Renewable Energy 27 (2002) 2737

www.elsevier.com/locate/renene
A solar air heater with compositeabsorber
systems for food dehydration
A. Madhlopa
a,*
, S.A. Jones
b
, J.D. Kalenga Saka
c
a
Department of Applied Sciences, Malawi Polytechnic, P/Bag 303, Blantyre 3, Malawi
b
Physics Department, Chancellor College, PO Box 280, Zomba, Malawi
c
Chemistry Department, Chancellor College, PO Box 280, Zomba, Malawi
Received 23 August 2001; accepted 14 September 2001
Abstract
Development of appropriate technologies for conversion of solar radiation to thermal energy
is essential for food preservation. A solar air heater, comprising two absorber systems in a
single at-plate collector, was designed on the principles of psychrometry. The heater was
integrated to a drying chamber for food dehydration. This collector design offered exibility
in manual adjustment of the thermal characteristics of the solar dryer. The performance of the
dryer was evaluated by drying fresh samples of mango (Mangifera indicus). Both fresh and
dried mango samples were analysed for moisture content (MC), pH and ascorbic acid. During
the dehydration period, meteorological measurements were made. The air heater converted up
to 21.3% of solar radiation to thermal power, and raised the temperature of the drying air
from about 31.7 C to 40.1 C around noon. The dryer reduced the MC of sliced fresh mangoes
from about 85% (w/w) to 13% (w/w) on wet basis, and retained 74% of ascorbic acid. It was
found that the dryer was suitable for preservation of mangoes and other fresh foods. 2002
Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Compositeabsorber systems; Dehydration; Flat-plate collector; Psychrometry; Natural convection
1. Introduction
Since prehistoric times, open sun drying has been used as a preservative strategy
for agricultural and other products, including fruits and vegetables, especially in the
* Corresponding author. Fax: +265-670-578.
E-mail address: amadhlopa@poly.sdnp.org.mw (A. Madhlopa).
0960-1481/02/$ - see front matter 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S0960- 1481( 01) 00174- 4
28 A. Madhlopa et al. / Renewable Energy 27 (2002) 2737
tropical countries [16]. This method is cheap because the source of energy is free
and renewable. However, this drying technique often entails contamination, insect
infestation, microbial attack, nutritional deterioration and other problems [2,16].
Drew and Ree [5] report that ascorbic acid (vitamin C) is particularly vulnerable to
destruction during processing (including cooking and drying) and under different
conditions (air, light and heat). Consequently, the retention of ascorbic acid is used as
an indicator of the potential preservation of all other nutrients. Some of the problems
associated with open-air drying can be solved through the use of a solar dryer which
comprises a collector, a drying chamber and, sometimes, a chimney.
In most collector designs, the absorber plates seem to be xed with respect to the
collector frame [2,8,12]. Fixed absorber plates restrict the adjustment of the collector
thermal characteristics, to achieve the desired collector outlet temperature under
varying solar radiation levels arising particularly from seasonal changes. Kolb et al.
[14] developed a solar air heater with a metallic matrix absorber that is exible
regarding mass ow rate and duct height, and delivers heat at higher temperatures.
However, it involves a large number of design and operating parameters, and high
costs and time demands for testing [14]. Consequently, the design is unsuitable for
developing countries where nancial and technological resources are limited.
There is spoilage of fruits and other fresh foods that could be preserved using
dehydration techniques in Malawi and other developing countries. Seasonal fruits
like mangoes (Mangifera indicus) are not presently dried for export, or for local
consumption during periods of scarcity, although Chan [3] reports that the estimated
mango production level in Malawi was about 26 000 tonnes during the year 1979.
Large quantities of the mango fruit spoil under parent trees in remote areas in spite
of the enormous potential for the utilization of solar energy for drying and other
applications. The objective of the present investigation was to develop a solar dryer
that had a simple mechanism for adjustment of the collector thermal characteristics
and retained a high proportion of ascorbic acid in the dried food product.
2. Theory
2.1. Flat plate collector efciency
The efciency of a at-plate collector is the most important feature of a solar
heater. Several authors, including Ayensu [2] and Jannot and Coulibaly [11], have
reported the following model for computation of the thermal efciency of an air heat-
er:
h mC
p
(t
c
t
i
) / AG (1)
where A=collector area (m
2
); C
p
=specic heat capacity of air at constant pressure (J
kg
1
C
1
); G=solar radiation incident on the collector (Wm
2
); m=air ow rate (kg
s
1
); t
i
=temperature of the inlet air (C); and t
c
=temperature of the outlet air (C).
