Journal of Hydrology 472473 (2012) 328339

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

Journal of Hydrology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jhydrol

A numerical solution to integrated water ows: Application to the ooding of

an open pit mine at the Barcs river catchment La Corua, Spain
J.-Horacio Hernndez 1, Francisco Padilla , Ricardo Juncosa, Pablo R. Vellando, lvaro Fernndez
ETS de Ingenieros de Caminos, Canales y Puertos, Campus de Elvia 15071, University of A Corua, Spain Water and Environmental Engineering Group, Spain2

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 27 June 2012
Received in revised form 6 September 2012
Accepted 19 September 2012
Available online 27 September 2012
This manuscript was handled by Corrado
Corradini, Editor-in-Chief, with the
assistance of Michel Bakalowicz, Associate
Editor
Keywords:
Integrated surface/subsurface ows
Numerical modeling
Finite elements
Watershed hydrology
Geographic Information System
Meirama open pit

s u m m a r y
This research and practical application is concerned with the development of a physically-based numerical model that incorporates new approaches for a nite element solution to the steady/transient problems of the joint surface/groundwater ows of a particular region with the help of a Geographic
Information Systems to store, represent, manage and take decisions on all the simulated conditions.
The proposed surfacesubsurface model considers surface and groundwater interactions to be depthaveraged through a novel interpretation of a linear river ood routing method. Inltration rates and
overland ows generation processes are assessed by a sub-model which accounts for this kind of surfacegroundwater interactions. Surfacegroundwater interactions consider also novel evaporation and
evapotranspiration processes as a diffuse discharge from surface water, non-saturated subsoil and
groundwater table. The practical application regards the present ooding of the Meirama open pit, a quite
deep coal mining excavation, with freshwater coming from the upper Meirama sub-basin, in the context
of the water resources fate and use at the Barcs river catchment (87.9 km2), Corua, Spain. The developed model MELEF was applied to the complex geology of a pull-apart type sedimentary tertiary valley
and the whole of the water resources of the Barcs River drainage basin, down to its outlet at the Cecebre
Reservoir. Firstly, the model was adapted and calibrated during a simulation period of three and a half
years (2006/2009) with the aid of the historically registered hydrological parameters and data. Secondly,
the results predict the most likely forthcoming evolution of the present ooding of the Meirama open pit
to reach therein a total depth level of almost 200 m, as regards the projected evolution of the water
resources, climatology and usages.
2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Nowadays, there is an increasing need for integrated surface
and ground water numerical modelling. The philosophy and role
of hydrological models in water resources has been widely described. Recent methodologies were also developed on combined
watershed and ground-water applications to the whole of the
water resources of a particular river basin (Ross et al., 2005; Sophocleous and Perkins, 2000). MIKE SHE and MIKE BASIN are two
examples of numerical and physically based modelling systems
developed by DHI (1997) for describing the major ow processes
of the entire land phase of the hydrological cycle which integrates
the Saint-Venant surface equation to a vertical 1-D Richards
equation for unsaturated ow and a 3-D nite element solver for
saturated ow (Graham and Butts, 2005).
Corresponding author. Tel.: +34 981167000x1428; fax: +34 981167170.
E-mail addresses: jhernandez@udc.es (J.-Horacio Hernndez), fpadilla@udc.es (F.
Padilla), rjuncosa@udc.es (R. Juncosa), pvellando@udc.es (P.R. Vellando), afernandezgarcia@limeisa.es (. Fernndez).
1
Tel.: +34 981167000x5463.
2
www.geama.info.
0022-1694/$ - see front matter 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2012.09.040

Several process-based numerical models for the simulation of

coupled surface and subsurface ow have emerged in more recent
years. Examples include Gunduz and Aral (2005), who focused on
the interactions between rivers and aquifers; Jones et al. (2008),
whose coupling of Richards equation and various approximations
of the Saint-Venant equation relies on the hypothesis of a rst order diffusion of water between the surface and the subsurface and
an interface layer with a nite thickness; Weill et al. (2009), who
developed a model based on the generalization of DarcyRichards
equation that allows implicit coupling between surface and subsurface; Kollet and Maxwell (2006), whose coupling approach is
based on the continuity of the pressure head and uxes at the
ground surface; and Camporese et al. (2010), whose catchment
hydrology model couples a nite element solver for the Richards
equation describing variably saturated porous media and a nite
difference solver for the diffusive wave equation describing surface
ow.
Standard features of detailed process-based hydrological
models could include: handling of input and output of nonuniform,
heterogeneous and anisotropic hydrological parameters and variables, accommodation of a large variety of numerical conditions
and boundaries over the simulated domain, as well as numerical

J.-Horacio Hernndez et al. / Journal of Hydrology 472473 (2012) 328339

algorithms for linearizing and solving large systems of equations.

