lodge$ 5d$ 77=7K$ 70
deFlore.$ Ad# Luis$ JK
Del Gra-io$ August$ <=7$ JJ$ 07
Delane!$ Aannah$ viii
De0o!.a- a"d C3.o"i!4e
CDo-hester$ (*E$7<n
Depart#ent o% the Ar#!$ 86@
GDepatterning$G viii$ 177=17<$ 81K
DeShon$ A 4a-kson$ @K$ <6
Destru-tion o% #e#or!$ 818
De)e!$ Gov "ho#as$ 7n$ 06$ 07
De>a#!l$ 7J
De>edrine$ 7J$ 70$ K6$ K8
Diarrhea indu-ers$ 00
GDi%%erential a#nesia$G 177
Dille$ 4a#es$ <7n
Dish)ashers$ 1<@=1<<
D=l!sergi- a-id dieth!la#ide CLSDE
+,A e>peri#ents )ith$ <1=77$
110=188$1<0$1J6
a--idental$ 76=78
+,A %unding o% resear-h$ @J=@0
+,A interest peak$ @@=@J
+,A testing$ 77=J<$ J7=07$ 00=16K$
16@$ 1@K=1@@$ 1<K
+or!nanthine as possible
antidote$ <1
dis-over! o%$ 7=K$ J=0
e%%e-ts on Sia#ese %ighting %ish
and snails do-u#ented$ <1
%ear o% Dussian possession$ <@
i#portation to US$ @K
;auders? le-ture on in Boston$ @7
Lill! #anu%a-ture o%$ <<=<7
5ilitar! servi-es? interest$ @0
(ational ,nstitute o% 5ental
Aealth interest$ @0
paranoia %ro#$ @K
P%ei%%er?s test )ith$ 861
pra-ti-al 9oke )ith$ 77$ J<
dose to Dr Frank Olson -alled
Gtherapeuti-$G J7
radioa-tive #arker %or$ 11J
rea-tion o% s-hi.ophreni-s to$ <6
s-ientists? reports published$ <1
studies at Le>ington Federal drug
hospital$ <8=<K
use in -overt operations$ <1
D5"$ 116
Dolphins$ 1KK
Donovan$ Gen Willia# GWild Bill$G
18=1J$87$ 171
INDEM )*5
Doo.s o+ 5e.!e,-io"1 T3e1 117
Drugs
+,A use o%$ 81=77$ 7K=KK$
#e#or! destro!ing$ K1
testing$ 1J6
Dru#$ 4a#es G"rapper$G J7=JK
Dulles$ Allen$ 87$ KJ$ @<=@7$ <<=<7$
78$ J8$ JK$J7$ 187$ 171$
1K7=1KJ$ 1@<$ 1J<$ 10@$ 867n
:agleton$ "ho#as$ 167
:ar#an$ 4ohn$ 0J$ 166
:dge)ood Arsenal C5dE$ 7Kn
-he#i-al laborator!$ 816
:du-ational "esting Servi-e$ 1<J
:d)ards$ She%%ield$ 881
::+ tests$ 8<$ 1<J
:hrli-h#an$ 4ohn$ 178
:instein$ Albert$ J$ 0
:isenho)er$ Pres D)ight D$ 1K$
867n
E4e!-.i! 9oo4-Aid A!id Tes-1 T3e1 181
:le-tri- sti#ulation$ 818
:le-trodes
e>peri#ents )ith$ 1K8=1K7$816
G:le-tro=sleepG #a-hine
danger o% te#porar! brain
da#age$ 8@
:le-trosho-k$ 177$ 17K$ 1K6$ 1K@$
868$81K
a#nesia %ro#$ 8@
batter! driven$ 8<
-ontinued treat#ents$ 8@=8<
::+ tests to deter#ine e%%e-ts$ 8<
Ge>-ru-iating pain$G 8@
in +,A behavioral resear-h$ 1<K
GPage=DussellG #ethod$ 17@
Deiter #a-hine$ 8@
sleep=$ 17@
:llsberg$ Daniel$ 178=177
:#or! Universit!$ 861
:pide#i-s$ 77
:rgot$ K$ <<$ 16@
:stabrooks$ George G:st!$G 10=86
G:>e-utive a-tion$G 816
Ex,4o.a-io"s o+ 5e.so"a4i-y1 17
:NPLOS,I:$ K1=K8
:>plosive seashells$ @@
G:>ternali.erG C:E$ 1<<=1<7$1<J$
1<0$ 178$ 17@=17<
:!sen-k$ A 4$ 1@0=1<6
False papers$ @@
Faust$ 170
Federal Bureau o% ,nvestigation
CFB,E$J$76
Federal Bureau o% (ar-oti-s$ 7$ 7<$
JJ$J0=06$01$ 08=07$ 100
and Dangerous Drugs$ 110=186
Feld#an$ ,ra G,ke$G 0K$ 0J
Fiore$ (i-k$ viii
F4a/.a"-e de4i!-o1 08
GFle>ibleG CFE$ 1<<=1<7