Efciency is affected by several factors including speed and temperature of the
29 A. Madhlopa et al. / Renewable Energy 27 (2002) 2737
air surrounding the collector [9]. Consequently, knowledge about the magnitudes of
these parameters is important in collector testing.
2.2. Dehydration and psychrometry
Food dehydration involves reduction of moisture content to acceptable limits.
Coultate [4] reports that a nal moisture content of about 18% (w/w) is required for
effective preservation of dried fruits. The amount of energy Q required for the dehy-
dration process is given by Eq. (2a), according to Jansen [12] and Ayensu [2].
Q m
w
L
w
m
a
C(t
c
t
f
) (2a)
where L
w
=latent heat of water at a mean temperature (t
c
+t
f
)/2 (J kg
1
); m
a
=mass of
the drying air (kg); and t
f
=temperature above the drying bed (C).
The mass m
w
(kg) of water lost during the dehydration process is:
m
w
m
i
(M
i
M
f
) / (100M
f
) (2b)
where m
i
=initial mass of the sample (drying load) (kg); M
i
=initial moisture content
of drying load (%); and M
f
=nal moisture content of drying load (%).
If the amount of water (m
w
) is vaporized in time t then the power q absorbed by
the drying load can be described by:
q m(t
c
t
f
) (3)
where m=m
a
/t=air ow rate (kg s
1
).
When ambient air at a temperature t
i
and relative humidity RH
i
is heated to a
temperature t
c
, and then allowed to move upwards through fresh food spread on a
drying bed, the air absorbs moisture from the food. The specic enthalpy of the air
rises from h
i
to h
c
while its humidity ratio j
i
remains constant during the heating
process. Above the drying bed, the air is at temperature t
f
with a corresponding
relative humidity of RH
f
and a humidity ratio of j
f
. The mass of air required for
the dehydration process and the thermal power q (W) from the absorber plate for
heating the air are given by the following equations [1]:
m
a
m
w
/ (j
f
j
i
) (4)
q m(h
c
h
i
) AhG (5)
The specic enthalpy h (J kg
1
) of air at a temperature t(C) can be calculated
from a model reported by Porges [15]:
h 1000{1.01t j(2463 1.88t) (6)
2.3. Thermosyphoning capacity
In the drying chamber, the drying bed provides resistance to airow which
increases with the depth x (m) of the bed. For natural convection, the airow velocity
v (ms
1
) is proportional to the pressure gradient p (N m
2
) across the food bed
according to Ayensu [2].
30 A. Madhlopa et al. / Renewable Energy 27 (2002) 2737
v g(p/ x) (7)
where g=resistance of sample to air ow (m
4
Nm
1
).
Clearly, the airow velocity decreases with increasing thickness of the drying bed,
which reduces the efciency of the dryer. In a passive solar collector, air ows from
the collector into the drying chamber due to the air density difference r (kg). Fig.
1 shows that ambient air at absolute temperature T
i
(density r) is heated in the
collector to an absolute temperature T
c
(density r). The air density difference can
be expressed as:
r (rr) P(T
1
i
T
1
c
) / R (8)
where P=atmospheric pressure (Nm
2
) and R=gas constant (J kg
1
K
1
).
Further, the pressure difference P (Nm
2
) corresponding to this density differ-
ence is dened by:
P H(r)g (9)
where H=h
1
+h
2
=air column (Fig. 1) between the collector inlet and chimney outlet
(m).
Eq. (9) shows that the pressure difference (P) across the dryer increases with
the length of the air column. Consequently, increasing the height of the chimney
Fig. 1. Cross-section of solar dryer showing collector, drying chamber and chimney.
31 A. Madhlopa et al. / Renewable Energy 27 (2002) 2737
augments the thermosiphoning effect and the convective heat transfer capacity of
the dryer.
3. Design and construction
A solar dryer was designed with an integrated a at-plate collector which had
compositeabsorber systems (a removable mild steel screen absorber and a xed
wooden plate) in one collector frame. Several removable absorber plates, made from
materials (such as metals and plastics) with different thermal and other character-
istics, can be used interchangeably in the same collector system to achieve the desired
temperature and rate of air heating under the prevailing meteorological conditions.