These characteristics will not be described in any case here; this
research will focus instead on some new features, summarized below, of an integrated surfacesubsurface ow numerical model for
suitable watershed practical applications.
In this eld, a new methodology of nite element modelling has
been developed (MELEF model, Modle dLments Finis in
French) which considers novel modelling features of the joint surface and ground water regional ows of continental freshwater and
coastal salt water intrusion from the sea by means of an immiscible
fresh/salt water interface reliable for different kinds of watersheds
and environmental problems (Padilla and Cruz-Sanjulin, 1997;
Padilla et al., 2008).
The model considers surface and groundwater interactions to
be depth-averaged through a novel interpretation of a linear river
ood routing method. Inltration rates as well as overland ows
generation processes are assessed by a new sub-model which
accounts for this kind of surfacegroundwater interactions.
Surfacegroundwater interactions consider also new evaporation
and evapotranspiration processes as a diffuse discharge from
surface water, non-saturated subsoil and groundwater table.
Nowadays, geographically distributed data are commonly managed by Geographic Information Systems (GIS). In this respect,
ArcHydro Tools as well as ArcGIS 9.3.1 script tools from Python
and Model Builder are implemented to manage hydrological data,
parameters and variables, simulated conditions and boundaries, as
well as output results of the present numerical modeling.
Therefore, this research deals with the numerical developments
being required to consider the practical application of a nite
element solution to the joint fresh surface/groundwater ows that
are concerned with the very particular hydrology of the ooding of
a very deep open pit in the context of the whole of the water
resources of its river catchment. The model behavior is checked,
in this case, through the application to the whole Barcs river
catchment, featured by a complex geology and the particular geomorphology and hydrology of the opencast Meirama mine being
presently restored as a lake.

2. Model description
2.1. Groundwater
The MELEF model for continental and coastal catchment applications couples surface and subsurface fresh and saltwater regional
hydrology by a joint nite element solver for the saturated porous
media ows of fresh and saltwater through an immiscible sharp

329

interface and a diffusive wave approach that describes the surface

ow (Padilla et al., 2008).
In order to establish the appropriate transient partial differential equations governing just the phreatic continental regional
aquifers on a 2D depth-averaged basis, it is necessary to previously
dene the ow of the freshwater phase.





@h
@
@h
@
@h

K xx h  p

K xy h  p
@t @x
@x
@x
@y




@
@h
@
@h

K yx h  p

K yy h  p
Q
@y
@x
@y
@y

where h is the piezometric head, Kij is the hydraulic conductivity

tensor, p is the impervious substratum positions, n is the effective
porosity of the aquifer accounting for the water table movements
(Fig. 1), and Q is the inow and outow rate per unit surface. Similar
equations can be found in other horizontal numerical models
(Huyakorn et al., 1996).
2.2. Surfacegroundwater interactions
2.2.1. Root water uptake
The numeric code MELEF also considers the evapotranspiration
process as a diffuse discharge from surface water and soil within
the non-saturated zone for each point on the modelled system.
The conceptual model of root water uptake transpiration curves
is depicted in Fig. 2.
As can be seen, the actual evapotranspiration (ETa) is evaluated
in terms of the position of the water table (WT). Nevertheless,
when the WT is above the soil surface, the free water evaporation
depends on the values taken by regional potential evaporation
(Ep1, Ep2, Ep3, . . .) that can be calculated with empirical equations.
The root water uptake model transpiration curve starts when
the water table decreases in the region between soil surface and
the capillary fringe (CF), following the empirical equations for the
adjustment of phreatic evaporation (Hu et al., 2009; Li et al., 2008).
Thus, phreatic evaporation, ECF, is evaluated as

ECF S

Ep  b1
;

b1
CF

S WT

b1

5  Ep  ETp
ETp  Ep

where SS is the soil surface, b1 is a coupling function between equations (Eqs. (2) and (3)) and an adjustment for the ETa behavior.
The second part of the transpiration curve starts increasing
toward the potential evapotranspiration (ETp) in the region
bounded by CF and soil thickness (ST), simulating the transpiration
similarly to other root water uptake models (Baird and Maddock,

Fig. 1. Surface/groundwater ows and model interaction. Zs are, respectively, the thicknesses of groundwater (gw), subsoil (ss) and stream/overland ow (s). WT is the water
table, and ETa is the actual evapotranspiration.

