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Thesis
A Handbook
for
Postgraduate Medical Students
How to Write
Thesis
A Handbook
for
Postgraduate Medical Students
ISBN: 984-300-002519-1
Publishing:
Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujib Medical University, Dhaka, Bangladesh
Cover design: Dr. M d . Mizanur Rahman
Chairman
Member
Department of Medicine,
BSMMU, Dhaka
3.
Member
Member
Member
Member
Member-Secretary
PREFACE
After the establishment of the Institute of Post-graduate Medicine and Research (IPGM&R) in
1965, the Medical Education in Bangladesh has expanded many-folds in various dimensions and
students of M. Phil & FCPS in IPGM&R would write dissertation and thesis as an integral part
of their postgraduate program.
The students of various postgraduate institutions like ICVD, IDCH, RIHD, NIPSOM and others
also have postgraduate education program of which dissertation / thesis is an integral part.
With the establishment of Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujib Medical University in 1998, the necessity
was felt for a thesis guideline for the students. and teachers of all medical institutions in
Bangladesh.
With the passage of time some government medical colleges in Bangladesh also started
Post-graduate courses in medical sciences.
As a part of the curricula, each and every student is required to submit a thesis to obtain a
Masters or Ph. D Degree.
For the preparation of a standard thesis, adequate knowledge on biostatistics and other basic
medical science is a prerequisite. Many of our teachers and students lack sufficient knowledge in
biostatistics and research methodology.
A standard book as a guideline, is now the demand of the time. It is expected a standard book in
this regard will equally benefit both the teachers and the students, who are involved in research.
This handbook will be reviewed and updated periodically to accommodate new knowledge and
experience. Constructive criticisms and useful suggestions for improving the quality and contents
of this handbook from all quarters are welcome.
I thank the chairman and the members of the committee and contributors for their endeavor
without which this publication would not have been possible.
Table of Contents
Topics
I.
2.
Chapter I
Page no.
9-11
1.1
What is thesis?
1.2
1.2.1
10
1.2.2
Table of contents
10
1.2.3
Certificate of guide/supervisor
10
1.2.4
Declaration of authorship
10
1.2.5
10
1.2.6
Acknowledgements
10
1.2.7
Dedication
10
I .2.8
Abstract
II
1.2.9
II
Chapter 2
13-16
2. I
Introduction
13
2.2
13
2.3
13
2.4
14
2.5
14
2.6
14
3.
4.
2.7
15
2.8
15
2.9
15
2.10
16
2. II
16
Chapter 3
17-19
3. I
17
3.2
17
3.3
17
3.3.1
17
3.3.2
17
3.3.3
18
3.3.4
18
3.3.5
18
3.3.6
18
3.3.7
18
3.3.8
Bibliographic software
19
3.4
19
3.5
Concluding comment
19
Chapter 4
21-28
4.1
Introduction
21
4.2
Research participants/subjects
21
4.3
Research tools
22
4.4
22
4.5
Methodological defense
23
4.6
23
4.7
Statistical power
23
4.8
24
Topics
5.
6.
7.
8.
Page
110.
4.9
24
4.10
Experimental designs
25
4.11
Survey research
25
4.12
26
4.12.1
26
4.12.2
Clinical observation
26
4.12.3
27
4.12.4
Interviews
27
4.12.5
27
4.13
28
Chapter
5. I
Introduction
29
5.2
29
5.3
30
5.3.1
30
5.3.2
32
5.3.3
33
5.3.4
Good layout
33
5.4
33
5.5
34
29-34
35-36
6.1
Introduction
35
6.2
35
6.2.1
35
6.2.2
Hypothesis testing
35
6.2.3
Sources of errors
35
6.2.4
Alternative models
35
6.2.5
The future
35
6.3
36
Chapter
7.1
Introduction
37
7.2
37
7.3
Major findings of the thesis and how they integrate with previous work
38
7.4
38
7.5
38
7.6
39
7.7
40
37-40
41-64
8. I
41
8.2
41
8.3
41
8.3.1
41
8.3.2
43
8.4
48
8.4.1
48
8.4.2
50
8.5
Vancouver Style
55
8.5.1
56
8.5.2
57
Bibliography
62
Appendages
63
63
65
Sample Bibliography
87
CHAPTER 1
Overview of the Thesis
1.1 What is thesis?
A thesis is the written document that results from a period of supervised research at the University.
Theses are generally required for 'first' Masters degrees, and always for the higher degrees - Master
of Philosophy or Doctor of Philosophy. For some first Masters degrees, a less comprehensive piece
of research may be required. These are referred to as dissertations.
Any thesis, no matter what the discipline, attempts to make a new claim. Its purpose is to shed new
light on something or to look at something in a novel way. This is true whether the thesis is written
in the medical sciences, the social sciences or the humanities. The role of the thesis in Academia is
to contribute to knowledge, This means that you, the researcher, are contributing to the knowledge
base we currently have about the world we live in. You have the potential to instigate new research,
change current practices and even change people's beliefs. Because of this, your thesis is judged
against strict criteria. It must reflect the expected standards of university scholarship.
A thesis reports on new findings and implications of research undertaken, set in the context of the
earlier work of others and making appropriate reference to those previous studies and results that
have influenced the conduct of the work. The thesis is also assessed by scholars external to the
University. After successful examination of the thesis it is lodged in the University Library, in both
'hard copy' and 'soft copy'. Theses are generally available for perusal by students and staff of this
and other universities. Frequently, parts of a thesis-or indeed even the whole thesis-are subsequently
published either as journal articles or as books.
1.2 An overview of the thesis structure
The health sciences thesis typically follows a well-designed overall structure. It may contain the
following elements:
i,
ii,
..
Table of contents
111 ,
Certificate of guide/Supervisor
Iv,
Declaration of authorship
v,
List of tables
List of figures
VI,
VII,
Acknowledgements
VIlt ,
Dedication (optional)
IX
Abstract
Introduction
Literature review
XI
XII
Xlll
Results
XIV
Discussion
xv
XVI
. .
XVII
ReferenceslBibliography
Appendices
How to Write
10
Thesis
The substance of the thesis appears in the abstract, introduction and literature review, methods and
materials, results and discussion, conclusions and recommendations chapters. However, the production
of a research thesis is not simply a writing task. It is the culmination of an often arduous and lengthy
sequence of tasks performed in academic, clinical and community contexts. Many people are
involved in these tasks. This treatise reflects both a focus on the writing tasks and research context in
which these are written.
1.2.1 T hesis title page
This page includes title of the thesis (including subtitle), author's name, institutional affiliation, name
of respective department, month and year of submission.
1.2.2 Table of contents
The table of contents should list all the major sections of the thesis document and all their page
ranges. The skeleton of the table of contents can and should be produced in draft, but it can only be
finalized with the actual page numbers when the rest of the thesis has been printed in final form.
1.2.3 Certificate of guide/supervisor
A certificate is to be issued by the supervisor of the thesis that the student concerned has completed
the thesis under his close supervision with his full satisfaction.
1.2.4 Declaration of authorship
The declaration is signed by the student and it is generally claimed that the thesis is one's own work,
all sources have been correctly attributed and that the thesis is presented in accordance with the
university's guidelines and regulations for the degree.
1.2.5 List of tables and figures
The list of tables and figures shows the exact titles as they appear in the text of all table and figures
included in the thesis. It is better to cut and paste the titles from the actual tables an" figures to
ensure that they match exactly. You should include their page numbers to indicate their placement in
the text.
1.2.6 Acknowledgements
The acknowledgements section has no substantive impact upon the reception of the thesis. It is polite
to thank those who have substantially assisted you either technically, intellectually or financially
during your research work. The first paragraph is for the supervisor and c o supervi sor the second
-
paragraph is for any person, organization or institute who supported the research for financing and
the third and the final paragraph is for any other person(s), colleague(s) who substantiall) helped you
in the completion of the thesis work. A maximum of one page is earmarked for the acknowledgements.
1.2.7 Dedication
This is an optional page in which you can pledge your undying devotion to your goldfish. It is okay
in books but not mandatory in thesis.
How to Write
Thesis
11
1.2.8 Abstract
An abstract should be viewed as a miniversion of the thesis. The abstract should provide a brief
summary of each of the main sections of the thesis: Introduction, materials and methods, results and
discussion. So, an abstract can be defined as a summary of the information in a document. A well
prepared abstract enables readers to identify the basic content of a document quickly and accurately,
to determine its relevance to their interests, and thus to decide whether they need to read the thesis in
it's entirety. The abstract in thesis should not exceed two pages of double spaced text and should be
designed to define clearly what is dealt with in the thesis. Abstract preferably be structured and
should (i) state the principal objective and scope of the investigation; (ii) describe the methodology
employed; (iii) summarize the results; and (iv) state the principal conclusions. Most or the entire
abstract should be written in the past tense, because it refers to work done. The abstract should never
give any information or conclusion that is not stated in the thesis. References to the literature must
not be cited in the abstract. The followings are the key points to keep in mind:
i.
A good abstract tells in one line why the thesis is important. A good abstract is concise,
readable and quantitative.
11.
Ill,
Be explicit.
1 V.
a.
b.
Why did you do it? What questions were you trying to answer?
c.
d.
e.
Second, your thesis should contain a clear position or argument. Your writing needs to use the
appropriate language and writing conventions that reflect this.
Chapter 2
Writing the Thesis Introduction and Background
2.1 Introduction
You cannot write a good introduction until you know what the body of the thesis is. Be sure to
include a hook at the beginning of the introduction. This is a statement of something sufficiently
interesting to motivate your reader to read the thesis, it is an important scientific problem that your
thesis either solves or addresses. You should draw the reader in and make them want to read the rest
of the thesis.
The introductory chapter should include rationale for the thesis, the previous relevant researches
done in this area. It should cite those who had the idea or ideas first and should also cite those who
have done the most recent work. You should then go on to explain why it was necessary (your work,
of course).
What else belongs in the introductory section(s) of your thesis?
a.
A statement of the goal of the thesis: why the study was undertaken, or why the thesis was
written. Do not repeat abstract.
b.
Sufficient background information to a110w the reader to understand the context and signifi
cance of the question you are trying to address.
c.
Proper acknowledgement of the previous work on which you are building. Sufficient references
such that a reader could, by going to the library, achieve a sophisticated understanding of the
context and significance of the question.
d.
Explain the scope of your work, what wi11 and what wi11 not be included.
Remember that this is not a review paper. We are looking for original work and interpretation and
analysis by you. Break up the introduction section into logical segments by using subheads.
b.
Review current knowledge in the field relevant to your thesis through the performance of a
literature review and analysis
c.
How to Write
14
Thesis
The rationale for the thesis is not confined to any one section of the thesis, but it ought to be particularly
concentrated throughout the introductory chapter. It needs to be oven closely into the fabric of the
introduction and literature review.
A number of standard arguments can be used to defend the research work included in your thesis and
can be used in the development of your rationale. These arguments are discussed below in plain
language.
2.4 This is something we do not know already
The most basic rationale for studying something is that we do not know about it already. If we did
know already, then why would we bother to research it? If we wish to use a bit of jargon, we could
say the thesis introduction has to identify clearly the 'knowledge gaps' that need to be fulfilled. The
knowledge gap rationale is a bit weak on its own (i.e. we do not know this, so we should), but it is a
basic requisite for the other possible arguments in the rationale to be made. The knowledge gap
argument is a kind of Sir Edmund Hilary 'because it is there' explanation of why we need to know.
An example of some text that expresses this type of argument follows:
Thus, the literature review has revealed that the state of knowledge in the literature ;s unsatis
factory cOllcerning whether long-term survivors of HIV (as defined by 10 years following infec
tion without progression to AIDS) have psychological characteristics that are different from
those who have 110t survived. Accordingly, the research program was designed to examine this
position.
