The Stoic

HANDBOOK
Second Edition
by Erik Wiegardt with Seneca,
Epictetus, and Marcus Aurelius
Copyright 200 by Erik Wiegardt! All rights reser"ed!
words#ith press $ san diego $ cali%ornia
CONTENTS
page
Introduction 3
The Best Quote 6
FAQs
The Stoic Tradition !!
Three "o#an Stoics !$
the DOE %&
Four 'ractica( E)ercises 3
The Ethica( 'arado) *+
, , , ,
%
Introduction
The Philosopher
E-er.one can /e a phi(osopher0 E-er.one0 1e a(( ha-e that a/i(it.0 1e
2ere /orn 2ith it0 Hu#an /eings are rationa(3 thin4ing3 reasoning
creatures3 and Nature has #ade us that 2a.0 As Nature created the gira55e
to reach higher and the cheetah to run 5aster and the /u(( e(ephant to /e
stronger3 so did it create the hu#an /eing to /e 2iser0 'otentia((.0
In ancient 6reece3 the /irthp(ace o5 phi(osoph. and phi(osophers3 a
person 2as 4no2n as a phi(osopher /. their 2a. o5 (i5e3 not /. their
acade#ic credentia(s or scho(ar(. pu/(ications0 'hi(osoph. 2as a high(.
-a(ued topic o5 con-ersation and thought3 /ut #ore i#portant(. it 2as an
idea( to /e e#/raced and practiced0 7i5e 2as (i-ed /etter 2ith
phi(osoph.0
The sa#e cou(d /e and shou(d /e true toda.3 on(. #ost o5 us can8t /e
/othered0 1e use 9ust as #uch o5 our reasoning a/i(it. as 2e ha-e to and
no #ore0 :ear a5ter .ear3 2e strugg(e to 5eed ourse(-es and our 5a#i(.3
pa. the #ortgage3 4eep the car running3 2ear nice c(othes3 and3 i5 there8s
an. ti#e or #one. (e5t o-er3 2e spend it on count(ess distractions and
#ind(ess di-ersions that conte#porar. societ. is on(. too happ. to o55er0
And as 2e get o(der3 2e don8t gain in 2isdo#3 2e on(. gain in 2eight0
It8s a(2a.s /een (i4e this ; 5or #ost peop(e0 1e accept this price(ess gi5t
o5 higher inte((igence as our /irthright3 2hich it is3 then 2e spend this
inheritance on gra//ing and grasping at 5ar #ore than 2e rea((. need0 At
the end o5 the da.3 2hen the 2ear. #ind is read. to rest 2e (et it dri5t
a2a. /. 2atching .et another episode o5 our 5a-orite T< sho2 or
cheering on a #i((ionaire ath(ete to score another goa(0 Ac=uiring 2hat
2e need to (i-e on this p(anet is not di55icu(t3 /ut 2e ha-e #ade it so3 and
our a2eso#e inte((igence is o/sessed 2ith a (i5e o5 consu#ption and
end(ess /us.>ness0
That8s nor#a(0 At (east it8s nor#a( in that it8s co##on0 Sti((3 there ha-e
a(2a.s /een a 5e2 2ho #a4e the e55ort to rise a/o-e the co##on herd
/ecause the. are so a#a?ed /. our reasoning 5acu(t. and the pro#ise o5
2isdo# that the. choose to de-e(op a no/(e #ind rather than 2a((o2 in
the #ud o5 accu#u(ation0 The. choose to (i-e c(oser to the gods than to
the /easts in the /arn.ard0 These peop(e 2e ca(( phi(osophers3 (o-ers o5
2isdo#0
3
But3 as soon as 2e decide to pursue 2isdo#3 that8s 2hen the di55icu(t.
rea((. /egins0 E-er.one can /e a phi(osopher0 E-er.one can /e 2ise0 But
ho2 is it done@ 1hat is the /est 2a. to achie-e hu#anit.8s highest goa(@
An5ortunate(.3 5inding the path3 (et a(one 2a(4ing upon it3 is not that eas.0
It shou(d /e3 /ut3 (i4e so #uch in our conte#porar. 2or(d3 the pursuit o5
2isdo# has /eco#e unnecessari(. co#p(e)0 I5 2e stud. phi(osoph. at
the uni-ersit. 2e8re at the #erc. o5 the pro5essiona(s3 the acade#ics3 and
it8s /een %+++ .ears since the. cared an.thing a/out our goa(0 I5 2e stud.
2isdo# 2ith the theo(ogians3 another pro/(e# arises0 Faith0 Sooner or
(ater3 re(igions de(i/erate(. turn their /ac4s on the pursuit o5 truth and the
e)ercise o5 reason and re=uire the #ind to /e(ie-e in 5aith0 That8s 2h.
re(igions are ca((ed 5aiths ; Be2ish 5aith3 Christian 5aith3 Cus(i# 5aith3 et
cetera0
So 2hat do 2e do3 and 2h. shou(d 2e /e /othered@ Hard(. an.one e(se
gi-es a da#n3 so 2h. shou(d 2e@ 1hat does 2isdo# pro#ise that #a4es
it so great3 and 2ho 2ants to /e a phi(osopher an.2a.@ It sounds /oring
and hard0
The Promise
Hitchhi4ing through the Caro(inas in the Deep South in !&6*3 I cou(dn8t
he(p /ut notice the sharecropper8s shac4s (ining o(d countr. roads 5or
#i(es and #i(es through to/acco and cotton 5ie(ds0 The shac4s 2ere
occupied /. dirt poor peop(e 2or4ing (i4e s(a-es3 a hundred .ears a5ter
a/o(ition3 5ro# sunup to sundo2n3 earning a 2age that 2as /are(.
enough to sta. a(i-e0 There 2ere no (u)uries here0 Chi(dren 2ere /are5oot
/. necessit.3 and shoes 2ere 2orn on(. 5or Sunda. schoo(3 i5 the. 2ere
2orn at a((0 E-er.2here one (oo4ed there 2as depression and g(oo#0
Almost e-er.2here0
E-er. coup(e o5 #i(es there 2as a sharecropper shac4 that 2as di55erent0
It 2as /ui(t the sa#e3 pro/a/(. /. the sa#e /ui(der3 /ut it didn8t (oo4 the
sa#e as the shac4 on either side o5 it0 The unpainted3 crac4ed3 and dirt.
c(ap/oard siding 2as painted 2ith 2hite2ash3 not regu(ar paint3 #ind
.ou0 That 2ou(d /e too e)pensi-e0 This 2as cheap3 2hite paint #i)ed
2ith 2ater so that a ga((on #ight paint one 2ho(e side o5 the house0
There 2ou(d /e 5(our sac4s d.ed a /right co(or and cut 5or curtains
instead o5 5aded ne2spaper or nothing at a((0 The 5ront .ard 2ou(d /e
pic4ed up and ra4ed3 and 5(o2ers 2ou(d gro2 in 5(o2er /eds /. the 5ront
door0 And to one side3 or pee4ing around /ac43 there 2ere a(2a.s
-egeta/(es gro2ing in a 2eeded garden0
This is 2hat phi(osoph. pro#ises0 It doesn8t #atter so #uch a/out .our
race or p(ace in societ. as it does the responsi/i(it. .ou ta4e 5or /ui(ding
and #aintaining a no/(e character0 :ou ta4e 2hat .ou ha-e /een gi-en
and do the /est .ou can0 E-en i5 .ou 2ere /orn in a sharecropper8s shac43
.ou can #a4e it a happ. and (o-e(. ho#e0 :ou 2ere /orn 2ith the a/i(it.
and the choice to /eco#e great3 to /eco#e great 2ith 2isdo#3 and
*
regard(ess o5 a(( e(se that /e5a((s .ou there is a(2a.s one thing that is in
.our po2er ; the no/i(it. o5 .our character0
Seneca3 the great "o#an Stoic3 said that on(. a 5oo( 2ou(d go to /u. a
horse and care5u((. e)a#ine the sadd(e and riding tac4(e /ut ignore the
horse0 It8s the sa#e 5or .ou0 The circu#stances surrounding .our /irth
and p(ace in this 2or(d are .our sadd(e and riding gear0 The no/i(it. o5
.our character3 that 2hich is inside o5 .ou3 is 2hat rea((. #atters0 This is
2hat phi(osoph. pro#ises3 2hat Stoic phi(osoph. teaches3 and 2hat The
Stoic Handbook is a(( a/out0

The Stoic Tradition
Stoicis# is a (i-ing phi(osoph.0 1hat that #eans is that Stoic phi(osoph.
is #ore than 9ust great thoughts organi?ed into a co#p(ete and coherent
-ision o5 rea(it.0 It is 5irst and 5ore#ost a phi(osoph. to (i-e /.3 a
practica( app(ication o5 ancient 2isdo#3 a 2a. o5 (i5e and a guide to the
choices one #a4es in this (i5e0 And 5ro# its /eginnings3 it 2as the on(.
phi(osoph. addressed to a(( hu#an /eings ; regard(ess o5 gender3 race3 or
socia( c(ass0 E-en 2o#en and s(a-es 2ere 2e(co#e to 5o((o2 this path3 to
/e treated as sisters and /rothers3 a notion considered (augha/(e /. other
phi(osophers 2ho3 a(ong 2ith Aristot(e3 c(assi5ied the# so#e2here a/o-e
/rute /easts and /e(o2 5ree #en0
Stoicis# is a(i-e0 The reason it is sti(( a(i-e a5ter #ore than %3++ .ears is
/ecause it is uni-ersa((. adapta/(e and a-ai(a/(e to peop(e o5 e-er. co(or3
c(ass3 and cu(ture0 And so#ething e(seD it e-o(-es0 As the hu#an race
(earns and gro2s3 so does our phi(osoph.0 It e-o(-es /ecause o5 the
strength and con-iction o5 the Stoics the#se(-es0 Stoics ha-e a tradition
o5 independent thought3 and 2e (i4e it that 2a.0 1e o5 the Stoic schoo(
do not 5o((o2 a t.rant3 as Seneca said0
This is not to sa. that 2e ha-e an ec(ectic hodgepodge o5 assorted ideas
co((ected here and there0 It is not0 Its inner core o5 orthodo). #o-es -er.
s(o2(.3 g(acia((.3 e)panding and re5ining 2ith the ages0 Its 5oundation is
secure3 /ecause it is /ui(t upon the po2er o5 a sing(e ideaD
The goal of life is to live in agreement with nature.
That is our #ottoD (i-e in agree#ent 2ith nature3 (i-e according to nature3
(i-e in har#on. 2ith nature0 Eeno o5 Citiu#3 the 5ounder o5 our schoo(3
coined the phrase and concept3 /ut he 2asn8t 2or4ing a(one0 He 2as
5o((o2ing a path a(read. /egun /. t2o o5 the greatest thin4ers in the
2estern 2or(d3 Herac(itus and Socrates0 Eeno is the Father o5 the Stoic
schoo(3 and Herac(itus and Socrates can right(. /e ca((ed its 6rand5athers0
But /e5ore 2e ta4e a (oo4 at this great histor.3 (etFs address so#e
Fre=uent(. As4ed Questions GFAQsH0
I
The Best Quote
descri/ing our p(ace in histor.
that I ha-e e-er seen0 E1
Unlike Epicureanism, which uickl! fro"e into a fi#ed dogma, Stoicism
developed, and became more comple#, comprehensive, and plausible. $t
forms a s!stem of interconnected doctrines confirming and supporting
each other. Plato, Aristotle, and Epicurus never managed as much% and
the Stoics& successors in the histor! of philosoph! have produced nothing
more comprehensive and s!stematic.
'ro5essor Terence Ir2in3 'lassical Thought GO)5ord Ani-ersit. 'ress3 !&$&H3 p0 !$!0
6
FAQs
The following are freuentl! asked uestions $ have been asked or have
asked m!self.
Q. What is Stoicism?
A. Stoicis# is a 2isdo# phi(osoph.0 1hat that #eans is that itFs a
phi(osoph. a/out ho2 to (i-e (i5e and (i-e it 2e((0 Our phi(osoph. 2as
5ounded in Athens3 6reece3 a/out %3++ .ears ago /. a #an na#ed Eeno0
A5ter stud.ing 2ith the C.nics 5or se-era( .ears3 he studied at '(atoFs
Acade#.3 then started his o2n schoo( at the centra( #ar4et in Athens0
Eeno started his schoo( /. standing on a porch in the #ar4et and ta(4ing
to an.one 2ho happened /.0 In ti#e3 he had a regu(ar group o5 #en
standing and ta(4ing phi(osoph. there 2ith hi#0 The porch /eca#e his
schoo(0 The 2ord 5or porch in 6ree4 is stoa3 and the #en 2ho #et there
to ta(4 phi(osoph. soon /eca#e 4no2n as the #en o5 the porch3 or Stoics0
Stoicis# /eca#e the pree#inent phi(osoph. o5 ancient 6reece and "o#e
and 5(ourished 5or near(. I++ .ears0 It ree#erged as a popu(ar phi(osoph.
in the "enaissance 2hen peop(e returned to reason rather than 5aith to
5ind ans2ers a/out ho2 to (i-e0 Toda. our phi(osoph. and those 2ho (i-e
/. it are a(i-e and 2e(( a(( o-er the 2or(d0 SeeD 2220ne2stoa0co#
Q. Is it true that Stoics repress their emotions and feelings?
A. No0 This is an o(d #isunderstanding0 E#otions and 5ee(ings are
nor#a( and natura(3 and so#eti#es the.Fre e-en essentia( to our sur-i-a(0
There are ti#es 2hen /eing a5raid and running a2a. is the 2isest course
o5 action0
1here the #isunderstanding co#es 5ro# is the Stoic /e(ie5 that e#otions
are /ased upon a 9udg#ent0 A(( o5 us3 inc(uding Stoics3 ha-e e#otiona(
reactions to e-ents that can cause anger3 grie53 and 5ear3 /ut a5ter the
initia( instinctive reaction3 it is our 9udg#ent a/out the e-ent that either
in5(a#es or coo(s the e#otion0 As Sha4espeare said in Ha#(et3 JThere is
nothing either good or /ad3 /ut thin4ing #a4es it so0K Sha4espeare 2as a
student o5 Stoic phi(osoph.3 /. the 2a.3 and he o5ten used Stoic the#es
in his p(a.s0
1e /e(ie-e it is our (udgment that #a4es so#ething either good or /ad3
not the thing in itse(50 I5 2e are unhapp.3 then it 2as so#e 9udg#ent that
in5(a#ed the e#otions and #ade us unhapp.0 Happiness is e-er.oneFs
desire3 and Stoicis# is a(( a/out increasing .our happiness and (i-ing
2e((0

Q. What things do Stoics consider good and bad?

A. On(. -irtue is a(2a.s good3 and on(. the (ac4 o5 -irtue is a(2a.s /ad0
1e do not /e(ie-e there is an. e-i( in Nature3 on(. in the /eha-ior o5
hu#an /eings3 and that co#es a/out 2hen peop(e de(i/erate(. choose
2hat is har#5u( to the#se(-es0
:ou see3 2e donFt /e(ie-e an.one can har# .ou3 on(. that .ou can har#
.ourse(5 2hen .ou choose not to (i-e according to Nature0 But 2e donFt
conde#n others 5or (ac4ing -irtue3 /ecause the. are a(read. punishing
the#se(-es /. their /eha-ior0

No one can hurt #e3 /ecause I a(one a# responsi/(e 5or the no/i(it. o5
#. characterLand that is the StoicFs highest idea(3 the no/(e character0
"ich #en and 2o#en are a di#e a do?en3 /ut a no/(e character is rare
and the greatest o5 a((0 Stoicis# teaches .ou ho2 to /ui(d a no/(e
character0
Q. The Stoic motto, live according to Nature, sounds good, but
!hat does that mean e"actl#?
