DC Machines

Introduction
D. C. machines are seldom used in ordinary applications because all electric supply
companies furnish alternating current However, for special applications such as in steel mills,
mines and electric trains, it is advantageous to convert alternating current into direct current in
order to use D.C. motors. The reason is that speed/torue characteristics of D.C. motors are much
more superior to that of a.c. motors. Therefore, it is not surprising to note that for industrial
drives, D.C. motors are as popular as !"phase induction motors. #i$e D.C. generators, D.C. motors
are also of three types vi%., series"wound, shunt"wound and compoundwound. The use of a
particular motor depends upon the mechanical load it has to drive.
In DC Machines the field poles are present on the stator called as &'(). *rmature windings
and Commutator are on the +otor. The ,igure gives the cross"sectional view of a -"pole DC
machine. .rushes press on to the Commutator view for collecting the power from a dc generator
or for feeding the DC /ower to the armature of a DC Motor. DC Machines are of three types0
1. 1eries 2*3
2. 1hunt 2.3
3. Compound 2C3
DC 1eries machines has the field winding in series with armature circuit, DC 1hunt Machine
has field winding across the armature circuit. 4here as DC Compound machine has two ,ield
4indings. 'ne across the armature and the other in series with the armature. DC Machines has
inter poles. #arge DC machines have also compensating windings embedded in the pole faces of
the main poles.
DC Machine /osses very versatile
characteristics. DC motor is easily adaptable for
drives reuiring wide range speed control and
maintenance. It is highly versatile energy
conservation device. It can meet the demand of
loads reuiring high starting torues, high
accelerating and decelerating torues.
In view of these outstanding features,
DC Machines are widely used for the industrial
purpose particularly for tough 5obs as are in
steel mills.
There are two types of DC Machines depending
on their field system employed, they are0
H'M'"/'#*+ Machines
H)T)+'"/'#*+ Machines
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H'M'"/'#*+ Machines
These types of machines are used where low <oltage and High Currents are reuired and
the fields system is unusual as in the ,araday Disc Dynamo, which is an e>ample of this type of
machine.
H)T)+'"/'#*+ Machines
These types of machines are most commonly used in /ractice. The magnetic poles are mounted
as shown in figure to form alternate south and north poles when traversed along the
circumference of an armature. These machines are used for moderate voltage and high output
power.
Construction of a DC machine
.asically the construction of a DC machine includes mainly ? parts. They are0
i. Magnetic ,rame 2or3 &o$e
ii. /oles
a. /ole ,ace 2or3 /ole Core
b. /ole 1hoe
iii. /ole 4indings 2or3 ,ield 4indings
iv. *rmature Core
v. Commutator
vi. *rmature 4indings
vii. .rushes and .earings
i. Magnetic ,rame 2or3 &o$e
It is cylindrical in shape and made out of cast steel or cast iron.
It is the outer most part of the DC machine on which the poles
are located on the inner part of the &o$e.
/@+/'1)0
It gives mechanical support to the poles situated on the inner
part of the &o$e.
It acts as a protecting layer to the entire DC machine and protects from the atmospheric
ailments.
It acts as Magnetic ,lu> carriers in the DC machine.
ii. /oles 2/ole Core and /ole 1hoe3
/ole 1hoe0
The field magnet consists of mainly pole shoe and pole
core. The pole shoe serves mainly for two purposes.
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In spreading the magnetic flu> in the air gap and being of larger cross"section, reduce
the reluctance of the magnetic path.
It supports the e>citing coils 2or field coils3 shown in figure.
/ole Core0
The pole core itself maybe a solid piece made up of either cast iron or cast steel. .ut
the pole shoe is laminated.
Construction0
Method0 ;
;. In this method the pole core is a simple solid, made out of cast
iron or cast steel.
6. /ole shoe is laminated and is fastened to the pole face by means
of AC'@=T)+ 1@=( 1C+)4B as shown in figure.
Method0 60
;. In this method both the pole shoe and pole core are laminated
and are riveted permanently under hydraulic pressure.