Flo)ers$ :ddie$ <7=<K
Foothills +ollege$ 7n
Food and Drug Ad#inistration$
<7=<J$ 861
Ford$ Pres Gerald$ J@n=J<n$ 86@
Forest Aills$ &ueens$ (*$ 1@@
Fort Detri-k$ 5d$ @7$ 77=70$ J@$
100=866
Frankenstein$ Dr 0$ 181
F.eedo0 a"d Di/"i-y1 1<6
Freedo# o% ,n%or#ation A-t$ vii=viii$
7n$ 1JJn$ 866$86<$ 818
Fre#ont=S#ith$ Frank$ 186
Fried$ Frank$ Shriver$ Aarris and
;a#pel#an Cla) %ir#E$ viii
Gallagher$ 4ohn$ i>
GGang that +ouldn?t Spra! Straight$G
166n$1J6$ 86J
Gardner$ 4ohn$ 1J
Ga!nor$ Paul$ 8@$ 7J
Georgeto)n Universit! Aospital$ 868
Ger# )ar%are$ 18@=18<
Ges-hi-kter$ Dr +harles$ @0$ 1@@n$
868$ 867
Ges-hi-kter Fund %or 5edi-al
Desear-h$ @0$ 116$ 11K$ 11J$
1@@n$ 1J7n$ 868=867
Gestapo$ K$ 10
Gibbons$ Willis$ @7$ J7=JK
Ginsberg$ Allen$ 186=181
Giordano$ Aarr!$ 100n
Gittinger$ 4ohn$ i>$ 1J$ 86$ 0K$ 166$
176$ 1@7$ 1<6$ 1J<$ 1J7$ 1JJ$
106$ 101
Personalit! Assess#ent S!ste#
CPASE$ 1<K=1J1$10<=107
GGod?s Flesh$G 167=111$ 118$ 11K$ 11@
See a4so Teo"a"a!-4
Goethe$ 4ohann von$ 170
Go%%#an$ :r)in$ 1<6
Gold)ater$ Sen Barr!$ 867
Good)in$ Di-hard$ 10Jn
GGoo%ballG See De>a#!l
Goldstein$ Bonnie$ i>
Goring$ Aer#ann$ 16
Gottlieb$ Dr Sidne!$ 17$ 86$ @@=78$
77=7@$ 07=0J$ 166=167$ 16J$
116$ 11@$1@1=1<8$1<7$1J<=
)* INDEM
108$ 10@=86<$ 86J=860$ 818
Grapholog! Chand)riting anal!sisE$
171n
Great Britain$ 18
Greenblatt$ 5ilton$ i>$ @7
Greene$ Bob$ viii
Green%ield$ Dr Patri-ia$ i>
Greiner$ Aans$ 170
G24a/ A.!3i,e4a/o1 T3e1 18J
G!psies$ @$ 16
Aaggert!$ 4ulie$ i>
Hai.1 @K
Aallu-inogens$ 117
Aalperin$ 5orton$ viii
Aa#ilton$ Dr 4a#es$ 01n$ 07
866=868
Aa##erstein$ Os-ar ,,$ J1
Aand)riting anal!sis$ 17
GAarass#ent substan-es$G 166$ 107
Aarvard$ 1K$ 16@$ 11J$ 110$ 1<6$ 1<1$
1<8$ 176$867
5edi-al S-hool$ @7$ 78n
Aarve!$ Lauren-e$ 0n
Aashish$ @J
Aa)kins$ Willia#$ 0K
Aa!)ard$ Lisa Olson$ JK
Aebb$ Dr Donald$ 177=17J$ 1K7n
Aei#$ Doger$ 11K=11@
Ael#s$ Di-hard$ 17$ 17$ 86$ KK$ KJ$
@<=@7$78$J7$07$166=161$
1K@=1K<$ 1J0$ 10<=107$ 100$
86K=86@$ 86J$ 818
Aeroin$ 7@$ <8$<K$ 01$0K
Aersh$ Se!#our$ 86@
Aidden #i-rophones$ 70
Hi/3 Noo"1 7K
Ainkle$ Lauren-e$ i>$ 187=176$ 1K7$
1K0$ 1@1$ 1@Kn$ 1@<$ 1@7
Ainse!$ Dr 4oseph$ 1@<
Aillenkoetter$ Dos-oe$ 88=87
Ailton$ 4a#es$ 17
Ai##ler$ Ae?nri-h$ @
Hi-e Re,o.-1 T3e1 0K
Aitler$ Adol%$ 16$ 17$ 1@=1<$ 17$
1J=10$8<$ @7$ 116$ 171$ 178$
866
Ao-h$ Paul$ <7n
Aodge$ Aarold$ @0$ 11J
Ao%#ann$ Dr Albert$ i>$ 7=K$ @$ J=0$
@7=@K$ @J$ 16@$ 11@
Aollida!$ Billie$ 01n
Aollister$ Dr Leo$ 186=181
Aol#esburg State Prison CPaE$ 818
Ao#er$ K1n
Ao#ose>uals$ 176$ 17@n
entrap#ent o%$ 0<=07$ 177
Aood$ Willia#$ i>
Aoover$ Pres Aerbert$ 87
Aoover$ 4 :dgar$ 76$ 06$ 817
Hsi-"ao1 18@
Auaulta de 4i#ene.$ 118$ 11K$ 11@n
GAu#an e-olog!$G 1K7=1<7
de%ined$ 1K7
Gspe-ial #ethods$G 1K0
Au#an :-olog! Fund$ 1K0n
Au#an :-olog! So-iet! See So-iet!