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J.-Horacio Hernndez et al. / Journal of Hydrology 472473 (2012) 328339

With respect to this, the continuity equation for the channel

reach is also given by

dS
DS
IQ 
dt
K
Therefore, the time dimensioned K parameter can be regarded
as the time increment required for the water to ow between
two control points, and it is meaningful to assume it as dt.
Substituting this last one in the Muskingum equation yields

I  Q dQ dI  Q X

6
3

The dimensions for the equation above are, [Q] = [I] = L /T, with
X being non-dimensional.
Taking into account this equation of ow routing in a channel
reach for horizontal water discharges, the following solution can
be given to I  Q:

dI  Q I  Q

dzs
zXs
Which is interpreted as the vertical variation of the mean horizontal rates of ow with respect to the water depth zs, whose units
are [zs] = L. Otherwise X is non-dimensional, but must take a value
verifying that: dzs zXs .
The original Muskingum equation can now be interpreted as:

Fig. 2. Root water uptake model transpiration curves.

2005; Li et al., 1999; Nyambayo and Potts, 2010). In this region the
actual transpiration Ta for the local vegetation is dened as

Ta ETp 

5  ECF
b1

where ETp should be evaluated with empirical equations for the

potential/reference evapotranspiration.
The last part of the transpiration curve starts when the WT is
deeper than the ST at the time of the internal evaluation of the
numerical code. The ETa curve is gradually restricted between total
recharge (TR) and regional ETp, that is, if the TR is less than the ETp,
then the curve is limited to the TR, otherwise, the curve is
restricted to the ETp. The transpiration behavior in this zone is
intended to approach the transpiration under hydric stress (TW)
of the vegetation as

ETp  TR  b2
T w TR S WT a
;
S
b2
ST

b2

ST

ETp  TR  CF
b1
1
5  Ep

where b2 is a coupling function between Eqs. (3) and (4), and a is an

adjustment parameter.
The root water uptake model has important advantages. One of
these is that all the parameters can be used with the required spatial and temporal variability, and be ready to assess the ETa from
the calculated phreatic levels during the iterative process of nding
the optimal solution to the numerical system.
2.2.2. Stream ow
The MELEF numerical model uses a simplication of the equations governing the free surface ows. In particular, as often happens with other commonly used kinematic and diffusive wave
approaches in hydrology, only the classical mass conservation or
continuity equation is considered for the present 2D depth averaged model (Tung, 1985). Consequently, following the Muskingum
linear method, the range of change of storage in a channel reach, as
well as a depression pool or lake, can be expressed as:

DS
dQ dI  Q X
K

where S is the surface water storage, I and Q are the inow and outow rates, X is a factor accounting for channel or reservoir routing,
and K is the storage time constant.

1  XI  Q dQ

which is now similar to the groundwater equation of continuity,

because (1  X) plays the role of the storage coefcient, (I  Q) is
the range of change of storage, and dQ acts in fact as the ow
divergence.
Therefore, from this, it can be assumed that:

dQ Q
I  Q
1  X
dzs zXs
zXs

which after integration can give the mean horizontal ow rates per
unit length q as a function of the surface water velocity vs.
Z

1X
s

q v s  1  X e 1X  1

!
v s  f zs ; X

Therefore q, which depends also on the horizontal hydraulic

gradient, can be dened by a function that enhances the hydraulic
transmissibility (T), here behaving like a transfer parameter
adapted to the free surface ow, that in fact depends on the surface
water depth zs and can be adjusted experimentally only through
the X parameter.

q v s  f zs ; X K s @h=@x  f zs ; X T  @h=@x

10

This last denition, which takes into account the mean horizontal surface velocity, needs to be introduced and added to the
groundwater governing continuity equations, as a new kind of
water ow rates per unit length, that respect the mass balances of
groundwater and surface water for a given X parameter, and (1 
X) as the apparent coefcient of storage, which accounts for this
particular diffusive wave approach, whenever treating vertically
averaged horizontal groundwater and surface water ows above
the soil surface. This means that there is no need for mathematical
coupling between groundwater and surface water ows because
both are lumped and treated in 2D by the same set of differential
equations and numerical nite element solution procedure.
With respect to this, the present numerical characterization of
the free surface ow comes through an interpretation of the river
ood routing method of Muskingum that makes sense from the
point of view of the groundwater equation of continuity. The
coupling between free surface and ground water ows can then
be lumped in this horizontal numerical approach and will conserve

J.-Horacio Hernndez et al. / Journal of Hydrology 472473 (2012) 328339

mass through the denitions given to the mean horizontal velocity

of surface water and the X parameter. Similar to other techniques
of ood routing (Tung, 1985), the MELEF model requires the
calibration of the parameters (mainly water storage coefcient,
transmissibility and soil properties) with the above-mentioned
conceptual approach for surface ow.
2.2.3. Overland ow
The concept of spatially averaged inltration capacity (Ke),
when the soil is eld-saturated and steady-state conditions are
reached, has been an important assumption for the assessment
in MELEF code of the actual inltration rate, and therefore of the
Hortonian overland ow. Nowadays, the concept of Ke is being
reconsidered by hydrologist in favor of an exponential distribution
function of inltration capacity (Eq. (11)) proposed by Hawkins
(1982). Langhans et al. (2011), Stone et al. (2008) and Yu et al.
(1997) applied the exponential method to their rainfallrunoff data
at plot scale, which yielded much better results than the application of a model with a constant Ke. Thus, exponential method is
implemented for the calculation of actual inltration rates which
depends on rainfall intensity.