6. The thic$ness of each laminated sheet varies from ; mm to
7.6C mm.
*ll the poles should be fitted on to the &o$e by means of screws inside
the pole such that it should enter the &o$e and gets fi>ed. This is shown
in the figure.
iii. /ole 4indings 2or3 ,ield 4indings
The field coils or pole coils which consists of
copper wire or strip, are former" wound for the
correct dimension shown in the left figure. Then
the former is removed and wound coil is put into
place over the core as shown in the right figure.
iv. *rmature Core
;. It is the main part of the DC machine
which houses or holds the armature coils
or conductors.
6. It is basically cylindrical in shape built by
several circular steel dis$s.
!. )very dis$ is punched, the punched
portion is called as A1#'T1B and the un"
punched portion is called as AT))THB.
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-. The slot must be covered with the insulating material MIC*.
C. The laminations are perforated for air duct which permits the a>ial flow of air through
the armature for cooling purpose.
D. The inner peripheral consists of A()&4*&1B where as the outer peripheral consists of
A1#'T1 and T))THB.
?. (eyways are used to fi> the shaft, which appears as a AD'<)" TailedB or A4edge E
1hapedB.
v. Commutator
;. The shape of a Commutator appears to be wedge"shaped and cylindrical structure.
6. The function of the Commutator is to facilitate collection of current from the armature
conductors or coils.
!. It rectifies i.e., it converts the alternating current induced in the armature conductors
into unidirectional current in the e>ternal load circuit.
-. The wedge"shaped segments are insulated from each other with the help of thin layers
MIC*.
5. )ach Commutator segment is connected to the armature conductor by means of a copper
lug or strip 2riser3.
D. To prevent them from flying out under the action of centrifugal forces, the segments
have <"shaped grooves, these grooves being insulated by conical micanite rings. This is
shown in the figure.
vi. *rmature 4indings
;. The armature windings are done by
using high grade copper wires or
strips.
6. The armature windings includes any
other factors such as
a. /ole E/itch
b. Conductor
c. /itch of a 4inding 2&3
d. .ac$ /itch 2&.3
e. ,ront /itch 2&,3
f. +esultant /itch 2&+3
g. Commutator E /itch 2&F3
It is the distance between the segments to which the two ends of a coil are
connected is defined as Commutator /itch.
h. 1ingle #ayer 4inding
i. Two E#ayer 4inding
5. Multiple> 4inding etcGG.
vii. .rushes and .earings
1. The function of .rushes is to collect the current from the Commutator, is usually
made of carbon or graphite and is in the shape of a rectangular bloc$.
6. These brushes are housed in brush"holders usually of the bo>"type variety.
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!. The brushes are made to bear
down on the commutator by a
spring whose tension can be
ad5usted by changing the position
of the lever in the notches.
-. * fle>ible copper wire is mounted
at the top of the brush conveys
current from the brushes to the
holder.
5. The number of brushes per spindle
depends on the magnitude of the
current to be collected from the Commutator.
D. .ecause of the reliability, ball"bearings are freuently employed, though for heavy
duties. +oller bearings are most preferred.
?. 1leeve bearings are used which are lubricated by ring oilers fed from oil reservoir
in the bearing brac$et. This is shown in the figure.
'peration of a DC Machine as a Fenerator
/rinciple0
*n )lectric Fenerator is a machine which converts mechanical energy or /ower in to
)lectrical energy or power. The energy conversion is based on the principle of the production of
dynamically induced emf. 4henever a conductor cuts the magnetic flu> dynamically, induced emf
is produced in it according to the ,aradayHs laws of )lectromagnetic induction. This emf causes a
current to flow if the conductor circuit is closed.
Hence, two basic essential parts of an electrical generator are
Magnetic ,ield
Conductor or Conductors which can move
as to cut the flu>
Construction of Fenerators
The generator mainly consists of magnetic
poles which are mounted on the stator and a
armature core in between the magnetic field. The
armature conductors are placed within the slots in
the armature core. Initially the armature conductors
are wounded in rectangular shape flat coils. #et us
consider a single turn rectangular copper coil
rotating about its own a>is in a magnetic field
provided by either permanent or electromagnets.