A. Eeno3 the 5ounder o5 Stoicis#3 2as the 5irst to use that phrase3 J(i-e
according to Nature3K and 2hat it #eans e)act(. is that Stoics (oo4 to
Nature as their guide to (i5e0 1e /e(ie-e that Nature teaches us e-er.thing
2e need to 4no2 a/out ho2 to (i-e 2e(( in this 2or(d0 That is 2h. Stoic
ph.sics is so i#portant0 In anti=uit.3 ph.sics 2as 4no2n as natura(
phi(osoph.3 and /. stud.ing nature 2e co#e to 4no2 ourse(-es and 2hat
#a4es us happ. and success5u( and 2ise0
7ater3 another great Stoic3 'anaetius3 e)panded the origina( #otto to
inc(ude not 9ust nature in genera(3 /ut a(so the nature o5 the indi-idua(0
Each one o5 us has a uni=ue persona(it.3 inc(uding di55erent ta(ents and
capacities 2e can de-e(op to achie-e our highest idea(0 So3 (i-ing
according to Nature a(so #eans to (i-e in accordance 2ith oneFs o2n
nature0
Epictetus3 a "o#an Stoic teacher3 said3 JI5 .ou ha-e assu#ed an.
character /e.ond .our strength3 .ou ha-e /oth de#eaned .ourse(5 in that3
and neg(ected one 2hich .ou #ight ha-e 5i((ed 2ith success0K The 2ise
(i-e according to /oth hu#an nature in genera( and oneFs indi-idua(
nature in particu(ar0
Q. Are Stoics allo!ed to en$o# such pleasures as good food, !ine, art,
music, ma%ing love, et cetera?
A. :es3 o5 course0 1e are pantheists0 The Stoic 6od is in A77 things0 1e
$
-a(ue our reason a/o-e a((3 /ecause that is our specia( gi5t 5ro# Nature3
/ut our creator is a(so in the e.es and ears and nose and taste /uds and
4inesthetic sense ; as 2e(( as in the #ind0
Q. &o Stoics believe in 'od?
A. :es3 in a #anner o5 spea4ing3 /ut 2e do not a(( /e(ie-e in 6od in the
sa#e 2a.0 A(( Stoics are pantheists3 /ecause Nature is our god3 (itera((.3
/ut .ou can /e an atheist or a deist or an agnostic and sti(( /e a Stoic in
good standing0 The 4e. to 2hat 4ind o5 Stoic .ou are depends on 2hether
.ou /e(ie-e that the inte((igence and processes o5 Nature are conscious or
unconscious0 Is Nature conscious or unconscious@ Hu#an /eings 2ere
created /. Nature and ha-e consciousness0 Are 2e the on(. ones3 or is
our creator a(so conscious@

The ear(. Stoics /e(ie-ed that Nature 2as /oth pro-identia( and
conscious0 These 2ere the deists3 /ut 2hen Stoicis# 2as adopted in
ancient "o#e there 2ere a 5e2 2ho /e(ie-ed that Nature 2as
unconscious0 These 2ere the 5irst Stoic atheists0 Toda. 2e ha-e Stoics
2ho are deists3 atheists3 and agnostics0 Such di-ersit. is per5ect(.
accepta/(e0 The Stoic co##unit. has a (arge tent3 and 2e are to(erant o5
disagree#ent 2ithin it0
Q. &o Stoics believe in life after death?
A. 1e do not /e(ie-e in an. one certain ans2er to this =uestion0 I5 .ouFre
(oo4ing 5or certaint.3 there are t2o 2a.s .ou can go a/out it0 The 5irst
and #ost re(ia/(e 2a. is 5or .ou to die3 then .ou 2i(( 4no2 5or sure0 The
second 2a.3 one that .ou #a. consider (ess drastic3 is to 9oin a re(igious
group that pro#ises eterna( (i5e0 An5ortunate(.3 this is a pro#ise that the.
cannot pro-e0 I5 .ou ha-e 5aith in a re(igion3 such as the Christians or
Cus(i#s3 then the. 2i(( te(( .ou 2hat to /e(ie-e a/out (i5e a5ter death0 I5
.ou de#and e-idence3 reason3 or proo53 then nothing is certain0

1e can neither e#pirica((. pro-e nor dispro-e (i5e in an. 5or# /e.ond
the gra-e0 No one can0 "e(igions that te(( .ou other2ise are as4ing .ou to
ha-e 5aith in #.ths3 (egends3 and 2ish5u( thin4ing0 Our phi(osoph. ne-er
re=uires such 5aith0 Stoics are #ore co#5orta/(e 2ith disagree#ent than
2ith 5aith3 and 2e ha-e a(2a.s disagreed a/out this #atter0 "egarding
(i5e a5ter death 2eFre #ost(. agnostic0 Ho2e-er3 2e a(( do agree on one
thingD i5 .ou (i-e according to Nature in this (i5e3 then itFs high(. un(i4e(.
.ouF(( ha-e an.thing to 2orr. a/out in the ne)t ; i5 there is one0
Q. What is the Stoic attitude to!ard homose"ualit# and racial and
gender issues?
A0 This is one o5 #. 5a-orite =uestions /ecause o5 our tradition and
&
teachings as a phi(osoph.0 Ho#ose)ua(it. 2as ne-er an issue in ancient
6reece 2hen Stoicis# 2as 5ounded3 and it isnFt toda.3 /ut 2ith regard to
racia( and gender issues3 on(. the Stoics 2ere tru(. en(ightened0 Other
phi(osophies 2ere o5ten conte#ptuous and disparaging3 /ut there has
ne-er /een an. dou/t 2ith usD 2e are a(( e=ua(0
One (itt(e 4no2n 5act is that Stoics 2ere the 5irst to conde#n rape0 At a
ti#e 2hen rape 2as 5ar #ore co##on than it is e-en toda.3 the e)cuse
5or such /eha-ior 2as3 JThe 6od o5 (o-e3 Eros3 #ade #e do it0 I 2as
dri-en to this passion /. Eros and po2er(ess to resist0K Stoics said that
e)cuse 2as nonsense0 "ape 2as 2rong0 :ou DO ha-e the po2er to resist0
No god can co#pe( .ou to /eha-e /ad(.3 and no one has the right to
-io(ate another personFs /od.0 No e)cuses0 'eriod0 And3 o5 course3 2e
sti(( /e(ie-e that 2a. toda.0
6etting /ac4 to the #atter o5 e=ua(it.3 the 4e. here is reason0 In anti=uit.3
our greatest scientist3 'osidonius3 tra-e(ed 2ide(. and studied #an.
di55erent peop(es and cu(tures and con5ir#ed 2hat Stoics ha-e a(2a.s
/e(ie-edD hu#an /eings are the sa#e e-er.2here3 and the thing that
unites us a((3 no #atter ho2 di55erent(. 2e #a. appear3 is our greatest
5acu(t.3 our a/i(it. to reason0
Q. Wh# does the !orld need a Stoic communit#, such as the
c#bercit#, Ne! Stoa?
A. 1e((3 5irst o5 a((3 hu#an /eings are socia( ani#a(s0 That is our nature0
1e are happier and #ore producti-e 2hen 2e ha-e 5a#i(. and 5riends to
care 5or and 2ho care 5or us and gi-e us a conte)t 5or our (i-es0 ItFs
a(2a.s /een this 2a.3 and it pro/a/(. a(2a.s 2i((0
Toda. #ost o5 us (i-e in cities3 and the ur/an en-iron#ent has /eco#e
one o5 iso(ation and a(ienation0 Our ancient need to /e(ong has /een
co#pro#ised 5or #an. i5 not a(( o5 us3 and this is a considera/(e (oss0 1e
ha-e /een #e#/ers o5 a tri/e or a co##unit. 5or as (ong as 2e ha-e
/een a separate species3 and pro/a/(. (onger ; #i((ions o5 .ears an.2a.0
ItFs in our -er. /ones and DNA0
The Stoic co##unit. /rings us /ac4 to the socia( ani#a( that 2e tru(.
are3 so that 2e can (i-e in the 2or(d as it is and sti(( ha-e a co##unit.
that supports us and shares our -a(ues0 Ne2 Stoa is the Stoic co##unit.
toda.3 and3 a(though 2e (i-e in #an. countries a(( o-er the 2or(d3 2e are
sti(( a co##unit. o5 neigh/ors3 5a#i(.3 and 5riends0
6o to 2220ne2stoa0co# toda.0
, , , ,
!+
The Stoic Tradition
That which contains us is endowed with reason.
Herac(itus
(eraclitus )c.*+*,c.-.* /012
He 2as a no/(e#an o5 Ephesus0 So#e sa. he 2as a hereditar. 4ing 2ho
set aside his cro2n to stud. phi(osoph.0 He 2as undou/ted(. a sage3 a
#.stic genius3 and the 5irst cos#o(ogist o5 our phi(osoph.0 Herac(itus has
5ascinated thin4ers 5ro# Socrates to 6oethe and 5ro# Aristot(e to
conte#porar. =uantu# ph.sicists0 He is the greatest o5 the Ionian sages3
a Founding Father o5 1estern Ci-i(i?ation3 a creator o5 phi(osoph.3 and a
di-iner o5 the 5unda#enta( essence o5 the cos#os0 He is a(so 4no2n as
the O/scure One3 a reputation ac=uired in his o2n ti#e3 5or a -ague and
ridd(ing st.(e that so#e /e(ie-e he de(i/erate(. adopted to e(ude e-en the
#ost erudite scho(ars0
An5ortunate(.3 2hat he 2rote3 in its origina( 5or#3 has /een (ost in
anti=uit.0 A(( that re#ains are 5rag#entar. re5erences 5ro# #an. sources3
so#e re(ia/(e3 so#e unre(ia/(e3 5ro# '(ato to Cedie-a( #onastic
scho(ars0 Fro# these 5rag#ents 2e disco-er re#ar4a/(e para((e(s /et2een
the o/ser-ations o5 Herac(itus and #odern ph.sicists %I++ .ears (ater0
6od3 he ca((ed the 7ogos3 "eason3 Inte((igence3 a 1ho(e #ade up o5 the
su# tota( o5 a(( opposites3 constant(. in #otion3 /irthing3 (i-ing3 d.ing3
and /eing /orn again0 In a(( o5 these attri/utes o5 Nature3 Herac(itus
2ou(d inc(ude a rationa( consciousness and pro-idence0
Short(. a5ter the death o5 Herac(itus3 another e)traordinar. #an 2as
/orn3 a scu(ptor /. trade3 a #an 2ho descri/ed hi#se(5 as rese#/(ing a
5rog3 /ut 2ho had /een to(d /. the Orac(e at De(phi that he 2as the
2isest o5 a(( the 6ree4s0 That #an3 o5 course3 2as Socrates0
Socrates )-34,+44 /012 and the lines of descent
Socrates 2as 5ran4(. pu??(ed o-er the Orac(e8s 9udg#ent3 and so he set
out to the #ar4etp(ace o5 Athens to disco-er 2hat it #eant3 ho2 it cou(d
/e that he 2as the 2isest o5 the 6ree4s0 1hat he 5ound 2as that 2hi(e
others pro5essed 2isdo# 2ithout /eing a2are o5 their ignorance3 he3 at
(east3 2as a2are that he 4ne2 nothing0 1ith this 4no2(edge ca#e the
con-iction that he #ust search 5or 2isdo# a/out right conduct3 the right
2a. to (i-e3 that he #ight (ead the citi?ens o5 Athens in their #ora( and
inte((ectua( de-e(op#ent0

Socrates ca#e to /e -ie2ed as a pest and a trou/(e#a4er /. the cit.
e(ders0 He 2as sentenced to death /. poisoning3 drin4ing he#(oc43 and
/eca#e the 5irst #art.r o5 phi(osoph.0 O5 his discip(es 2ho 2ere 2ith
!!
hi# to the end3 t2o 2ent on to esta/(ish their o2n schoo(s o5 phi(osoph.
/ased upon t2o pro5ound(. di55erent interpretations o5 his teachings0
'(ato3 the aristocrat3 ad#ired Socrates the thin4er and esta/(ished an
acade#. 9ust outside the cit. 5or the sons o5 2ea(th and ease to ponder
the #eaning o5 2isdo#0 Antisthenes3 a poor and co##on #an3 ad#ired
Socrates the #an o5 princip(e 2ho (i-ed and died /. 2hat he /e(ie-ed0
And 5ro# hi# the schoo( o5 the C.nics 2as /orn0 Eeno3 the Father o5
Stoic phi(osoph.3 2as 5or a ti#e a student in /oth schoo(s0
THE 6"EEK STOA
Near(. a centur. a5ter the death o5 Socrates3 a .oung #erchant 5ro#
Citiu#3 a cit. 2e 4no2 as 7arna4a on the is(and o5 C.prus3 2as going
a/out his 5ather8s /usiness 2ith a ship(oad o5 purp(e d.e 2hen his /oat
2as caught in a stor# near Athens0 1hi(e he put in 5or repairs3 and 2ith
ti#e on his hands3 he stopped in a /oo4 shop and pic4ed up a /oo4 on the
(i5e o5 Socrates0 I#pressed /. 2hat he read3 he as4ed the /oo4se((er i5
there 2ere an. 5e((o2s (i4e this Socrates sti(( (i-ing in Athens0 At that
#o#ent3 as 5ate 2ou(d ha-e it3 Crates the C.nic happened /. and the
/oo4se((er said3 JFo((o2 that #an0K And Eeno did0
5eno )c.+++,636 /012, the 7ounder
Crates3 the 6ood 6enius3 as he 2as 4no2n in Athens3 2as one o5 the
#ost popu(ar teachers and persona(ities o5 his da.0 An(i4e his teacher3 the
intense and pro-ocati-e Diogenes3 Crates 2as said to (i-e each da. as i5
he 2ere on ho(ida.0 He 2as the third in (ine o5 descent 5ro# Socrates0
This is the (ineageD the 2ritings o5 Socrates8 o(dest student and 5o((o2er3
Antisthenes3 inspired the ?ea(ous Diogenes3 2ho (ater denied his teacherFs
in5(uence and c(ai#ed he (earned e-er.thing he 4ne2 a/out phi(osoph.
