Helpful Hints

 =

 = 
 =  + 

 =
 =



=
 



=
  

 = 

101.3  = 1 

Stoichiometry can be performed using the energy given off, or absorbed by treating the energy
just like any other coefficient, just a larger one. For example, the Hrxno for the following
reaction forming CaO = -1269.8 kJ or:
2Ca(s) + O2(g) 2CaO(s) H = -1269.8 kJ
Since this is exothermic, it can be written another way with heat as a product:
2Ca(s) + O2(g) 2CaO(s) + 1269.8 kJ
The energy given off corresponds to this specific reaction, with the given amounts, but what
would the enthalpy be if only 10.0 g of Ca(s) were used? Using stoichiometry will yield the
answer:
1   1269.8 
10.0  

 = 158 
40.08
2  

Enthalpy of formation; Hfo: The enthalpy change that occurs in the formation of one mole of
a substance in its standard state from the elements in their standard states; standard state is based
on the form of the substance at 1 bar, and is often also defined at a temperature of 298.15 K (25

C). Elements in their pure standard state (the way they are found naturally) have Hfo = 0
.

Enthalpy of reaction; Hrxn: In the course of performing a chemical reaction bonds are
broken and new ones formed which will correspond to a change in energy, or an Hrxno.
To find the Hrxno, the enthalpy of formation for each substance in the reaction is used by taking
the sum of the enthalpy of the final state of the reaction and subtracting the sum of the enthalpy
of the initial state (final - initial); all in kJ.

=
Hesss Law:
Enthalpy is a state function which means that it does not matter how it is calculated, it will
always yield the same value. Another method to calculate the enthalpy of reaction is by using
Hesss Law.
Consider the reaction: 4 B(s) + 3 O2(g)
2 B2O3(s)

H = ?

Using the following reactions with known enthalpies its reaction enthalpy can be determined.
B2O3(s) + 3 H2O(g) 3 O2(g) + B2H6(g)
H2O(l) H2O(g)

H1 = 2035 kJ/mol
H2 = 44 kJ/mol

2 H2(g) + O2(g) 2 H2O(l)

H3 = -572 kJ/mol

2 B(s) + 3 H2(g) B2H6(g)

H4 = 36 kJ/mol

 Reactions can be multiplied by any number necessary to get the coefficients correct, any
multiplication must also be done to the enthalpy.
 The reaction can be flipped causing the reactants and products to switch places which
also changes the sign of the enthalpy.
1.) Find unique substances, things that only show up in one reaction and adjust the reaction they
are in accordingly. Then don't mess with that reaction anymore. Repeat until done there are
no more unique things to keep.
2.) Look through the reactions that have been manipulated already and find any substances that
need to be cancelled out. Repeat this process if possible.
3.) Once everything that needs cancelled has been, add up the enthalpy of each reaction to get the
enthalpy of the reaction of interest.
6 O2(g) + 2 B2H6(g) 2 B2O3(s) + 6 H2O(g)

-2H1

6 H2O(g) 6 H2O(l)

-6H2

6 H2O(l) 6 H2(g) + 3 O2(g)

-3H3

4 B(s) + 6 H2(g) 2 B2H6(g)

2H4

H = -2H1 + (-6H2) + (-3H3) + 2H4 = -2546 kJ

Electromagnetic radiation, or light, exhibits properties similar to a wave as well as properties

similar to a particle depending on the methods used to observe it; this is known as wave-particle
duality.
Wave Nature of Light
Frequency, : The number of waves passing by a fixed point over a given time, often measured
in seconds. The common unit of frequency is Hertz (Hz) which is equal to 1/s, or s-1.
Wavelength, : The length of a wave is generally considered as the distance between adjacent
peak maxima. Lengths are measured in meters (m), but are often considered in nanometers (nm).
Velocity, v: The distance traveled over a set time, or speed; velocity is generally measured in m/s
or ms-1. When dealing with electromagnetism, the speed of light, c = 2.998108 m/s.
The wavelength and frequency of light can be related to the speed of light:

Particle Nature of Light

Photon or Quantum: An elementary particle which is equivalent to a unit of light. The energy
of a photon can be determined via the use of Planck's constant (h = 6.62610-34 Js). Planck's
constant is based on a postulate by Max Planck that relates increasing frequency () with
increasing energy (E).

) ( =

The energy calculated using the Planck equation is implicitly the energy per photon (J/photon),
though it is generally only given in Joules.
Photoelectric Effect :
When having sufficient energy photons can cause the emission of an electron upon striking the
surface of a material. In order to emit an electron the photon must have a high enough
frequency to exceed the threshold frequency (t) of the material. If the photon energy is higher
than the energy holding the electron to the surface, also known as the binding energy (), an
electron will be emitted. The binding energy and threshold frequency are characteristic
properties specific to each material. If the frequency of light used exceeds the threshold
frequency of the material, the excess energy is transferred to the electron as kinetic energy (KE).
1

 =  =   =  
2

Rydberg
When energy is applied to an atomic species, either by heating it up or passing light through it,
certain wavelengths (frequencies and energies) in the spectra are emitted based on the absorbed
wavelengths (frequencies and energies). The absorbed or emitted energies correspond
to differences in the quantized energy levels in which an electron can occupy. The method for
determining the difference in energy between the energy levels is based on work by Johannes
Rydberg. The Rydberg equation relates the wavelength() emitted or absorbed to the initial and
final energy levels (n1 and n2):
1
1
1
=  

 
R is known as the Rydberg constant, which is equal to 1.09737 107 m-1.
When determining the wavelength, frequency, or energy it is important to realize that a negative
value indicates an emission while a positive indicates absorption.