The two ends of the coil are 5oined to two slip rings
which are insulated from each other and from the
central shaft as shown in the figure. The collecting
brushes are made up of copper or carbon and are pressed against the split rings. Their function is
to collect the current induced in the coil and to convey it to the e>ternal load resistance I+H. The
rotating coil may be called as I*rmatureH and the magnets as I,ield MagnetsH.
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4or$ing 2Fenerator3
*ssume the coil to be rotating in cloc$"wise direction as shown. *s the coil assumes
successive position in the field, the flu> lin$ed wit it changes. Hence an emf is induces in it which
is proportional to the rate of change of flu> lin$age
E = Nd
dt
4hen the plane coil is at right angle to the lines of flu>. Then the flu> lin$ed with the coil is
ma>imum, but rate of change of flu> lin$age is minimum. *s a result, the coil sides do not cut the
flu>, rather they move along them parallel. Hence there is no emf induced in the coil. *s a result
coil continues rotating further, rate of change of flu> lin$age increases when it ma$es an angle of
87J. Here, the coil will be in hori%ontal, the flu> lin$ed with the coil is minimum but rate of change
of flu> is ma>imum. Hence ma>imum emf is induced in the coil at 87J.
In the ne>t uarter revolution 2i.e. from 87J to ;K7J3, flu> lin$ed with the coil gradually
increases but the rate of change of flu> lin$ages decreases. Hence the induced emf decreases
gradually till the position, it is reduced to %ero. In the first half revolution, emf is induced at the
initial position, ma>imum when it is at 87J and no emf at ;K7J. The direction of this induced emf
can be found by applying ,lemingHs right"Hand +ule which gives its direction. Hence the current
flows.
In the ne>t cycle 2i.e. from ;K7J to !D7J3 the variations in the magnitude of emf are 5ust
li$e to that of the first half revolution. Therefore for every half revolution, the current gets
reversed in its direction which is $nown as alternating current. It is later converted in to
unidirectional current 2DC3 by replacing the slip ring with the split rings. 1plit rings are made out
of a conducting cylinder cut into two halves or segments insulated from each other by a thin sheet
of mica.
*s before the coil ends are 5oined to
the segments on which rest the copper or
carbon brushes. It is seen that in the first
half revolution current flows i.e. the brush
will be in contact with the segment acts as
a positive end of the supply and other as
negative. In the ne>t half revolution, the
direction of induced current in the coil has
reversed. .ut at the same time the position
of the segments are also reversed with the
result that the initial brush comes in
contact with the segment which is positive.
Hence the current is purely unidirectional but not
continuous.
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'peration of a DC machine as a motor
/rinciple0
*n electric motor is a machine which converts electrical energy in to mechanical
energy. Its action is based on the principle that when a current carrying conductor is placed in a
magnetic field, it e>periences a mechanical force whose direction is given by ,lemingHs #eft"Hand
+ule and whose magnitude is given by
, L .I# =ewtons
Construction of Motors
Constructionally there is no basic difference
between a DC generator and DC motor. In fact, the
same dc machine can be used interchangeably as a
generator or as a motor. DC motors are also li$e
generators. They were been classified into three,
they are0
;. 1eries"4ound DC Motors
6. 1hunt"4ound DC Motors
!. Compound"4ound Dc Motors
4or$ing of a Dc Motor
#et us consider a part of multipolar DC motor as shown in figure. 4hen the field
magnets are e>cited by passing current in their field windings and its armature conductors are
supplied with current from the supply mains, they e>perience a force tending to rotate the
armature. *rmature conductors under ="/ole area assumed to carry current downwards 2crosses3
and those under 1"/ole, to carry current upwards 2dots3. .y applying ,lemingHs #eft hand +ule, the
direction of the force on each conductor can be found. It is shown by small arrows placed above
each conductor. It can be seen that each conductor e>periences a force I,H which tends to rotate
the armature in anti"cloc$wise direction. These forces collectively produce a driving torue which
sets the armature rotating.