5ro# a #ouse0
Diogenes preached an ascetic (i5est.(e3 and he practiced 2hat he
preached0 He hi#se(5 (i-ed in a discarded /athtu/3 going a/out the
Athenian #ar4ets 2ith a (ighted (antern in /road da.(ight searching 5or
an honest #an0 He soon 5ound a 5e23 and he and his 5o((o2ers 2ere
con-inced the. 2ere the true discip(es o5 Socrates0 It 2as a (i-ing ethica(
schoo( 2hose practitioners /eca#e 4no2n as C.nics3 the 6ree4 2ord 5or
dogs3 /ecause the. 5orsoo4 a(( #ateria( possessions and (i-ed in the
streets in their sing(e>#inded pursuit o5 -irtue0 Crates3 2ho too4 o-er this
schoo( o5 ragged noncon5or#ists 5ro# Diogenes3 2as Eeno8s 5irst teacher
in phi(osoph.0 And 5or a ti#e3 Eeno 2as one o5 the#0
Eeno ne-er returned to the 5a#i(. /usiness0 He (i-ed in Athens 5or the
rest o5 his (i5e3 supporting hi#se(5 /. under2riting and insuring ships that
ca#e and 2ent across the Cediterranean3 an ear(. -ersion o5 7(o.ds o5
7ondon0 He re#ained 2ith Crates and the C.nics 5or so#e .ears3 then
!%
/eca#e i#patient 2ith their (i#ited 5ocus and (ac4 o5 decoru#3 and he
#o-ed on0 He studied 2ith the Cegarians3 in their da. the greatest
(ogicians in the 2or(d3 then he studied at '(ato8s Acade#.0 '(ato 2as
dead3 o5 course3 and 'o(e#o 2as head o5 the Acade#. 2hen he 2as
there0
A/out 3++ BCE3 Eeno 5inished his studies and 2ent to the centra( #ar4et
in Athens to discuss his phi(osoph. 2ith an.one 2ho happened /.0 He
stood on a porch 4no2n as the Stoa 'oi4i(e3 the painted porch3 a (ong
co(onnade 5acing the #ar4et0 It 2as ca((ed the painted porch /ecause o5
the #ura(s painted a(ong the /ac4 2a(( depicting rea( and #.tho(ogica(
scenes 5ro# Athenian histor.3 inc(uding the Batt(e at Carathon0 It 2as
here that he 5irst /egan teaching a s.ste# o5 phi(osoph. that 2as to
do#inate inte((ectua( thought 5or #ore than 5i-e hundred .ears0
The po2er o5 EenoFs discourse attracted a dai(. 5o((o2ing o5 .oung #en
2ho ca#e to the Stoa 'oi4i(e to discuss phi(osoph. 2ith hi#0 This
5o((o2ing o5 students /eca#e 4no2n in Athens as the JCen o5 the Stoa3K
or Stoics0 Eeno taught a uni5ied s.ste# o5 thought in three partsD natura(
phi(osoph. G2hat 2e no2 ca(( ph.sicsH3 (ogic3 and ethics0 He integrated
an understanding o5 #an8s re(ationship to the uni-erse Gph.sicsH that
5o((o2ed 5ro# a care5u( and accurate #ethod o5 reasoning and rhetoric
G(ogicH to 5urther esta/(ish princip(es o5 conduct 5or one8s (i5e GethicsH0
0leanthes )++8,6+6 /012 and 0hr#sippus )c.69:,c.6:3 /012
Eeno had one student 2ho had ac=uired so#e reno2n as an ath(ete3 a
/o)er3 /ut 2ho 2as other2ise entire(. 2ithout inheritance or 5inancia(
assistance0 It 2as said that 2hen C(eanthes studied 2ith Eeno he 2as so
poor he cou(dn8t a55ord paper and had to sa-e his notes on c(a# she((s
and o) /ones0 He studied 2ith Eeno /. da. and carried 2ater as a
co##on (a/orer /. night0 An(i4e the aristocratic students at the
Acade#.3 the Stoa3 true to its 5ounder8s C.nic roots3 ne-er turned a
student a2a.0 C(eanthes 2ent on to /eco#e the second Head o5 the Stoic
schoo( a5ter Eeno and a(so /eca#e a poet o5 so#e #erit0 His H!mn To
)eus is sti(( co##on(. inc(uded in antho(ogies o5 2or(d (iterature0
C(eanthes8 successor3 Chr.sippus3 re5or#u(ated and e)panded the
teachings o5 the 5ounder3 dra2ing up 2hat 2ou(d /eco#e the orthodo).
o5 Stoicis#0 It 2as said that 2ithout Chr.sippus there 2ou(d ha-e /een
no Stoa3 so 5ar>reaching and pro5ound 2as his in5(uence /oth in his da.
and /e.ond0 It 2as a(so said that i5 the gods per5or#ed (ogic then the.
#ust use Chr.sippus8 #ethods0 He 2as a #an 2hose -o(u#inous
2ritings and inte((ectua( /ri((iance inti#idated e-er.one /ut C(eanthes
hi#se(53 2hich 2as the #ore re#ar4a/(e /ecause C(eanthes 2as ne-er
considered an origina( or e)ceptiona( thin4er0 Chr.sippus ad#itted that
around C(eanthes he 2as o5ten at a (oss 5or 2ords0

!3
;anaetius )c.89*,c.88: /012 and ;osidonius )c.8+*,c.** /012
1hen the o(d and distinguished Scipio 5a#i(. o5 "o#e /e5riended the
si)th Head o5 the Stoic schoo( in Athens3 Stoicis# /egan a ne2 (i5e in the
heart o5 the E#pire0 Scipio A5ricanus3 as .ou #a. reca((3 2as the genera(
2ho sa-ed the cit. o5 "o#e 5ro# the con=uest o5 Hanni/a(0 It 2as his
5a#i(. that introduced 'anaetius and Stoic phi(osoph. to the "o#ans0
'anaetius had 9ust the right phi(osoph. 5or the 2or(d(. and practica(
"o#ans3 one that e#phasi?ed ethics and right conduct 5or an acti-e (i5e0
The Stoicis# o5 'anaetius on(. #ade passing re5erence to ph.sics and
a(#ost none at a(( to the stud. o5 (ogic0 He 2as an inno-ator0 The rigidit.
o5 the sing(e idea( o5 the i#aginar. sage /eca#e #ore centered on the
indi-idua(0
The aging 'anaetius8 #ost distinguished pupi( 2as the 2ea(th. .oung
aristocrat3 'osidonius o5 "hodes0 'osidonius has /een ca((ed the #ost
scienti5ic o5 the Stoics3 /ecause he spent #uch o5 his (i5e tra-e(ing3
o/ser-ing3 recording3 and ca(cu(ating natura( pheno#ena a(( around the
Cediterranean0 His o/ser-ations (ed hi# to e#phasi?e the Stoic doctrine
o5 the interdependence o5 a(( parts o5 the 2ho(e0 He a(so conc(uded 5ro#
his studies that #an. ani#a(s had a (ot #ore inte((igence than had /een
pre-ious(. suspected and that hu#ans 2ere #ore (i4e these ani#a(s than
2e had e-er rea(i?ed0 Ne-erthe(ess3 he decided3 our inte((igence 2as
#ore c(ose(. a4in to the rationa( inte((igence o5 nature3 and that our
reasoning 5acu(t. 2as our specia( (in4 to the 7ogos0
THE "OCAN STOA
He *'ato the +ounger, had one of the greatest reputations
for honest! and incorruptibilit! of an! man in ancient times,
and his Stoicism put him above the graft and briber! of his da!.
Co(u#/ia Enc.c(opedia3 Ith ed03 !&&3
1hen 2e thin4 o5 the "o#an E#pire3 2e a(( too o5ten re#e#/er
de/aucher. and /ruta(it. and #urderous intrigue 2hi(e 5orgetting that
this 2as at the sa#e ti#e one o5 the greatest and #ost enduring e#pires
the 2or(d has e-er 4no2n0 The cu(t o5 Hedonis# and the e#perors 2ho
hated phi(osoph. is the "o#e that Ho((.2ood ce(e/rates3 and 2ithout a
c(assica( education there8s (itt(e e(se that #ost o5 us 4no2 or re#e#/er0
But there 2as another "o#e3 the rea( cit.3 that 4ne2 greatness and honor3
and Stoicis#3 #ore than an. other phi(osoph.3 can /e credited 2ith
pro#oting its highest idea(s0
Fre=uent(.3 Stoic teachers (i-ed on the estates o5 the 2ea(th. and
po2er5u(3 retained as #ora( ad-isers on #atters o5 state and as counse(ors
and co#rades in ti#es o5 ca(a#it. and /erea-e#ent0 O5ten the 2ea(th.
and po2er5u( 2ere (eading Stoics the#se(-es0 Cato the :ounger3
!*
descri/ed a/o-e3 2as a de-out and pious 5o((o2er o5 the Stoa0 Cicero 2as
a (i5e(ong student o5 Stoic phi(osoph. and one o5 our pri#ar. sources 5or
Stoic thought 5ro# anti=uit.0
And3 /ecause the. 2ere so conspicuous(. e)ceptiona(3 a nu#/er o5
(eading Stoics /eca#e3 (i4e Socrates o5 Athens3 #art.rs to their idea(s
and 2a. o5 (i5e0 Barea Soranus3 go-ernor o5 Asia #inor3 2as e)ecuted 5or
treason 5or insisting on 9ustice 5or a(( in his ad#inistration0 Thraesea
'aetus3 Senator3 2as e)ecuted 5or re5using to ce(e/rate 2hen Nero
#urdered his #other Agrippina and 5or attracting 5o((o2ers 2ho (i-ed
si#p(. and honest(. in the #idst o5 treacher. and e)cess0 He(-idius
'riscus3 Cagistrate o5 "o#e3 2as e)ecuted /. <espasian 5or open(.
pro#oting e=ua(it. and de#ocrac.0
It cou(d /e 5air(. said that this 2as /oth the /est and the 2orst ti#e 5or
the ancient Stoa0 Best in that Stoicis# 2as the (eading phi(osoph. o5 the
2estern 2or(d3 and 2orst 2hen the e#peror 2as corrupt and corrupting
Lan a(( too co##on occurrence0
Seneca )c.+ /01,3*2, statesman
Seneca 2as the precocious son o5 a no/(e Spanish 5a#i(. 2hose
in5(uence3 in addition to his e)ceptiona( s4i(( as an orator3 ga-e hi#
access to the inner circ(e o5 "o#an po2er at an ear(. age0 He 2as a(so a
serious student o5 phi(osoph. and a pro(i5ic 2riter e-en 2hi(e
accu#u(ating one o5 the greatest 5ortunes in the ancient 2or(d0 1hen he
2as =uestioned a/out ho2 he cou(d /e a Stoic and attract such great
2ea(th3 he si#p(. rep(ied that a 2ise #an used #one. 2hi(e a 5oo( 2as
used /. it0
So reno2ned 2as he 5or 2isdo# and states#anship that Nero8s #other
Agrippina as4ed hi# to /e a tutor to her trou/(eso#e chi(d0 Sad(.3 the
e)hortations o5 e-en such a #an as Seneca 2ere (arge(. ignored3 and
Nero /eca#e the co2ard and 5oo( the 2or(d sti(( 4no2s hi# to /e0 At the
end o5 their re(ationship3 Seneca 2as accused o5 treason /ased on 5a(se
charges /rought against hi# /. po(iticians 2ho 2ere en-ious o5 his
reputation3 charges that Nero 2as a(2a.s read. to hear and /e(ie-e0 Out
o5 de5erence to his o(d teacher3 ho2e-er3 Seneca3 no2 retired and in
5ee/(e hea(th3 2as a((o2ed the honor o5 4i((ing hi#se(5 rather than /eing
4i((ed outright /. the e#peror8s so(diers0
Seneca8s -etters from a Stoic and his #an. other (iterar. e55orts are
a#ong the #ost researched and /est re#e#/ered 2ritings o5 anti=uit.0
There 2i(( a(2a.s /e those 2ho =uestion his co##it#ent to Stoic
princip(es /ecause o5 his a/i(it. to prosper at a ti#e o5 such /ruta(it. and
2idespread corruption3 /ut an.one 2ho has read Tacitus8 account o5 his
death 4no2s he died a Stoic0 And that8s the u(ti#ate test 5or us a((0
!I
1pictetus )3:,86:2, slave
Ne)t3 2e descend 5ro# the pinnac(e o5 po2er to the under/e((. o5 "o#an
societ. 2here 2e 5ind Epictetus3 the cripp(ed s(a-e o5 a s(a-e0 Epictetus8
#aster3 one o5 Nero8s 5reed s(a-es3 in a 5it o5 te#per de(i/erate(. /ro4e
his (egs so se-ere(. that he re#ained a cripp(e 5or the rest o5 his (i5e0
Despite these di55icu(t circu#stances3 he 2as a((o2ed to stud. 2ith
Cusonius "u5us3 a(so 4no2n as the "o#an Socrates3 one o5 the #ost
popu(ar and high(. regarded Stoic teachers in "o#e0 Cusonius 2as so
high(. regarded as a teacher o5 teachers that he is a(so so#eti#es re5erred
to as the Third Founder o5 Stoicis#3 a5ter Eeno and Chr.sippus0
Epictetus /eca#e his protMgM and 2as e-entua((. gi-en his 5reedo# As a
5reed #an he /eca#e a teacher o5 phi(osoph. in the heart o5 the e#pire0
A/out the .ear &%3 the e#peror Do#itian3 2ho dis(i4ed phi(osoph.3
/anished a(( phi(osophers 5ro# "o#e0 Epictetus #o-ed to Nicopo(is on
the eastern shore o5 the Adriatic 2here he opened another schoo(3 (i-ing
and teaching in e)i(e 5or the rest o5 his (i5e0 It 2as here that he #ade his
greatest contri/ution to the Stoa0 One o5 his de-oted pupi(s3 Arrian3 2ho
(ater /eca#e a historian and ad#inistrator o5 so#e reno2n3 pu/(ished
eight -o(u#es o5 (ecture notes3 5our o5 2hich ha-e sur-i-ed and are
co((ected into one -o(u#e 4no2n as The .iscourses of Epictetus.
These discourses are #ore nota/(e 5or their oratorica( po2er than 5or
their inte((ectua( insight0 Epictetus8 st.(e 2as that o5 a teacher and a
preacher 2ith a 5er-or Arrian c(ai#ed 2as irresisti/(e0 His recurrent
the#e o5 5reedo#3 certain(. one he 4ne2 deep(.3 e#phasi?ed that the
/od. #a. /e ens(a-ed3 it #a. /e /ro4en3 /ut the #ind 2as 5ore-er 5ree0
The gods the#se(-es cou(d not restrain it0 This 2as #an8s po2er3 his
a(one3 and the on(. po2er tru(. 2ithin his contro(0 The circu#stances o5
his death are un4no2n0
<arcus Aurelius )868,89:2, 1mperor
The (ast ten .ears o5 Carcus Aure(ius8 (i5e 2ere spent a(#ost continua((.
2ith his ar#ies dri-ing /ac4 the /ar/arians on the Danu/e 5rontier0 This
2as an e#peror 2ho genuine(. dis(i4ed 2ar5are and the sight o5 /(ood3
2ho e-en decreed that the g(adiators /ac4 in "o#e shou(d 5ight on(. 2ith
/(unt s2ords3 /ut 2ho a(so (i-ed and died /. his dut.3 #orta((. spent in
co#/at0 This 2as a great Stoic3 hu#ane and no/(e3 #eticu(ous(. 9ust3 the
5irst ru(er to 2ear the phi(osopher8s /eard0
It is tru(. an honor to 4no2 the inti#ate thoughts o5 such a #an0 The
/editations o5 Carcus Aure(ius3 2ritten a(one in these (ast ten .ears o5
his (i5e3 are c(ear(. the notes o5 a #an 2riting thoughts that 5orti5ied hi#
through each da.0 No one 4no2s ho2 the. 2ere preser-ed0 The 5irst the
2or(d heard o5 the# 2as 5ro# an o/scure Cedie-a( scho(ar 2ho
#entions the# #ore than ++ .ears a5ter the e#peror8s death0 The /asic
the#es o5 these #editations3 repeated #an. ti#es and #an. 2a.s3 are
!6
that 2e shou(d not /e decei-ed /. the things others -a(ue3 that 2e shou(d
cooperate 2ith the di-ine 5(o2 o5 destin.3 and 2e shou(d a(2a.s per5or#
our dut. to 5a#i(.3 5riends3 and countr. 2ith honor and charit. 5or a((0
The. 2ere the 2ords o5 one o5 the (ast and greatest o5 the "o#an Stoics0
A5ter his death3 the e#pire 2as /attered /. a hundred .ears o5 p(ague3
ci-i( 2ars3 and /ar/arian con=uest0 It 2as a ti#e 2hen peop(e needed and
2anted a sa-ior to rescue the# 5ro# a(#ost constant grie5 and 5ear0
Christianit. o55ered that pro#ise3 a sa-ior 2ho the. c(ai#ed 2as 6od3
one 2ho pro#ised he 2ou(d return soon to rescue his chosen peop(e3 and
one 2ho 2ou(d destro. the 2ic4ed and create a sa5e ha-en3 a hea-en in
2hich his 5o((o2ers 2ou(d d2e(( 5ore-er0 A(( the. needed to do 2as
/e(ie-e3 and a(( these things 2ou(d co#e to pass3 e-en in their (i5eti#e0 It
2as a po2er5u( #essage3 and the peop(e .earned 5or it to /e true0
THE NE1 STOA
In the /eginning3 the sudden rise in 5ortunes o5 the Christian cu(t
presented a ne2 opportunit. and responsi/i(it. to e)p(ain 2hat their
/e(ie5s 2ere a(( a/out0 Cost o5 the ear(.3 articu(ate (eaders o5 the 5aith
2ere 2e(( schoo(ed in the c(assics in 2hich Stoicis# 2as3 #ore o5ten
than not3 the centra( 5ocus o5 their education0 It 2as not unco##on 5or
the ear(. Christian 2riters3 ca((ed apo(ogists3 to 5(esh out their stories and
/e(ie5s in Besus as the son o5 6od 2ith Stoic cos#o(og. and ethics0
E-entua((.3 #uch o5 Stoic doctrine 2as a/sor/ed into 1estern inte((ectua(
histor. 2ith the he(p o5 C(e#ent o5 A(e)andria3 Tertu((ian3 St0 Bero#e3
Bohn Cassian3 St0 Augustine3 'eter A/e(ard3 "oger Bacon3 Tho#as
A=uinas3 and Ceister Ec4hart3 to na#e a 5e20 There 2as no co##on
agree#ent a/out 2hich o5 its the#es 2ere correct3 incorrect3 or
irre(e-ant0 E-en toda.3 Christian 2riters disagree on #an. things0 But
2hether the. agreed or disagreed3 Stoicis# 2as per#anent(. i#pressed
into the traditions (aid do2n /. the Christian thin4ers o5 the ear(. Cidd(e
Ages to /e ta4en up again and again3 studied3 argued3 accepted3 and
re9ected through the (ater Cidd(e Ages0
B. the ti#e o5 the "enaissance3 Stoic phi(osoph. /eca#e e-en #ore
centra( to 1estern thought0 The heroic idea( o5 the Sha4espearean traged.