For the ,nvestigation o%
Au#an :-olog!
Aungarian revolt$ 10@<$ 1@8=1@K
Aunt$ Ao)ard$ @@
Aunter$ :d)ard$ 18@=18<$ 18J
Au>le!$ Aldous$ 117$ 1K7n
A!de$ Dobert$ @K$ @0=<1$<K$<0$ 110$
1<0
A!pnosis$ @$ 11$ 1J=10$ 81$ 8K$ K6=K8$
1@K$ 1<8$ 1J8=108$818
#ethods$ @@
Gter#inal e>peri#ent$G 1J@=1J7
,nstitute %or :>peri#ental
Ps!-hiatr!$ 1<1n
G,nternali.er C,E$G 1<<=1<7$ 1<0$ 178
,nterrogation te-hniBues$ 76
,nvestigative Deporters and :ditors$
,n-$ viii
,nvisible inks$ @@
,onia State Aospital C5i-higanE$
1@K=1@@$ 176
,guitos$ Peru$ 867
,sabelY$ Dr Aarris$ @0$ <8=<K$ 11<$
176
,stanbul Universit!$ 1@0
,t-hing po)der$ 166
,v! Leaguer$ 01
4a#ai-a dog)ood$ 160
4ellinek$ Doger$ i>
4e)s$ @$ 16
G4ohnn! :vans$G 86
4ohns Aopkins Universit!$ 1@<
4ohnson$ Pres L!ndon$ 10Jn$867n$
86@
4ones$ 4anet$ 0K
4usti-e Depart#ent$ 07n
9a0as2-.a1 11J
;auders$ Otto$ @7
;eehner$ 4a#es$ 177=17@
;eene!$ Barnab!$ 1@<n
;ell!$ George A$ 1@<n
;e#pster$ (or#an$ i>
INDEM )*$
;enned!$ Sen :d)ard$ 07n$ lOOn$
1J6$ 86<=86J
;enned!$ Pres 4ohn F$ 1K$ 166$ 1K@$
10@$ 10Jn
;ese!$ ;en$ 186=181
;GB$ 0<$ 180$ 1K@=1K<
;hrush-hev$ (ikita$ 1<1$ 1<K
;ing$ 4 +$ 867
;irkpatri-k$ Gen L!#an$ J8=J7$ J@$
lOOn$168n
;istiako)sk!$ Dr George$ 1K
;lee$ Gerald$ <7n
;leiner$ :lsa$ i>
;leiner$ Fred$ i>
;line$ 5ilton$ i>$ 1J7$ 101n$ 10@
;no-kout drops$ J0$ 07
;ohan$ 4e%%$ i>
;orean +entral ,ntelligen-e Agen-!
