Protein Synthesis

Protein synthesis is the process in which cells build proteins. The term is sometimes
used to refer only to protein translation but more often it refers to a multi-step
process that begins with amino acid synthesis and transcription of nuclear DNA into
messenger RNA which is then used as input to translation. Proteins are molecules
that have a variety of functions in cells such as providing structure, storing energy,
providing movement, transporting other substances, catalyzing biological reactions,
and protecting against disease.
Genes are the genetic material that dictates the production of proteins and enzymes.
The genes are located in the nucleus of the cell and are composed of DNA. The
DNA is composed of nucleotides which are molecules made up of a sugar
component, a phosphate group and a cyclic base. There are four different nucleotide
bases in which all the information for making proteins is stored. A gene is typically
hundreds or thousands of nucleotides long. Unlike DNA, proteins are made up of
amino acids instead of nucleotides. To get from DNA to protein requires two steps,
transcription and translation.
The first stage in protein synthesis is the transcription of DNA into messenger RNA
(mRNA). DNA and RNA are similar but do have some differences. RNA uses the
nucleotide uracil instead of thymine, and the sugar component of DNA has one less
hydroxyl group than the sugar component of RNA. RNA is also only single-stranded
whilst DNA is double-stranded held together by hydrogen bonds.
During transcription RNA polymerase separates an area of DNA. It binds to a region
of DNA called a promoter region and transcribes the DNA into RNA at an initiation
site. Only one of the strands is used as the template for the mRNA. The polymerase
travels along the DNA, unwinding, catalyzing, copying and rewinding the DNA until it
comes upon a termination sequence in the DNA. One the termination sequence is
reached the transcription is stopped and the RNA is released which contains an
exact copy of the gene. The pre-mRNA transcript has the non-coding intron
sequences removed, the RNA is also polyadenylated at the 3 end and the 5 end is
capped. The mRNA is associated with nuclear proteins forming a messenger

ribonucleoprotein particle (mRNP). This particle is exported out of the nucleus via
nuclear pores and into the cytosol where it can be translated.
Translation is the process that produces the proteins. The three main components of
translation are mRNA, the ribosome and tRNA. The mRNA nucleotide code is turned
into a chain of amino acids. A set of 3 nucleotides code for one of the possible 20
amino acids. This set of 3 nucleotides is called a triplet codon.
The site of translation in cells are ribosomes. These are found free in the cytosol and
attached onto the rough endoplasmic reticulum. Ribosomes consist of two subunits
composed of proteins and ribosomal RNA. tRNA is also necessary for translation,
with each tRNA uniquely charged with a specific amino acid. mRNA is synthesized
through transcription from DNA and it travels to the small ribosomal(30s) subunit
where it binds with the start signal (initiator codon). The large (50s) subunit can bind
once the mRNA and initiator tRNA are bound to the small subunit and the ribosome
can begin translating the mRNA. tRNA can recognise three nucleotides and
interacts with the enzyme, aminoacyl-tRNAsynthetase, which attaches the specific
amino acids to the tRNA. A specific tRNA has three bases called an anticodon which
corresponds to the codon encoding the amino acid on the mRNA. The base-pairing
of the tRNA anticodon to the mRNA codon means that the amino acid is brought into
proximity of the polypeptide chain.
The amino acids combine to create a growing chain of polypeptides. As the tRNA
reads the codons new amino acids are added to the chain until it reaches the
termination codon which stops the translation.