2.5
A second line of argument for a thesis program rationale is that other people think the problem is
important too. This relies on finding people who have said that your general research agenda or
approach is worth pursuing. Once again, this is not a particularly compelling stand-alone rationale
as it is a sort of appeal to authority or adherence to academic group norms. All the in-crowd wear
dungarees and hang around at the local coffee shop, so we should do this as well.
A[DS
(1988)
research is necessary and .... may provide critical information for understanding and
treating AIDS.'
The above quotation is an excerpt from a paper that the researcher wrote recently concerning the
psychological characteristics of people with HIV who have survived their illness for a long time.
The researcher was arguing, as a psychologist, that psychological constructs had not been included
in the studies of long-term survival because the medical researchers had advocated totally biomedical
cellular level explanations for health hardiness. The researcher went on to cite evidence for the
existence of direct links between psychology states and immune competence in humans. One of his
arguments along the way was that people like Temoshok were supporting the approach he was
advocating. Thus he was using Temoshok as an appeal to authority justification for studying what
he was studying i.e. we were wearing the same color dungarees.
2.6. The problem I am studying affects a lot of people in a particularly unfortunate way and/or
costs a lot of money
Now we are talking! This aspect of the rationale is often fairly easy to develop in health sciences
How 1O
Write
Thesis
15
theses. If you are studying people with a particular problem, then a presentation of the epidemiology
of that problem is de rigueur. Even better, if it costs the community a lot of money. You can include
statements about the fabulous cost of the condition and how, if your research bears fruit, this
fabulous cost could be reduced.
/11
Sweden. Anderson
(1979)
12.5% of the days lost due to occupational injllry among Swedish workers. In the UK, Anderson
(1981) estimated that 7.3% of the total sick days were due 10 low back pain, representing a loss of
/5 million work days per annwlI. David ( /985J, however, reponed that sprains alld slraills to the
back at work, ill the UK, accow!led Jor an average oj /4.9% oj all work absentees over 3 days Jor
the period /978 to 1980, representing approximately 250000 cases for each year. Belll1 & Wood
(1975) estimated that 13000000 visits per (1II1lUIIl to general practitioners ill lhe UK were associaIed
will! low back problems alld that there were 6000 10\11 back operariolls each year.
So why are you not out there studying back injuries? The point I was establishing was that this is a
high-prevalence costly condition that requires study because of the issues. Later on in this paper, he
went into how it all costs. This is not a particularly academically respectable argument but it certainly
gets the community's attention. Most theses can stand a dose of this sort of epidemiological
contextualization o f the work reported within it.
How to Write
16
Thesis
more efficient. cost less, etc. as a result of the research, are also certain to put a partial smile on the
examiners' faces. This is because the researcher has taken the effort to connect his or her work to
the context in which it is performed as well as, perhaps, striven to make the world a slightly better
place.
There are, of course, many other possible lines of argument that can be advanced to support the
conduct of a research program. However, the above lines of argument are frequently employed in the
construction of the rationale for research theses and all ought be considered for inclusion in the
rationale.
2.10 The thesis objectives, hypotheses or research questions
It has been previously noted that one of the functions of the introduction to the thesis is to 'culminate
in the statement of the research questions to be answered by the worker in the thesis' and that the
literature review should 'identify any gap in knowledge pertinent to the research questions to be
addressed by the thesis'. The literature review needs to conclude with an explicit summary statement
of 'what we know' and 'what we do not' in order that the research questions can be developed from
the review.
It is imperative that the thesis has clear and unambiguous research objectives, hypotheses or research
questions. These questions need to be developed logically from literature review and be supported by
the research rationale. The research questions are normally stated at conclusion of the introduction
and they are used over and over throughout the thesis. They form the basis of methodology. They are
the basis upon which the results are presented. Since the objectives of the thesis are to pose and
answer the research questions, the discussion and conclusion sections necessarily focus on them. If
they are not well developed then the thesis quality can be severely compromised.
In terms of the relationship between research questions and hypotheses, consider the following
example for a hypothetical quantitative study:
The objectives oj this research was to swd)' the relationship between age alld decision makhzg perfo l1nance.
The research quesrioll addressed by Study I was: 'Is there an association between age and decision making perfor
mance olilhe risk propelll'ity measure provided by the gamblillg task?'
It was hypothesized ,hal there would be a lIegative association betweell participant age and 'he risk propensity
score derived from fhe gambling task completed by the participants.
In the introduction, you should introduce your readers to the nature of your research and why the research is significant:
Include as much detail in the introduction as possible; it will help your readers to understand the decisions you have
made;
Be sure to include the research objectives, research questions or hypotheses in the problem statement, and try to anticipate
and answer any question(s) your reader may ask;
Be sure to define all terms and symbols that may be unknown to your readers: if you are uncertain about whether to
define it. define it.
Chapter 3
Writing the Thesis Literature Review
3.1 How to write literature review
One of the areas of the thesis in which many students struggle is the writing of the literature review.
A literature review has several functions. The most important of these are:
a.
b.
Describe the characteristics of previous studies in the area including who conducted them,
where they were conducted, who were the participants, what protocols were followed and
what were the findings and conclusions.
c.
d.
Comment on the strengths and limitations of the relevant studies and findings
e.
Identify any gap in knowledge pertinent to the research questions to be addressed by your
thesis..
A literature review should be informative, evaluative and integrative. These attributes correspond
to the three stages in the construction of a literature review. It is suggested that the students first write
the informative detail of the studies to be reviewed in a neutral way, then add critical (this does not
always mean negative) analysis of the literature they have just described. They should then integrate
the various studies to compare and contrast their findings.
3.2 Selection of literature for inclusion in the literature review
Part of the skill in constructing a literature review is the ability to make connections between relevant
materials and to choose which information to include and which information to omit. Reading other
literature reviews in the same area is a useful guide to these decisions. The thoroughness with which
the literature researching process is performed is the best insurance for ensuring that all previous
works relevant to your thesis are found.
3.3 Keep your literature search under control
There are several basic strategies and procedures for locating the literature that is pertinent to your
search topic. These include computer-assisted searches using electronic databases or the internet
more generally, searches using printed collected abstracts, manual literature searching and consultations
with experts in the field.
3.3.1 Computer-assisted literature searching
Most university libraries maintain various computer-based literature databases, often
stored using
CD-ROM technology. The user conducts a search by first accessing the relevant databases. Then the
user keys in a combination of subject keywords and also the names of key authors in the field, in
order to locate all the works they have written (at least those that appear in the database).
Computerized literature databases are a superb tool but only if used skillfully.
3,3.2 Searches of collected printed abstracts
In the reference section of the library, you will find shelves-full of books of abstracts with associated
author and subject indices to guide you around them. It is also possible to subscribe to some specialized
How to Write
18
Thesis
abstracting services that provide regular updates to individual users using search parameters defined
by the subscriber.
Start reading on a regular basis the journals where you have located most materials of relevance
to you. Since your candidature, in the case of a higher degree, may last a few years. you need
to monitor regularly the literature and keep up to date. In fact, at the last moment before the
submission of the thesis, it is recommended to the students that they repeat their electronic
search using their usual search parameters to check that nothing new and vital has appeared.
How to
Write
Thesis
19
See an example:
Other studies also support the conclusion that traditional teaching methods hinder learning
calculus. Selden, Selden, and Mason, conclude that isolated, trivial problems, the norm in
many classrooms, inhibit students from acquiring the ability t o generalize calculus
problem-solving skills (Selden, Selden, and Mason 1994). Similar results are reported by
Norman and Prichard (1994). They demonstrate that many learners can not interpret the
structure of a problem beyond surface-level symbols. They show that novices have inaccurate
intuitions about problems which lead them to attempt incorrect solution strategies (Norman
and Prichard 1994). Because they cannot see beyond high-level features, they can not
develop correct intuitions. On the other hand, successful problem solvers categorize math
problems based upon underlying structural similarities and fundamental principles (Silver
1979), (Shoenfeld and Herrman 1982). These categories are often grouped based upon
solution modes, which the experts use to generate a forward working strategy (Owen and
Sweller 1989).
Source: www.psu.edu/dept/cewfWritingProposals.ppt accessed 16/0912007
Chapter 4
Writing the Thesis Materials and Methods
4.1
Introduction
This chapter is intended to assist the student with the reporting of the thesis methodology.
Methodology is an important aspect of knowledge generation. In the literature review it is important
to narrate the methodological stances taken by previous researchers and that their respective strengths
and weaknesses are discussed when evaluating the presented work. The methodological themes
raised in the introduction should connect with those discussed in the thesis methodology section.
The structure of the individual thesis determines where the method section(s) are to be placed. In
single study research program, the methodology would normally precede the (first) results chapter
and would normally be a separate chapter or section, albeit one that is much shorter than, for example,
the introductory chapter(s).
It should be noted that the method section in journal article is quite different in scope from a
methodology section in a health sciences thesis. In a journal article, because of space constraints,
there is usually no defense of the methodology, except perhaps in some oblique references to the
strengths and limitations of the work. The method section in a journal article contains almost no
explanation or rationale for the methodological choices made. This is not an adequate strategy for
the health sciences thesis. The methodological decisions taken need to be discussed and defended in
a systematic and robust manner. The researcher advocates the use of a standard method section
structure and a methodological defense irrespective of whether the research has a quantitative or
qualitative focus. Both approaches involve knowledge gathering and generation based on procedures
and assumptions that need to be explicated. The examiners need to be convinced that the student has
an expert understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of the techniques chosen and their theoretical
underpinnings. The specific methodological approach chosen, in no way exempts the student from
this obligation.
Further, in most health sciences theses irrespective of methodological orientation, there are human
participants who need to be described, tools that were used in the research and protocols in the data
gathering and analysis that were followed. It is also advocated the addition of a section entitled
'Methodology defense and rationale' in which the student defends and provides a rationale for the
protocols and procedures employed in his or her work. Let us examine the content of each component
of the method section in a health sciences thesis.
4.2
Research participants/subjects
This is typically a very brief section, perhaps a half-spaced page to a page. It should describe the
number of participants in the research and their basic attributes including age, sex and diagnostic
groupings, if appropriate. Describe the inclusion (and exclusion) criteria for their participation in the
research. It is sometimes useful to include a table summarizing the participants' demographic
attributes at this point in the thesis. An example of the sort of detail required is as follows:
42 volunteers participated in the preselll research. There were 22 men and 20 women with a mean age of
53.2 years. The participants' demographic characteristics are summarized ill Table J (not shown).
Participants were all current rheumatoid arthritis patiell1s at the Rheumatology Institute who attended in the
mOl/th of FebrLIar),. 1999. Of the 60 people approached for recruitment into the study, 42 agreed yieldil/g a
respol/se rate of 70%.
22
How to Write
Thesis
[t is compulsory that age and sex characteristics of the research participants are described. It is also
essential that the response rate i.e., the percentage of people who were approached to participate in
the study, and who actually participated, is disclosed. This is an essential piece of information. It
requires that good records are kept concerning who was approached and who finally participated. If
this information is not provided then the reader has no indication of how representative the participants
might be of those who could have participated in the study.
4.3 Research tools
This section should describe the use of any research instrument or tool employed by the researcher in
the conduction of his or her research. In laboratory research, this section is labeled' Apparatus'. As
these research tools are introduced, they should be reviewed and defended. That is. not only should
the tools used be described, but also the reasons for their selection. This section could run for several
pages in a higher degree thesis.
Where the tools are not standardized andlor well known, then they need to be described in detail so
that the reader understands exactly what has occurred.
It is important that the reader has a clear idea of exactly what was done. In the case of questionnaires. it
is not usual to include the full text of the questionnaire in the main body of the thesis in the methods
section. Normally, the questionnaire is included as an appendix. When presenting frequency tables of
responses to questions from a questionnaire, it is helpful to include the exact wording of the question,
in some instances, as part of the results table.