C;+,AE$ 17J$ 170=1J6
;orean War$ 87$ 8<$ 8J$ 7K$ K7$ @7$
18@=187
;ubie$ Dr La)ren-e$ 10
Langer$ Walter$ i>$ 1@=1<$ 1@=1<n$
1J$ 171
Langer$ Willia#$ 1@
Land$ Dr :d)in$ 816
Lashbrook$ Dobert$ 7K$ 70=J7$ J@=J<$
07$ 867
Latha#$ Aaron$ 1J0
Lauren G$ 171=17@
Lear!$ "i#oth!$ 16@$ 117=11J$ 188
Lee$ 5art!$ i>
Len.ner$ "err!$ <7n
LeDose!$ 17
Lesbians$ 176
Levitto)n$ L,$(*$ 1@J
Le>ington$ ;entu-k!$ Federal drug
hospital$ <8=<K$ J0$11<$176
Li%e #aga.ine$ 11<=117$ 11J
Li%ton$ Dobert 4a!$ 18Jn
Lill!$ :li / +o#pan!$ <<=<J
Lill!$ Dr 4ohn$ i>$ <8$ 1K8=1KK$ 860
Lips-o#b$ "o#$ i>
GLisetin$G 160
Long$ Sen :d)ard$ 100n
Lovell$ Stanle!$ 17=17$ @@$ 7@$ JJ$ 866
LSD See D=l!sergi- a-id dieth!la=
#ide
Lu-iano$ +harles GLu-k!$G 7n$ JJ$ 07
Lu#u#ba$ Patri-e$ 17$ 7@
L2-3e.1 70
5-+arth!$ Sen 4oseph$ 8<$ <0
5-+one$ 4ohn$ 166=161$ 10@$ 10<$
10Jn$860
5-Gill Universit!$ 178$ 17J$ 1@0
ps!-holog! depart#ent$ 177
5a-!$ 4osiah 4$ Foundation$ @0$
<K=<@$ 11J$ 186=181
5-&uo)n$ 4udith A$ i>
5adeleine$ 17<
5a%ia$ 7$ 88$ 7K
+,A=5a%ia assassination plots$
166$ 101
5agnusson$ Paul$ i>
5alott$ Deane W$ 187
5an-huria$ 4apanese use o% biologi=
-al )ar%are in$ 77n
5an-hurian +andidate
de%ined$ 0$ 0n
h!pnosis to -reate$ 1J7$ 1J<=1J7$
1J0$101
5andala$ "ibetan$ 181
5anhattan Pro9e-t$ 160$ 171
involve#ent )ith OSS drug
e>peri#ents$ <=J$ JJ
5ao"se=tung$ 176
5ar-hetti$ Ii-tor$ 1J0
5ar-os$ Ferdinand$ 178n
5aria Sabina$ 118=11K$ 11@n
5ari9uana$ <=J$ 7J$ K6$ K8$ JJ$ 01$
1@K
G5e>i-an gro)nG in Pro9e-t
+AA"":D$ 7<
5arin +ount!$ 00$ 86J
5arines$ 8K
5arra..i$ A#edeo$ <7n
5ar>$ +$ 17J=170
5ar>$ ;arl$ 176
5assa-husetts General Aospital$
<7n$110n
5assa-husetts 5ental Aealth
+enter$ @7n
5ata Aari$ 0<
5ead$ 5argaret$ <@$ 186$1@0
Me a"d =24ie-1 J1
5edi-ine$ 1K7
5enninger$ ;arl$ 10
5enninger$ Willia#$ 10
5enopause$ 170
5es-aline$ K=<$ 11$ @J$ 16<$ 111
%or-ed in9e-tions o% derivatives$
<7n
5esselson$ 5atthe)$ i>
5ia#i News1 18@
G5i-robioino-ulator$ non=
dis-ernible$G 77
5i-rophones$ 08$ 0K
5i-ro)aves$ 818
5igraine heada-hes$ 187$ 1KJ
5ills$ Bill$ i>
)*% INDEM
5ind=-ontrol$ vii
BLU:B,DD progra#$ 88=8<$ 8J
bureau-rati- sBuabbling and
-on%li-t over$ 80$ 76
de%ense against$ 87
Ggap$G 8J
rationali.ations %or$ 76=71
resear-h$ 17
5inds.ent!$ 4ose% +ardinal$ 81=88$
8J$ 18@$ 1K@
5int.$ 4i#$ viii
5issouri ,nstitute o% Ps!-hiatr!$ <7n
5itrione$ Dan$ 17J
5itt!$ Walter$ K7
5;D:L"A$ @7$ 167
5;(AO5,$ @7$ 77=7K
5;S:AD+A$ 107$ 10J=86K
Subpro9e-t U8$ 100
Subpro9e-t U7$ 866
5;UL"DA$ @7=<1$ <7=<0$ 71=78$ et al
sa%ehouses$ 17K
Subpro9e-t U7 CGeorge WhiteE$
08=0@$0J=16K
Subpro9e-t U@J$ 11K$ 11@=11<
Subpro9e-t U1K7$ 107=10J
G5odel ps!-hosis$G @7 P