I Imax 1  expP=Imax

ate properties (mainly water storage and transmissibility) suitable

for subsurface runoff and water transference between both media,
that is, the one below, -the groundwater-, and the one above, -the
surface water-. On this context, for instance, the apparent storage
would play the role of the water storage coefcient, which depends
on the groundwater table position or the surface water depth,
smoothing its value between the groundwater (effective porosity),
the subsoil zone and the free surface water, until reaching a value
of (1  X) as the apparent coefcient of storage. On the other hand,
the vertically averaged transmissibility would smooth its value
between the groundwater, the subsoil zone and the surface water,
pending on the groundwater table position or the surface water
depth, until reaching the values that enhances the hydraulic transmissibility through its dependency from the X parameter (Eq. (10)).
The depth averaging of all types of groundwater and surface
water ows is done through equivalent water storage coefcients
and hydraulic conductivities, which yield transmissibilities, for
horizontal lumped 2D hydrodynamics as assessed on a vertical
multilayered domain (Fig. 1), as follows:

neq

ngw  zgw nss  zss 1  X  zs

zgw zss zs

13

K eq

K gw  zgw K ss  zss K s  zs
zgw zss zs

14

11

Eq. (13) characterizes the spatial variation of actual inltration

capacity in the plot area, where Imax is the spatially averaged maximum inltration rate and P is the rainfall intensity. Thus, the rate
of rainfall excess (R) is given by:

R P  I P  Imax 1  expP=Imax

331

12

Eq. (12) gives the rate of rainfall excess when the water table is
below the soil surface, then overland ow is evaluated by the
stream ow assumption (Eq. (10)).
2.3. Numerical conditions and resolution
Taking surfacegroundwater interactions into account, in particular when water table approaches the soil surface, it became
necessary to smooth out numerically the sharp front of properties
between the surface and ground water media. On the basis of this
numerical requirement, we return to the use of the hydrological
concept of the subsoil zone (Figs. 1 and 3), which would play the
role of a nite thickness interface layer that would have intermedi-

The current tool used in water resource modelling, MELEF, is a

two dimensional nite element model for regional surface and
groundwater ows through drainage basins, developed for a temporal implicit (Eulerian) centered (CrankNicholson) and spatially
centered (Galerkin) numerical approach.
In particular, triangular elements of three nodes allow for the
analytic integration of the corresponding numerical formulation
for steady and transient conditions. The preconditioned iterative
algorithm GMRES (Saad and Schultz, 1986) provides the solution
to the system by means of a reduced computer memory and then
allows the simple processing of the numerical mesh. There is no
difference in time-scales between the surface and ground water
ows because they are solved together as a whole depth-averaged.
This is a clear advantage because the lumping properties allow for
quite good numerical resolutions in practical applications with
sparse and affordable meshes as well as time scales. Hydraulic
heads and gradients are the solutions of the lumped model.

Fig. 3. Equivalent storage and transmissibility.

332

J.-Horacio Hernndez et al. / Journal of Hydrology 472473 (2012) 328339

Fig. 4. Barcs catchment location (87.9 km2). North-Western Spain.

Hydraulic heads and gradients are depth-averaged. Then the model

is depth-averaged solved, but the results are interpreted and
approached in a multilayered way, giving solutions for water ows
and mean horizontal velocities above the soil surface, runoff and
overland ows, as well as under the soil surface, saturated subsurface and groundwater ows.
As part of the present surface/subsurface ow numerical approach, the model incorporates capabilities to assess the drainage
layout of surface runoff and the freshwater ground levels, overland
and subsurface ows, with punctual and diffuse surface and
ground water recharges and discharges, thickness and velocities
of surface and ground waters, as well as several types of rivers
diversions, water balances and ooding of water bodies of high
depth level.

2.4. Simulated conditions and GIS

First of all, a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) is required to dene
the watershed study area after DEM preprocessing (Maidment and
Djokic, 2000). So that ArcHydro Tools and Agree-DEM surface
reconditioning system method (Hellweger, 1997) are carried out.
Then, ow accumulations and ow directions are considered for
stream denition and delimitation of surfacegroundwater interaction buffer zones. Thereafter watershed study area is implemented to create a triangular nite elements mesh with major
density nodes at buffer zones.
MELEF code simulated conditions are managed with Model
Builder and Python scripts for ArcGIS 9.3.1. Nodal properties are
dened with shapeles features (points, polygons and polylines).
Then, pumping wells, cross sections discharges, surface water
diversions zones, boundary conditions and rain gauged zones are
generated.