The collector still converts solar radiation to thermal power in the absence of the
removable absorber plates. In order to estimate the size of the collector, some
assumptions were made regarding the mass and moisture content of the drying load,
period of drying, meteorological conditions and efciency of the dryer. The amount
of water to be extracted in 3 days was computed from Eq. (2b) while the change in
the humidity ratio was determined from a standard pyschrometric chart [12]. The
mass and ow rate of the air needed to transfer the required heat were calculated
from Eqs. (4) and (3) respectively. The values of the inlet and outlet specic enthalpy
of the air were computed from Eq. (6) while the required power for heating the air
was determined from Eq. (5). Air owed on both sides of the removable wire mesh
absorber to increase the surface area of contact between the absorber plate and the
heat transporting air. The area of the collector was estimated from Eq. (5). The
drying chamber consisted of a drying bed enclosed with vertical walls to facilitate
ow of heated air. The thickness of the drying bed was set at 0.012 m while the
height of the chimney was 1.786 m. Using Eqs. (8) and (9) this yielded a pressure
drop (P) of 1.46 Nm
2
. All the design parameters are presented in Table 1.
Both the collector and the drying chamber frames were constructed from wooden
sheets, and painted pink on the exterior faces to protect the wood from deterioration.
The pink colour also absorbs solar radiation and thereby reduces the temperature
gradient between the inside and outside surfaces. The interior faces of the collector
frame were painted black to enhance absorption of solar radiation. Consequently,
the interior faces acted as a xed absorber system for low temperature drying. The
other absorber system was made of a mild steel mesh tted on a removable wooden
frame and painted black. A door with a plastic gauze was tted on the collector inlet
to provide access for interchanging the wire absorber system and to prevent insects
and rodents from entering the air heater. The top of the solar collector was covered
with a single glass layer and the whole collector was tilted at 16 to the horizontal
plane. All faces of the drying chamber were constructed from opaque materials to
prevent direct sunlight from reaching the drying bed. Additionally, these faces were
painted white to enhance reection of radiation. The chamber accommodated three
plastic-mesh trays that were constructed by tting a plastic mesh on wooden frames
(porous trays allow passage of heated air through the matrix of the food pieces but
prevent the food pieces from dropping down). A chimney was tted on top of the
32 A. Madhlopa et al. / Renewable Energy 27 (2002) 2737
Table 1
Design parameters for solar dryer
Dryer Drying load and meterological conditions
Collector Initial mass of load, m
i
=4.0 kg
Area, A=0.5 m
2
Moisture
Duct height/depth: Initial, M
i
=85%
Above absorber plate=0.075 m Final, M
f
=12%
Below absorber plate=0.075 m Slice thickness 0.005 m
Length, L
c
=0.815 m
Width, W
d
=0.625 m
Tilt angle, b=16 Solar radiation, H=21.3 MJm
2
day
1
Mass ow rate, m=0.0030 kg s
1
Ambient air:
Inlet temperature, t
i
=30 C Temperature, t
a
=30 C
Outlet temperature, t
c
=40 C Relative humidity, RH
a
=80%
Drying chamber Humidity ratio j=0.0215 kg H
2
O per kg of dry air
Transversal section, S=0.27 m
2
Drying bed depth, x=0.012 m
Chimney height, 1.786 m
drying chamber. The chimney was constructed from a galvanized steel sheet (28
gauge), and painted black to increase solar absorption, thermosiphoning of air, and
the overall efciency of the dryer.
4. Experimental
4.1. Mounting and orientation of solar dryer
The solar dryer was mounted on top of a concrete roof about 8 m above the
ground to minimize shading from trees, buildings and other structures. The solar
collector faced north, during experimentation at Zomba (15.4S, 35.32E) in Malawi.
In addition, the collector inlet was exposed to ambient air so that the inlet air tem-
perature and pressure were equal to the ambient values. The air pressure was also
atmospheric at the top of the chimney.
4.2. Sample preparation
A total of eight batches of fresh mangoes purchased from a local produce market
were sorted out, washed with tap water, peeled and sliced (slice thickness 0.005
m). Two replicate samples were taken from the prepared batch and immediately
analyzed for moisture content, pH and ascorbic acid. The remaining portion was
dried (one batch at a time) in a solar dryer and stored at room temperature in a
sealed dark plastic bag. Duplicate samples of the dried mango chips were taken for
similar analysis.