is a Stoic0 Queen E(i?a/eth I 2as an ad#irer o5 Stoicis# and persona((.
trans(ated the .iscourses of Epictetus into E(i?a/ethan Eng(ish0 The
ethics o5 the Stoa predo#inated and inspired "enaissance phi(osophers
and essa.ists in their creation o5 the ne2 hu#anis# o5 that era0
There are #ore /oo4s and scho(ar(. artic(es 2ritten on Stoic phi(osoph.
toda. than there has /een in an. other ti#e in its histor.0 The acade#ic
co##unit. /reathed ne2 (i5e and #eaning into the Stoa3 and a ne2 age
!
/egan0 "ight no23 Stoics are a(i-e and 2e(( and organi?ed as ne-er
/e5ore0 1e are (i-ing as 2or(d citi?ens at Ne2 Stoa 2220ne2stoa0co#3 a
c./ercit. on the Internet0 This is the origina( and o(dest Stoic co##unit.3
5ounded as a 2e/site on the Internet in !&&60 0e are the 1ourth 1ounder
of the Stoa0
= = = =
Three "o#an Stoics
The 5o((o2ing e)cerpts are 5ro# the three "o#an Stoics 5or 2hich 2e
ha-e co#p(ete 2or4s0 The 2ritings o5 the 6ree4 Stoics o5 the ear(ier
He((enistic 'eriod ha-e a(( /een (ost and are on(. 4no2n /. 5rag#ents o5
#an. re5erences to the#0 'iecing together the thoughts o5 the 6ree4
Stoics is the 2or4 o5 scho(ars and has /een a go(d#ine o5 acade#ic e55ort
in the past centur.0 1ith the 2or4 o5 the "o#ans3 a(( 2ritten in 7atin3
there can /e (itt(e dou/t as to 2hat the. said and #eant0
Seneca Gc03 BCE>6IH
-ucius Annaeus Seneca, aka Seneca the +ounger, was a statesman, a
Stoic philosopher, and a man of letters. He became chief minister of the
2oman Empire for several !ears while 3ero was too preoccupied with
hedonistic debaucher! to be bothered. Seneca&s administration was
reputed to be one of the soundest periods of imperial government in its
histor!. $n a fit of (ealous!, Seneca was later commanded b! 3ero to
commit suicide. The following passages have been selected from Seneca&s
7etters Fro# A Stoic to provide a sampling of his philosoph! and st!le.
The! are based upon 2./. 4ummere&s 5657 translation and have been
edited b! Erik 0iegardt to reflect a more contemporar! punctuation and
prose.
7etter <3 ID The 5irst thing 2hich phi(osoph. pro#ises is 5e((o2ship 2ith
a(( hu#anit.0 In other 2ords3 /e(onging and co##unit.0 1e part
co#pan. 2ith this pro#ise i5 2e are un(i4e other #en0 1e #ust see to it
that the #eans /. 2hich 2e 2ish to dra2 ad#iration /e not a/surd and
odious0 Our #otto3 as .ou 4no23 is N7i-e according to Nature3N /ut it is
=uite contrar. to nature to torture the /od.3 to hate re5ine#ent3 to /e dirt.
on purpose3 to eat 5ood that is not on(. p(ain3 /ut disgusting0 Bust as it is a
sign o5 (u)ur. to see4 out dainties3 so it is #adness to a-oid that 2hich is
custo#ar. and can /e purchased at a reasona/(e price0 'hi(osoph. ca((s
5or p(ain (i-ing3 not 5or penance3 and 2e #a. /e p(ain and neat at the
sa#e ti#e0 I appro-e o5 #oderation3 and our (i5e shou(d o/ser-e a happ.
#ediu# /et2een the 2a.s o5 a sage and the 2a.s o5 the 2or(d at (arge0
!$
7etter O<I3 3D 'hi(osoph. is not a popu(ar entertain#entP it is not de-ised
5or sho20 It is not a #atter o5 2ords3 /ut o5 5acts0 It is not pursued in
order that the da. #a. .ie(d so#e a#use#ent /e5ore it is spent3 or that
our (eisure #a. /e re(ie-ed o5 a tediu# that ir4s us0 It /ui(ds and shapes
the sou(P it orders our (i5e3 guides our conduct3 sho2s us 2hat 2e shou(d
do and 2hat 2e shou(d (ea-e undoneP it sits at the he(# and directs our
course as 2e 2a-er a#id uncertainties0 1ithout it3 no one can (i-e
5ear(ess(. or in peace o5 #ind0 Count(ess things that happen e-er. hour
ca(( 5or ad-iceP and such ad-ice is to /e sought in phi(osoph.0
7etter OO<II3 3D A no/(e character a(one a55ords e-er(asting peace and
9o.0 E-en i5 so#e unp(easantness does arise3 it is /ut a dri5ting c(oud
5(oating in a sunn. s4.0
7etter OOOIII3 !!D Truth 2i(( ne-er /e disco-ered i5 2e are content 2ith
disco-eries that ha-e a(read. /een #ade0 Besides3 he 2ho 5o((o2s
another not on(. disco-ers nothing3 /ut is not e-en in-estigating0 1hat
then@ Sha(( I not 5o((o2 in the 5ootsteps o5 #. predecessors@ I sha((
indeed use the o(d road3 /ut i5 I 5ind one that is a shortcut and is s#oother
to tra-e(3 I sha(( open the ne2 road0 Those 2ho ha-e #ade these
disco-eries /e5ore us are not our #asters3 /ut our guides0 Truth (ies open
5or a((P it has not .et /een #onopo(i?ed0 And3 there is p(ent. o5 it (e5t
e-en 5or posterit. to disco-er0
7etter O7I3 &D 'raise that =ua(it. in #an4ind 2hich can neither /e gi-en
nor snatched a2a.3 that 2hich is the greatness o5 our 4ind0 Do .ou as4
2hat this is@ It is our sou(3 and the per5ection o5 reason in that sou(0 For
2e are a reasoning ani#a(0 There5ore3 our highest good is attained i5 2e
ha-e 5u(5i((ed the good 5or 2hich 2e 2ere /orn0 And 2hat is it that
reason de#ands o5 us@ The easiest thing in the 2or(d ; that 2e (i-e in
accordance 2ith our natures0 But this is turned into a hard tas4 /. the
genera( #adness o5 the 2or(d that pushes each o5 us into -ice0
7etter O7<III3 $>&: Do .ou rea((. 2ant to 4no2 2hat phi(osoph. o55ers
hu#anit.@ 'hi(osoph. o55ers counse(0 Death ca((s a2a. one #an3 and
po-ert. harasses anotherP a third is anno.ed /. his neigh/orFs 2ea(th or
/. his o2n0000Hu#anit. is stretching out i#p(oring hands to .ou on a((
sidesP (i-es ruined and in danger o5 ruin are /egging 5or so#e assistanceP
hu#anitiesF hopes and resources depend upon .ou0 The. as4 that .ou
de(i-er the# 5ro# a(( their unhappiness3 that .ou re-ea( to the#3 scattered
and 2andering as the. are3 the c(ear (ight o5 truth0 Te(( the# 2hat Nature
has #ade necessar.3 and 2hat super5(uousP te(( the# ho2 si#p(e are the
(a2s that it has (aid do2n3 ho2 p(easant and eas. (i5e is 5or those 2ho
5o((o2 these (a2s3 /ut ho2 /itter and perp(e)ing it is 5or those 2ho ha-e
put their trust in opinions rather than in Nature0
!&
7etter 7III3 $D 1h. 2i(( no one con5ess his 5au(ts@ Because he is sti(( in
their grasp0 On(. one 2ho is a2a4e can re#e#/er a drea#3 and si#i(ar(.
a con5ession o5 error is proo5 o5 a sound #ind0 7et us3 there5ore3 rouse
ourse(-es3 that 2e #a. /e a/(e to correct our #ista4es0 'hi(osoph.3
ho2e-er3 is the on(. po2er that can stir us3 the on(. po2er that can sha4e
o55 our deep s(u#/er0
7etter 7<3 !D I ha-e 9ust returned 5ro# a ride in #. (itter3 and I a# as
2ear. as i5 I had 2a(4ed the distance instead o5 /eing seated0000Nature
ga-e us (egs to do our o2n 2a(4ing and e.es to do our o2n seeing0 Our
(u)uries ha-e conde#ned us to 2ea4ness3 and 2e ha-e ceased to /e a/(e
to do that 2hich 2e ha-e (ong dec(ined to do0
7etter 7<3 $D The p(ace 2here .ou (i-e contri/utes (itt(e to .our
tran=ui(it.P it is the #ind 2hich #ust #a4e e-er.thing agreea/(e to itse(50
I ha-e seen #en despondent in a /right and /eauti5u( -i((a3 and I ha-e
seen #en e)hausting the#se(-es 2ith /usiness in the #idst o5 a so(itude0
7etter 7O<III3 !3D E-er.thing depends on opinion ; a#/ition3 (u)ur.3
greed ; a(( are /ased on opinion0 It is according to opinion that 2e su55er0
A #an is as 2retched as he has con-inced hi#se(5 that he is0
I/id03 %!D Do .ou thin4 that .ou are doing nothing i5 .ou preser-e .our
good nature in .our i((ness@ :ou 2i(( /e sho2ing that a disease can /e
o-erco#e3 or at an. rate endured0 There is3 I assure .ou3 a p(ace 5or
courage e-en upon a /ed o5 sic4ness0 It is not on(. co#/at that pro-es the
sou( a(ert and uncon=uered /. 5earP 2e can disp(a. /ra-er. e-en 2hen
(.ing in a /ed0
OC3 !ID The things that are tru(. necessar. re=uire no great e55ort 5or
their ac=uisitionP it is on(. the (u)uries that ca(( 5or so #uch (a/or0
I/id03 !$D Nature 2as not un4ind to hu#anit.0000 It is 2e 2ho ha-e #ade
e-er.thing di55icu(t 5or ourse(-es through our disdain 5or 2hat is eas.0
Houses3 she(ter3 creature co#5orts3 5ood3 and a(( that has no2 /eco#e the
source o5 -ast trou/(e3 2ere once read. at hand3 5ree to a((3 and o/taina/(e
5or (itt(e e55ort0 It is 2e 2ho ha-e #ade a(( those things -a(ua/(e3 2e 2ho
ha-e #ade the# ad#ired3 2e 2ho ha-e caused the# to /e sought 5or /.
nu#erous and co#p(icated 2a.s0 Nature #a4es no great de#ands0 It is
(u)ur. that has turned its /ac4 upon Nature0 Each da. 2e co#pound our
desire 5or (u)uries3 and in a(( ages these desires ha-e /een gathering
strength and pro#oting our -ices0
I/id03 %$D The path o5 2isdo# (eads to a state o5 happiness0 In this
direction it guides and opens the 2a. 5or us0 It sho2s us 2hat things are
tru(. /ad and 2hat things are see#ing(. /ad3 and 2ith this understanding
it strips our #inds o5 -ain i((usion0 It /esto2s upon us a greatness 2hich
%+
is rea( and su/stantia(3 e-en as it re-ea(s the in5(ated and sho2. /ut 5i((ed
2ith e#ptiness0
7etter OCII3 3D 1hat is the happ. (i5e@ It is peace o5 #ind and (asting
tran=ui(it.0 This 2i(( /e .ours i5 .ou possess greatness o5 sou(0 It 2i(( /e
.ours i5 .ou possess the stead5astness that reso(ute(. c(ings to a good
9udg#ent 9ust reached0 Ho2 do .ou reach this condition@ B. gaining a
co#p(ete -ie2 o5 truth3 /. #aintaining order3 #easure3 5itness3 and a 2i((
that is ino55ensi-e and 4ind(.3 that is intent upon reason and ne-er departs
there5ro#3 that co##ands at the sa#e ti#e (o-e and ad#iration0 In short3
to gi-e .ou the princip(e in /rie5 co#pass3 the 2ise #anFs sou( ought to
/e such as 2ou(d /e proper 5or a god0
Epictetus G6+>!%+ CEH
The original discourses were class notes written b! Arrian, a devoted
pupil of Epictetus, the great Stoic teacher and former slave. Arrian went
on to become a distinguished statesman during the reign of Emperor
Hadrian, but it is for these class notes that he will alwa!s be
remembered. The following passages have been selected to give !ou both
the essence of Epictetus&s lectures and the manner in which he presented
them. The! are based upon 4eorge -ong&s 5689 translation and have
been edited b! Erik 0iegardt to reflect a more contemporar! punctuation
and prose.
Boo4 I
Chapter !
O5 a(( the hu#an 5acu(ties3 .ou 2i(( 5ind on(. one 2hich is capa/(e o5
/oth conte#p(ating itse(5 and o5 appro-ing or disappro-ing o5 itse(50 Does
gra##ar possess the conte#p(ating po2er@ No00002hen .ou 2rite
so#ething to .our 5riend gra##ar 2i(( te(( .ou 2hat 2ords .ou shou(d
2rite3 /ut 2hether .ou shou(d 2rite or not gra##ar 2i(( not te(( .ou0 And
so it is 2ith #usic as to #usica( sounds3 /ut 2hether .ou shou(d sing at
the present ti#e and p(a. on the (ute3 or do neither3 #usic 2i(( not te((
.ou0 1hat 5acu(t. then 2i(( te(( .ou@ That 2hich conte#p(ates /oth itse(5
and a(( other things0 And 2hat is this 5acu(t.@ The rationa( 5acu(t.P 5or
this is the on(. 5acu(t. that 2e ha-e recei-ed Q5ro# NatureR 2hich
e)a#ines itse(5000and a(( other 5acu(ties0
As 2as then 5itting3 that 2hich is /est o5 a(( and supre#e o-er a(( is the
on(. thing 2hich the gods ha-e p(aced in our po2er ; so that 2e #a.
#a4e the right use o5 appearances0 A(( other things the. ha-e not p(aced
in our po2er0
But no23 2hen it is in our po2er to (oo4 a5ter one thing3 and to attach
ourse(-es to it3 2e pre5er to (oo4 a5ter #an. things3 and to /e /ound to
%!