A database, with measured or acquired data, is related with the

table of shapele attributes through a common eld to generate
spatially and temporally transient conditions.
3. Model application
Since 1980 coal mining in Meirama mine had been exploited by
Lignitos of Meirama, S.A. (LIMEISA) as part of an important activity
that nished in March 2008. The environmental plan of closure has
started with the ooding of the opencast pit mine to nally create a
large lake of 186 ha up to a maximum depth level of some 200 m
and a capacity of 146  106 m3. In this context, the forthcoming
evolution is analyzed as a function of the actual strategy of ooding. The presently forming pit lake of Meirama is to lie on the
Barcs river catchment (87.9 km2) leading the ow towards its outlet at the Cecebre reservoir, north-western Spain, 20 km from the
city of La Corua (Fig. 4).
The climate in this area is typically Atlantic with an annual rainfall of about 1300 mm and an evapotranspiration of 600800 mm,
nevertheless the rainfall in the catchment presents a positive linear
gradient conditioned by altitude. To this respect, the catchment
might be split up into three different zones by rain gauging station
altitudes (Fig. 7A), where historical daily precipitation rates (1974
2009) and maxmin temperatures (19832009) were considered
before December 2009. Trends with a period longer than one year
were not found by a Fast Fourier Transformation analysis of
monthly precipitation and daily temperature. Thereafter, prospective monthly seasonal precipitation and potential evapotranspiration rates were estimated.
During the last exploitation period (June 2006March 2008) the
open pit has been in use and some twenty pumping wells were
placed in its contours so as to drawdown the water table (Fig. 7C).
To prevent the surface water getting into the pit, the streams were

J.-Horacio Hernndez et al. / Journal of Hydrology 472473 (2012) 328339

333

Fig. 5. Location of surface water discharge measurements.

Fig. 6. Geology of the catchment materials. Location of piezometers and pumping wells selected for calibration purposes.

diverted and the water pumped from the bottom of the pit to be led
to a treatment plant, being afterward drained by means of two
perimeter channels towards the Barcs River (Fig. 7C). Other water
uses within the Barcs river catchment area of main interest as, for
instance, the water supply company of La Corua provided the registries of the free surface water variations at the Cecebre Reservoir
as well as the surface water diversions of Barcs River for drinkable
water supply of neighboring municipalities.

In order to improve the calibration of the stream ow model

and the hydrogeological properties of some geological materials,
water discharge measurements (141 in total) on the Barcs River
and main streams were carried out from March 2007 until late
2009 by velocity area and dilution methods (Fig. 5).
Registries of piezometers and pumping levels, owned by
LIMEISA, were selected among those wells which are screened
thoroughly along the borehole. The purpose is to avoid the

334

J.-Horacio Hernndez et al. / Journal of Hydrology 472473 (2012) 328339

Fig. 7. Finite elements mesh model, geology and water management in the Barcs catchment.

commonly observed vertical hydraulic gradients. The location of

some selected piezometers and pumping wells is depicted in Fig. 6.
With respect to the geological aspects, there are three main regions in the Barcs river catchment, one in the NW featured by a
fractured and altered granite massif being partially kaolinized, a
second one in the S-NE characterized by a schist substratum partially covered by alluvial Quaternary sediments, and a third one
marked by a tectonically complex sedimentary basin with Tertiary
materials and mining rells which is located between the two former zones of granite and schist and where most of the mining
works of the lignite exploitation took place (Fig. 6). For these materials, the main hydrologic parameters (hydraulic conductivity,
drainage porosity, inltration rate, soil thickness, capillary fringe,
etc.) have been adjusted during a calibration process (during the
simulation period going from June 2006 to December 2009) mainly
based, on one hand, on the eld measured parameters and on the
tectonics and geological features of the region, as well as, on
the other hand, on the measurements of the surface water ows,
the groundwater phreatic levels, the free surface levels in the pit
lake of Meirama, and the water balances inside the area delimited
by cross sections around the pit (Fig. 7C).
With respect to this, the present work applies the MELEF model
to the fresh water resources of the whole Barcs river catchment,
which includes exploitation, closure and hydraulics restoration of
the opencast mine, with the aid of the historically registered
hydrological parameters and data. Thus, the simulation strategy
considers three periods of time: the calibration period (2006
2009), the validation period (20092011), and the prediction
period (20112016). During the calibration period, the simulated
conditions consider measured daily rates, and the management
of surface water during Meirama coal exploitation and ooding
of the mine reclamation; once the ooding initiated on 18March-2008, most of the existing wells stopped pumping
(Fig. 7C) and the ooding of the mine begun only with groundwater ow; after 3-October-2008 the mine is being ooded with
water diverted from some of their neighboring creeks (Fig. 7B).
During the validation period, the simulated conditions considers
monthly seasonal rates from historical series and the same

