:

1 -2
.
.
1 .
.
3
2 .
:
-7
-5
-3
-1
-8
-6
-4
-2
.
.
4

1 -1 -2
.
. .
) (
. 5 .
.
2 -1 -2) 6 (

.
. .
7

3 -1 -2

.
8

10

Load
Bond
3 Imperfections
4 Strength
5 UltimateStrength
6 Elasticity
7 TensionTest
8 Ductility
9 Toughness
10 ElasticModulus
1
2

 -2

32

1 )) 1 -2(( .
) (ASTM .
l0 50 ) 2( A0 12/5 ) 0/5( .
.
.

4 -1 -2 -2
) (2 -2
.
. 4 .

) (.
5 6 P
A0 :
P
= =
A0
7 :
= ) (l l0
.2 -2 -
=e
.
l0
l .
.
8 . ) .(2 -2
)( .
.
(Y) 9 .

TestSpecimen
Stress
3 Strain
4 LinearElasticBehavior
5 EngineeringStress
6 NominalStress
7 EngineeringStrain
8 ElasticLimit
9 YieldStress
1
2

33

1
.
-
.
- 0/002 %0/2
) .(2 -2

.

) .(3 -2
) .(2 -2
) 2 (3
.3 -2
.
.
4 .
.
.
.
5 .
: 6
. ) 0/1 0/2( .
E 7 8 :

=E

=
e
9 . .
E ) ( . E
.
.
.
. 10 v .
5 -1 -2 -
) ( A 0 .
. . 11
P ) ( A :
P
= =
A

ProportionalLimit
TensileStrength
3 UltimateTensileStrength(UTS)
4 Necking
5 BreakingorFractureStress
6 ProofStress
7 ModulusofElasticity
8 YoungModulus
9 HookesLaw
10 PoissonsRatio
11 TrueStress
1
2

 -2

34

1 .
:
l dl
l
= =
) (= ln
l0 l
l0
.
. e =0/1 =0/095 e = 1 . =0/69
6 -1 -2 -
- : - ) -4 -2( )
( A 0 ) ( l0 .
- ) -4 -2( - )
-4 -2() . A 0 =0/056 A f =0/016 (.
l dl
l
=
- ) (= ln
l0 l
l0
. ) -4 -2( . .
.
.

) .4 -2( -
)( -
)( )(
-
)( .

)(
)(.

- ) -4 -2( :
n

= k

K 2 n -3 ) ( . ) -4 -2(
) -4 -2( . n .
- ) (.

TrueStrain
StrenghtCoefficient
3 StrainHardening(orWorkHardening)Exponent
1
2

35

7 -1 -2
. -
.
) - ( .
- n . n
.
. n .
.
0.5

( ) ( ) = 100000 (Psi .
UTS .
(

= n = 0.5
:
)= 70710(psi
:

0.5

). = Kn = 100000(0.5

= n = 0.5

A0
. ln
A

0.5

A
= A0

0.5

= A0 e P = A

.
. P = 70710 0.606 A0 = 42850 A0 lb
UTS = P A0
. UTS = 42850 psi
8 -1 -2
: - .

) (UTS .
) ( . .
. ) .(5 -2

.5 -2
- .

) ( .

 -2

36

:
.
.
.
) .(6 -2
:
3/5 ) (500 Ksi

)
( .
-
.

.6 -2

:
.
.
1

9 -1 -2
.
. .
.
. E . E
2 . 40 ) .(7 -2

) .7 -2(
1

)( 1
2

2.

10 -1 -2
.
.
. ...
. .
8 -2 ) (1 ) (2 .

Stiffness
ModulusofRigidity
3 Plasticity
1
2

37

105

U.E.

)(1

)(2

105

U.E.

.8 -2 ) (1 ) (2 .
1

11 -1 -2
. .
.
A Af
l f l0
0
100 :
100 :
A0
l0
12 -1 -2 2

.

)
( .

3 .
4.


5 .
) .(9 -2

) (

) (U r = d :
0

1
1
) U r = y y = y y = y J 3 (
2
2 E 2E m
2

.9 -2

Ductility
Resilience
3ProofResilience
4 ModulusofResilience
5 ProportionalLimit
1
2

 -2

38

13 -1 -2 1
.
. .
.
.
14 -1 -2 2
.
. .
.
. 3 .
4 . 5 .
f

T = T d
0

.10 -2

15 -1 -2
.
. . .
.
6

16 -1 -2

.

) .(11 -2


.
) ( -
.
-

7

.11 -2 )( )(

Malleability
Toughness
3 WroughtIron
4 ModulusofToughness
5 ImpactStrength
6 Brittleness
7 CompressionTest
1
2

39

.
. ) .(12 -2

. :
2P
=
r>>h
dt
P d t .
. )(
. .
l0 l f
l
= = ln 0 e
:
l0
l

r
t

17 -1 -2
) (13 -2
. .
.
. :
T
:
=
2
2 r t
T r t . :
r
=
:
l
l .
1

2 G 1 E .
. .

Torsion
Shearmodulus

1
2

 -2

40

.13 -2
.
.

18 -1 -2

.
.

.
.
.

. ) .(14 -2
.
.

.

)(

)(

.14 -2 )(
)( . .
)(
)( .

19 -1 -2

) (
.
)
nothch ( .
.
-1 : ) -2 (Charpy ) .(Izod
Charpy Izod
) .(15 -2
.
4 . Charpy
Izod .
mgh
) ) .( E = mg (h1 h2
3

.15 -2

ModulusofRigidity
2 Bending(Flexure)
3 ImpactTest
4 ImpactToughness
1

41

20 -1 -2
.
. .
2 .
1

.16 -2 P . .