The function of the commutator in the motor is the same as in a generator. .y
reversing current in each conductor as it passes from one pole to another, it helps to develop a
continuous and unidirectional torue.
Comparison of Fenerator and Motor *ction
The same DC Machine can be used interchangeably as a generator as well as motor. 4hen
operating as a generator, it is driven by a mechanical machine and it develops voltage which I turn
produces a current flow in an electric circuit. 4hen operating as a motor, it is supplied by electric
current and it acuires torue which in turn produces mechanical rotation.
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Fenerator *ction
#et us consider a part of a generator whose armature is being driven cloc$wise by its
prime mover as shown in figure. ,ig.; represents the field setup independently by the main poles
and the armature conductors li$e I*H in the shown figure. The resultant field or magnetic lines of
flu> may be lin$ed to the rubber bands under tension. Hence, the bet lines of flu> set up a
mechanical force on I*H much, 5ust li$e as the bent elastic rubber band of a catapult, /roduces a
mechanical force on the piece of a stone. The direction of this force is opposite to that of armature
rotation. Hence, it is $nown as bac$ward force or magnetic drag on the conductors.
Therefore, against this drag action on all the armature conductors that the prime
mover has to wor$. The wor$ done in overcoming this opposition is converted into electrical
energy.
).M., )uation in a DC Machine
Fenerator
Fenerated )M, or )M, )uation of a Fenerator
Fenerator wor$s on the principle of ,aradayHs laws of )lectromagnetic Induction i.e.
when a revolving armature conductors cuts the magnetic lines of flu>, a dynamically induced emf
is produced in the armature coils and this emf causes current flow in it. If the rotor circuit is
closed.
4e shall now derive an e>pression for the emf generated in a D.C. generator.
#et
ML flu>/pole in 4b
N L total number of armature conductors
/ L number of poles
* L number of parallel paths L 6 G for wave winding
L / G for lap winding
= L speed of armature in r.p.m.
)FL emf of the generator L emf /parallel path
K
Feneral )M, )uation E 2;3
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,or a simple wave"wound generator
=o. of parallel paths I*H L6
=o. of conductors in one path LN
6
)M, generated per path L M/= O N
D7 6
L M/=N <olt
;67
,or a simple lap"wound generator
=o. of parallel paths I*H L /
=o. of conductors I one path L N
/
)M, generated per path L M/= O N
D7 /
L M=N <olt
D7
If we multiply and divide the above general euation of )F by I6PH
)F L
6P
X
M/= O N
6P D7 *
.y solving, we get
L QMN O / <olts Q"omega" in radians
6P *
.ut for a given DC machine N,/ and * are constants. Hence putting (a L N/ in the general
)M, euation, we get *
)F L (aM= <olt
D7
)F L (aM= <olts 2where H=H is in r.p.s3
Motor
4hen the motor armature rotates, the conductors also rotate and hence cut the flu>.
In accordance with the laws of electromagnetic induction, emf is induced in them whose direction,
as found by ,lemingHs right"Hand +ule, is in opposition to the applied voltage. .ecause of its
opposing direction. It is referred to as counter emf or bac$ emf I)bH.
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)bL MN= O / <olts
D7 *
The euivalent circuit of a motor is as shown below. The rotating armature generates the
bac$ emf I)bH is li$e a battery of emf I)bH put across supply mains of I<H volts. This I<H has to drive
the current IIaH against the opposition of I)bH. the power reuired to overcome this opposition is

)
b
I
a
The bac$ emf depends on other factors as the armature speed. If the speed of the armature
is high, )b is large. Hence armature current Ia is small. If the speed is less, then I)bH is less. Hence
more current flows which develops motor torue. 1o )b acts li$e a governor.