calibration period parameter conguration and ooding strategy;

besides, a periodical comparison between simulated and new
measured data of ooding evolution is carried out. During the prediction period, the simulation considers the forthcoming evolution
of the hydrology of the Barcs river catchment and the ooding of
the Meirama mine.
In order to properly proceed with the calibration of the hydrological parameters of this horizontal numerical model, several
campaigns of eld measurements of hydrological variables were
carried out in the drainage basin. Nevertheless, the instrumentation for continuous measurements was not possible for surface
water discharges and groundwater levels.
In this respect, two different zones can be distinguished in the
Barcs River catchment: the rst zone, the upper basin of the Meirama pit (about 30 km2), has a complex hydrogeology with fractured, weathered and vertically arranged materials and aquifers;
the second zone, the middle and low basin of the Barcs River
(about 60 km2), has a quite simple geology of schist and quaternary
materials. However, this last zone could not be continuously and
extensively monitored for surface discharges and groundwater levels during the calibration period.
In this context, the calibration of the hydrological parameters
has been a difcult task, mainly because of the lack of measured
storm ow discharges and the existence of quite common vertical
hydraulic gradients, as well as isolated and perched aquifers. These
are not the most appropriate hydrological conditions for the present horizontal and porous media modelling approach.
Then, the aim is to predict the forthcoming evolution of the
present ooding of the Meirama open pit, to reach a total depth
level of almost 200 m and a ooded surface of nearly 1.86 km2,
as regards the expected regional hydrology.
4. Results and discussion
The results of the model application to the whole of the water
resources at the Barcs river catchment, during a total period of
ten years, that includes the hydrological history, the present and
the forthcoming future of the ooding of the Meirama open pit,

J.-Horacio Hernndez et al. / Journal of Hydrology 472473 (2012) 328339

Table 1
Summary of some calibrated parameters of most materials.
Material

Kx
(m/day)

Ky
(m/day)

Anisotropy
direction
(azimuth)

Porosity
(%)

Backll
Clays
Granites

0.224.0
0.05
0.22
0.34
0.05
0.10.4

0.224.0
0.05
0.22
0.34
0.07
0.20.6

0
0
0 to 65

1.640.0
4.0
0.91.1

7
7 to 30

1.0
1.48.0

0.08
0.5

0.08
0.5

0
0

2.0
10.0

1.82.5

1.82.5

0.042.4
0.024
0.1
0.6
0.11.3

0.042.4
0.024
0.1
0.6
0.091.0

0
0 to 65

15.0
30.0
1.112.0
1.01.6

0
0 to 65

4.0
2.010.0

Granites altered
Granites
fractured
Hornfels
Hornfels
fractured
Rockll
Sand/clay/gravel
Schists
Schists altered
Schists fractured

provide a good variety of hydrological data based on the precipitation, the water usages, the calibrated parameters and the geology
of the region.
A trial and error method was employed to estimate the model
parameters on a 6 h time step system resolution. In this respect
the hydraulic conductivities and anisotropy angles, as well as
effective porosities of materials were estimated at the catchment
areas depending on their geological structure and lithology, and
were emphasized at those materials closer to the surface of the soil
in the rst fty meters of thickness, where the regional hydrogeology is considered more relevant. These results are summarized in
Table 1.
The results of calibration give major effective porosities, 1.1
40%, and hydraulic conductivities, 0.044 m/day, for those materi-

335

als related with the mining rells, backll/wastes and quaternary

(Table 1). The storage of backll materials below the contour elevation of 25 m (Fig. 6), seems to be a consequence of the presence of
recent dry and low compacted materials with an important clay
content. Thus, the backll effective porosity could be considered
as quite close to the total porosity. The wide range of conductivities
observed in the quaternary materials is due to their different thicknesses which are vertically averaged with schist or granite. Meanwhile the schist material shows a low conductivity 0.0240.05 m/
day (Fig. 9) with porosity values of 1.01.6%, and massif granites
present conductivity values between 0.22 and 0.34 m/day with
porosities of 0.91.1%. Nevertheless, the hydraulic anisotropy of
geological materials was implemented to reproduce the averaged
behavior of the fractured media (Fig. 8A). The comparison of observed hydraulic heads in the piezometers, for instance P1, P2
and P3 (Fig. 9-right), shows a low sensitivity with respect to the
simulated hydraulic heads, although the mean absolute differences
are about 9.7 m. In addition to the low sensitivity observed in these
piezometers (P1, P2 and P3), the most plausible explanation is their
hydraulic disconnection. These piezometers follow the limits between the granite partially kaolinized and the disturbed materials
by the mine exploitation activity (Fig. 6), which would conrm the
possible formation of partial quite impervious barriers of kaolin.
With respect to the results of the simulated pumping wells W1
(massif granites) and W2W3 (altered granites), it is interesting
the good behavior of simulated hydraulic heads in altered granites,
if they are compared, for instance, to the observed in W2W3.
However a high variability is observed in hydraulic heads simulated in massif granites, as can be observed in the pumping well
W1, where the mean absolute differences are about 7.4 m. The piezometer P4 is located in a theoretically porous material enhancing
their sensitivity to the surface hydrology, as can be seen on the
good agreement between observed and simulated hydraulic heads,
with mean absolute differences of about 3 m (Fig. 9-right).