#an. thingsD to the /od. and to propert.3 and to /rother and to 5riend3
and to chi(d and to s(a-e0 Since then 2e are /ound to #an. things3 2e are
/urdened /. the# and dragged do2n0
Chapter 6
6od created non>rationa( ani#a(s to #a4e use o5 appearances3 /ut created
us to understand the use o5 appearances0 It is there5ore enough 5or the#
to eat and drin43 and to s(eep and to copu(ate3 and to do a(( the other
things 2hich the. do0 But 5or us3 to 2ho# Nature has a(so gi-en the
inte((ectua( 5acu(t.3 these things are not su55icient0

6od has created #an to /e a spectator o5 6od and o5 His 2or4sP and not
on(. a spectator o5 the#3 /ut a(so an interpreter0 For this reason it is
sha#e5u( 5or #an to /egin and end 2here the non>rationa( ani#a(s doP
/ut rather he ought to /egin 2here the. /egin and end 2here Nature ends
in us ; in conte#p(ation and understanding3 and in a 2a. o5 (i5e
con5or#a/(e to Nature0
Chapter !%
Catters are /rought /e5ore .ou 2hich are e=ua( to the reasoning po2er
2hich .ou possess3 /ut .ou turn a2a. 5ro# this po2er at the -er. ti#e
2hen .ou ought to /e the #ost open and discerning0 1h. do .ou not
than4 the gods 5or a((o2ing .ou to /e a/o-e the things 2hich are not in
.our po2er3 and on(. #ade .ou accounta/(e 5or those 2hich are in .our
po2er@ As to .our parents3 the gods ha-e (e5t .ou 5ree 5ro#
responsi/i(it.P and the sa#e is true 2ith respect to .our /rothers3 and
.our /od.3 and possessions3 and death and (i5e0 For 2hat then ha-e the.
#ade .ou responsi/(e@ For that 2hich a(one is in .our po2er3 the proper
use o5 appearances0 1h. are .ou concerned a/out #atters 5or 2hich .ou
are not responsi/(e@ This is on(. gi-ing .ourse(5 a (ot o5 trou/(e0
Chapter %$
1hat is the cause o5 agreeing to an.thing@ The 5act that it appears to /e
true0 It is not possi/(e to agree to that 2hich appears to /e 5a(se0 1h.@
Because this is the -er. nature o5 the understandingD to inc(ine to the true3
to /e dissatis5ied 2ith the 5a(se3 and in #atters o5 uncertaint. to 2ithho(d
agree#ent0 1hat is the proo5 o5 this@ QI5 it is no2 da.R persuade .ourse(53
i5 .ou can3 that it is no2 night0 ItFs i#possi/(e0 Ta4e a2a. .our /e(ie5 that
it is da.0 I#possi/(e0 'ersuade .ourse(5 that the tota( nu#/er o5 stars are
an e-en or an odd nu#/er0 I#possi/(e0 1hen an. #an agrees to that
2hich is 5a(se3 /e assured that he did not intend to agree to it as 5a(se3 5or
e-er. sou( is un2i((ing(. depri-ed o5 the truth3 as '(ato sa.sP /ut the
5a(sit. see#ed to hi# to /e true0000Can a #an thin4 that a thing is use5u(
to hi# and not choose it@ He can not0
%%
Boo4 II
Chapter %
Consider3 .ou 2ho are going into court3 2hat .ou 2ish to #aintain and
2hat .ou 2ish to succeed in0 For i5 .ou 2ish to #aintain a 2i((
con5or#a/(e to Nature3 .ou ha-e e-er. securit.3 e-er. 5aci(it.3 .ou ha-e
no trou/(es0 For i5 .ou 2ish to #aintain 2hat is in .our o2n po2er and is
natura((. 5ree3 and i5 .ou are content 2ith these3 2hat e(se do .ou care
5or@ For 2ho is the #aster o5 such things@ 1ho can ta4e the# a2a.@ I5
.ou choose to /e #odest and 5aith5u(3 2ho sha(( not a((o2 .ou to /e so@
But i5 .ou 2ish to #aintain e)terna(s a(so ; .our poor /od.3 .our (itt(e
propert.3 and .our (itt(e reputation ; I ad-ise .ou to #a4e 5ro# this
#o#ent a(( possi/(e preparation3 and then consider /oth the nature o5
.our 9udge and .our ad-ersar.0 I5 it is necessar. to e#/race his 4nees3
e#/race his 4neesP i5 to 2eep3 2eepP i5 to groan3 groan0 For 2hen .ou are
a s(a-e to e)terna(s3 then /e a s(a-e and do not resist3 and do not
so#eti#es choose to /e a s(a-e3 and so#eti#es choose not to /e a s(a-e0
But 2ith a(( .our #ind3 /e one or the other3 either 5ree or a s(a-e3 either
instructed or uninstructed3 either a no/(e character or a #ean one0000
"e#e#/er3 then3 this genera( princip(e and .ou 2i(( need no other0 I5 .ou
desire e)terna(s3 .ou #ust o5 necessit. /e su/9ected to the 2i(( o5 .our
#aster0 And 2ho is .our #aster@ An.one 2ho has po2er o-er the things
2hich .ou see4 or tr. or a-oid0
Chapter &
E-er.one is i#pro-ed and preser-ed /. corresponding actsD the carpenter
/. acts o5 carpentr.3 the gra##arian /. the acts o5 good gra##ar0 But i5
a #an accusto#s hi#se(5 to 2rite ungra##atica((.3 o5 necessit. his art
2i(( /e corrupted and destro.ed0 Thus #odest actions preser-e the
#odest #an3 and i##odest actions destro. hi#0 Actions o5 5ide(it.
preser-e the 5aith5u( #an3 and the contrar. actions destro. hi#0 And on
the other hand3 contrar. actions strengthen contrar. charactersD
sha#e(essness strengthens the sha#e(ess #an3 5aith(essness the 5aith(ess
#an3 a/usi-e 2ords the a/usi-e #an3 anger the #an o5 an angr. te#per3
and une=ua( recei-ing and gi-ing #a4e the greed. #an #ore greed.0 For
this reason phi(osophers ad#onish us not to /e satis5ied 2ith (earning
on(.3 /ut a(so to add stud. and then practice0
Chapter !&
Sho2 #e a person 2ho is sic4 and happ.3 in danger and happ.3 d.ing and
happ.3 in e)i(e and happ.3 in disgrace and happ.0 Sho2 that person to #e
5or3 /. the gods3 I 2ish to see a Stoic0 I5 .ou cannot sho2 #e such a one3
at (east sho2 #e one 2ho is 5or#ing3 one 2ho has sho2n a tendenc. to
/e a Stoic0 Do #e this 5a-or0 Do not /egrudge an o(d #an seeing a sight
2hich I ha-e not .et seen0
%3
Boo4 III
Chapter !
1hat then #a4es a #an /eauti5u(@ Is it that 2hich in its 4ind #a4es /oth
a dog and a horse /eauti5u(@ NIt is3N the student said0 1hat then #a4es a
dog /eauti5u(@ The possession o5 the e)ce((ence o5 a dog0 And 2hat
#a4es a horse /eauti5u(@ The possession o5 the e)ce((ence o5 a horse0
1hat then #a4es a #an /eauti5u(@ Is it not the possession o5 the
e)ce((ence o5 a #an@ And do .ou then3 i5 .ou 2ish to /e /eauti5u(3 .oung
#an3 (a/or at this3 the ac=uisition o5 hu#an e)ce((ence0 But 2hat is this@
O/ser-e 2ho# .ou .ourse(5 praise 2hen .ou praise #an. persons
2ithout partia(it.0 Do .ou praise the 9ust or the un9ust@ NThe 9ust0N 1hich
do .ou praise3 the #oderate or the i##oderate@ NThe #oderate0N And the
te#perate or the inte#perate@ NThe te#perate0N Then3 i5 .ou #a4e
.ourse(5 such a person3 .ou 2i(( 4no2 that .ou #a4e .ourse(5 /eauti5u(0
But so (ong as .ou neg(ect these things3 .ou #ust /e ug(.3 e-en though
.ou contri-e a(( .ou can to appear /eauti5u(0
Chapter !!
1hoe-er thin4s an.thing to /e good e)cept those things 2hich depend
on the 2i((3 (et hi# en-.3 (et hi# desire3 (et hi# 5(atter3 (et hi# /e
pertur/edP 2hoe-er considers an.thing e(se to /e e-i(3 (et hi# grie-e3 (et
hi# (a#ent3 (et hi# 2eep3 (et hi# /e unhapp.0 And .et3 though 2e are
se-ere(. punished3 2e can not resist0
Chapter %*
7et not anotherFs disagree#ent 2ith Nature /e an e-i( to .ouD 5or .ou are
not 5or#ed /. Nature to /e depressed 2ith others nor to /e unhapp. 2ith
others3 /ut to /e happ. 2ith the#0 I5 a #an is unhapp.3 re#e#/er that his
unhappiness is his o2n 5au(tP 5or 6od has #ade a(( #en to /e happ.3 to /e
5ree 5ro# distur/ance0 For this purpose3 6od has gi-en so#e things to
each person as his o2n and other things not as his o2n0
Boo4 I<
Chapter !
1hat is it that #a4es a #an 5ree and his o2n #aster@ For 2ea(th does not
do it3 nor consu(ship3 nor high o55ice3 nor ro.a( po2er0 So#ething e(se
#ust /e disco-ered0 1hat is that #a4es us 5ree to 2rite 2ith s4i((@
Kno2(edge o5 the art o5 2riting0 1hat is it in p(a.ing a #usica(
instru#ent@ The art o5 p(a.ing that instru#ent0 There5ore in (i5e a(so it is
the art o5 (i-ing0
Chapter
Sho2 #e the s2ords o5 the guards0 See ho2 /ig and sharp the. are0 1hat
do these /ig and sharp s2ords do@ The. 4i((0 And 2hat does a 5e-er do@
The sa#e0 And a 5a((ing roo5@ The sa#e0 Then3 2ou(d .ou ha-e #e
2onder at these things and 2orship the#3 and go a/out as the s(a-e o5 a((
o5 the#@ I hope these things 2i(( not happen3 /ut as soon as I (earn that
%*
e-er.thing 2hich has co#e into e)istence #ust a(so go out o5 it3 that the
uni-erse 2i(( neither stand sti(( nor /e i#peded3 then I no (onger consider
it an. di55erence 2hether a 5e-er sha(( do it3 or a roo5 or a so(dier0 But i5
2e #ust #a4e a co#parison /et2een these things3 I 4no2 that the so(dier
2i(( do it 2ith (ess trou/(e3 and =uic4er0 1hen I neither 5ear an.thing
2hich a t.rant can do to #e3 nor desire an.thing 2hich he can gi-e3 2h.
do I sti(( (oo4 on 2ith 2onder@ 1h. a# I sti(( a#a?ed@ 1h. do I 5ear the
guards@
The Enchiridion
SI Cen are not distur/ed /. things3 /ut /. the -ie2s 2hich the. ta4e o5
things0 Thus3 death is nothing terri/(e000the terror consists in our notion o5
death3 that it is terri/(e0
QJThere is nothing either good or /ad3 /ut thin4ing #a4es it so0K 1i((ia#
Sha4espeare3 Hamlet3 II3 ii3 %I&R
Carcus Aure(ius G!%!>!$+H
/arcus Aurelius was the last great emperor of ancient 2ome, and he
would likel! be the first to attribute that greatness to his love of Stoic
philosoph!. 1ollowing his death, the empire went into a long decline
from which it never recovered. These meditations were never meant for
publication but were onl! written as thoughts to himself in a (ournal he
kept near the end of his life. These loft! and soul:searching passages
have spoken to open hearts and minds for man! centuries. 0hat follows
is based upon 4eorge -ong&s 5689 translation and has been edited b!
Erik 0iegardt to reflect a more contemporar! punctuation and prose.
Boo4 %0!D Begin the #orning /. sa.ing to .ourse(5D I sha(( #eet 2ith the
/us./od.3 the ungrate5u(3 the arrogant3 deceit5u(3 en-ious3 and antisocia(0
A(( o5 these unp(easant =ua(ities are the resu(t o5 ignorance o5 2hat is
good and /ad0 I cannot /e angr. 2ith the#0 I ha-e seen that the good is
/eauti5u(3 and that the /ad is ug(.3 and that the nature o5 those 2ho do
2rong is a4in to #e3 not on(. o5 the sa#e /(ood or seed3 /ut in that it
participates in the sa#e inte((igence and the sa#e portion o5 the di-init.
as #.se(50 But3 no one can 5i) on #e 2hat is ug(.3 and I can neither /e
in9ured /. an. o5 the# nor hate the#0 1e are #ade 5or co>operation3 (i4e
our t2o 5eet3 our t2o hands3 our t2o e.e(ids3 or (i4e the ro2s o5 the upper
and (o2er teeth0 To act against one another is contrar. to nature3 and it is
acting against one another to /e anno.ed and to turn a2a.0
%0&D This .ou #ust a(2a.s /ear in #indD 2hat is the nature o5 the 2ho(e3
and 2hat is #. nature3 and ho2 this is re(ated to that3 and 2hat 4ind o5 a
part it is o5 2hat 4ind o5 a 2ho(eP and that there is no one 2ho hinders #e
%I
5ro# a(2a.s doing and sa.ing the things 2hich are according to the
Nature o5 2hich I a# a part0
%0!D Hu#an (i5e is /ut a point in ti#e3 and the su/stance o5 it is
constant(. changing3 and the perceptions are du((3 and the co#position o5
the /od. is su/9ect to putre5action3 and the sou( is a 2hir(3 and 5ortune is
hard to di-ine3 and 5a#e is a thing de-oid o5 9udg#ent0 And3 in a 2ord3
e-er.thing 2hich /e(ongs to the /od. is a 5(o2ing strea#3 and 2hat
/e(ongs to the sou( is a drea# and a -apor3 and (i5e is a 2ar5are and a
strangerFs so9ourn3 and a5ter 5a#e co#es o/(i-ion0 1hat then is that
2hich is a/(e to guide a #an@ One thing and on(. one3 phi(osoph.0
Boo4 30!+D Thro2 a2a. e-er.thing /ut thisD e-er.one (i-es on(. in this
present ti#e3 2hich is an indi-isi/(e point3 and a(( the rest o5 that (i5e is
either in the past or in the 5uture0 The ti#e in 2hich e-er.one (i-es is
short3 and the corner o5 the earth 2here one (i-es is s#a((P and the (ongest
posthu#ous 5a#e is /rie53 and e-en this is on(. continued /. a succession
o5 poor hu#an /eings 2ho 2i(( -er. soon die3 and 2ho donFt e-en 4no2
the#se(-es (et a(one one 2ho died (ong ago0
Boo4 *03D 1h. are .ou discontent@ 1ith the e-i( that #en do@
"e#e#/er that rationa( ani#a(s e)ist 5or one another3 that to endure is a
part o5 9ustice3 and that #en do 2rong in-o(untari(.0 Consider ho2 #an.
a(read. ; a5ter #utua( en#it.3 suspicion3 hatred3 and 5ighting ; ha-e /een
stretched out dead and reduced to ashes and =uiet at (ast0
*0D Ta4e a2a. the co#p(aint3 NI ha-e /een har#ed3N and the har# is
ta4en a2a.0
*0*+D Constant(. regard the uni-erse as one (i-ing /eing ha-ing one
su/stance and one sou(0 O/ser-e ho2 a(( things ha-e re5erence to one
perception3 the perception o5 this one (i-ing /eing3 and ho2 a(( things act
2ith one #o-e#ent3 and ho2 a(( things are the cooperating causes o5 a((
things 2hich e)ist0 O/ser-e3 too3 the continuous spinning o5 the thread
and the te)ture o5 the 2e/0
*0*3>*D Ti#e is (i4e a ri-er #ade up o5 e-ents in a -io(ent strea#0 As
soon as the e-ent has /een seen3 it is carried a2a.3 and another co#es in
its p(ace3 and it too is carried a2a.0 E-er.thing 2hich happens is as
5a#i(iar and 2e(( 4no2n as the rose in spring and the 5ruit in su##erP
and the sa#e is true 5or disease and death and ca(a#it. and treacher.3 and
2hate-er e(se de(ights 5oo(s ; or irritates the#0
Boo4 I06D One person 2ho has done .ou a 5a-or 2i(( open(. c(ai# credit
5or it0 Another 2i(( secret(. thin4 o5 .ou as /eing in his de/t0 A third3
hard(. e-en 4no2s 2hat he has done0 He is (i4e a -ine 2hich has
produced grapes and see4s 5or nothing #ore a5ter it has produced its
%6
proper 5ruit0 He is (i4e the horse 2hen it has run a race3 a dog 2hen it has
trac4ed ga#e3 and a /ee 2hen it has #ade hone.0 The third #an3 2hen he
has done a good act3 does not ca(( out 5or others to co#e and see3 /ut he
goes on to another act3 9ust as a -ine goes on to produce the grapes o5 a
ne2 season0
I0!+D The pheno#enon o5 e)istence is so -ei(ed in o/scurit. that it can
/a55(e e-en the /est phi(osophers0 E-en the Stoics the#se(-es ha-e
di55icu(t. and ad#it that a(( our opinions are su/9ect to changeP 5or 2here
is the #an 2ho is in5a((i/(e@
I0!6D The ha/its o5 .our thoughts 2i(( /eco#e the character o5 .our
#indP 5or the sou( is d.ed /. the thoughts0 D.e it3 then3 2ith thoughts
such as theseD 2here-er one (i-es3 one can (i-e 2e(( ; e-en i5 he #ust (i-e
in a pa(ace0
I0%$D Are .ou angr. 2ith those 2ho ha-e s#e((. ar#pits@ Are .ou angr.