In a qualitative research project involving interviews, it is highly appropriate to describe the interview
schedule in the case of a structured interview or focus group and/or the themes covered in an
unstructured interview. An example follows:
Each of the focus groups was presented with the same set of discussion questions by the researcher.
These include:
What would you say is the main thing you feel about being HIV positive?
How have your friends reacted to your HIV-positive status?
How has your family reacted to your HIV-positive status?
How do you explain that you have survived your illness for the time that you have?
Why do you think other people have not survived as long?
The examiner should be in no doubt about how the information was collected and why this method
was chosen.
4.4 Protocols and procedures
[n this section, the researcher describes exactly how the research was conducted. In a higher degree
thesis, this section could run to a couple of pages. It is usual to commence with a brief description of
your ethics approval procedures followed by nuts and bolts of the participant recruitment procedure.
How were people contacted? How did you know where to find them? How was access obtained?
For example, ethical clearance to conduct the research was sought and obtained from Ethical Review
Committee (ERC) and followed the national ethical guideline.
How to
Write a
Thesis
23
The patients who attended the Rheumatology Institute during the month of February. 1999, were approached by the
Institute's reception staff when they presented for their appointment at the institute's clinic reception. The patients were
handed a lener from the researcher that contained an invitation to participate in the research. The patients who wished to
participate, the researcher telephoned the university to indicate their interest in participation in the research program. The
researcher then arranged to meet at a mutually convenient time with the research participants. At this meeting, following
signature of the informed consent form. the participant was then interviewed using the interview schedule.
While it is a commendable wish to spare the reader the gruesome details, it is important that the
work is described to the level that it would be reproducible by someone else. Unlike in a journal
article, there is plenty of space available in a thesis. Do not stint on the detail of how the study was
conducted. The examiners will expect a full account of how the research was carried out.
4.5 Methodological defense
in his or her research. It is a vital component of the fact and appearance of a high-quality research
program and thesis. This has proven to be a difficult section of this guideline to write because it can
not presume to predict the fine detail of the methodology of every thesis. Nevertheless, there are
routine issues associated with various types of methodological approaches and problems.
The first area that needs consideration in the defense revolves around the generalization of the results
obtained by the procedures, tools and participants involved in the research.
4.6 Defense of sample size
Out of all the people who could have participated in the research, the researcher has generally selected
a small number. This number has to be justified. One justification is the logistic defense. This runs
along the lines of 'I would like to have more, but, hey, we all have to stop at some point'. In academic
sense this could translate into some phrases like the following:
The recruitment of participants into the present research proved to be difficult as is often the case with clinical populations.
To increase the sample size was not possible within the resources available.
This is marginally better than no defense at all. A much better defense in a quantitative study is a
statistical one, based on the statistical power of the analysis and the required sample size. If you are
reporting an intervention study, or one in which group means are compared, for example, involving
analysis of variance, then in higher degree thesis some attention to power is required. If you do not
know what statistical power is, then you need to read the following section and some associated
references because it is very important that you understand what it is about. If you are performing
a qualitative study, then skip this section.
4.7 Statistical power
In a study where there are tests of group mean differences, (this includes most intervention and
experimental studies), it is essential that the issue of statistical power is canvassed in the write-up.
Readers will recall from their basic statistical training that when a researcher applies a statistical test,
in .addition to correct rejection of the null hypothesis and correct acceptance of the null hypothesis,
there are two types of errors that can be made. These are the incorrect acceptance of the null hypothesis,
(Type II error or miss) and an incorrect rejection of the null hypothesis (Type I error or false alarm)
24
How to Write
Thesis
The power in a study is the probability of (correctly) rejecting the null hypothesis when the alternative
hypothesis is correct. It is 1
(Type II error).
is 0.80 in any study. That is, when the null hypothesis should be rejected (there is real effect) it is
rejected on 80% occasions. Or on the other hand, on 20% of occasions when there is a real effect. it
is missed.
The concept of power is quite different from
a.
adjust the acceptance rate of false alarm, i.e., incorrect rejection of the null hypothesis (0.05 represents
a 5% rate of false alarm, 0.0 I represents a I % rate). The reader will recall that reducing the false
alarms, i.e., making the a. level more rigorous by adjusting it, for example from 0.05
10
0.0 I. simply
means that more Type II errors (misses) will be made. Now-a-days many grant applications require a
discussion of statistical power in the application.
Keppel (1991) has noted, the power of a design is determined by three factors: the significance level
(a.) chosen by the researcher (almost always 0.05); the effect size (this is not controllable by the
researcher; and the sample size. It is really only the sample size that is amenable to adjustment by
the researcher. So if you chose an inappropriately low sample size and hence low-powered study.
you may be punished by an examiner if you do not discuss this issue in your analyses and their
interpretation, particularly if you haVe> null results. Indeed, if you have null results, i.e., no difference
detected or group effects detected. then not discussing the statistical power of the analysis is a risky
business.
4.8 Defense of participant selection method
While the sample size defense is more a feature of the quantitative than the qualitative research
project, the selection of study participants is important in both. Most health sciences studies
employ incidental rather than random sampling procedures. It has already been noted that a key
feature of the reporting of participants i s the response rate, i.e., the proportion of people
approached to participate in the research who actually did so. If it is very low, say 10%. ;hen the
findings will and ought to be interpreted very differently from when the response rate was, say,
80%.
The key issue in participant selection is the representativeness of the participants with respect to the
population from which they were drawn. One way of demonstrating this is to collect information
about the participants and then compare this information with known characteristics of the wider
population. If, for example, you are studying athletes but your group is older than the general population
of athletes, this might have important implications for interpretation of your results. Recovery times
from injury might be an important facet of your study. You need to demonstrate to the examiner that
you have considered these issues.
4.9 Defense of the research design
In a qualitative study, the interpretive methods chosen and the theoretical stance of the researcher
need to be defended. Incidentally, defense does not mean a personal attack on the proponents of the
other methods! The reader needs to know the stance that you have chosen and why you have chosen
it. The defense of qualitative epistemology and methodology is more taxing than in a quantitative
context because there is far less agreement about what approaches should be taken. At least the
quantitative researcher has a more stable base on which to build an agreement. Let us examine some
of the more common research designs and how they might be approached.
How to Write
Thesis
25
An experiment is a study where a sample of participants is randomly assigned to groups and then the
groups receive different treatments. The goal of the experiment is to attribute the differences in the
groups following the interventions, to the interventions themselves. If this can be done, then the
experiment is considered to be normally valid (Polar & Thomas, 1995).
There are many reasons why an experiment may not achieve internal validity. As outlined in Polar &
Thomas, Cook and Campbell (1979) defined a number of such threats including:
a.
History. This refers to unplanned events that occur at the same time as the intervention. For example. in an exercise
study, some of the participants may become ill with influenza, thus affecting their results.
b.
Maturation. This refers to the phenomenon of natural changes in the participants over time. In a study of injured people.
the injuries may spontaneously lessen owing to natural recuperation.
c.
Testing. This refers t o the phenomenon where the test procedure might alter the participants. For example, a series of
exercise tests may have their own fitness benefit quite apart from the interventions.
d.
Instrumentation. The measurement tools or apparatus may change during the course of the study, giving misleading
results.
e.
Regression to the mean. In this phenomenon, people who are chosen for selection into the study on the basis of
extreme scores might 'spontaneously' improve or decline because of a measurement artefact.
1".
Selection of assignment errors. In this phenomenon the groups, owing to faulty assignment to groups, may be different
at the outset, thus giving rise to the artefactual appearance of post-intervention differences.
g.
Mortality. If you have a large dropout rate in your study, this may introduce group in-equivalence similar to assignment
errors.
Experiments can also be prone to various expectancy and social facilitation effects including
Rosenthal and Hawthorne effects if human observation is involved. The Rosenthal effect refers to
the phenomenon where researchers may inadvertently alter their results to comply with their
expectations. The Hawthorne effect refers to the phenomenon where research participants may
alter their behavior as a result of the knowledge that they are being observed. This is why single
blinding (the participants do not know the research hypothesis) and double-blinding (neither the
participants nor the person administering the protocol know the research hypotheses applying to
that particular participant) are employed in some experimental research projects.
Many of these threats to internal validity in experiments can be assessed through the use of pre-testJ
post-test design where the groups are assessed before and after the intervention(s).If these threats could
apply to your experimental design then you should specifically mention them in your methodological
defense as well as in the results, discussion and the conclusions (in its limitations and strengths of the
present study section).
It should be noted that a design involving the comparison of groups need not be an experimental
design. For example, studies investigating health differences in smokers and non-smokers, where
group membership has not been determined by the researcher, are not experimental by definition.
Such designs are natural comparison or quasi-experimental designs. The basic weakness of such
designs is group in-equivalence on variables other than the grouping variable chosen by the
researcher. This can be addressed to a certain extent by the intelligent application of multivariate
statistical techniques.
4.11 Survey research
A survey involves the collection of data about the characteristics of a single group of people. This is
How to Write
26
Thesis
often followed by an exploration of the associations between variables within the study. Such
associations are sensitive to the representativeness of the selected sample. That is, if the sample is
chosen in a biased fashion, the patterns of associations within that sample detected by the researcher
may be at considerable variance with those to be found in a representative sample.
It is possible to employ a survey design to compare the characteristics of populations. This is one of
the advantages of using standardized tests. A conventional approach to testing whether, for example,
carers of older people were less anxious than people with the same characteristics who were not
carers, would be to take two small groups, administer the test and compare them on the anxiety
measure. This is actually a weak design because, with the small sample size, the power will be low.
An alternative approach would be to put all the data collection resources into one basket (the carer
basket) and to use standardized measures for which population (or very large sample) characteristics
are known. It is advised on this matter concerning how to write up this issue appears below:
The present study involved the study of a single group of carers. If is useful to consider lite methodological
strengths and weaknesses of the design approach. One alternative way of conducting lhe study would have
been to include some sort of matched comparison group (not involved in care-giving) ill order
responses of the two groups. This approach, however, has some flaws in comparison
10
fa
compare the
items and rests as employed in lhe present study. In the instance where two small samples of participants are
compared. high sampling variability issue is present in both samples. Thus. it is difficult to reject the /lull
hypothesis because of both the high within-group variability and also the high between-group variability
caused by small
II
sampling conditions. The use of standardized tests and items from previously performed
large-scale studies drastically reduces the sampling variatioll in one of the 'samples'. This permits much more
sali:-.[aClory lest o/the /lull hypothesis and between-group comparisons than the sometimes conventional small
comparison group design.
If the observation is performed solely by the researcher who also knows the research hypotheses
and objectives, then the methodologist's warning bells would be ringing loudly. There should be
some attempts to study the reliability and validity of the observations, probably by perfOiItling a
basic test-retest and inter-rater reliability study involving at least one other clinician.
How to Wrile
Thesis
27
In this study, the things to be observed and rated would be observed and independently rated by at
least two observers and, if practicable, the same cases should be rated twice to test reliability.
Otherwise the examiner may say that you are studying yourself and your outcome expectancies
rather than real phenomena.
4,12.4 Interviews
An interview is a conversation between the researcher and the research participant. In any interview,
there is the recurrent problem of researchers imposing their agenda and perhaps their views upon the
participants.
28
Questions
1.
2.
research?
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
instruments
instruments?
8.
Chapter 5
Writing the Thesis Results
5.1 Introduction
The results constitute the major part of the original work that is presented in the thesis. These are
very important components of the thesis. This chapter commences with a discussion of the design of
the structure of the results sections within the research thesis. The organization of the presentation of
results within the thesis requires fundamental and important design decisions to be made prior to the
commencement of
where precisely certain discussion points should be made is presented within this chapter.