5onroe$ Dr 4a#es$ 18Jn$ 1@@=1@7$
1@0n$867n
5ontana State Universit!$ 11@n
5ontreal$ &uebe-$ 178=177$ 1K1$ 1@<
Mo"- Roya41 178
5oore$ Dr 4a#es$ i>$ 16J$ 118$ 11<$
866n
G5organ Aall$G 08
5organ$ 4 P$ / +o#pan!$ 111
5orphine$ <8
5orrison$ Dobert$ 177
5os-o) purge trials o% 1077 and
107J$81
5ount Aol!oke +ollege$ 1Jn
5t Sinai Aospital$ @0$ 1<0
5ulholland$ 4ohn$ J6
5urra!$ Aenr! GAarr!$G 17=1J
5ushroo#s
+,A e>peri#ents )ith$ 16@=181
G#agi-$G 16@=167$ 118$ 117=11J$
866n
M2s3.oo0s1 R2ssia a"d His-o.y1
16<$ 111
5!-olog!$ 111
Na6ed L2"!31 JKn
(ar-oh!pnosis$ 87n
(ar-otherap!$ 87n$ K6
(ational ,nstitutes o% Aealth$ <8$ <7$
17J$ 1K8=1KK$861=868
(ational ,nstitute o% 5ental Aealth
C(,5AE$ @0$ <7$ 1@7=1@J
Addi-tion Desear-h +enter$ @0
(ational Se-urit! A-t o% 10K7$ 87
(ational Se-urit! +oun-il$ 87
(ational Student Asso-iation$ 867n
Na-io"a4 :e4Ae-1 178
(aval intelligen-e$ 8K$ 7K=K7
(aval 5edi-al Desear-h ,nstitute$
7@$ <7n
(a.is
e>peri#ents )ith drugs$ @$ J=16
Gaviation #edi-ine$G @$ 0
)ar -ri#inals$ 16=11
(e%%$ Walter$ @
(e#butal$ J6$ 17K
(epenthe$ K1n
G(eurosurgi-al te-hniBuesG
Cloboto#!=relatedE$ 8<
(e) *ork Aospital=+ornell 5edi-al
+enter$ 1@<
(e) *ork Liberal Part!$ 1@<
(e) *ork (eurologi-al Asso-iation$
1KJ
(e) *ork State Ps!-hiatri- ,nstitute$
<7n
New Co.6 Ti0es1 86@$ 867n
Newsday1 viii
(i-otine$ @7n
'&%41 0<n
(i>on$ Pres Di-hard$ J<$ 10Jn$ 86K$
86@$817
G(ondis-ernible #i-robioino-ulatorG
Cdart gunE$ 7<$ 160
(or#an$ Okla$ state hospital$ 1<@
(orthern ,reland$ 817
(orth)estern Universit! 5edi-al
S-hool$ 860
(osenko$ *uri$ 1K@=1K<
N-i s3ee-o1 118
See a4so 5ushroo#s
(ure#burg trial$ 16
-ode$ 16=11$817
"ribunal re-ords$ 88
Oa>a-a$ 5e>i-o$ 118
O%%i-e o% Strategi- Servi-es COSSE
agent net)ork$ 1<
-reation o%$ 18=17
drug e>peri#ents$ <=J$ 11=18$@@$
J0
during World War ,,$ 18=86$ K6$
7<$ J0=06
#ind=-ontrol resear-h$ 17$ 1<
(ational De%ense Desear-h
+o##ittee$ 1K
INDEM )*&
Desear-h and Anal!sis$ 1@
Desear-h$ Develop#ent$ 17$ @@
Division 10$ 1K
testing progra#s$ 17=1J
#ethods used in -orporations$
1J
Gtruth drugG -o##ittee$ <=7
use o% -arba#ate poison in Aitler
assassination atte#pt$ 116
O% Spies a"d S-.a-e/e0s1 1<n
Ohio State Universit!$ 1@<n
GOld bo!s$G 17
Oliver$ Floren-e$ viii
OloliuBui seeds$ 11@n
Olson$ Ali-e C5rs FrankE$ 77=7J$
70$J1=J@$J<
Olson$ :ri-$ J1=J@
Olson$ Dr Frank$ 77=J<$ J7=JJ$ 07$
07$ lOOn$ 86@
GOperation 5idnight +li#a>$G 00
Opiu#$ 01n
O.!3ids +o. Mo-3e.1 1J0
Orliko)$ David$ 170
Orliko)$ Ial$ 170=1K6
Orne$ 5artin$ 1<1=1<8$ 176$ 177
Orth$ 5aureen$ 177=17K
Or)ell$ George$ 0<n
Osgood$ +harles$ i>$ 1@J$ 1<8$ 1<J
Os#ond$ Au#phre!$ i>
Oster$ Patri-k$ i>