33 A. Madhlopa et al. / Renewable Energy 27 (2002) 2737
4.3. Meteorological measurements
The intensity of solar radiation was measured using a solarimeter (Industrie Elec-
tromeccaniche solarimeter model SM-804-A) which was mounted in the plane of
the collector to measure instantaneous radiation intensity (G). The speed of the air
owing over the solar collector was monitored using a cup anemometer located at
a weather station about 150 m from the location of the solar dryer, while air tempera-
ture was measured using mercury in-glass thermometers located in the shade (t
a
), at
the collector outlet (t
c
) and inside the drying chamber above the drying bed (t
f
).
The relative humidity (RH) of the air was determined using a whirling hygrometer
(Gallenkamp, model BS2842). Readings were generally taken hourly with shorter
(5 min) intervals around solar noon.
4.4. Physicochemical tests on mangoes
A bulk sample of sliced fresh mangoes was weighed on a triple beam balance
(OHAUS Scale Corporation Union, OHAUS 3201, to 0.1 g) and then spread on trays
inside the solar dryer 30 min before solar noon to determine the mass of water m
w
,
vaporized. The sample was allowed to dry for 1 h and then re-weighed. The differ-
ence between the initial mass m
i
and the nal mass m
f
of the sample yielded the
mass of water m
w
lost. The ow rate (m) of air was computed from Eqs. (2a) and
(3) with t
f
=t
a
, while the efciency of the collector was calculated from Eq. (1) with
C
p
=1007 J kg
1
C
1
. To determine the MC of both fresh and solar-dried mango
chips, a sample was accurately weighed in a pre-calcined porcelain crucible on an
analytical balance (Oertling model R41, to 0.1 mg) and then dried in an oven (ELE
International Ltd, serial No.BSS 88H113) at 70 C for 6 h [10]. The difference
between the original mass and the nal mass was expressed as a percentage MC of
the original mass (wet basis). The acidity of the samples was assessed using pH
level. Basically, an accurately weighed 10 g-sample was wetted with distilled water
and then homogenized in an electric blender (Braun, model 4142) diluted to 200 ml
and then ltered (Whatman No. 41) [13]. The pH of the ltrate was read using a
digital pH meter (Metrohm pH meter model 744) at 25 C. Further, the concentration
of ascorbic acid in both fresh and dried samples was determined using the 2,6-
dichloroindophenol titrimetric method. A weighed sample was wetted with an
extracting solution (metaphosphoric acidacetic acid solution) and then triturated
with a pestle in a mortar. The volume of the homogenized sample was measured
and then ltered (Whatman No. 41). The ltrate was titrated against standardized
2,6-dichloroindophenol dye [10]. The concentration of ascorbic acid in solar-dried
samples (on dry basis) was expressed as a percentage of this acid in the correspond-
ing fresh sample (on dry basis) to obtain the retention index (%).
4.5. Data analysis
The data were analyzed using Excel and SPSS statistical computer programs. The
collector outlet temperature was correlated as a function of time of day with a poly-
34 A. Madhlopa et al. / Renewable Energy 27 (2002) 2737
nomial of the second order. Further, a paired t-test was performed to examine the
effect of solar drying on pH level.
5. Results and discussion
5.1. Air temperature and relative humidity
The collector outlet temperature for combinedabsorber systems, ambient air tem-
perature and relative humidity during the day are provided in Fig. 2. The maximum
observed collector outlet temperatures were 45.9 C and 42.9 C with and without
a wire screen absorber, respectively. The outlet air temperature was higher than
ambient air temperature during sunshine hours with a maximum value around solar
noon. In contrast, the relative humidity in the air generally decreased to a minimum
value of about 51% around midday. At low levels of relative humidity, the air had
a high capacity to absorb moisture.
Curve tting indicates that the collector outlet temperature can be represented by
an empirical equation of the form:
t
c
(t) a
o
a
1
t a
2
t
2
(10)
where a
0
, a
1
and a
2
are constants.
The correlation between collector outlet temperature and the time (t) of the day
was very signicant (p=0.00, r
2
=0.61 and standard error=3.7 C). The values of the
coefcients a
0
, a
1
and a
2
were 19.82, 9.54 and 0.38 respectively. Although the
Fig. 2. Variation of air temperature and relative humidity with time of day.