5.2. The organization of the presentation of results chapters
The location of results within the thesis often presents major difficulties to the research student.
Have you ever had the experience where you have shown your work to someone, perhaps your
supervisor, and then he or she has asked you about issues that you have discussed in other parts of
the thesis? Perhaps you speculate that this reflects the likelihood of short-term memory loss resulting
from excessive imbibing of the departmental port? Or perhaps it confirms your suspicions concerning
the caliber of the person who has had the temerity not to 'get it' despite your efforts. Then again, it
may be that the structure of the presentation did not meet the reader's needs. May be things were not
located where the reader expected them to be and he or she could not find them.
A conventional results section or chapter involves the presentation of the results of the data collection
without extensive commentary or integration with other findings or work. This involves a rather
bare bones description of the outcomes of the study or studies. It attempts to weigh up the evidence
supporting the answers to the research questions posed within the thesis.
There are essentially two main ways of organizing the results sections or chapters in a thesis; either
by data collection or by research question. The decision as to how to best organize this material is
influenced by the number of studies that are to be reported in the thesis. If there is only one study,
then matters are simplified. The presentation of the results section or chapter would then normally be
followed by a discussion of the results.
It is conventional practice to present the research study results under the headings of the various data
collections. Thus, for example, if you had conducted a survey it would be typical to report the results
of that study as a whole in one location (normally a separate chapter) within the thesis. Thus the
organizing principle for this type of presentation is the activities performed by the research student.
Each data collection activity or study is reported separately, perhaps in a separate chapter. However.
while it makes sense to present discrete activities in this fashion, there is also the objective of directly
answering the research questions that you have posed earlier in your thesis. It might be that various
data collections or evidence that you have assembled for the thesis impact on more than one of your
research questions? Should not, therefore, the results of the thesis be organized under the respective
research questions? But would this not lead to a fragmented presentation? These are fundamental
document design issues that need to be resolved in any thesis prior to the commencement of major
writing activity in these sections.
30
How to Write
Thesis
Most theses. whether quantitative or qualitative or mixed in orientation, include tables and
figures/graphs. These need to be well presented. But what does 'well-presented mean' mean?
The first feature of 'well-presented' is that if you have a specific style guide to which the thesis
presentation is to adhere, then use it and stick to it like glue. The American Psychological
Association Style Guide is used widely throughout the health sciences (American Psychological
Association, 1994). It has hundreds of pages in which everything you may want to know (and more)
about where to put your underlines and commas is outlined in grim detail. Some examiners really
care about this stuff, so you need to show them that you care too. If you play your cards right, you
can spend days of avoiding writing by doing this sort of thing.
Another feature of 'well-presented' is 'understandable on its own'. We think that every single graph
and table in a thesis should have a title and axes labeled so that if it is removed from the thesis
and shown to an intelligent person on the street, he understands it.
graphs presented in theses are poorly labeled and obscurely presented to the extent that intelligent
examiners wonder what on earth the message behind a particular graph or figure may be. Remember
that most examiners will descend and ascend from your thesis document in a reasonably chaotic way,
generally balancing this task with many others currently on their desks. W hat may seem logical and
clear when the thesis is read linearly from beginning to end in one sitting may not seem to be when
the document is read in fits and stars. It needs to be dead obvious and clear, even when randomly
accessed. Figures and tables draw the attention of the reader and hence must be the showpieces of
your exposition and convey a message on their own.
For the presentation of responses to multiple questions in one table, perhaps something like the
format used in the following table example could be used:
A further feature of 'well-presented' is elegant simplicity. Do not try to include too much information in
one table or figure to the extent that the clarity of the message it is intended to convey is compromised.
How to Write
3I
Thesis
Table 1 Frequency of problem gambling service client responses to question 'please indicate the
impact the counseling has had for you in each of the following areas' (n=200)
Response
Problem area
Got worse
No change
Positive change
(%)
(%)
(%)
Gambling activity
8.0
3.0
89.0
Financial issues
4.0
16.0
82.0
Family issues
5.0
10.0
85.0
Relationship issues
12.0
4.0
84.0
Employment
1 1 .0
26.0
63.0
Physical health
3.0
11.0
86.0
Leisure use
4.0
13.0
83.0
Legal issues
10.0
0.0
90.0
The presentation of graphs is also an area that requires some design skill. It has been seen that graphs
where there are so many variables are reduced to about 1 mm in width in order to fit them all in one
page. It is suggested that in graphical presentation a maximum of two variables be presented in one
graph. If in doubt, try the alternatives and market test them on some of your research buddies. If you
need to provide an extended explanation of what they are looking at, you already have your answer
about whether it needs changing. Simplify it! The figure on next page is an example of a simple figure
that is easily understood.
Many thousands of theses and papers have been written without the need for mUlti-page tables.
MUlti-page tables are generally hard to follow.
'Well-presented' in the context of figures and tables means 'adhering to the style guide', 'labeled so
that it could be separated from the thesis and still understood' and 'simple and elegant'. Once again,
it is suggested that you look through the theses and journals in your area and imitate greatness.
How to Write
32
Thesis
100
90
80
70
60
%
50
40
30
20
10
o
Health sciences
Psychology
Sociology
Medical sciences
Discipline
Figure 1.
Percentage of PhD Students enrolled at Mythical University in 1981 to 1986 who had
the examiner will not thank youl The table or figure should
not repeat information covered in the main text, it should augment it. Every table and figure should
have a title that is a concise explanation of what is being presented; If abbreviations are used, it is
important that they are explained fully. Tables where p-values are quoted should give the actual p
value, rather than p<O.OS; p<O.OI, p<O.OO1. With the widespread use of computerized statistical
packages, the actual p-value can be found with relative ease. Another issue is important in presenting
results in theses is that confidence interval rather than p value.
A clear concept of p value and confidence interval is required for presenting the results. Simple
statements in a study report such as p<O.OS or p>O.OS do not describe the results of a study well,
and create an artificial dichotomy between significant and insignificant results. The p value does
not relate to the clinical importance of a finding, and i t depends to a large extent on the size of the
study. Thus a large study may find a difference highly significant and a small study may fail to find
important differences. The confidence interval gives an estimate of the precision with which a
statistic estimates a population value which is useful information for the reader. This does not
mean that one should not carry out statistical tests and quote p values, rather than these results
should supplement an estimate of an effect and a confidence interval. Many medical journals now
require paper to contain confidence interval where appropriate.
How to Write
Thesis
33
Normally each result would be followed by several sentences or paragraphs of explanation and discussion
of the results. In a results section or chapter, the discussion of the results is typically somewhat minimalist
and descriptive.
34
How to Write
Thesis
there might be a detailed overview and discussion of the characteristics of the participants. As in a
quantitative study, this might be provided in the form of some summary tables describing the
characteristics of the participants. In quantitative studies this may involve group analyses, e.g. the
participants were on average aged x years, y of them were women, and so on. In qualitative studies
it might be more usual to provide a list of individual participants and describe their characteristic in
an individual case-wise, rather than group-wise basis. For example, 'Doreen is a 45-year-old relinquishing
mother who moved to the USA after 20 years in the former USSR'.
The best way to check the logicality of your sequence of presentation of results is to do a draft plan
in which you outline the steps you are going to take in the presentation. This might look something
like the following. Let us imagine that the study involved a survey of health service users to determine
if there was an association between their satisfaction with various types of health services and their
utilization of these services.
5.5 Key points to remember in writing Tables and Graphs
I.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
II.
12.
Make sure that all numbers are to the same decimal point (this is important and should be con
sistent through the whole document).
13.
14.
Figure titles go below the figure and table titles go above the table.
Chapter 6
Writing the Thesis Discussion
6.1 Introduction
The goal of this section is to provide an interpretation of your results, support for your conclusions,
and a comparison of your results to relevant hypotheses. The discussion is harder to define than the
other sections. Thus, it is usually the hardest section to write. And, whether you know it or not, many
theses are questioned by reviewers because of a faulty discussion, even though the data of the thesis
might be both valid and interesting. Even or likely, the true meaning of the data may be completely
obscured by the interpretation presented in the discussion, again resulting in rejection.
6.2 Important Elements ofdiscussion writing
6.2.1:
Detailed Analysis:
Analyze your results with appropriate level of detail. If you analyze your
data in terms of particular models or phenomena, provide background and detailed mechanisms.
6.2.2
Hypothesis testing:
explanation of the relevant hypotheses, and explain in detail why you believe your results agree or
disagree with these models
6.2.3
Sources of errors:
Alternative models:
Be sure to offer alternative explanations for you data, if they exist (and
The future:
Discuss where the research might go next, and what questions remain after your
study
There are two schools of thought for writing this portion of the thesis. One is that these should be
two separate sections and the other that the two should be combined. There are legitimate arguments
for each format; Majority of the reviewers prefer separate portion of the thesis documents though
both have legitimate thought about writing. But most of the reviewers viewed as a separate section
for learning tools and how they express the ideas and thought about their research work.
You have your detailed outline containing the order of your results and discussion. This is usually in
sections and subsections (because usually you have more than just one item to report). Your outline
includes what results you are presenting, the tables and figures to support results, what reference
material you need, etc. Now present the facts clearly and succinctly for your first result. Provide
tables or figures, these contain your data. In the text, do not just repeat the material from the tables
or figures. Point out the important points in the tables or figures and follow this with a discussion.
The discussion is where you assess the meaning of results. It contains your interpretation (or meaning)
of the results, what caused them, implications, etc. Use the published record to support your
interpretation.
36
How to Write
Thesis
In the discussion, your verb tense should swing back and forth between present and past. Other
peoples' work should be described in the present tense, but your own results should be described
in the past tense.
2.
3.
4.
A single hypothesis to explain results is almost mandatory, but piling one on top of another is
bad for the digestion of the reader and the reputation of the author.
5.
Keep "statistics" in the background, except where they are the main point of the thesis.
Statistics play a supporting role.
6.
Do not assume that a reader can read between the lines. Maintain in plain sight a thread of
continuity in your writing. Use paragraph structure to enhance the flow of the text.
7.
Do not refer to others works just to increase the references cited section. They must fit into your
discussion.
8.
9.
Make sure all results are represented by techniques in the materials and methods section.
Chapter 7
Writing the Thesis Conclusions and Recommendations
7.1 Introduction
The concluding chapter of the thesis ought to perform a number of functions. It should review the
outcomes of the literature review and how they articulated with the research questions; restate the
major findings of the thesis and how they integrate with previous work; discuss the strengths and
limitations of the research presented in the thesis; and propose future avenues of research and
questions arising from the current work.
It has long been known in social psychology through the study of what has been termed the agenda
effect or the serial position effect that the first and last components in any communication are the
most influential for the judge or recipient. This principle also applies to these. The concluding
chapter, therefore, is a very important component of the whole thesis. It needs to be even more
tightly written than the other components so that all the many threads in the thesis are woven into
golden cloth.
Let us examine each of the above mentioned functions of the concluding chapter and how they might
be best addressed.
7.2 Summary of the outcomes of the literature review
In many theses, the literature review may be up to a third of the overall length of the thesis. It is
surprising that many students do not even mention the literature review in their concluding chapter
or section of their thesis. The literature review is supposed to be a comprehensive integration of
current knowledge that identifies the knowledge gaps to be plugged by the research described in the
thesis. That is, it should provide answers to the questions 'What do we know?' and 'What do we
not know?' It should contain the arguments that lead into the statement of the research questions,
i.e. the whole purpose of the research. If the literature review is not discussed in the concluding
chapter, then one might ask, 'How can one discuss the answers without discussing the basis for the
questions?'
A skeleton structure for this component might include statements such as the following:
In the present thesis, the xyz literature was reviewed. It was argued that certain studies in this literature
had methodological problems that rendered their findings ... The abc literature was reviewed. It was
found that ... On the basis of the overall literature review, it was concluded that ... Thus the status of
... was found to be unclear. The research questions addressed by this thesis were .. .