Os)ald$ Lee Aarve!$ 1K@
Overholser$ Dr Win%red$ <
GPage=DussellG #ethod$ 17@
Paragua!$ 1JJ
Paraps!-holog!$ 811$ 818
Park$ "ongsun$ 17J
Parke$ Davis / +o#pan!$ 16J$ 160
Pasternak$ Walter$ 00
Pavlov$ ,van Petrovi-h$ 18J
Pe-ks? Bad Bo!$ 1K$ @@
Personalit! Assess#ent S!ste#$ i>
Peter.ell$ 4a!$ viii
Petrillo$ 4oseph$ viii
Pe!ote -a-tus$ 16@$ 186
P%ei%%er$ +arl$ @0$861
Phar#a-euti-al -o#panies$ <@
Phenergan$ 17K
Philb!$ Aarold G;i#$G KKn
Piaget$ 4ean$ <@
Pi-roto>in$ 87
Piule$ 16<=16J
Pla-ebos$ 77
Plotner$ Dr ;urt$ @
Plo)#an$ Dr "i#oth!$ 867
Poison gas$ 1<
Polaroid$ 816
Politi-al )ar%are$ 76
Pol!graph Clie dete-torE$ 88$ 8K$
1K<$ 1<1n
in dete-tion o% ho#ose>ualit!$
8Kn
in dete-tion o% the%t o% -ash$ 8Kn
Gsuper$G 8@
Po)ers$ Fran-is Gar!$ 7K
Prin-eton$ 06
,nn$<@
Pro9e-t OF":($ 818
Prostitutes$ 01$ 07n$ 0K=07$ 00$ 176$
1J6$ 100
Psilo-!bin$ 16@$11@=11<
Ps!-hedeli- drugs$ 16@$ 160
Ps!-hiatr!$ 1@
GPs!-hi- driving$G 17<=177$ 1K6
Ps!-hologi-al Assess#ent
Asso-iates$ 1<J$ 1J6
Ps!-holog!$ 1@$ 1K7
Ps!-hosurger!$ 818
Dadar )aves$ 867
Dadiation$ 818
Dadio sti#ulation o% the brain$ 818
Ra0,a.-s #aga.ine$ 867
Resea.!3 i" Me"-a4 Hea4-3 News-
4e--e.1 1@0
GDelugatedG CDE$ 1<<=1<7
Dhodes$ David$ 00=166$ 1J6$ 86J
Di-hards$ Bill$ i>
Di-hardson$ Allan$ 118=117
Dinkel5a>$ @7$ @K$ 11J
Divea seeds$ <7
Dobinson$ 4ulian$ i>
Do-ke%eller +o##ission$ JK$ 86<
Foundation$ 178=177$ 17J$ 1@7
Ii-e=president (elson$ 86@
Dodgers$ Di-hard$ J1
Dogers$ +arl$ 1@<$ 1@7$ 1@J$ 1<8$ 1<J
GDole AdaptiveG CDE$ 1<7
GDole Uni%or#G CUE$ 1<7
Ro44i"/ S-o"e #aga.ine$ 1J6
Doosevelt Aotel C(e) OrleansE$ J
Doosevelt$ Pres Franklin D$ 18
Ro,e Da"!e.1 T3e1 1J0
Dosit.ke$ Aarr!$ 8J
Dubenstein$ Leonard$ 17<=17J
Dussell$ Se!#our$ 10<
Dussians$ @
Dutgers Universit!$ 1@7$ 1@K
Du)et$ Lt +ol Iin-ent$ 7K$ 77$ 70$
J1$J7=J@$J<
Sadis#$ 07
)4( INDEM
GSa%ehouses$G 70$ K1$ <0$ 08=0K$
161=168$ 100=866$868
St Anthon!?s Fire$ K
St +lair$ Diane$ viii
St :li.abeth?s Aospital$ <
Sando. drug and -he#i-al e#pire$
7$ @K$ @J=@0$ <@=<<$ <J$ 11@n$
11<$ 110$ 1K7
San Fran-is-o sa%ehouse$ 07=00$ 161$
168$176=171$17K$10K$100
Saunders$ David$ 1<J
GSau-epan -he#ist$G 17
Savage$ +harles$ <7n
S-ha-ht$ A9al#ar$ 7@
S-he%lin$ Alan$ i>
GS-heider$ Ii-tor$G 86<
S-hein$ :dgar$ 18Jn
S-hi.ophrenia$ @7$ 178=177$ 1K6
indu-ed b! halla-inogeni-
#ushroo#s$ 11K
S-hi.ophreni-s
behavior o%$ 17Kn
ele-trosho-k in treat#ent o%$ 177
rea-tion to LSD$ <6
s!#pto#s$ 17Kn$ 17<
S-hlesinger$ 4a#es$ 1J6$ 86@$ 818
S-hul#an$ 4a!$ 1@7=1@K
S-h)ab$ Dr 4ohn$ 7K
S-ienti%i- :ngineering ,nstitute$
1<1n$ 816=811
S-opola#ine$ <$ <7
S-ott$ George +$ 1KK
Sears$ Alden$ 1J<=1J7
Se-onal$ 7J$ 70$ K8$ 17K