.
:
:3 J.A.Brinell 1900 .
10 500
1500 3000 ) .(16 -2
) HB BHN( P
. .
1500 3000
.
.

. d
) .(13 -2

.13 -2 ) (a
) (b .

HardnessTest
Hardenability
3 BrinellTest
1
2

 -2

42

.
. .
. 500 .
:1 S.R.Rockwell 1992 .
. . .
) Rockwell ( ) (12 -2 .
2Rockwell .
:3 1992 4
) (12 -2 1 120 . HV
) .(DPH 0/5 .
.
:5Knoop ) Knoop 1939 .(F.Knoop ) (12-2
25 5 . Knoop ) HK (KHN .
6 .
.
. 0/01 0/10 . .
Knoop .
) :Scleroscope Skleros ( )(
.
. . Scleroscope
.
.
.
:7Mohs 1822 F.Mohs .
Mohs 1 10 . 1 10 ) ( .
Mohs Mohs . 2 Mohs
3 6 ) ( 9 .
Mohs Knoop .
8

21 -1 -2
) ( .
9 )

RockwellTest
RockwellSuperficialHardnessTest
3 VickersTest
4 DiamondpyramidHardnessTest
5 KnoopTest
6 Microhardness
7 MohsHardness
8 Fatigue
9 Cyclisstresses
1
2

43

( .
. 1 .
.
)(S ) (N .
.

.14 -2
2

22 -1 -2
.
. .
.
.
.
.
) (
.

.15 -2
3

23 -1 -2

.
.
.
.

FatigueFailure
Creep
3-Fracture
1
2

 -2

44

2 -2
.
. 1 -2
.
.1 -2

)(

m3

kg

2700
2820 -2630
1854
8580
8970
8940 -7470
7860
9130 -6920
11350
11350 -8850
1745
1780 -1770
10210
8910
8850 -7750
16600
4510
4700 -4430
19290
7140
7200 -6640
)

m3

kg

5500 -2300
2700 -2400
2200 -1900
2000 -900
700 -400

D
C

660
654 -476
1278
2468
1082
1260 -885
1537
1532 -1371
327
326 -182
650
621 -610
2610
1453
1454 -1110
2996
1668
1649 -1549
3410
419
525 -386
(

D
C

1540 -580
330 -110
-

) ( J kgK

) ( W mK

900
920 -880
1884
272
385
435 -377
460
502 -448
130
188 -126
1025
1046
276
440
544 -381
142
519
544 -502
138
385
402

222
239 -121
146
52
393
234 -29
74
52 -15
35
46 -24
154
138 -75
142
92
63 -12
54
17
12 -8
166
113
113 -105

) ( J kgK

) ( W mK

950 -750
850 -500
840
2000 -1000
2800 -2400

17 -10
1/7 -0/6
10 -5
0/4 -0/1
0/4 -0/1

1 -2 -2
.
2 .
.
. ) 3 ( ) 4 (
.
.
.
1

Density
SpecificGravity
3SpecificStrength
4SpecificStiffness
1
2

45

.
.
.
. .
2 -2 -2
.
. .
. .
.
. .
.
. .
.
1

3 -2 -2
.
.
.
. .
4 -2 -2
) ( . )(
) ( .

.
. .
.
3

5 -2 -2
. .
. .
. .
. 5
.
.
.
.
.
4

MeltingPoint
SpecificHeat
3 ThermalConductivity
4 ThermalExpansion
5 ThermalStresses
1
2

 -2

46

.
.
2 . -
3 .
. . :
.1
. .
.2 .

3 -2
4

1 -3 -2

.
. .
) (
.
. ) (
.
.
2 -3 -2
:
. .
.
: .
)( . )(
.
.
:5
. .
.
:6 .
.
3 -3 -2
.
. :

ThermalFatigue
ThermalShock
3 LowExpansionAlloys
4Corrosion
5ErosionCorrosion
6Frettingcorrosion
1
2

47

.
.
.
.

4 -3 -2
.
.
.

4 -2
1
2 3 4 .
mho mho mho ohm .
ft
m
. .
.
:5 . .
.
6
:
V V ft.
m
:7 .
) (-460 D F -273 D C . 150
) (-190 D F -123 D C . .
.
:8
. )dopant( .
.
:9 ) piezo (
. .
. .
:Magnetostriction .
- . 10 .

ElectricalConductivity
MagneticPulseForming
3 ElectricalDischargeMachining
4 ElectrochemicalGrinding
5 Conductors
6 DielectricStrength
7 SuperConductors
8 Semiconductors
9 PiezoelectricEffect
10 Ultrasonic
1
2

 -2

48

5 -2
.
.
1 -5 -2
.
eh

= . M B me h e
4me

) .( M B = 9.27 10 24 A m 2

.16 -2 ) :(

ms

) ( .

2 -5 -2
:
:2
. .
.
:3 .
.

. .
:4

.
.
3d .
TC
.
5
.17 -2 MnO
: MnO Cr Mn NiO
} {111 .

} {111
. MnO
. MnO .
17 -2 . .

BohrMagneten
DiamagneticBehavior
3Paramagnetism
4 FerromagneticBehavior
5AntiferromagneticBehavior
1
2

49

:1 . A
B ) .(18 -2
..

.18 -2 Fe3O4 )( . .
.

Ferrimagnetism