It is de rigueur to restate the objectives of the thesis and the research questions in the conclusion.
Do not worry about the readers being bored. If they wanted excitement they would be reading a
thriller instead of your thesis. After 200 pages plus of academic meanderings, they need to be
reminded of the plot! Tell them what it is. As previously discussed, it is folly to assume that the
examiner will read the thesis in one sitting in a linear sequence. A series of random raids is more
likely.
38
How to Write
Thesis
7.3 Major findings of the thesis and how they integrate with previous work
It is also not repetitious to provide a summary of the major components of the data collection and
their outcomes. Although this is also done in the abstract and the particular results chapters, it is
still a most worthwhile venture to describe the study (ies) and the outcomes. It is crucial that these
outcomes are discussed with respect to previous work and findings. How was it similar to and / or
different from the findings of previous studies? The reader has to have a strong sense of where the
new work reported in the thesis fits in with the old work, so that it forms a logical continuum.
imerviewed ill a focus group. The purpose of Srudy 1 was /0 ... II was fOl/lld rhat ...
32
critical care lIurses. The nurses were asked to complele a questiollllaire including demo
Statements such as the following need to be included in this section of the conclusions.
The researchfilldings ill the present thesis are at odds with those presented by Bloggs (1991). bllt are consistent
,.virh those preselfted by Nurk
(1987).
Sllp-
ported the predictions made by the application o/the Health Belie/model in rhat.. .
What was the research design? What are inherent strengths and weaknesses of such designs?
How do these strengths and weaknesses manifest themselves in the present research?
How to Write
Thesis
39
We consider that a reader who has not read any other part of the thesis should be able to grasp its
basic content inside several sentences of the concluding chapter. Following on from the opening
paragraph is the conclusion proper. As outlined above, we consider that the use of 'deconstruction'
can assist greatly with the production of the conclusion.
The deconstruction process commences with the literature review. The task is to identify the salient
features of what happened during the review and what was said. What was argued? Briefly what was
the evidence to support your arguments? This information needs to be presented clearly and concisely.
If you cannot identify clear and concise arguments from your literature review then this tells you
something about the quality and structure of your review.
In terms of the length of the material, up to a couple of double-spaced pages (but certainly no more)
should be adequate. There needs to be some substantive content in these pages, however. They need
to be tightly written. Suggestions as to the possible content of this material are included in an earlier
section of this chapter.
The second stage of the demonstration commences with the statement of the research aims and an
abbreviated description of the research performed to address them. This description should include
details of the methodology employed. The reader who has not read the rest of the thesis should be
able quickly to obtain the gist of what was done and why. It is imperative that the results obtained
are discussed in relation to the previous research findings and that the status of the research aims is
clearly and directly. addressed.
How to Write
40
Thesis
Students who have followed our deconstruction recommendations have produced near final draft
conclusions sections in 2 working days. Most of the materials in the conclusions should have been
discussed in earlier parts of the thesis in various forms and hence the production of this material
involves judicious editing in the main. If this material is not represented in earlier parts of the thesis,
then this may present some difficulties for the difficulty in detecting the logical progression of the
conclusions from the earlier material. Thus, the thesis will appear to be somewhat disjoined to the
reader.
What is the strongest and most important statement that you can make from your observations?
If you met the reader at a meeting six months from now, what do you want them to remember
.
Refer back to problem posed, and describe the conclusions that you reached from carrying
out this investigation, summarize new observations, new interpretations, and new insights
that have resulted from the present work.
Recommendations
Chapter 8
Writing the Thesis Reference or Bibliography
8.1 What is thesis reference or bibliography?
A list of references contains details only of those works cited in the text whereas a bibliography
also includes sources which have not been cited in the text but was relevant to the subject and
found useful in the formulation of conceptual framework of the thesis under report.
Referencing or citing your sources is the important process of acknowledging any other person's
ideas you may have used in constructing your own essays or assignments, whether you have quoted
them directly or otherwise. The main purpose of doing this is to allow the reader of your work the
opportunity to locate and check the source, if required.
8.2 Referencing and bibliographic citation
There have been numerous adaptations of the original system, but essentially it remains the author date
system of referencing, and the bibliographic citations are in alphabetical order. Before you write your
list of references/bibliography, check with your supervisor(s) for the bibliographic style preferred by
the Academic Departments. Some Departments prefer to use variations on the Harvard system or
American Psychological Association (APA) Style. Another most commonly used for citing reference is
"Vancouver style". It is commonly used in writing scientific articles. In this handbook three referencing
styles are discussed.
8.3 The Harvard System (Author date Method)
All statements, opinions, conclusions etc. taken from another writer's work should be cited, whether
the work is directly quoted, paraphrased or summarized. In the Harvard System cited publications
are referred to in the text by giving the author's surname and the year of publication and are listed in
a bibliography at the end of the text.
8.3.1 Citation in the text
Quotations - as a general rule in the University, if the quote is less than a line it may be included
in the body of the text in quotation marks. Longer quotations are indented and single-spaced.
quotation marks are not required. For citations of particular parts of the document the page
numbers etc. should be given after the year in parentheses.
Summaries or paraphrases - give the citation where it occurs naturally or at the end of the
relevant piece of writing.
Diagrams, illustrations - should be referenced as though they were a quotation if they have
been taken from a published work. For anything else refer to BS 1629: 1989.
If details of particular parts of a document are required, e.g. page numbers, they should be
given after the year within the parentheses.
Rules for citation in text for printed documents also apply to electronic documents except where
pagination is absent. If an electronic document does not include pagination or an equivalent
internal referencing system, the extent of the item may be indicated in terms such as the total
number of lines, screens, etc., e.g. "[35 lines]" or "[approx. 12 screens]".
42
Examples,
i)
If the author's name occurs naturally in the sentence the year is given in paremheses:e.g. [n a popular study Harvey (1992) argued that we have to teach good practices ...
e.g. As Harvey (1992, p.21) said, "good practices must be taught" and so we ...
ii)
If the name does not occur naturally in the sentence. both name and year are gIven In
parentheses:e.g. A more recent study (Stevens 1998) has shown the way theory and practical work interacl.
e.g. Theory rises out of practice. and once validated, returns to direct or explain the practice (Stevens
1998).
iii)
When an author has published more than one cited document in the same year. these are distinguished
by adding lower case letters (a,b,c, etc.) after the year and within the parentheses:e.g. Johnson (1994a) discussed the subject. ..
iv)
v)
If there are more than two authors the surname of the first author only should be given, followed
by et al.:e.g. Office costs amount to 20% of total costs in most business (Wilson et al. 1997) (A full listing of
names should appear in the bibliography.)
vi)
vii)
If it is a reference to a newspaper article with no author the name of the paper can be used in
place of "Anon":e.g. More people than ever seem to be using retail home delivery (The Times 1996) (You should use
the same style in the bibliography.)
viii) If you refer to a source quoted in another source you cite both in the text:e.g. A study by Smith (1960 cited Jones 1994) showed that. .. (You should lisl only the work you have
read. i.e. Jones, in the bibliography.)
ix)
If you refer to a contributor in a source* you cite just the contributor:e.g. Software development has been given as the cornerstone in this industry (Bantz 1995),
See Section 2 below for an explanation of how to list contributions (chapters in books, articles in
journals, papers in conference proceeding) in the bibliography.
x)
If you refer to a person who has not produced a work, or contributed to one, but who is quoted
in someone else's work it is suggested that you should mention the person's name and you
must cite the source author:e.g. Richard Hammond stressed the part psychology plays in advertising in an interview with Marshall
( 1999).
e.g. "Advertising will always play on peoples' desires", Richard Hammond said in a recent article (Marshall
1999, p.67).
(You should list the work that has been published, i.e. Marshall, in the
bibliography.)
xi)
43
Personal communications:
Taken from: APA, 1983. Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. 3rd
How Lo Write
44
Thesis
Different Editions
Renton, N 2004, Compendium of good writing, 3rd edn, John Wiley & Sons, Milton.
An edition number is placed after the title of the work - this is not necessary for a
first edition.
Encvclovedia
or Dictionarv
.
Sadie, S (ed.) 1980, The new Grove dictionary of music and musicians.
Article or chamer
in a book
,
Blaxter, M 1976, 'Social class and health inequalities'.in C Carter & J Peel (eds), qualities and
inequalities in health, Academic Press, London, pp. 120-135.
Article or chamer
in a book - no author
,
'Solving the Y 2K problem' 1997, in D Bowd (ed.), Technology today and tomorrow, Van
Nostrand Reinhold, New York, p. 27.
Brochure
Research and Training Centre on Independent Living 1993, Guidelines for reporting and
writing about people with disabilities [Brochure], 4th edn, Research and Training Centre,
Lawrence, KS.
The publisher's name may be abbreviated if it is
also the author.
Ebook
Pettinger, R 2002, Global organizations, Capstone Publishing, Oxford. Retrieved September 28,
2004, from NetLibrary database.
Thesis
Jones, F 1998, 'The mechanism of Bayer residue flocculation', PhD Thesis, Curtin University
of Technology. Retrieved December 21, 2005, from Curtin University of Technology Digital
Theses.
Conference Proceeding
Debono, C 2000, 'The National Trust into the new millennium', Proceedings of the ninth meet
ing of the International National Trust, Australian Council of National Trusts, Alice Springs,
NT, pp. 44-6. Retrieved January 20, 2006, from Informit Online database.
Image in a book
Cowie, C & Walker, D 2005, The art of apple branding, Apples from Oz, Hobart.
How to Wrile
ii)
Thesis
45
Print Journals
Article
Wharton, N 1996, 'Health and safety in outdoor activity centres', Journal of Adventure
Education and Outdoor Leadership, vol. 12, no. 4, pp. 8-9.
Article - no author
' Anorexia nervosa' 1969,
Newspaper/Magazine article
Towers. K 2000, 'Doctor not at fault: coroner',Australian,18 January, p. 3.
Press release
Watersmith,C 2000, BHP enters new era,media release, BHP Limited, Melbourne, I March.
iii)
Electronic Journals
La Rosa, SM 1992, 'Marketing slays the downsizing dragon', Information Today, vol. 9, no. 3,
pp. 58-9. Retrieved October 16,2002,from UMI Business Periodicals Ondisc database.
46
iv)
How to Write
Thesis
Secondary Sources
Book
Thibodeau, GA & Patton, KT (eds.) 2002. The human body in health and disease, Mosby, St.
Louis, Mo.
.
Coral bleaching and mass bleaching events [Image] 2002. Retrieved September 2, 2005 from
hup:/Iwww.gbrmpa.gov.au/corp_si teli nfo_servicesl sciencel bleachi ng
vi)
Government Publications
Act ofParliament
,
How to Write
Thesis
47
no.
Australian Bureau of Statistics 2001, Census of population and housing: BOI selected
characteristics (First release processing) postal area 6050. Retrieved November 20, 2002.
from AusStats database.
Government RetJort
,
Resource Assessment Commission 1991, Forest and timber inquiry: draft report, vol. I,
Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra.
PClIenl
Cookson, AH 1985, Particle trap for compressed gas insulated transmission systems, U.S.
Patent 4554399.
Slandard
Standards Australia 1997, Size coding scheme for infants' and children's clothing - underwear
and outerwear, AS 1182-1997. Retrieved January 10, 2006, from Standards Australia Online
database.
vi)
Other Sources
Personal communication, e-mail and discussion lisls with no web archive.
Not included in reference list as they cannot be
traced by the reader.
Films and videorecordings,
Grumpy meets the orchestra 1992, videorecording, Australian Broadcasting Corporation,
Sydney. Featuring the Sydney Symphony Orchestra.
Any special information may be noted after the citation,
Television and radio programmes
What are we going to do with the money? 1997,television programme, SBS Television.