Se-retar! o% De%ense$ 7<
GSeeking the 5agi- 5ushroo#$G 117
See=through #irrors$ 08
GSe#anti- di%%erential$G 1@J
7Se"o.a si" 0a"!3a17 118
Sensor! deprivation$ 18J$ 17Jn$ 1K1
1K7$ 1KJ$ 861=868
GSeruni#$G 78
Se>$ K7=KJ$ 07=07
kink!$ 866
Se>ual entrap#ent$ 177
Shah o% ,ran$ 17$ 178n
Shelle!$ 5ar!$ 0
Shell%ish to>in$ 7K
Sheri%$ +arol!n Wood$ 1@0
Sheri%$ 5u.a%er$ 1@0
Short=order -ooks$ 1<@=1<<
Si#on$ 4ohn 4$ i>
Sinatra$ Frank$ 0n
Siragusa$ +harles$ 00n$ 867
Skinner$ B F$ 1<6$ 1<8$ 81K
GSleep -o-ktail$G 17K
GSleep roo#$G 17K$ 17@
GSleep therap!$G 17K
Sle.ak$ Walter$ 1<K
S#ithsonian ,nstitution$ 1@<n
Snee.ing po)der$ 00$ 107
So-iet! %or the ,nvestigation o%
Au#an :-olog!$ 177n$ 177$
170n$ 1K0$ 1<7$ 1<7=1<J$ 176$
171n$ 10<$ 867n$ 816
So-iolog!$ 1@$ 1K7
Sodiu# a#!tal$ 87
Sodiu# pentothal$ K6
Sokolo)$ Di-hard$ viii
Sol.henit.!n$ Ale>ander$ 18J
So##er$ And!$ i>
Sorbonne$ 11K
South ;orea$ 17J$ 170=1J6
Soviet Union CDussiaE$ 8<=8J$ 7K=77$
161$ 180=171$ 1@7$ 1<1$817
behavior=-ontrol progra#s$ 8Jn
behavioral resear-h$ 76$ 168n
use o% drugs in$ 176
brain)ashing$ 180
politi-al re=edu-ation progra#s$
18J
GSpa-e=ti#e i#age$G 17@
Spanish ,nBuisition$ 176
Speer$ Albert$ 16
S,2-"i61 117
Sp! trade-ra%t
alternatives to ph!si-al torture in
obtaining in%or#ation$ K@=K0
bla-k#ail$ K<=K7
entrap#ent$ K7
li#ited use%ulness o% ph!si-al
torture in obtaining in%or#a=
tion$ KK=K@
se>$ KJ
uselessness against )ell=
intentioned agent$ K0
S S CS-hut.sta%%elE$K=<
Stalin$ 4ose%$ 8<$ <0$ 180$ 1KJ
Stan%ord Universit!$ 00$ 186$ 867
5edi-al S-hool$ 07
S-a,38 e"-e.o-oxi"1 7@
State Depart#ent$ 8K
Statler Aotel$ J1=J7
Stein$ Gertrude$ 186
Stephenson$ Di-hard$ 1@7
Stereoto>i- Surger!$ 816$ 818
Stink bo#bs$ 00$ 107
Sto-k)ell$ 4ohn$ i>$ K<=KJ
Stress -reation$ 17$ 17K
Struik$ Dr A A 5$ 1@Kn
Sui-ide pills$ @@$ 7K
Sullivan$ "i#oth!$ viii
INDEM )4'
Svengali$ 1J8
GS)i##er nulli%i-ation$G 1KKn
Ta#24a.asa1 177
"ai)an$ 1JJ
"a!lor$ :li.abeth$ 178
"a!lor$ "el%ord$ i>
"e-hni-al Servi-es Sta%% C"SSE$ 80
Teo"a"a!-41 167
"etrah!dro-annabinol$ 7J
"A,DD +AA(+:$ <8n
"ho#pson$ Aunter S$ <7
"ho#pson$ Dr Sa#uel$ i>$ 7K=7@$
77=7J$ K6$ K8=K7
"hora.ine$ 17K
"horn)ell$ 4a#es$ <8n=<7n
"i#es Books$ i>
"oughkena#on$ Pa$ 16J
"oulouse=Lautre-$ Aenri$ 07
"rans#itters
in %alse teeth$ @@
"rei-hler$ Da!$ <@$ J<$ 00$ 867
G"ri-kle=do)n pheno#enon$G 186
"ruth drugs$ 76$ 7<$ KJ$ @@$ 1@@$ 10J
seru#$ 1K@
"upa#aro urban guerrillas$ 17J=170
"urner$ Stans%ield$ 107n$ 86<$ 818
")o=)a! #irrors$ 77$ 70
Ultrasoni-s$ 818
Ultraviolet radiation$ 811
US Air For-e$ <7$ 18J
Ps!-hologi-al War%are Div$ 18Jn
stud! o% ;orean War prisoners$
1@<
US Ar#!