Fig. 8. Calibrated parameters: hydraulic conductivity (A), effective porosity (B) and anisotropy direction (C). The material anisotropy, depicted on (C), is normalized by their
hydraulic conductivity module.

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J.-Horacio Hernndez et al. / Journal of Hydrology 472473 (2012) 328339

Fig. 9. Left: some of the surface ow discharges measured and simulated during the calibration period. Right: some of the observed and simulated hydraulic heads observed
in piezometers and pumping wells close to the Meirama mine.

Table 2
Mean percentage of error relative to the maximum observed value.
Location

Data

Error (%)

Barcs stream
Sub-catchments

76
68

29.9
11.2

Hydraulic heads

359

2.7

Meirama mine (ooding)

2.7
188
3.4

Relative to
Max. discharge
1.020 m3/s
0.561 m3/s
Max. hydr. head
292.9 m
Max. water depth
150.0 m
Max. volume
68.12 hm3

In other respects, the results in the surface domain are compared with some of the measured discharges at different subcatchments and supercial drainage points at the Barcs River
(Fig. 9-left). The analysis of surface runoff results shows a mean
relative error of 29.9% along the Barcs River (maximum observed
discharge of 1.02 m3/s). This relative error seems to be enhanced
by the cumulative errors from the neighboring drainage subcatchments, as well as by the surface water regulation effects in
the Barcs upper basin (Meirama basin, 33 km2) that gives an
important base ow during the exploitation and ooding periods

of the Meirama open pit. The relative error of the principal subcatchments is 11.2% for a maximum measured discharge of
0.56 m3/s (Table 2). It can be seen that the predicted surface runoff
in the sub-catchments, with natural surface ow regimes, is much
better assessed. In any case, daily rainfall rates increase the degree
of uncertainty of surface ow, which surely distorts the comparison. Although, it is interesting to note that the evolution of surface
ow is sensitive to the narrowing or widening of the alluvial,
which increases or decreases the peak ow (B1, B3 and B4, discharges in Fig. 9).
The ooding of the open pit begins (18-03-2008) with groundwater ow only. Meanwhile, the surface water drained by the Meirama basin is diverted to the Barcs River. Thereafter (3-10-2008)
the mine is being ooded with water diverted from some of their
drainage streams (Fig. 7B). The evolution of the ooding, illustrated
in Fig. 10 left, is depicted from the point of view of the calibration,
the validation and the prediction periods, as well as that of the evolution of the relative errors for the maximum water depth (about
150 m) and for the maximum volume of surface water storage
(about 68.12  106 m3) which have been observed. Table 2 shows
the corresponding averaged relative errors for the ooding of the
Meirama open pit mine. Small relative errors are evaluated when
the surface and ground water hydrology variability is focused on

J.-Horacio Hernndez et al. / Journal of Hydrology 472473 (2012) 328339

337

Fig. 10. Left: Flooding evolution observed and simulated with the percentage of error relative to the maximum observed surface level relative error. Right: Total balance from
cumulative volumes in the area of the open pit mine delimited by cross sections (Fig. 7C).

the upper watershed, where the ooding of the open pit mine of
Meirama takes place, which is one of the main aims of this application, mainly because of the availability of data and the calibration strategy.
In addition to the analysis of the hydrological evolution of the
ooding in the open pit by means of the water elevations that have
been reached, other water variables, like the cumulative volumes
of discharges from cross sections that enclose the open pit mine,
are also analyzed (Fig. 10 right). The cumulative volume analysis
considers: the surface water ow, the groundwater ow, the overland ow, the rainfall, the evaporation from the free surface water
and the bare soil, as well as the transpiration due to the local vegetation. The total balance of all the components of this particular
hydrological cycle are compared with the volume of water associated with the simulated ooding evolution (surface water storage
in the open pit). Through this analysis, it is possible to assess the
material water storage in the analyzed area as the difference between the surface water storage and the total balance. It is also
interesting to notice that once the target elevation ooding is
reached (176.4 m.a.s.l.) a gradual hydrological stabilization follows. Then, the multiple sources of water getting into the open
pit are mainly discharged as surface water, as can be seen by the
behavior of the surface water cumulative volume. An averaged
groundwater discharge of about 3.1 hectometres per year, inside
a perimeter of 8.1 km (Fig. 7C), is in good agreement with the volume pumped within the mine during the last exploitation period.
Finally, the past and future scenarios of the surface and groundwater layouts which have been simulated are depicted on Fig. 11,
where the high level of interaction and variability of the hydrology
of surface and groundwater ows in the Barcs River watershed is
clearly shown during two specic hydrological events of the ten
years simulation period.
Among these results we would like to underline, for instance,
the drainage layout of surface runoff and the freshwater hydraulic
heads around the Meirama open pit, that prospectively will reach
its maximum capacity (143.4  106 m3), free surface altitude
(176 m.a.s.l.) and water depth level (200 m) by December
2014. The main conclusion of this analysis is based upon the fact
that the conservation of the water balance is veried on both a local and global basis. This responsibility lays on the consistent surface and ground water model interactions which guarantee the
water mass conservation trough the X parameter. In the context
of the present application the X parameter takes a calibrated value
of 0.929.