Sydney, 8 August.
Podcasts
The wings of a butterfly - children, teenagers and anxiety 2005, podcast radio programme,
ABC Radio National, Sydney, 10 September. Retrieved September 16, 2005, from (put
podcast radio programme in the Format field, ABC Radio National in Distributor, Sydney
in Country, 10 September in Date Released, September 28, 2005 in Access Date,
http://www.abc.net.au/
48
CD-ROMS
D r Brain thinking games 1998, CD-ROM, Knowledge Adventure Inc., Torrance,
California.
ERIC document (microfiche)
Davis, RK & Lombardi, TP 1996, 'The quality of life of rural high school special education
graduates', in Rural goals 2000: Building programs that work. ERIC Document No. 394765,
microfiche.
E-mail discussion list - web archive
Little, L 2002, 'Two new policy briefs', ECPOLICY discussion list, 16 April. Retrieved
November 13, 2002 from http://www.askeric.orglVirtual Listserv_Archives/ECPOLI
CY 120021Apr_2002/Msg00003. html
(put Little, L in the Reporter field, ECPOLICY in Newspaper, discussion list in Section,
November 13, 2002 in Notes, http://www.askeric.orgiVirtuaIListserv_Archives/ECPOLI
CY/2002/Apr_2002/Msg00003.html in Type ofArticle)
It is very important that you check your department's or university guide as some details, e.g. punctuation,
may vary from the guidelines on this page. You may be penalized for not conforming to your university
requirements.
How to Write
49
Thesis
Citation of Sources
Byrne (1998) determined that sensitivity for the sounds in spoken words, especially at the
level of phonemes, is regarded as a prerequisite for the discovery of the alphabetic principle.
(one author)
For example, Pennington and Lefly (2001) found that phonological awareness did not
contribute to the prediction of reader group membership ... (always cite both names when
there are two authors)
Manis, Seidenberg, Doi, McBride-Chang, and Petersen (1996) used a method similar to that
of Castles and Coltheart to identify subgroups with surface and phonological profiles. (three
to five authors when cited for the first time)
Manis et al. (1996) found ... (subsequent citations for three to five authors. But omit date if
cited more than once within a paragraph)
Morris et al. (1998) believe that slow naming speed is associated with the core phonological
deficit (six or more autnors are always shortened to the first author's name followed by et al.)
When the author is not part of the sentence both the name(s) and date appear in parentheses:
Sensitivity for the sounds in spoken words, especially at the level of phonemes, is regarded
as a prerequisite for the discovery of the alphabetic principle (Byrne, 1998).
Earlier studies found that phonological awareness did not contribute to the prediction of
reader group membership ... (Pennington & Lefty, 2001).
Other authors used a method similar to that of Castles and Coltheart to identify sub
groups with surface and phonological profiles (Manis, Seidenberg, Doi, McBride-Chang,
& Petersen, 1996).
Many researchers believe that s l o w n a m i n g speed
IS
50
How to Write
Thesis
(National Institute of Mental Health [NIMH], 1992) (First time the document is cited)
(NIMH, 1992) (Subsequent times the document is cited)
Standard psychological reference sources are cited using their title:
The criteria in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed.; DSM-IV:
American Psychiatric Association, 1994) for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) are long and complex.
(First time the document is cited) DSM-IV (Subsequent times the document is cited. Note that the
title is italicized)
Quotation of Sources
Direct quotations -sentences from a work reproduced word for word- must include also the page
number as part of the citation. The display will vary depending on the length of the quotation. Short
quotations of less than 40 words should be enclosed in double quotation marks:
As Hoyningen-Huene (1989/1993) states, the training that students receive through the reliance on
textbooks "promotes highly 'convergent' modes of thought. .. [and] discourages any comparative
evaluation of different possible ways of doing science ... " (p. 187). (Nole thal words or phrases
appearing within double quotation marks in the original text are lranscribed within single quotation
marks)
Quotations of 40 or more words are displayed as a block, indented about 5 spaces from the left
margin, and without quotation marks.
In addition, three of the published Report of the Surgeon General's Conference on Children's Mental
Health (U.S. Public Health Service, 2000) eight goals advocate for better diagnosis and treatment of
childhood disorders:
Improve the assessment and recognition of mental health needs in children, (p. 7); ... improve the
infrastructure for children's mental health services including support or scientifically-proven
interventions across professions [po 8]; ... and] train frontline providers to recognize and manage
mental health issues, and educate mental health providers in scientifically-proven prevention and
treatment services. (p. 9)
Quotations from an Internet document should indicate the chapter or section (when available) in
place of page numbers. In the Reference list, the URL should be the one that links directly to that
chapter or section.
For Hallegren (2001), an analysis of Hemingway's biography reveals "behind the macho fa9ade of
boxing, bullfighting, big-game hunting and deep-sea fishing he built up, a sensitive and vulnerable
mind that was full of contradictions." (section The Unwritten Code)
8.4.2 References at the end of work (Reference List)
Begin your list of references on a new page at the end of the paper. Center the title "References"
about one inch from the top of the page. APA style views the term "Bibliography" as a broader desig
nation to be used if your list of references includes more than works referred to in your paper.
Double-space throughout. (See a sample list of references.) List the elements that identify the work's
author, title, publication date, and publisher. For online publications, add elements stating where and
when you retrieved the document.
How to Write
Thesis
51
Indenting Entries: APA recommends using a hanging indent: Type the first line of an entry aligned
left and indent any additional lines one-half inch (or five to seven spaces), as shown here.
Stoessinger, J. O. (2005). Why nations go to war (7th ed.). New York: St. Martin's Press.
Alphabetizing the List: Alphabetize the reference list by the last names of the authors
(or editors); when a work has no author or editor, alphabetize by the first word of the title other than
A, An, or The.
If your list includes two or more works by the same author, arrange the entries by year, the earliest
first. If your list includes two or more works by the same author in the same year, arrange them
alphabetically by title. Add the letters "a," "b," and so on within the parentheses after the year:
(200Ia). Use the full date for articles in magazines and newspapers in the reference list: (200Ia, July
7). Use only the year in the in-text citation.
Authors: All authors' last names are inverted (last name first), and first names are abbreviated to the
authors' initials. For one to six authors, list all. For seven or more, list the first six followed by a
comma and et al.
- Corporate authors: Corporate names as authors are written out; capitalize the first letter of signifi
cant words. A parent body precedes a subdivision within an organization.
- Editors: For an edited book without a named author, treat the editors as authors (inverted order), and
include (Ed.) or (Eds.) in parentheses after the last editor's name. Editors' names and other names not
in the author position (e.g., translators) are not inverted and are followed by an abbreviated designation
in parentheses.
- No named author or editor: Move the title to the author position before the date.
Publication date: The year of publication is enclosed in parentheses and precedes the title, generally
word of the title and subtitle (and all proper nouns). Capitalize names of periodicals as you would
capitalize them normally. Do not italicize or underline article titles or enclose them in quotation
marks. Capitalize the same as for book titles.
Volume, issue, and page numbers: For periodicals with continuous pagination throughout a volume,
provide only the volume number (italicized), a comma, then the inclusive page numbers. If and only if
each issue begins with page I, give the issue number in parentheses immediately after the volume:
38(2), 12-17. Precede page numbers with p. or pp. only for chapters in books, newspaper articles, and
when unavoidably required for clarity. I
Publishers and place of publication: For publishers, give the city and state or country if the city
is not well known for publishing or is ambiguous. Omit superfluous terms like "Publishers,"
"Co.," or "Inc." but include "Press" or "Books." Use 2-letter abbreviations for states if needed.
Do not abbreviate "University." If two or more publisher locations are listed, give the first or the
home office location if known.
How to Write
52
Thesis
Reviews: The review author is listed first. Review title follows publication date in format appropriate
to the type of periodical. In brackets provide a statement identifying the article as a review, the medi
um being reviewed and its title [Review of the book/motion picture/television program/etc. Title of
reviewed item]. Finish by providing the rest of the periodical citation. If a review is untitled andlor
lacks an author, use the material in brackets as the title; retain the brackets.
Electronic publications: For online publications, follow the rules for print insofar as possible.
to separate items within an element, except for colon between location and publisher of books and
for parentheses around (year of publication), (Eds.), and (page numbers for a chapter in a book). If
two or more authors, separate them with commas. Precede the last author named with an ampersand
i)
Print Publications
Books
Holmberg, D., Orbuch, T., & Veroff, J. (2005). Thrice-told tales: Married couples tell
their stories. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
No Author:
World development report. (1989). New York: Oxford UP.
One Author:
Berry, W. (1981). The gift of good land. San Francisco: NorthPoint. .
Two or More Authors:
Winston, B. L., Reinhart, M. L., Sacker, J. R., Gottlieb, w., Oscar, B., & Harris, D. P. (1987).
Nepal in crisis. Delhi: Oxford University Press.
Editor:
Del Castillo, A. R. (Ed.). (1990). Between borders: Essays on MexicanaiChicana history.
Encino: Floricanto.
How to Write
Thesis
53
Chapter in a Book
Stein. A. (2005). Sex after 'sexuality': From sexology to poststructuralism. In D. Owen (Ed.),
How lo Wrile
54
ii)
Thesis
Electronic Publications
Article in an Online Periodical
Fredrickson. B. L. (n. d.). Cultivating positive emotions to optimize health and well-being.
P revenr i o n & Treatment, 3, Article 0001 a. R e t r i e v e d F e b ruary 9. 2004, from
http://journals.apa.org/prevention/volume3/pre003000 I a. html
Clinton. K. (2004, January). Marriage mishegas. The Progressive, 68. 38 . Retrieved February
9.2004, from the Expanded Academic ASAP database.
Hopkins. N., & Moore, C. (2001). Categorizing the neighbors: Identity, distance, and
stereotyping. Social Psychology Quarrerly, 64. 239- 252. Retrieved February 9, 2004,
from the STOR database.
Online Book
Coward, H. G.. & Maguire,D. C. (Eds.). (1999). Visions of a new earth: Religious perspectives
011
population, consLlmption, and ecology. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
Retrieved February 9, 2004, from the NetLibrary database.
Goldman. E. (1914). The social significance of the modern drama. Boston: Richard G. Badger.
Retrieved February 9. 2004. from University of California Berkeley Digital Library
Sunsite website: http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/GoldmanlWritings/Dramalindex.html
Websites
NCAA Committee on Sportsmanship and Ethical Conduct. (n.d.). Operations plan 2001-02
and 2002-03: Strategic planning and budgeting for the 2002-03 and 2003-04 Academic
Years. Retrieved February 9.2004,from
http://wwwl .ncaa.org/membership/governance/assoc-widel
sportsmans hip ethi cslindex. html
_
How to Write
Thesis
55
14,2000. from Columbia University, Institute for Learning Technologies Web site:
http://www.ilt.columbia.eduipublicationsipapersinewwine l .html
Online Abstract:
Zaidel, D.W., & Edelstyn. N. (1995). Hemispheric semantics: Effects of pictorial organization
on patients with unilateral brain damage. International Journal of Neuroscience. 8? 3-4.
215-221. Abstract obtained from PsycInfo, Item: 8-3-08719.
iii) Audio-visual Sources
A small group of editors of general medical journals met informally in Vancouver, British
Columbia, in 1978 to establish guidelines for the format of manuscripts submitted to their journals.
The group became known as the Vancouver Group. Its requirements for manuscripts, including
formats for bibliographic references developed by the National Library of Medicine, were first
published in 1979. The Vancouver Group expanded and evolved into the International Committee
of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE), which meets annually; gradually it has broadened its concerns.
The committee has produced five editions of the "Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted
to Biomedical Journals." Over the years, issues have arisen that go beyond manuscript preparation.