Biologi-al Laborator!$ 100=866
+he#i-al -orps$ @J$ <@$ <7$ 7K$
160$818
Spe-ial Operations Division
CSODE o% biologi-al resear-h
-enter$ @7$ 7K$ J8
-landestine servi-es$ 7K
,ntelligen-e$ K7
studies o% brain)ashing$ 18J
"A,DD +AA(+:$ <8n
US Bureau o% Prisons$ J0
US Dubber$ @7
US Senate$ KK$ 1J6
+hur-h -o##ittee$ 7<n$ lOOn$
168=167$86<
Sele-t +o##ittee on ,ntelligen-e$
86<
Sub-o##ittee on Aealth and
S-ienti%i- Desear-h$ 86<=867
Universit! o% Basel 160
Universit! o% +ali%ornia at Berkle!$
1J
Universit! o% Dela)are$ 116$ 11@$
866n
Universit! o% Denver$ 1J<
Universit! o% Aouston$ 107
Universit! o% ,llinois 5edi-al S-hool$
@0
Phar#a-olog! Dept$ 861
Universit! o% London$ 1@0
Universit! o% 5ar!land 5edi-al
S-hool$ <7n
Universit! o% 5innesota$ <7n$ 1J<
Universit! o% (i9#egen$ 1@Kn
Universit! o% Oklaho#a$ @0$ 1@0
Universit! o% Penns!lvania$ 1<6
Universit! o% Do-hester$ 7@$ @0
Universit! o% Washington$ <7n
Universit! o% Wis-onsin$ 77$ 1@<
UL"DA progra#$ @7n
Urugua!$ 17J=170
:e"e;2e4a" e<2i"e e"!e,3a4o-
0ye4i-is1 7@=7<
Ierne$ 4ules$ J=0
Ieronal$ 17K
Ieterans Ad#inistration Aospital$
Palo Alto$ +a$ 186=181
Iietna# War$ 188
Wagner$ Di-hard$ 186
Warren +o##ission$ lOln
Washington Post$ 77$ J@$ lOOn
Wasson$ D Gordon$ i>$ 16<$ 111=117
Wasson$ Ialentina$ 16<$ 111=118
Watergate$ 86K=86@
We-hsler$ David$ 1<@n
Adult ,ntelligen-e S-ale$ 1<@n
batter!$ 176=171$ 177$ 17J=1J6
=Bellevue=G$ 1<@n
digit=span test$ 1<0
intelligen-e s-ale$ 1<@
ps!-hologi-al tests$ 11J
subtests$ 1<<=1<0$ 178$ 17@
Wendt$ G Di-hard$ 7@=K7
presu#ed addition to heroin$ 7<n
Wendt$ 5rs G Di-hard$ K8
West$ Louis 4ol!on$ @0
Wheelon Albert GBud$G 10@
White$ George$ <=J$ 18$ 86$ JJ$ 07=00$
168$ 176=171$ 100=866$867
Whitehorn$ 4ohn$ 1@<
Whit#an$ Floren-e$ viii
GWhoO 5eO$G 1K=1@
Whores See Prostitutes
Willia#s +ollege 17
)4) INDEM
Willia#s$ Dr Fred$ 18Jn Wol%%=Ainkle report$ 18J
Wilson$ Ben9a#in$ 77=7J stud!$ 1K@
Winkle$ O)en$ 07 World Ps!-hiatri- Asso-$ 178
Winne$ 4ohn$ 17J$ 170=1J6
Wiretapping$ @@$ 100n Ca/e1 867
Wol%e$ "o#$ 181
Wol%%$ Aarold$ 77$ 187=176$ 1K7 Hu-ker#an$ Sa#$ i>