<oltage )uation of a Motor
The voltage I<H is applied across the motor armature, has to
'vercome the bac$ emf )b
The armature ohmic drop Ia+a
< L )
b
R I
a
+
a
This is $nown as voltage euation of a motor.
Multiplying ob both sides by Ia in the above euation, we get
<Ia L)bIa R IaS+a
4here <Ia E )lectrical input to the armature
)bIa E )lectrical euivalent of mechanical power developed in the armature
IaS+a " Cu #osses in the armature
Hence out of the armature input, some is wasted in IS+ loss and rest is converted into
mechanical power within the armature. The motor efficiency is given by the ratio of power
developed by the armature to its input i.e
)
b
<
)b is higher as compared to <, there fore the motor efficiency is higher.
/roduction of Torue in a DC Machine
The term torue is meant the turning or twisting moment of
a force about an a>is. It is measured by the product of the force
and the radius at which this force acts.
Consider a pulley of radius IrH meter acted upon by a
circumferential force of I,H =ewtons which causes it to rotate at
I=H rpm as shown in figure.
Then torue T L , O r 2="m3
4or$ done by this force is one revolution L force O distance
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L , > 6Pr Uoule
/ower developed L , > 6Pr > = Uoules / 1econd or watt
L 2,r3 > 6P= watt
=ow 6P= L *ngular <elocity IQH in radian/second and , > r L torue T
Therefore power developed L T > Q watt
'r
/ L TQ watt
Moreover, if InH is in rpm
Then
Q L 6P= radians/second
D7
Therefore /L6P= > T
D7
/ L 6P =T L =T
D7 8.CC
*rmature Torue of a Motor
#et ITaH be the torue by the armature of a motor running at I=H rps. If ITaH is in =/m,
them power developed
Ta > 6P= watt """""" 2;3
4e also $now that electrical power converted into mechanical power in the armature
)bIa watts """"" 263
)uating 2;3 and 263, we get
Ta > 6P= L )bIa """""" 2!3
1ince )b L MN= O / <olts
*
4e have,
Ta > 6P= L MN= O / Ia
*
Ta L ; > MN Ia / ="m
*
i.e. Ta L 7.;C8 MN Ia / ="m
*
,rom 2!3 as shown above
Ta L)bIa ="m were I=H is in rps
6P=
If I=H is in rpm, then
Ta L D7 )bIa L 8.CC )bIa ="m
6P= 6P=
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1haft Torue
The whole of the armature Torue, as calculated above, is not available for doing useful
wor$, because a certain percentage of it is reuired for supplying iron and frictional losses in the
motor.
The torue which is available for doing useful wor$ is $nown as 1haft Torue 2T1h3. It is so
called because it is available at the shaft. The motor output is give by

'utput in watts ="m I=H E in rps
Tsh L 6P=
L D7 output
6P =
The difference 2Ta " Tsh3 is $nown as lost torue and is due to ion and friction losses of the
motor.
=ote
Ta can also be e>pressed in $g"m at ;$gL8.K; =w"m
TL 7.7D;6 > MN Ia / (g"m
*
1ince N,/ and * are constant for a particular machine
Therefore Ta V MIa
1. In case of series motor, field winding carries full current. Hence before saturation IMH is
directly proportional to the armature current.
Ta V IaS
2. In case of shunt motor, IMH is practically constant.
Ta V Ia
1ome Definitions of *rmature 4indings
Coil"1pan or Coil /itch 2&13
It is the distance measured in terms of armature slots 2armature conductors3 between the
two sides of a coil. It is in fact, the periphery of the armature spanned by the two sides of the coil.
/itch of the winding 2&3
In general, it may be defined as the distance round the armature between the two
successive conductors which are directly connected together or it is the distance between the
bearings of the two consecutive turns.
&L&."&, """" for #ap 4inding
&L&.R&, """" for 4ave winding
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.ac$ /itch 2&.3
The distance measured in terms of the armature conductors, which a coil advances on the
bac$ of the armature is called bac$ pitch and is denoted by &..