56
How to Write
Thesis
Some of these issues are now covered in the "Uniform Requirements"; others are addressed in
separate statements. Each statement has been published in a scientific journal. The fifth edition
(1997) is an effort to reorganize and reword the fourth edition to increase clarity and address concerns
about rights, privacy, descriptions of methods, and other matters. The total content of "Uniform
Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted to Biomedical Journals" may be reproduced for educational,
not-for-profit purposes without regard for copyright; the committee encourages distribution of the
material.
Publ ications represented on the ICMJE in 1996 were: the Annals of Internal Medicine, the British
Medical Journal, the Canadian Medical Association Journal, the Journal of the American Medical
Association, the Lancet, the Medical Journal of Australia, the New England Journal of Medicine, the
New Zea-land Medical Journal, the Tidsskrift for den Norske Laegeforening, the Western Journal of
Medicine, and the Index Medicus.
References should be numbered consecutively in the order in which they are first mentioned in the
text. Identify references in text, tables, and legends by Arabic numerals in parentheses. References
cited only in tables or in legends to figures should be numbered in accordance with the sequence
established by the first identification in the text of the particular table or figure. Use the style of the
examples below, which are based on the formats used by the U.S. National Library of Medicine
(NLM) in Index Medicus. The titles of journals should be abbreviated according to the style used in
Index Medicus. Consult the List of Journals Indexed in Index Medicus, published annually as a
separate publication by the library and as a list in the January issue of Index Medicus. The list can
also be obtained through the library's web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov. Avoid using abstracts as
references. References to papers accepted but not yet published should be designated as "in press" or
"forthcoming"; authors should obtain written permission to cite such papers as well as verification that
they have been accepted for publication. Information from manuscripts submitted but not accepted
should be cited in the text as "unpublished observations" with written permission from the source.
Avoid citing a "personal communication" unless it provides essential information not available
from a public source, in which case the name of the person and date of communication should be
cited in parentheses in the text. For scientific articles, authors should obtain written permission and
confirmation of accuracy from the source of a personal communication. The references must be
verified by the author(s) against the original documents. The "Uniform Requirements" style (the
Vancouver style) is based largely on an ANSI standard style adapted by the NLM for its data
bases. Notes have been added where Vancouver style differs from the style now used by NLM.
8,5,1 Citation in the text
In the Vancouver Style, citations within the text of your essay/paper are identified by Arabic numbers
in round brackets. This applies to references in text, tables and figures. e.g. (2) - this is the style used
by the referencing software Endnote .
The identification of references within the text of your essay/paper may vary according to the
preferred style of the journal or the preferred style of the department or lecturer. For example
superscript may be preferred when referencing.
The Vancouver System assigns a number to each reference as it is cited. A number must be used
How to Write
Thesis
57
The original number assigned to the reference is reused each time the reference is cited in the text,
non inclusive
numbers in a multiple citation e.g. 2,3,4,5,7,10 is abbreviated to (2-5,7,10). Do not use a hyphen if
there are no citation numbers in between that support your statement e.g. 1-2 .
The placement of citation numbers within text should be carefully considered, for
example a
particular reference may be relevant to only part of a sentence. A s a general rule, reference numbers
should be placed outside full stops and commas, inside colons and semicolons; however, this may
vary according to the requirements of a particular journal.
Examples:
There have been efforts to replace mouse inoculation testing with invitro tests, such as enzyme
linked immunosorbent assays (57, 60) or polymerase chain reaction, (20-22) but these remain
experimental.
Moir and Jessel maintain "that the sexes are interchangeable". (I)
How to Write
58
Thesis
How to Write
Thesis
59
(Note: P revious Vancouver style incorrectly had a comma rather than a semicolon between the
publisher and the date.)
60
How to Write
Thesis
(24) Patent
Larsen CE, Trip R, Johnson CR, inventors; Novoste Corporation, assignee. Methods for
procedures related to the electrophysiology of the heart. US patent 5,529,067. 1995 Jun 25.
How to Write
Thesis
61
62
How to Write
Thesis
Bibliography
American Psychological Association. 2003, Electronic references. Retrieved April 11, 2006. from
APA Style.org: http://www.apastyle.org/elecsource.html
Chandrasekhar, R, 2002. How to Write a Thesis: A Working Guide. Australian Research Centre for
Medical Engineering ( ARCME), The University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway,
Crawley, WA 6009, Australia
Department of Government (n.d.), Honors Program. Connecticut College, New london, ct 06320
Frith. J, Hodgkinson, A. Poulos. R. 2002. Major project guidelines for students and supervisors.
University of New South Wales, School of Public Health and Community Medicine, revised,
pp 39.
Gu.idelines for the preparation and submission of theses and written creative works, 2003. San
Francisco State University, Graduate Studies, USA
How to Write and Publish a Scientii
f c
International Committee of Medical Journals Editors, 1997, Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts
Submitted to Biomedical Journals. New Engl J Med vol. 336, no.4, pp.309-315. Retrieved
30 April 2006, from www.nejm.org.
Rahman, M, 2005, "Effect of Adolescent Marriage on Reproductive Health
" ,
PhD Thesis.
How to Write
Thesis
63
Appendages
Thesis Format and Submission
A.
Page Numbering. All pages of the work are to be counted. The preliminary pages (i.e. "Title
Page through "List of Appendices") preceding the texts are all counted. Numbers are to appear only
on those pages identified in these guidelines. The numbers on preliminary pages and pages of list of
appendices must be lower case Roman numerals and centered one inch from the bottom of the page.
Beginning with the first page of the text. Arabic numerals are to be entered starting with page I and
continuing consecutively through the remainder of the work including illustrations and bibliography.
The first page of each chapter or section must have the number typed (Arabic numerals) and centered
one inch from the bottom of the page.
B. Headers and Footers. Headers and footers are not allowed.
C. Margins. The left margin must be a minimum of 11/2 inches. The right, top, and bottom margins
must be a minimum of one inch. If the page number is one inch from the top or bottom, then the text
must be at least two inches. The text should not run into the numbers. Justified margins will only be
accepted if the spacing within and between words remain uniform (Le., no large gaps).
D. Spacing, Double-spacing must be used except in those places where conventional usage calls for
single-spacing: e.g., bibliography, indented quotations, tables, etc.
E. Type Styles. Theses must use standard type with 12 characters to the inch. Nonstandard typefaces
may not be used. In special cases smaller or larger type may be used in the preparation of tables,
figures, appendices, and illustrative materials. It is important to use the same typeface throughout
the thesis.
F. Computer Font. The font size must be 12 point and Times New Roman in the text. Any use of
bold face, script, or nonstandard typeface must be approved by the Department.
G. Paper. The copy of the thesis must be on white bond paper which should meet the standards of 80
gm with A4 size. The same paper must be used throughout. Include a blank cover and an end sheet.
No colored paper, image, design etc. in between two chapters be used.
H. Corrections. All copies should be clean, free of smudges, streaks, random print, and other printing
imperfections. All pages must be free from wrinkles or folds. Graphs, tables, charts, diagrams, and
figures must be produced with graphic skill.
I. Freehand Graphs, etc. Black permanent ink must be used for freehand accent marks, mathematical
formulas, maps, graphs, etc.
J. Plates, Figures, lIIustrations, Computer Print-Outs, Drawings, Etc. Materials must be prepared
in form that will permit them to be copied, microfilmed, and bound. This requires special attention to
the size of the documents, the contrast of the information presented, and the method and placement of
the material in the final work.
64
K. Degree Title and Certification of Approval Page. The student's official degree title must appear
on the "Title" and "Ccrtifi-cation" pages. The title of the thesis work must match word for word on
the "Title," "Certification of Approval," and "Abstract" pages.
L. Abstract Page. Every thesis work must include an "Abstract" (maximum \1/2 page in length and
\1/2 spaced). The Abstract of a thesis must be non-structured with a brief statement concerning the
nature of the study, objectives, research methods and design, and the key findings with a conclusion.
M. Copyright Page (optional). If there is a possibility that all or part of the thesis work may be
published elsewhere, the student is urged to complete this page. Under present laws, a copyright is
secured automatically when the work is created and fixed in a copy form for the first time. This is
defined as the date when the written work is approved by the Department on behalf of the
University. While notice of copyright of the written work is not required to have claim to copyright,
failure to comply with the requirement can result in loss of certain additional rights otherwise available
to the copyright owner. Therefore, student who anticipates publishing the copyright page or using
the submitted written work in some way is urged to include the copyright page. Since the written
work is submitted in satisfaction of a part of the requirement for an advanced degree, the student
automatically conveys to the University a license for limited use including:
distributions to major departments or libraries, or
Sample Thesis
Name
66
This thesis is submitted to Sheikh Mujib Medical University (BSMMU), in partial fulfillment of the
requirements of the degree for Doctor of Medicine (Cardiology). The study was carried out in the
Department of Cardiology, BSMMU, Dhaka, during the session ................
How to Write
67
Thesis
M e d i cal
U n i v e r sity,
Dhaka
for
acceptance
of
Bangabandhu Sheikh
the
t h e si s
ent itled
" ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . " submitted by Md. Hemayet Uddin, in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of "Doctor of Medicine (Cardiology).
BOARD OF EXAMINERS:
Signature: ...........................................
CHAIRMAN: .................................................
MEMBERS:
1. Signature:
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Name: .............................................
2. Signature: ....................................................
Name :
. . . . . .
. . . . .
. .
. .
. . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. Signature: ..................................................
Narne ...........................................
68
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Thesis
Dedicated to
How La Write
Thesis
69
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I wish to express my best regards and gratitude to my guide, Prof. Md. Shahidullah, B.Sc (Hons).
M.Sc (Dhaka), M.Sc (London), Professor and Head, Department of Population Dynamics. NIPSOM
for his scholarly guidance, generous support and continued assistance in preparation and completion
of my thesis. He was kind enough to help me with reference articles and editing the thesis very
minutely.
..
.
.
. ,.
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Write
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Subject:
71
SAMPLE
Page 110.
Acknowledgments
Table of contents
III
Abbreviations
List of tables
VI
List of Figures
VII
Abstract
CHAPTER I
IX
INTRODUCTION
I. I
Process of urbanization
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
Hypotheses
1.6
Objectives
1.7
Variables
1.8
Operational definitions
10
CHAPTER 2
2. Literature Review
17
Type of study
33
3.2
Place of study
33
3.3
33
3.4
Study Population
33
3.5
Sampling technique
34
3.6
34
3.7
34
3.8
35
3.9
35
36
72
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LIST OF TABLES
Table
Title
no.
Table 1.1
SAMPLE
Page
no.
22
slum dwellers
Table 1.2
23
slum category
Table 2. I
Table 2.2
24
26
Table 2.4
28
30
characteristics
Table 2.6
32
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure No.
Title
73
SAMPLE
Page no.
Figure I
II
Figure 2
15
Figure 3
17
Figure 9
64
74
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Thesis
SAMPLE
ABBREVIATIONS
ARI
AAI
ANC
Antenatal care
BRAC
BDHS
BBS
BMI
BFS
CPS
DPT
EPI
FW V
HA
IMR
MCR
MA
Medical Assistant
NGO
Non-government Organization
NCHS
OPV
PNC
SEI
Socio-economic Index
TT
Tetanus Toxoid
TBA
utBA
WH
WA
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75
Thesis
ABSTRACT
SAMPLE
Adolescent pregnancy and childbearing have significant effects on maternal and child health. There
is a widespread belief that cares during pregnancy and delivery can improve health of the mother and
the infant. Considering this view, the present cross-sectional study was designed to assess the pattern
of utilization of maternal care and the factors influencing it. A multistage cluster sampling technique
was used to select the sample. In this study, data on 1337 pregnant rural adolescent mothers were
analyzed.