2ith those 2ho ha-e /ad /reath@ 1hat good is .our anger@ One person
has /ad /reath3 another has s#e((. ar#pits ; it is nor#a( 5or such odors
to co#e 5ro# such things0
I033D Soon3 -er. soon3 .ou 2i(( /e ashes or s4e(eton3 and .ou 2i(( either
/e a 5a#ous na#e or .ou 2onFt0 But e-en a great na#e is on(. a sound
and an echo0 And the things 2hich are #uch -a(ued in (i5e are e#pt. and
rotten and tri5(ing3 (i4e (itt(e dogs /iting one another3 and (itt(e chi(dren
=uarre(ing3 then (aughing3 then #o#ents (ater in tears0
Boo4 60!+D The uni-erse is either chaos and rando#nessP or it is unit.3
order3 and pro-idence0 I5 it is the 5or#er3 2h. shou(d I 2ish to re#ain in
such con5usion and disorder@ And 2h. shou(d I 2ish 5or an.thing other
than returning to the earth@ And 2h. a# I distur/ed3 the dispersion o5 #.
e(e#ents 2i(( happen no #atter 2hat I do@ But i5 the other supposition is
true3 then I -enerate3 and I a# 5ir#3 and I trust in the god o5 Nature 2ho
go-erns0
60%!D I5 an.one is a/(e to con-ince #e and sho2 #e that I do not thin4 or
act correct(.3 I 2i(( g(ad(. change0 I see4 the truth3 and no one 2as e-er
in9ured /. truth0 In9ur. on(. co#es to those 2ho persist in error and
ignorance0
Boo4 0!$D Is an.one a5raid o5 change@ 1h.@ 1hat can ta4e p(ace
2ithout change@ 1hat is #ore p(easing or #ore suita/(e to the uni-ersa(
nature@ Can .ou ta4e a /ath un(ess the 2ood is set a5ire and undergoes a
change@ Can .ou /e nourished un(ess the 5ood undergoes a change@ And
can an.thing e(se that is use5u( /e acco#p(ished 2ithout change@ Do .ou
not see then that changes in .ourse(5 are 9ust the sa#e and e=ua((.
necessar. 5or the uni-ersa( nature@
%
0I*D E-er.2here and at a(( ti#es it is in .our po2er to re-ere the gods
/. /eing content 2ith .our present condition3 to /eha-e 9ust(. to those
2ho are a/out .ou3 and to e)ert s4i(( upon .our present thoughts3 so that
nothing sha(( stea( into the# 2ithout /eing 2e(( e)a#ined0
06ID Ta4e care not to 5ee( to2ards the #ean>spirited as the. 5ee( to2ards
.ou0
Boo4 $0ID This is the chie5 thingD do not /e distur/ed0 A(( things are in
accordance 2ith the nature o5 the uni-erse3 and in a (itt(e 2hi(e .ou 2i((
/e no/od. and no2here3 (i4e Hadrianus and Augustus0 Ne)t3 5ocus
steadi(. on .our 2or4 and at the sa#e ti#e re#e#/er that it is .our dut.
to /e a good #an0 Do 2hat Nature de#ands 2ithout turning aside0 Spea4
as it see#s to .ou #ost 9ust3 /ut 2ith an e-en disposition and 2ith
#odest. and 2ithout h.pocris.0
$0%$D 'ain is either an e-i( to the /od.000 or to the sou(P /ut it is in the
po2er o5 the sou( to #aintain its o2n serenit. and tran=ui(it.3 and not to
thin4 that pain is an e-i(0 E-er. 9udg#ent and #o-e#ent and desire and
a-ersion is 2ithin 2here e-i( cannot ascend0
$0IID 1ic4edness does no har# at a(( to the uni-erse in genera(P and the
2ic4edness o5 one person does no har# to another in particu(ar0 It is on(.
har#5u( to those 2ho ha-e it in their po2er to /e re(eased 5ro# it as soon
as the. choose to do so0
$0I$D He 2ho 5ears death either 5ears the (oss o5 sensation or a di55erent
4ind o5 sensation0 But i5 .ou ha-e no sensation3 .ou 2i(( not 5ee( an.
har#P and i5 .ou ac=uire another 4ind o5 sensation3 .ou 2i(( /e a di55erent
4ind o5 (i-ing /eing3 and .ou 2i(( not cease to (i-e0
Boo4 !+0*D 1hen others are #ista4en3 instruct the# 4ind(. and sho2
the# the error0 But i5 .ou are una/(e3 /(a#e .ourse(5 ; or3 donFt e-en
/(a#e .ourse(50
Boo4 !%0ID Ho2 can it /e that Nature3 a5ter ha-ing arranged a(( things so
2e(( and /ene-o(ent(. 5or hu#anit.3 2ou(d ha-e o-er(oo4ed the 5act that
so#e o5 the -er. good a#ong us3 those 2ho ha-e had the #ost
co##union 2ith the di-ine3 and through a(truistic acts and spiritua(
practices ha-e /een the #ost inti#ate 2ith the di-ine3 2hen once the. are
dead their (i5e shou(d /e e)tinguished co#p(ete(.@ But e-en i5 this 2ere
so3 2e can /e assured that i5 it ought to ha-e /een other2ise3 Nature
2ou(d ha-e done other2ise0 For i5 it 2ere 9ust3 it 2ou(d a(so /e possi/(e3
and i5 it 2ere in accordance 2ith Nature3 then it 2ou(d ha-e /een done0
, , , ,
%$
&'he ()E*
an e+tre#e synthesis o% the
(iscourses o% Epictetus
The greatest tri/a( 2arrior 2ho e-er (i-ed3 6enghis Kahn G!!6%>!%%H3
2as pro/a/(. i((iterate3 /ut undou/ted(. a #aster o5 the 4een #e#or. and
ora( tradition that has /een 2ith us 5or #i((enia0 KhanFs !I+3+++ ca-a(r.
2arriors didnFt #o-e in a sing(e #assi-e co(u#n3 as 2as co##on in his
da.3 /ut 2ere /ro4en into #an. units and spread out o-er great distances0
The di55icu(t. in #anaging such an ar#. 2as in co##unication0
<irtua((. a(( o5 his so(diers 2ere a(so i((iterate3 inc(uding #ost o5 the
o55icers3 2hich #eant that a(( #essages had to /e co##unicated ora((.0
As 2e a(( 4no23 the 5urther .ou are 5ro# the source o5 an. ora(
in5or#ation3 the #ore it gets distorted0 To pre-ent #isunderstanding3 a((
(a2s3 codes o5 conduct3 and /att(e orders #ade /. the 6reat Khan 2ere
co#posed in a co##on(. 4no2n Congo(ian poetic st.(e3 set to #usic3
and sung /. the #en as the. rode on horse/ac40
1hat 5o((o2s is 2ritten in the 5or# o5 -erse 5or the sa#e reasonD itFs
easier to re#e#/er and (ess (i4e(. to /e distorted 2ith repetition0 ItFs
#eant to /e #e#ori?ed0 /neme3 or #e#or. e)ercises3 2ere -er. #uch a
part o5 a c(assica( StoicFs education0 1hat .ou 2i(( 5ind here is an
e)tre#e s.nthesis o5 the Discourses o5 Epictetus Gthe DOEH3 organi?ed
and co#posed into a co##on poetic st.(e3 /(an4 -erse0 JThe DOEK is
mneme3 a #e#or. e)ercise that can /egin each da. andTor as o5ten as
needed3 2hen one 2ishes or needs to re#e#/er EpictetusFs #arching
orders 5or (i5e0
The &>1
>ne rule to unite usD
live in agreement with 3ature0
T!o ma"ims to guide usD
4ood is virtue that evil lacks%
all the rest is indifferent.
4ood and evil are in the will%
onl! will is in our power0
Three studies abide usD
;udgments and the inner discourse,
.esires and the rising passions,
Actions and the noble duties0
(ear the sage inside usD
practice, practice, practice, practice0
, ,
%&
ONE "A7E
Epictetus remarked that it was a rule in life ... to do what was in
accordance with nature. 1or, if we desire in ever! matter and on
ever! occasion to conform to nature, we must on ever! occasion
evidentl! make it our aim. Q.iscourses3 !D%6R.
The actua( heading o5 this chapter o5 the .iscourses is entit(ed3 J1hat
the "u(e o5 7i5e Is0K A/out this there can /e no dou/t0 Fro# Eeno to the
end o5 the c(assica( period the Stoic #otto3 2hich is said a nu#/er o5
2a.s ; in har#on. 2ith nature3 in agree#ent 2ith Nature3 con5or#a/(.
2ith nature ; a(( #ean the sa#e thingD there is one ru(e that unites a((
Stoics and a(( aspects o5 Stoic phi(osoph.0 This is so i#portant that
Epictetus e-en #atter>o5>5act(. states that an.one 2ho does not (i-e /.
this ru(e J0002i(( 2ander up and do2n3 entire(. dea5 and /(ind3 supposing
hi#se(5 to /e so#e/od.3 2hi(e he is no/od.0K Qi/id0 %D%*R
ItFs i#portant to re#e#/er that (i-ing in agree#ent 2ith Nature does not
#ean (i-ing /. tooth and c(a2 and sur-i-a( o5 the /iggest3 strongest3 and
5ittest a#ong us0 That 2ou(d /e a /etter description o5 #an. other
creatures0 No3 our uni=ue a/i(it. gi-en to us /. Nature is not /igger teeth
and #usc(es3 /ut /igger /rains0 Asing reason is our 2a.3 or shou(d /e our
2a.0 I5 there is an. dou/t in .our #ind a/out the one ru(e o5 (i5e3 read
Epictetus0
T1O CAOICS
The 7irst <a"imD 4ood is virtue that evil lacks% all the rest is
indifferent.
The essence of good and evil is a certain kind of moral purpose.
0hat are things outward, then< /aterials on which the moral
purpose ma! act, in attaining its own good or evil. How, then, will
it attain good< $f it be not da""led b! its own materials% for right
principles concerning these materials keep the moral purpose in
a good state% but perverse and distorted principles in a bad one.
This law 4od hath ordained, who sa!s, =$f !ou wish for good,
receive it from !ourself.>
Epictetus Qi/id03 ID%&R
4ood is virtue that evil lacks0 1hat does this #ean@ 1e ha-e a(read.
seen 5ro# our genera( principa(s that the good and on(. good3 is -irtue0
On(. that 2hich is good and can ne-er /e used 5or undue gain and
i##ora( purposes =ua(i5ies une=ui-oca((. as good0 On(. the -irtues are
good in e-er. situation and on e-er. occasion3 and there5ore =ua(i5. 5or
3+
the na#e that #ust a(2a.s /e honora/(e3 the 6ood0

So3 the good is -irtue0 The cardina( -irtues3 as .ou 2i(( reca((3 are
2isdo#3 9ustice3 courage3 and decoru#0 ?irtue that evil lacks #eans that
e-i( is si#p(. a (ac4 o5 -irtue0 ThatFs 2hat e-i( is0 ThatFs it0 E-i( is a (ac4
o5 -irtue0 It has nothing to do 2ith co##itting a 5right5u( sin 2hispered
into .our ear /. a 'rince o5 Dar4ness that is ca(cu(ated to /ring a/out the
2rath o5 a -enge5u( god0 ThatFs a chi(drenFs stor.0 I5 e-i( is a (ac4 o5
-irtue3 then Evil is the absence of wisdom, (ustice, courage, and
decorum.
1e can use bad and evil interchangea/(.0 1hat 2e co##on(. ca(( /ad
GkakonH is not rea((. /ad0 Sic4ness3 po-ert.3 and e)i(e are the indifferents
to the 2ise0 E-en death3 /ecause it is the ine-ita/(e and natura( process o5
change3 is neither good nor /ad and #ust /e one o5 the indi55erents0 There
is no e-i( in Nature3 on(. in hu#an /eings 2hen the. act 2ithout -irtue0
Bust as -irtue is the on(. good3 so it is that the actions o5 persons (ac4ing
in -irtue are the on(. sources o5 e-i( in this 2or(d0
No2 2e co#e to the end o5 the 5irst #a)i#D all the rest is indifferent0
This is one o5 the #ost i#portant concepts in Stoicis#3 and one 2e #ust
a(( (earn3 re#e#/er3 and return to ti#e and again0 These are 2hat
Epictetus constant(. re5ers to as Je)terna(s0K 6ood and e-i( co#e 5ro#
inside3 interna(3 not 5ro# outside o5 us3 the e)terna(s0 The e)terna(s are
#atters that /e(ong to others as 2e(( as the ine-ita/(e changes and
conse=uences o5 Nature0 A(( those things 2e commonl! ca(( good or /ad
Qsee a/o-eR are neither good nor /ad and are on(. indi55erent0 On(. -irtue
is good3 and on(. the (ac4 o5 -irtue is /ad0 So3 e)cept 5or 2isdo#3
9ustice3 courage3 and decoru#3 or the (ac4 thereo53 a(( the rest are
indi55erents0 1hat are indi55erents@ 1hat does that #ean e)act(.@
For .ears I p(aced (itt(e -a(ue on the indi55erents3 si#p(. /ecause I didnFt
rea((. understand the#0 The Epictetus =uote a/out the indi55erents as
#ateria(s upon 2hich the #ora( purpose #a. act3 5ina((. sun4 into #.