5. Conclusions
A process-based integrated hydrological model of 2-D saturated
subsurface and surface ows has been presented. This groundwater model for continental catchment applications couples subsurface regional hydrogeology by a nite element resolution to the
saturated porous media ows of freshwater. Numerical characterization of overland and free surface ows comes through an interpretation of a linear river ood routing method that makes sense
from the point of view of a diffusive wave approach and the equation of continuity, allowing the free surface and groundwater ows
to be lumped, depth-averaged, in a horizontal nite element approach that conserves water mass balances. Others surface
groundwater interactions considers the actual evaporation and
transpiration processes as a diffuse discharge from surface water,
non-saturated subsoil and groundwater, through several developed sub-models which depend, among others hydrological variables, on the ground water table position. Inltration rates and
overland ows generation processes are assessed by a new submodel which accounts for this kind of surfacegroundwater interactions. From the need to smooth out numerically the sharp front
of properties (mainly water storage and transmissibility) between
the surface and groundwater media, the subsoil zone concept is
implemented within the surfacegroundwater interactions submodels. The subsurface and surface model is depth-averaged
solved, numerically lumped, although coupled between freshwater
and saltwater, but the results are interpreted and assessed in a
multilayered way, giving solutions for fresh and salt water ows
as well as mean horizontal velocities above and under the soil surface (surface, overland, subsurface and groundwater ows). Hydrological properties, simulated conditions and numerical results of
the nite element model, MELEF, are managed by GIS.
One application to the freshwater ooding of an open pit mine
at the Barcs river catchment (La Corua, Spain), during a total period of ten years, was presented to illustrate a high variety of interactions between surface and subsurface water, where regional
hydrology allows the ooding of a surface water body of high
depth level. The analysis is carried out through the calibration
and validation of hydrological parameters, variables and processes
based also upon the fact that the conservation of mass is veried
on both a local and global basis. Main results consider the drainage
layout of surface runoff and the freshwater ground levels, as well
as measured and simulated surface ows, groundwater tables, free
surface levels and freshwater balances around the Meirama open

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J.-Horacio Hernndez et al. / Journal of Hydrology 472473 (2012) 328339

Fig. 11. Surface and groundwater levels simulated in December 2009 and January 2016 at the Barcs river catchment.

pit, that prospectively will reach its maximum capacity

(143.4  106 m3), free surface altitude (176 m.a.s.l.) and water
depth level (200 m) by December 2014.
The comparison of observed and simulated groundwater levels
around the open pit mine, shows a moderate good t. The lack of t
could be mainly understood by the complex geology and the existence of strong vertical hydraulic gradients, as well as isolated
aquifers, that affect the concerned weathered and fractured rock
materials. Nevertheless, the simulated surface water levels and
water balances around the open pit seem quite appropriate with
respect to the observed ooding evolution. Although, more knowl-

edge about the hydrologic parameters, as well as continuous measurements of groundwater levels and surface storm ows, could
help to a better calibration of Barcs River basin hydrology. Then,
the comparison between observed and simulated surface ow
rates and groundwater levels seems quite acceptable, given the
modelling approach, the available information and the high variability of this catchment hydrology.
It can be concluded that the developed numerical model MELEF,
for the present joined surface and subsurface regional ows, with
new modelling features of surface runoff and overland ows as
well as evapotranspiration and GIS, can provide useful and quite

J.-Horacio Hernndez et al. / Journal of Hydrology 472473 (2012) 328339

precise results concerning all the freshwater resources of a relatively large drainage basin, like that of the Barcs river of about
87.9 km2, with a complex, anisotropic and fractured geology,
where regional hydrology allows the ooding of a surface water
body of high depth level.
Acknowledgements
The work reported in this paper has been funded by the Spanish
Ministry of Education and Science CICyT (CGL2006-01452 and
CGL2009-11258), the Xunta de Galicia (Maria Barbeito Program)
and the company LIMEISA, as well as the European Science
Foundation.
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