The analysis revealed that 35% of the adolescent mothers were not aware about utilization of care
during pregnancy and delivery. About 58% of the adolescent mothers did not receive any maternal
care during their pregnancies. The level of education of the adolescent mothers significantly influenced
to receIve antenatal care. But even the educated mothers did not attend health facilities unless they
experienced any complication. Only 27.6% of the adolescent mothers received delivery care from
qualified professionals. Although, bi-variate analysis revealed significant association of spousal and
parental education in the utilization of delivery care, but in multivariate logistic regression analysis.
the level of education did not find significant association with utilization of adolescent's delivery
care. Complications during delivery compelled mothers to take care from qualified professionals; oth
erwise they preferred delivery by non-qualified birth attendants.
The study results suggest that emphasis should be given on behavior change communication (BCC)
activities to educate the family members including husband, mother in law and adolescent as well.
The need for regular check-up from health facility during pregnancy and safe delivery by qualified
health personnel is advised.
76
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Thesis
CHAPTER 1
SAMPLE
INTRODUCTION
1.1. Introduction
Adolescents between 10 to 19 years, is a large proportion and growing segment of the population.
This largest proportion of about 1.2 billion strong is preparing to enter adulthood in a rapidly grow
ing world (UNFPA, 2003). Currently, one in every five persons on the earth is an adolescent and 85
per cent of these adolescents live in the developing countries. In terms of sheer numbers, these
young people have tremendous demographic significance. Because of the population momentum,
even if there were a rapid decline in age-specific fertility rates among adolescents, stabilization of
the country's population would not occur for at least the next 10-20 years (WHO, 1998).
.
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77
CHAPTER 2
SAMPLE
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
An adolescent generally with good health has relegated adolescent health, particularly the reproduc
tive health to a low priority for health professionals and policy makers (Friedman,
1990).
1990;
Serrano,
However, adolescence is a vulnerable period, and the onset and pace of adolescence are
changing, that often disproportionately affect them. Moreover, demographic, epidemiological and
socio-economic trends in the Asia region countries are combining to create different patterns of life
styles for adolescents, which could also create vulnerable environment for them. In addition to the
important biological gender, differences between adolescents, adolescent girl's socio-economic status
and cultural position in most of the Asian countries differ significantly from those of adolescent
males. For large number of girls, adolescence can be best defined as the period, which starts with the
premature end of education and ends with the premature start of pregnancy and childbearing or even
1998) .
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2.2.1 Marriage
Timing of first marriage for a woman is an important dimension of women's reproductive behavior.
Marriage marks the beginning of sexual encounter. In most developing countries, especially in Asia,
there has been a transition from traditional to modern pattern of marriage. A major characteristic of
this process is the trend towards later marriage and higher rates of celibacy in many Asian countries
(Minh,
1997).
1970,
typical pattern was one of early and universal marriage, especially among women. Since
1970.
however, Asia has experienced a trend towards later age at marriage. In all Asian countries, except
most of those in South Asia, the current female age at marriage is over
2000).
20
The female age at marriage in India increased nearly five years after
24.2
years in
1981
1980
from
13.2
to
18.1
Sri Lanka started out with a much later female age at marriage, i,e,
age at marriage increased to
and 25.5 in
1993
18, I
years in
(De Silva,
1901;
1997).
Nonetheless,
Contrary to other
78
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Thesis
Asian countries, there is ample evidence to suggest that the trend towards later marriage is less
dramatic, i.e. age at marriage is the lowest among the South Asian countries. Marriage is almost
universal in Bangladesh. By the age 35 almost cent per cent of the females are married while more
than 50 per cent are married by the age 19. Like other developing agricultural societies, early marriage
for females is customary in Bangladesh. The' Government of Bangladesh has made law to increase
the age at first marriage among girls, despite the average age is still below the desired age.
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79
CHAPTER 3
SAMPLE
3.1
Introduction
The present research work is primarily intended to study the adolescent fertility and reproductive
health status as a consequence of early marriage and the socio-demographic parameters that are
pertinent to adolescent's health and well being both in rural and urban areas of Bangladesh. The
methodological aspects of this study are discussed in this chapter under the following headings:
Study Design. Study Population. Sampling Frame and Sample Size, Data Collection Procedures
and Data Management and Analysis.
3.2
Study design:
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80
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CHAPTER 4
SAMPLE
RESULTS
4.1 Introduction
An examination of the background characteristics of the study population is important for any
research work to understand and interpret the results. In view of this. in this chapter, an attempt
has been made to discuss the various background characteristics of the adolescents. In this study,
'Adolescent' and 'Respondent' have been used interchangeably. The results focusing on the
socio-demographic and economic characteristics viz. education, occupation, parental level of education,
family size and type, monthly family income were discussed. For married adolescents, spousal
characteristics. duration of marriage and status were discussed in respective sections of the study.
4.2 shows the age distribution of the adolescents. The lowest age of the respondent
10 years. Among the married adolescents, the mean age was 16.9 years and among
14.7 years. The adolescents who were 10-14 year olds were defined
49.5% among unmarried adolescents. The adolescents aged between 15-19 years were
50.4% among unmarried adolescents. The mean age of the married adolescents was a
17.2 years.
How
(Q Write
Thesis
81
Marital status
Total
Married
1106
2256
3362
10-II
5.3
0.0
1.8
12-13
23.1
1.7
8.8
14-15
40.6
15.2
23.6
16-17
23. I
42.7
36.2
18-19
7.9
40.4
29.7
10-14
49.5
6.6
20.7
15-19
50.5
93.4
79.3
14.7
16.9
16.2
Mean
82
-'
Education (Mother)
Education (Father
O=IIliterate
O=IIliterate
O=No
1 =Iiterate
1=literate
I=Yes
O=no schooling
O=no schooling
1=1-5 years
1=1-5 years
2=>6 years
2=>6 years
Although the respondents, their husbands and parental education showed positive relationship with
qualified birth attendants in bi-variate analysis (p<O,OS), (Table not shown) logistic regression analysis
revealed a statistically significant positive association of delivery conducted by qualified persons
having history of complications during delivery (p<O,OOI), This indicates that adolescent mothers
did not seek delivery conducted by qualified persons unless they faced complications at the time of
labour
How to Write
83
Thesis
p value
Odds ratio
95%CI
1-5
-0.0470
0.7993
0.9541
0.6644-1.3702
>-6
0.2730
0.2856
1.3140
0.7960-2,1690
1-5
0.1147
0.5626
1.1215
0.7607-1.6536
>-6
0.0991
0.7014
1.1041
0.6654-1.8322
0.1076
0.4949
1.1136
0.8177-1.5166
0.3134
0.0599
1.3681
0.9871-1.8961
0.5941
0.0000
1.8114
1.3612-2.4106
Attributes
Years of schooling (Res.)
o (RC)
o (RC)
Illiterate (RC)
Literate
Level of education (M)
IIIiterate (RC)
Literate
Complaints during delivery
No (RC)
Yes
Model chi square
df
Significance
N
Constant
RC= Reference category
35.451
7
0.0000
1337
-1.3955
84
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Thesis
CHAPTERS
DISCUSSION
SAMPLE
During the last decade, the reproductive health issues have gained momentum not only in developed but also in developing countries. Reproductive health related issues are of vital importance
to young people as this stage is considered as one of the most crucial period in a person's life. The
period of adolescence encompasses the transition from childhood to adulthood during the second
decade of life. It is the time when many key social, economic, biological and psychological events
occur that pave the way to adult life. In Bangladesh, more than one fifth of the population is in
the 10-19 years age group, which would experience a rapid growth because of age structure
momentum. With increasing rural to urban migration , increased mobility and wide media exposure,
it is a concern, particularly for unmarried adolescents, about the consequences of irresponsible sexual
behavior resulting in early childbearing, unsafe abortion and the risks of contracting sexually
transmitted diseases (STDs), and the human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immune deficiency
syndrome (HIV/AIDS). The study attempted to identify the effects of adolescent marriage on
reproductive health and its associated risk factors. The influences of behavioral, social and demographic
factors that influence the reproductive health issues of adolescents have also been investigated. Data
were obtained by using representative sample selection. To supplement the results of quantitative data,
focus group discussions (FGDs) and in-depth interviews were also conducted.
The potential adverse impact of pregnancy and childbearing on the health of women in the developing
countries is a big one. About three quarters of maternal deaths are considered 'direct' that is due
to pregnancy and its complications such as hemorrhage, obstructed labor, sepsis, hypertensive disorders etc. The information also shows that utilization of health care during adolescent pregnancy
is low. Antenatal care and delivery care by qualified persons is cost effective and useful measure
for preventing maternal death. The analysis suggests that only 42% of the adolescents received
antenatal care during pregnancy. The low use of services during the adolescent pregnancy period
may be attributed to lack of friendly services, shyness to discuss the sexual reproductive health
with male doctor, lack of female doctor, lack of privacy, poverty, distance and inadequate service
How lo Write
Thesis
85
facilities in the health centres. Variety of other societal factors such as gender inequality and
intra-household power imbalance hinder them to receive delivery care. The study found a heavy
disease burden of adolescent's gynecological (64.5%), pregnancy (42%) and delivery related
complications (14%). The majority of the adolescents suffered from at least one reproductive
morbidity. This high prevalence of morbidity raises great concern about women's physical and
social well being which causes physical discomfort, personal embarrassment, marital disharmo
ny and also problems of women's ability to achieve a sustained marital satisfaction. The teenage
pregnancy has its impact on the overall health and well-being of the mother and the child.
Women of reproductive age, under 18 years of age are considered at high risk for pregnancy
related illness and death compared to their adult counterparts. They may be mature enough to
become pregnant; some adolescents are not sufficiently physically developed to have a safe pregnancy
and delivery. The dynamic period of growth associated with poor intake of nutrients due to
improper dietary habits put adolescent girls at high risk for anemia and nutritional deficiency.
The added burden of pregnancy may not only be psychologically traumatic, but also deprives her
from nutrition. Nutritional deprivation, increased demand for her growth, excessive menstrual
losses and superadded pregnancy, all conspire to aggravate anemia, and its ill effects. Added
with poverty, adolescents usually suffer from chronic nutritional deprivation once they become
pregnant. The older adolescents with rural background of joint or extended family and non-hygienic
practice during menstruation suffer from high prevalence of reproductive morbidity.
86
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CHAPTER 6
SAMPLE
In the light of the discussions, the following conclusions and recommendations are made to improve
the adolescents' reproductive health in Bangladesh. Adolescents with high self-esteem and social
skills, who are clear about their values, and access to relevant information are likely to help them for
taking positive decisions about their health and personal development. But these are not taken in a
vacuum. External factors have a tremendous impact on how adolescents think and behave; the values
and behaviors of their friends are important, but parents and other family members continue to be
more influential.
The study found a higher proportion of adolescents suffering from reproductive health problems.
So, to ameliorate their disease burden, community awareness about health care facilities and
self-concern of adolescents for their own health needs are to be emphasized. The first referral units
at the grass root level, Thana Health Complexes and Family Welfare Centers are required to be
How to Write
87
Thesis
S AMPLE
Sample Bibliography
Ahmed, A.U. (1982). Socio-economic Determinants of Age at First Marriage in Bangladesh. Journal
of Biosocial Science 18:35-42.
Ahmed, M.K. (200 I). Mortality Due to Violence against Women of Reproductive age in Rural
Bangladesh. ICDDR.B, Dhaka.
Ahmed, S., Haque, 1., Khuda, B., Husain, M.B., & Alam, S. (1996). Abortion in Rural Bangladesh:
Evidence from the MCH-FP Extension Project, Dhaka: International Centre for Diarrhoeal
Disease Research, Bangladesh, 1996. (MCH-FP Extension Project (Rural) Working Paper, 121:
[CDDR,B Working Paper, 63.
Please, note that you follow uniform style such as Harvard or APA style)