35 A. Madhlopa et al. / Renewable Energy 27 (2002) 2737
magnitudes are different from those (a
0
=231.81, a
1
=46.25 and a
2
=1.77) reported
by Ratti and Mujumdar [16], the signs are similar. The difference in the magnitudes
is probably due to the variations in the design and construction of the dryers, and
meteorological test conditions. The maximum tted value of the collector outlet tem-
perature was 40.1 C at t=12.6 h where t
a
=31.7 C. The tted value of the collector
outlet temperature was again greater than the ambient air temperature,
5.2. Collector efciency
The mean ow rate of air was 0.0083 kg s
1
which yielded thermal efciency
(h) values of 21.3% and 17.0% for the wire mesh absorber and the xed wooden
absorber plate, respectively (when G=1168 W m
2
, t
a
=31 C and wind speed=1.5
m s
1
). It seems that the wire screen absorber was more efcient than the wooden
absorber. This observation is consistent with ndings from other studies which show
that metallic materials are good conductors of heat and work best as radiation absor-
bers [7,14]. However, use of a wooden absorber is more attractive than a metallic
absorber because the former material is readily available and affordable in Malawi
and other developing countries. The observed efciency values agree very well with
the results obtained by Ayensu [2] for a solar dryer with convective heat ow
(h=21.0%), and Goyal and Tiwari [8] for a reverse at plate absorber cabinet
(h=13.0% to 19.0%). These variations are expected because the thermal efciency
of a solar collector does not only depend on the design and construction parameters
but also weather and other conditions [9].
5.3. Levels of moisture, pH and ascorbic acid
The levels of MC, pH and ascorbic acid are shown in Table 2. It is observed that
the dryer reduced the MC of sliced mangoes (4.0 kg) from 853% (w/w) to 132%
(w/w) on wet basis, within 3 to 5 days, depending on weather conditions. The level
of moisture in fresh mangoes is comparable with that (81.7%) reported by Chan [3].
Table 2
Levels of moisture, pH and ascorbic acid in fresh and solar-dried mango chips
Batch No. Moisture Content (%) (wet basis) pH (at 25 C) Ascorbic acid
retention (%)
Fresh Solar-dried Fresh Solar-dried
1 88 17 4.2 3.2 89
2 91 12 4.2 3.6 78
3 84 11 4.2 3.5 99
4 83 16 4.1 3.9 94
5 84 15 4.2 3.1 82
6 83 11 3.9 3.2 63
7 83 11 3.9 3.2 46
8 83 12 3.9 3.2 42
36 A. Madhlopa et al. / Renewable Energy 27 (2002) 2737
The differences are due to the type of variety, the season and the maturity stage of
the fruit. The nal MC of solar-dried mango chips (132%) was lower than the
typical water content (18%) of dried fruit reported by Coultate [4]. Thus, the solar-
dried mango chips obtained under the present conditions contained acceptable moist-
ure levels for preservation.
The pH levels in fresh mangoes (4.10.1) and dried mango chips (3.40.3) were
signicantly different (p=0.00), which would indicate that the dried mango chips
were more acidic than fresh mangoes. Solar drying of mangoes increased acidity
and consequently increased the resistance to growth of spoilage microorganisms [6].
The dryer retained a relatively high proportion of ascorbic acid (7422%). This
is probably because direct solar radiation was prevented from reaching the mango
chips in the drying chamber. Nevertheless, the magnitude of the standard deviation
indicates that the variation in the concentration of ascorbic acid is relatively high.
This is ascribed to the high sensitivity of the ascorbic acid to different processes
(drying, sample preparation) and conditions [5,6].
6. Conclusion
A solar air heater with two systems for solar absorption has been designed and
tested. One of the absorbers, which can be made from different types of materials
including metals and plastics, was interchangeable to achieve the desired temperature
for food dehydration under the prevailing meteorological conditions. Heat was trans-
ferred from the collector to the drying chamber through natural convection. The air
heater achieved efcient drying of slices of fresh mangoes and a relatively high
retention of ascorbic acid. The dehydrated fruits could therefore be preserved for
consumption during the times of scarcity.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the Malawi Polytechnic for funding this project. Our
gratitude is also extended to the Faculty of Science at Chancellor College (University
of Malawi) for the various forms of support.
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