thic4 s4u(( and rearranged #. thin4ing on the #atter a(together0 In
(oo4ing o-er 2hat I ha-e 2ritten on the su/9ect in the past3 I cou(d see I
2as sa.ing a(( the right 2ords3 /ut not rea((. 4no2ing the# in #. gut0
ItFs so eas. to g(oss o-er the indi55erents 2hen .ou (earn that .ou #ust /e
indi55erent to e-er.thing /ut .our ethica( /eha-ior0 ThatFs 2hat I didL
and thatFs not 2hat it #eans at a((0
To iso(ate -irtues without indi55erents is to e)ist in a -acuu#3 2hich is
i#possi/(e and a/surd0 1ithout the indi55erents to 2or4 on3 .ou ha-e no
-irtues0 In 5act3 .ou donFt e-en e)ist0 Indi55erents gi-e .ou so#ething to
do in (i5e0 The. are .our (i5e0 E-er.thing that happens to .ou is an
e)terna(3 an indi55erent3 and 2hat .ou do 2ith e-er.thing is 2hat de5ines
.our character as no/(e or igno/(e3 good or e-i(0 To sa. .ouFre not going
3!
to ha-e an.thing to do 2ith e)terna(s is ridicu(ous0 :ou rea((. donFt ha-e
a choice0 :ouFre on(. choice is what .ou do 2ith the#3 and how .ou act
upon the #ateria(s .ou ha-e /een gi-en0
ItFs (i4e the potter sitting at his 2hee(0 The indi55erents are (i4e the c(a.0
Ho2 can the potter /e indi55erent to his c(a.@ 1ithout the c(a. he has
nothing to do /ut 2atch the 2hee( spin around0 The potter cares a/out his
c(a.0 The s4i(( o5 the potter in 2or4ing 2ith his hands to 5or# a /eauti5u(
and use5u( -esse( 5ro# this (u#p o5 c(a. is (i4e the s4i(( o5 the Stoic in
2or4ing 2ith the cardina( -irtues in 5or#ing a no/(e character0 The
StoicFs c(a. is #ade up o5 the indi55erents0 1ithout the c(a. and the
indi55erents3 the potter and the Stoic ha-e nothing upon 2hich to practice
their s4i((s0
HereFs another e)a#p(e0 IF# thin4ing o5 9oining a (oca( /a(( c(u/0 I ha-e a
(itt(e 5ree ti#e and a (itt(e ta(ent3 and I rea((. ha-e 5un p(a.ing /a((0 I a(so
4no2 that /eing a #e#/er o5 the tea# 2i(( e)pose #e to a (ot o5 .e((ing3
cursing3 te#per tantru#s3 and occasiona( outright #ean>spirited p(a. /.
indi-idua(s on #. tea# and on the other0 Being a #e#/er o5 the /a(( c(u/
is an indi55erent0 A(( the unp(easantnesses are indi55erents0 So3 shou(d I
a-oid p(a.ing a(together and ha-e nothing to do 2ith this acti-it.@ No3 o5
course not3 I shou(d p(a. the ga#e0 ThatFs 2hat (i5e is a(( a/out0 How I
p(a. the ga#e is 2hat #atters0
The sa#e is true 5or e-er. acti-it.D po(itics3 starting up or running a
/usiness3 ta4ing care o5 a househo(d3 (a2 en5orce#ent3 and on and on0
DonFt /e a5raid o5 .our c(a.3 the indi55erentsP donFt a-oid the#0 Ase the#3
en9o. the#3 2or4 2ith the#0 'ractice3 practice3 practice0
The Second <a"imD 4ood and evil are in the will% onl! will is in our
power0
4ood and evil are in the will0 Stoics /e(ie-e 2e choose either good or
e-i( /. e)ercising the po2er o5 our 2i((0 In 5act3 not on(. do 2e ha-e this
choice3 it is our on(. real choice3 and it is our choice a(one0 Friends3
ene#ies3 t.rants3 no one3 not e-en a god can ta4e a2a. the po2er o5
choice to do good or e-i( that 2e ha-e in the 2i((0 As Epictetus said o5
t.rants3 J:ou 2i(( 5etter #. (eg3 /ut not e-en Eeus hi#se(5 can get the
/etter o5 #. 5ree 2i((0K Qi/id03 ID!R Such a great po2er 2e ha-e0 Thin4
a/out that0 Thin4 a/out 2hat a great disco-er. the Stoics #ade a/out the
po2er o5 the 2i(( to choose to do good or e-i(0
But /e5ore 2e go on3 perhaps 2e shou(d #a4e sure 2e 4no2 2hat our
2i(( is0 1hen in dou/t3 2e can a(2a.s consu(t a dictionar.0 HereFs 2hat
#ine sa.sD
8.a. The #enta( 5acu(t. /. 2hich one de(i/erate(. chooses or decides
upon a course o5 actionP -o(ition0 b0 The act o5 e)ercising the 2i((0000
3%
1hen 2e sa. that -irtue and the (ac4 o5 -irtue are in the 2i((3 2e are
ta(4ing a/out the J#enta( 5acu(t. /. 2hich one de(i/erate(. chooses or
decides upon a course o5 action0K 1hen 2e sa. that on(. 2i(( is in our
po2er3 2e are sa.ing that good and e-i( on(. e)ist in our #enta( 5acu(t.
as a choice3 and onl! this choice between good and evil is in our power ;
nothing e(se0 ThatFs 2here our po2er ends0 E-er.thing e(se is either in the
2i(( o5 another indi-idua( or in the 1i(( o5 Nature0
@ut now, although it is in our power to care for one thing, and
appl! ourselves to one, we choose rather to care for man!, and to
encumber ourselves with man!Abod!, propert!, brother, friend,
child, and slaveAand, b! this multiplicit! of encumbrances we
are burdened and weighed down....0hat, then, is to be done< To
make the best of what is in our power, and take the rest as it
occurs. And how does it occur< As 4od wills0
Epictetus3 .iscourses3 ID !
Is that right@ The one po2er that 2e ha-e see#s right3 /ut donFt 2e ha-e
an! po2er o-er an.thing e(se@ I #ean3 2hat a/out the potter and his c(a.
as a si#i(e 5or the Stoic 2or4ing 2ith his indi55erents3 the e)terna(s@
DonFt I ha-e so#e po2er o-er #. hea(th3 5or e)a#p(e3 i5 I eat right3
e)ercise3 a-oid destructi-e ha/its3 et cetera@ Statistica((.3 #. chances o5
(i-ing a (ong (i5e increase i5 I ta4e care o5 #. hea(th3 right@ True3 /ut .ou
cou(d /e struc4 /. (ightning3 get run o-er /. a truc43 or die o5 (ung
cancer at the age o5 3+ 2ithout e-er s#o4ing Gas #. 2i5eFs 5riend did a
coup(e o5 .ears agoH0
One o5 the 5irst surprises .ou disco-er 2hen .ou are in the #edica(
pro5ession3 or c(ose to so#eone in that pro5ession3 is that peop(e at the
pea4 o5 hea(th can ac=uire disa/(ing ph.sica( conditions and can die3 at
a(( ages3 o5 diseases that the. shou(d ne-er ha-e gotten0 Or so 2e
co##on(. /e(ie-e0 The truth is that 2e are a/(e to ta4e care o5 ourse(-es3
and prudence sa.s that 2e should3 /ut in the end3 a (i5e o5 good hea(th
and the pro)i#it. o5 death are not in our po2er0
The sa#e can /e said o5 a(( other e)terna(s0 'eop(e 2ho ha-e a#assed a
5ortune 2ant us to /e(ie-e it 2as done /. their o2n po2er3 /. their
superior inte((igence and e)ceptiona((. hard 2or40 ThatFs 9ust a 5or# o5
denia( and (ac4 o5 se(5>a2areness0 Fate and destin. 2or4ed #uch harder
in the accu#u(ation o5 2ea(th or po2er as an. indi-idua(3 and it can an
end that position o-ernight0
To /egin 2ith3 so#e peop(e are /orn 2ith certain conditions and a/i(ities
that others do not possess0 So#e ha-e /ound(ess energ. and a#/ition
2hi(e others are chronica((. i(( andTor pain5u((. (ac4ing in se(5>
con5idence0 The. didnFt create these conditions an. #ore than a genius is
33
responsi/(e /eing /orn 2ith a superior inte((ect0 Then thereFs the
en-iron#enta( 5actor0 One chi(d is /orn into crushing po-ert. and another
is to the #anor /orn0 E-en o5 those /orn into po-ert. one 2i(( strugg(e
night and da. to rise a/o-e his station and another 2i(( 5a(( pre. to the
5irst drug dea(er that 4noc4s on his door0 1h.@ 1ho 4no2s0 Those 2ho
/e(ie-e in reincarnation /e(ie-e the. ha-e the ans2er0 6eneticists /e(ie-e
the. can e)p(ain e-er.thing 2ith DNA0 Astro(ogers ha-e another theor.0
And so on0
"egard(ess3 the choice o5 good and e-i( is in the po2er o5 our 2i(( ; and
ours a(one0 E-er.thing e(se is in the 2i(( o5 Nature3 2hate-er that is0 1e
are responsi/(e 5or one thingP 5ate is responsi/(e 5or e-er.thing e(se0
TH"EE STADIES
There are three fields of stud! in which he who would be wise and
good must be e#ercisedB that of Q!R desires and aversions ...
Q%R pursuits and avoidances, and in general, the duties of life ...
Qand, 3R whatever belongs to the (udgment0
Epictetus Qi/id03 IIID %R
:ou #a. ha-e noticed that the order in 2hich these c(ass notes 2ere
2ritten do2n /. Arrian p(aces desires 5irst and 9udg#ents (ast0 Assu#ing
Arrian 2rote the# do2n in the gi-en order3 Epictetus apparent(. /e(ie-ed
that the thing he needed to e#phasi?e to his students 2as3 5irst and
5ore#ost3 the desires0 Then3 it natura((. 5o((o2ed that the actions 2ou(d
proceed 5ro# the desires0 Ho2e-er3 I ha-e ta4en the (i/ert. o5 /eginning
2ith the 9udg#ents that 5or# in the #ind3 /ecause thatFs chrono(ogica((.
#ore accurate0 IF# #ore co#5orta/(e starting at the /eginning o5 an e-ent
rather than in the #idd(e3 and 2e ha-e seen ti#e and again that 2hat 2e
thin4 a/out a thing is 2here it a(( /egins0

An i#pression co#es to the #ind 5ro# outside sti#u(i3 e)terna( or
interna( discourse3 and a 9udg#ent is #ade0 Fro# this 9udg#ent3 one 5ee(s
desire or a-ersion to the i#pression3 and the #oti-ation 5or action has
/egun0 1e either desire so#ething to /e or 2e desire it not to /e0 And
5ro# desire3 action sure(. 5o((o2s0 1hat Epictetus re5ers to as Jpursuits
and a-oidancesK 2e can #ore easi(. re#e#/er as actions0 1e act in the
pursuit o5 things 2e desire3 such as ca4e and ice crea#3 and 2e act in the
a-oidance o5 those things 2e do not desire3 such as -o#itus0
The 7irst Stud#D ;udgments and the inner discourse,
Take awa! the complaint, =$ have been harmed,> and the harm is
taken awa! Q/editations3 Boo4 *0R. The habits of !our thoughts
will become the character of !our mind% for the soul is d!ed b!
3*
the thoughts. .!e it, then, with thoughts such as theseB wherever
one lives, one can live wellAeven if he must live in a palace.
Carcus Aure(ius QI/id03 I0!6R
C(ear(.3 the inner discourse3 2hat 2e te(( ourse(-es a/out our 2or(d3 is
one o5 the #ost i#portant the#es in a(( o5 Stoic (iterature0 The French
scho(ar3 'ierre Hadot3 /e(ie-es it is the -er. essence o5 /eing a Stoic0 He
sa.s3 JE-er.thing in an indi-idua(Fs (i5e depends on ho2 he represents
things to hi#se(5Lin other 2ords3 ho2 he te((s the# to hi#se(5 in inner
dia(ogue QThe $nner 'itadel GHar-ard3 !&&$H3 p0I+R0K As .ou can see3
#uch o5 the actua( 2or4 o5 /eco#ing a Stoic /egins 2ith (udgments and
the inner discourse0
Our 5irst stud. is the inner discourse and ho2 it 5or#s our 9udg#ents0 As
Carcus sa.s a/o-e 2hen .ou ta4e a2a. the co#p(aint .ou ta4e a2a. the
har#0 Sha4espeare said the sa#e thing #ore concise(. and poetica((. in
Hamlet0 JThere is nothing either good or /ad3 /ut thin4ing #a4es it so0K
It is the 9udg#ents 2e 5or# in the #ind that either in5(a#e or coo( the
passions3 the e#otions that ha-e run a#uc40
O5 course 2e do 5ee( 5ear in situations that present rea( danger3 /ecause
o5 the pri#ar. i#pu(se o5 sur-i-a(0 And thatFs OK0 ItFs #ore than OKP itFs
ordained /. Nature0 Stoics are not retarded0 1e 4no2 there is a p(ace 5or
adrena(in0 1e are supposed to /e energi?ed /. the sight o5 an
approaching /u((. ; in this case3 to /e prepared to 5ight or 5(ee0 I5 2e
hadnFt e-o(-ed 2ith this adrena(in rushed reaction 2e 2ou(dnFt ha-e
e-o(-ed as a species0
In addition to 5acing danger3 there are #an. other 4inds o5 9udg#ents 2e
5or# 2ith the thoughts o5 our inner discourse0 In 5act3 -irtua((.
e-er.thing0 1here e(se can the 5ee(ings o5 desire and a-ersion co#e
5ro#@ 1e desire one thing3 2e donFt desire another3 and this in5or#ation
2e te(( ourse(-es is the inner dia(ogue0 Ho2e-er3 it is 2hat 2e do 2ith
this in5or#ation that #atters0 The #ind ac=uires an i#pression3 #a4es a
9udg#ent3 then desires so#ething to /e or not to /e0
The Second Stud#D .esires and the rising passions,
Cf these *three studies, the principal and most urgent is that
which reaches the passions% for passion is onl! produced b! a
disappointment of one&s desires and an incurring of one&s
aversions. $t is this which introduces perturbations, tumults,
misfortunes, and calamities% this is the spring of sorrow,
lamentation, and env!% this renders us envious and emulous, and
incapable of hearing reason.
Epictetus3 .iscourses3 IIID %
3I
The StoicFs desires and a-ersions are studied so that 2e can /ring the#
into a(ign#ent 2ith the 2i(( o5 Nature0 This is an e)pansion o5 our #otto3
living in agreement with 3ature0 In the 5irst p(ace3 2e use our chie5
attri/ute designed 5or us /. Nature3 our reason0 1hen 2e use reason3 2e
see that there is on(. one good3 -irtue0 E-i(3 then3 is the (ac4 o5 -irtue0
Both good and e-i( are in the 2i((3 and on(. the 2i(( is in our po2er0
Thus3 (i-ing according to Nature #eans desiring the good3 -irtue3 and
desiring to a-oid e-i(3 the (ac4 o5 -irtue0 This is the one po2er that
Nature has gi-en us3 the choices o5 the 2i((0 The right use o5 reason and
the 9udg#ents o5 the 2i(( are the desires o5 a Stoic0
The Third Stud#D Actions and the noble duties0
The ne#t topic regards the duties of life. 1or $ am not to be
undisturbed b! passions, as a stature is% but as one who preserves
the natural and acuired relationsAas a pious person, a son, a
brother, a father, a citi"en0 Q i/id03 IIID%R
Our desires and a-ersions depend upon 9udg#ents 2e ha-e #ade and
/eco#e #oti-ation 5or ensuing action0 I5 2e 2ant a ne2 car 2e ha-e to
5ind the #one. to pa. 5or it0 Epictetus doesnFt d2e(( on the #ere
#undane o5 our actions /ut on ho2 the. /eco#e our duties ; the duties
o5 (i5e0 The e-o(ution 5ro# the 'ri#ar. I#pu(se o5 se(5>(o-e to other>(o-e
GoikeiosisD, is the 2or4 o5 a Stoic phi(osopher0 The. are his duties0
Cature adu(t3 socia(i?ed /eha-ior is e)e#p(i5ied /. the no/(e character3
the (o5t. spirit3 the Stoic phi(osopher3 the sage0 This process is one o5 the
great princip(es o5 ethics0
I5 our desires and a-ersions are a(igned 2ith Nature3 2e are /urdened
2ith on(. one responsi/i(it.3 the good and e-i( in the 2i((0 The proper
e)ercise o5 that responsi/i(it. sho2s in our actions as a pious person3 a
good son3 a good /rother3 a good 5ather3 a good citi?en0 A Stoic is the
cornerstone o5 ci-i(i?ed societ. in that 2e preserve the natura( and
ac=uired re(ations0 A(( o5 our actions are oriented to that preser-ation0 To
a Stoic3 these are the no/(e duties o5 (i5e0 The. are noble duties /ecause
the. c(ear(. sho2 the true nature o5 our character0
HEA" THE SA6E
Hear the sage inside usD practice, practice, practice, practice.