,ront /itch 2&,3
The number of armature conductors or elements spanned by a coil on the front
2commutator end of an armature3 is called the front pitch and is denoted by &,.
'r
The front pitch may be defines as the distance 2in terms of the armature conductors3
between the second conductor of one coil and the first conductor of the ne>t coil which are
connected at the front i.e. commutator end of the armature.
+esultant /itch 2&+3
It is defined between the beginning of one coil and the beginning of the ne>t coil to which it
is connected.
Commutator /itch 2&C3
It is the distance 2measured in commutator bars or segments3 between the segments to
which the two ends of a coil are connected.
&C L&."&, """" for #ap 4inding
&C L&.R&, """" for 4ave winding
*rmature 4indings
Two basic types of windings mostly employed for drum type armature are as follows
4ave"4inding
#ap E4inding
4ave 4inding
The most distinguish feature of this winding is that electrically, it
divides the armature conductors in to parallel paths between the RHve
and EIve brushes irrespective of the no. of poles of the machine. *s
shown in figure, as the armature current enters the EIve brush, it finds
6 parallel paths of eual resistances available for going to the LHve
brush. Hence it divides into 6 paths, each path consists of N/6
conductors connected in series 2N"being the total no. of armature
conductors3 and each carries of Ia/6. 4here Ia is the total armature
current.
,or e>ample, in the case of a - pole wave wound generator
having !7 armature conductors, each of 6 parallel paths will have ;C
conductors.
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The wave winding is one in which the coil end, diverge and go to the segments widely
separated. This is called series winding.
#ap winding
#ap winding is one in which the ad5acent ends of the coils are connected
together in closed to each other on the commutator segments. In the lap
windings the armature conductors are divided into many parallel paths as the
no. of poles of the generator. If there are I/H poles and INH armature
conductors, then there will be I/H parallel paths, each consisting of N//
conductors connected in series between the positive and negative set of
brushes.
,rom the figure, as the armature current enters the negative brush, it
has four parallel paths available for going to the positive brush. )ach path has
N/- conductors and carries a current if Ia/- amps.
*dvantages
;. The wave windings giving 2gives3 more emf than the lap winding for the
same no. of poles and armature conductors.
6. In a wave winding euali%ing connections are not necessary which are
in lap windings.
!. #ap winding gives more parallel paths, hence its importance lies when large currents are
reuired.
*rmature 4indings
Types of DC 4indings
Dc armature windings can be divided into two groups mainly depending upon the way
in which the coil ends are connected to the commutator segments. They are
;. #ap 4indings
6. 4ave windings
In the lap windings, the two ends of any coil are ta$en to
the ad5acent commutator segments and the coil ends are bent
inwards as shown below. 4here as in the wave wingding, the coil
ends are bent in opposite directions and ta$en to the commutator
segments some distance apart as shown.
* 1imple> lap winding can be progressive or retrogressive. In general, lap windings, the coil
ends are connected to the ad5acent commutator segments. In progressive winding, the start and
finish of the coils ends are connected to the respective commutator segments in an ascending
order and in the retrogressive winding the ends are connected to the connected segments in the
descending order.
In a wave winding, the conductors in each parallel path are distributed symmetrically over
all the poles of the machine. They are used for high voltage and low current euipment.
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Difference between #ap and 4ave 4indings
#ap 4indings 4ave 4indings
;. =umber of parallel paths is eual
to the number of poles.
;. =umber of parallel paths are always 6.
6. The number of brush positions
on the commutator euals to
the number of poles.
6. * minimum of two brush positions are
reuired irrespective of the number of
poles.
!. The two ends of an armature
coil are connected to the two
ad5acent commutator
segments.
!. Two ends of an armature coil are
connected to the two commutator
segments.
-. The winding forms a continuous
closed circuit. These are used for
supplying low voltages and high
current loads.
-. The winding forms a continuous closed
Circuit. These are used for supplying
High voltages and low currents.
;C
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