...philosophers advise us not to be contented with mere learning,
but to add meditation likewise, and then practice.... $f, therefore,
we do not likewise put into practice right opinions, we shall be
nothing more than e#positors of the abstract doctrines of others.
Epictetus3 .iscourses IID!+
36
Four 'ractica( E)ercises
Stoics ha-e a(2a.s e#phasi?ed that the princip(es o5 our phi(osoph. are
not 9ust a/stract concepts to /e /e discussed and argued 5ore-er3 /ut are
to /e app(ied to actua( (i-ing situations0 Can. o5 the practica( e)ercises
used /. the origina( teachers o5 Stoicis# ha-e /een (ost3 /ut a 5e2 ha-e
sur-i-ed and can /e understood 5ro# the 2ritings o5 the "o#an Stoics0
There are 5our e)ercises that e-er. Stoic can and shou(d practice0
<isua(i?ation
Both Carcus Aure(ius and Epictetus reco##end negati-e -isua(i?ation3
2hich /eco#es a positi-e rea(i?ation once the e)ercise has /een
per5or#ed0 1e shou(d re#e#/er e-er. da. that the peop(e3 p(aces3 and
things 2e (o-e can /e ta4en 5ro# us0 Nothing is 5i)ed3 nothing is certain0
A(( things are /orn3 (i-e 5or a2hi(e3 and pass a2a.0 The 2i5e3 hus/and3 or
chi(d that .ou (o-e can /e ta4en 5ro# .ou in a #o#ent0 :our house can
/urn to the ground0 :ou cou(d ha-e stro4e and ne-er /e a/(e to run and
p(a. again0 To prepare .ourse(5 5or a(( such e-entua(ities -isua(i?e
actua((. (osing the things .ou (o-e #ost in .our (i5e right no20 Actua((.
see in .our #indFs e.e the death o5 .our spouse3 .our chi(d3 .our house
/urning 2ith a(( .our treasures inside3 .our /od. rac4ed 2ith pain
con5ined to a 2hee( chair or /ed0
Such an e)ercise prepares .ou #enta((. and e#otiona((. 5or the changes
in 5ortune that are a part o5 e-er.oneFs (i5e0 To /e prepared in this 2a.
so5tens the /(o2 o5 (osing 2hat 2e #ost (o-e3 /ut e-en #ore incredi/(. it
he(ps us to re#e#/er to /e than45u( 5or the /(essings 2e ha-e /een gi-en
while the! are still with us0 <isua(i?ing the death o5 a (o-ed one shou(d
re#ind .ou to /e than45u( e-er.da. that this person is sti(( enriching .our
(i5e0 Be happ.3 count .our /(essings3 and donFt 5orget to te(( the (o-ed one
ho2 #uch happiness the. /ring .ou0
Three Contro(s
A(( the c(assica( Stoics agreed e-er.one has three degrees o5 contro( o-er
their (i-esD co#p(ete contro(3 so#e contro(3 no contro(0 The so>ca((ed
Serenit. 'ra.er has #an. #others and 5athers3 and one o5 the# cou(d
ha-e /een a Stoic0
4od grant me the serenit!
To accept the things $ cannot change%
'ourage to change the things $ can%
And wisdom to know the difference.
Or3 .ou #a. pre5er a Cother 6oose rh.#e 2ritten in !6&ID
1or ever! ailment under the sun
3
There is a remed!, or there is none%
$f there be one, tr! to find it%
$f there be none, never mind it.
This is the essence o5 the Contro( e)ercise0 In e-er. decision .ou #a4e
e-er.da.3 the first =uestion to as4 .ourse(5 is ho2 #uch contro( do I ha-e
o-er this situation0 E-er. ti#e .ou are con5ronted 2ith a pro/(e#3 a
crisis3 a ph.sica( or ps.cho(ogica( assau(t3 the degree o5 contro( shou(d
in5(uence .our approach to its reso(ution0 Epictetus 2as pro/a/(. the
#ost e)tre#e in teaching his students that 2e ha-e no contro( o-er
an.thing e)cept the 2i((0 The right use o5 2i((3 he 2ou(d sa.3 is
co#p(ete(. under our contro(0 No one3 not e-en a god3 can ta4e that a2a.
5ro# .ou0 The choice to /ui(d a no/(e character is .ours and .ours a(one0
A(( e(se is (e5t to 5ate0
1e 4no2 that there are so#e things o-er 2hich 2e do e)ercise so#e
contro(0 I5 .ou are (oo4ing 5or a 2i5e or hus/and3 ho2 .ou go a/out
5inding one 2i(( ha-e so#e contro( o-er the outco#e0 I5 .ou sta. at ho#e
night a5ter night and 2ait 5or the right person to 4noc4 on .our door .our
chances o5 5inding that person are considera/(. (ess than i5 .ou acti-e(.
go out and #a4e .ourse(5 a-ai(a/(e in socia( settings re5(ecting .our
persona(it.0 1e a(so 4no2 that 2e are a(( #orta( and thereFs (itt(e 2e can
do a/out death as the 5ina( outco#e3 nothing actua((.3 no contro(3 /ut 2e
can ha-e so#e contro( o-er our hea(th and (onge-it. /. ta4ing good care
o5 our /odies 2hi(e 2e sti(( (i-e0
The #ost i#portant aspect o5 this e)ercise is the tran=ui(it. that co#es
5ro# rea(i?ing that #an. o5 the things 2e 5uss and 5ret a/out are (arge(.
out o5 our contro(0 So#eone cut us o55 in tra55ic3 is there an.thing 2e can
do a/out it@ O5 course0 1e can speed up and shoot the 9er43 /ut thatFs not
going to pre-ent another rude person 5ro# cutting us o55 in tra55ic in the
5uture0 As Carcus Aure(ius sa.s peop(e 2i(( ha-e /ad /reath3 /ecause
thatFs the sort o5 odor that e#anates 5ro# such p(aces0 1h. get anno.ed@
7ea-e it a(one0
Three De5enses
There are three 4inds o5 de5ensi-e e)ercises against the persona( assau(t
o5 others on our characterD
!0 Se(5>deprecation0 Epictetus said that i5 so#eone accuses .ou o5
ha-ing so#e 5(a2 in .our character .ou shou(d te(( hi# its a good
thing he doesnFt 4no2 .ou 2e(( enough to point out e-en the
2orst 5(a2s .ou ha-e0 :ou =uic4(. de5(ect criticis# 2ith se(5>
deprecating re#ar4s0 E-en 2ithout /eing 2itt.3 /.
enthusiastica((. ad#itting the error o5 .our 2a.s .ou ta4e the
sting out o5 the accusations against .ou0
3$
%0 The Queen Caa/ de5ense0 In the #o-ie3 /erlin3 the #agician
e(i#inates the po2er o5 the 2ic4ed 2itch3 Queen Caa/3 /.
organi?ing a(( the peop(e to si#p(. turn their /ac4s on her 5ur.0
ThatFs the si(ent de5ense that .ou can a(2a.s use i5 .ou arenFt
=uic4 enough to thin4 o5 a good se(5>deprecating re#ar40 B.
ignoring so#eone .ou are in e55ect sa.ing that their opinion is o5
no interest to .ou0 And3 in 5act3 their e)istence is not i#portant
enough to e-en recogni?e0 This can /e -er. e55ecti-e 5or a(( /ut
chi(dren3 /oth /ig and s#a((0
30 Correcting the Chi(d0 The rudeness or #is/eha-ior o5 a chi(d #ust
/e corrected 5or instructiona( purposes0 1e shou(d a(( ta4e part in
he(ping to educate a chi(d 5or (i5e in a ci-i(i?ed societ.0
So#eti#es the chi(d is a gro2nup Gsee JThe Ethica( 'arado)KH0
Not e-er.one .ou encounter 2i(( /e 2ise0 Can.3 i5 not #ost3 2i((
/e stuc4 at a pri#ar. stage o5 ethica( e-o(ution0 To these3
Epictetus 2ou(d ad-ise 2e instruct the# as 2e 2ou(d a chi(d0 No
one sa.s a Stoic #ust su55er 5oo(s g(ad(.0 There are situations
2hen dea(ing 2ith such peop(e inc(udes pointing out the error o5
their 2a.s0 Nothing persona(0 Nothing e#otiona(0 I5 .ou donFt
re#ind the# o5 the -a(ue o5 decorous /eha-ior3 2ho 2i((@
Seneca Ceditation
Seneca c(ai#ed to practice a certain 4ind o5 #editation e-er. night
/e5ore he retired 5or /ed0 This is not the 4ind o5 #editation #ost o5 us are
5a#i(iar 2ith ; 2here .ou c(ear .our #ind o5 a(( thought0 Bust the
opposite0 He ca((ed it #editation3 /ut itFs #ore (i4e a dai(. re-ie20 It goes
(i4e this0 Find a =uiet p(ace 2here .ou can c(ose .ou e.es and see the
e-ents that too4 p(ace during the da.0 "eca(( in detai( e-er.thing that
happened 5ro# the ti#e .ou got up this #orning right up to the present
#o#ent0 At each scene3 each turn o5 e-ents3 re#e#/er ho2 2e(( .ou
per5or#ed as a Stoic0 "e#e#/er e-er.one .ou #et3 e-er.thing .ou said
and did ; or 5ai(ed to do0 1hen and 2here .ou conducted .ourse(5 in a
#anner that 2as 2orth. and no/(e .ou can /e con5ir#ed in .our practice0
Consider care5u((. e-er. situation 2here .ou 5e(( short0
Another 5or# o5 this e)ercise is to 4eep a 9ourna(0 :our 9ourna( can /e
#ade o5 paper or it can /e a 5i(e on .our co#puter0 "ep(a. the e-ents o5
.our da. in a 9ourna(0 1rite do2n the #ost i#portant things .ou can
re#e#/er and .our reaction to each e-ent .ou consider i#portant enough
to e-a(uate0 Then e-a(uate0 1as .our reaction Stoic@ I5 not3 2h. not@
Thin4 a/out it0 Ho2 cou(d .ou ha-e i#pro-ed .our per5or#ance@ 1ith
practice3 .our 9ourna( 2i(( sho2 the sa#e i#pro-e#ent the rest o5 us 2i((
see0
, , , ,
3&
The Ethica( 'arado)
affinit!B A natural liking for or attraction to a person, place or thing
'arado)ica((.3 se(5>(o-e is the 5oundation and starting point 5or Stoic
ethics0 The se(5>(o-e o5 an in5ant3 (o-e o5 5a#i(. as a chi(d3 (o-e o5
countr. as a patriot3 e-en (o-e o5 /eaut. and the pursuit o5 truth are a((
appropriate acti-ities 5or 2hich hu#ans 5ee( a natural (i4ing 5or or
attraction to0 The A55init. 'rincip(e3 or oikeiosis as it 2as ca((ed in
anti=uit.3 2as an idea 5irst disco-ered /. ear(. Stoics0 1e /e(ie-e it is the
pri#ar. i#pu(se o5 all (i-ing creatures3 inc(uding hu#an /eings0 One
cou(d e-en e)tend this idea to a(( (i-ing things3 not 9ust creatures0
E-er.thing that (i-es stri-es 2ith a(( its po2er to sur-i-e ; 5ro# /(ue>
green a(gae to the No/e( 'ri?e>2inning scientist0
In anti=uit.3 such stri-ing 2as 5irst recogni?ed in higher ani#a(s0 The
phi(osopher Diogenes 7aertius said3 JAn ani#a(Fs 5irst i#pu(se3 sa. the
Stoics3 is to se(5>preser-ation0K Be5ore hi#3 it 2as Chr.sippus3 the third
head o5 the Stoic schoo(3 2ho 5irst said3 JThe dearest thing to e-er.
ani#a( is its o2n constitution and its consciousness thereo5 GD070 B40
<II0 $IH0K This is the /ene-o(ence o5 Nature3 the beginning o5 ethics 5or
the Stoic and the end o5 the discussion 5or the Epicurean and hedonist0
An(i4e those 2ho /e(ie-e that p(easure is our u(ti#ate good3 2e /e(ie-e
that our reasoning 5acu(t. e)pands this natura( and 'ri#ar. I#pu(se o5
se(5>(o-e into stages o5 ethica( e-o(ution that achie-e a higher good3 /oth
5or the indi-idua( and 5or societ. as a 2ho(e0

Cicero3 a care5u( student o5 Stoicis# and a great resource 5or ancient
Stoic thought3 detai(ed 5i-e stages in this e-o(ution GFin iii %+>IH3 /ut I
2i(( on(. out(ine threeD
!0 Care 5or the se(5 and its needs0 The 'ri#ar. I#pu(se0
%0 7earned a/i(it. to #a4e rationa( distinctions /et2een those things
2hich are in agree#ent 2ith Nature and those 2hich are not0
30 Choosing and (i-ing /. those things that are in agree#ent 2ith
Nature0
As the rationa( #ind de-e(ops3 our se(5>(o-e3 or a55init. 5or that 2hich is
dearest to us3 can e)pand 5ro# the se(5 to inc(ude 5irst the #other3 then
the 5a#i(.3 a ro#antic partner3 the co##unit.3 our chi(dren3 and so on0
Each stage retains the stage /e5ore it as one e-o(-es ethica((.0 Ho2e-er3
despite the de-e(oping rationa( 5acu(t.3 ethica( e-o(ution is not auto#atic0
Can. peop(e do not gain in 2isdo# as the. get o(derP the. on(. gain in
*+
2eight0 Without effort3 then3 2e get stuc4 in stage one or t2oP other2ise
a(( peop(e 2ou(d /eco#e 2ise and -irtuous0 O/-ious(.3 the. do not0 It
ta4es an act o5 choice and 2i(( to e-o(-e 5ro# the pri#ar. i#pu(se o5
in5anti(e ego3 stage one3 to se(ecting and (i-ing /. those things that are in
agree#ent 2ith Nature3 stage three0
1hen the indi-idua( has ac=uired the #ature capacit. 5or reason and
chooses to (i-e con5or#a/(. 2ith Nature3 sThe has e-o(-ed to an entire(.
ne2 rea(i?ation0 1hen the 5ina( stage is achie-ed3 the indi-idua( rea(i?es
(i5e on a higher p(ane than a(( pre-ious stages3 and -irtue is good 5or its
o2n sa4e0 Se(5>(o-e has e-o(-ed through (o-e o5 5a#i(.3 spouse3 chi(dren3
countr.3 and 5ina((. a (o-e 5or a(( hu#anit.0 This is 2here the 'ri#ar.
I#pu(se that Nature has gi-en us u(ti#ate(. (eadsD 5ro# se(5>(o-e to (o-er
o5 hu#anit.3 5ro# egoist to a(truist0 This is the ethica( parado) o5 our
phi(osoph. and the pro#ise o5 e-o(ution to a no/(e character in one
(i5eti#e0 E-er.one can /e a phi(osopher3 a (o-er o5 2isdo#0 E-er.one0
Stop procrastinating a/out when .ou are going to /e one0 Bust /e one0 It
is .our /irthright3 and Nature has sho2n the 2a.0

, , , ,
5ini
*!