ACOUSTICS

Acoustics

The science of sound, including its

production, propagation and effects
The objective study of the physical behavior
of sound in an enclosed space

Sound

A wave motion consisting of a series of

condensations and rarefactions in an elastic
medium produced by a vibrating body

Requirements to Produce
Sound

Requirements to Produce
Sound
1. Presence of vibrating body
2. Presence of transmitting medium
3. Presence of receiving medium

AUDIBLE FREQUENCY RANGE

Infrasonic/Subsonic

frequencies below the audible range

Ultrasonic/Supersonic

frequencies above the audible range

Audible Range: 20 Hz 20kHz

AUDIBLE FREQUENCY
RANGE

General Interpretations of
Sound
1. Physical phenomenon consisting of
wave motion in a transmitting
medium (objective)
2. Sensation due to outside simulation
(subjective)

Physical Properties of Sound

Physical Properties of Sound

1. Amplitude magnitude of the
vibration (pressure, current, voltage)
2. Period time it takes to complete a
vibration/cycle
3. Frequency number of vibrations /
cycle per unit time

Physical Properties of Sound

4. Wavelength physical length of a
vibration
5. Velocity of Propagation
Vsound << VRF
(344 m/sec << 3 x 108 m/sec)

Velocity of Sound
Solids

Where:
E = Youngs Modulus of elasticity, dynes/cm3
d = density of the medium, g/cm3

Velocity of Sound
Liquids

Where:
E = Bulks Modulus of elasticity, dynes/cm3
d = density of the medium, g/cm3

Velocity of Sound
Gases

Where:
k = specific heat ratio = hsp/hsv
hsp = specific heat at constant pressure
hsv = specific heat at constant volume
p = gas pressure, dynes/cm2
d = density, g/cm3

Velocity of Sounds
Dry Air/Air (for TC 20 0C)

Velocity of Sounds
Dry Air/Air (for TC 20 0C)

where:
TK = temperature in Kelvin

Velocity of Sound

Velocity of Sounds

Notes
Sounds travel more slowly in gases than in
liquids, and more slowly in liquids than in
solids.
Sounds travels slower with an increased
altitude (elevation if you are on solid earth),
primarily as a result and humidity changes.

Possibilities when a
Propagated Sound is
Obstructed (3)

Possibilities when a
Propagated Sound is
Obstructed (3)

Possibilities when a
Propagated Sound is
Obstructed (3)

Sound is Reflected

Echo

Flutter

Becomes apparent to the listener only when the

distance from the source and the reflecting medium is
great and the difference between the original and
reflected sound is greater or equal to 1/17 of a second.
Brought about by a series of reflections between two
parallel surfaces resulting to prolongation of sound
Creates listening fatigue

Interference

Reflection caused by two parallel surfaces, producing

standing waves

Possibilities when a
Propagated Sound is
Obstructed

Sound is absorbed

Conversion of sound energy to heat energy

Onward transmission through

obstruction

Physiological Characteristics
of Wave Motion (3)

Pitch

Physiological Characteristics
of Wave Motion (3)

Pitch

Number of cycles a wave goes through in a

definite interval
The higher the frequency, the higher the
pitch

Mel unit of pitch

1000 mels pitch of 1000Hz tone at 40dB
Octave pitch interval 2:1; frequency is twice
the given tone

Physiological Characteristics
of Wave Motion (3)

Tone

Timbre quality of sound

Pure Tone a sound composed of only one

frequency in which the sound pressure varies
sinusoidally with time.

Musical Sound composed of the

fundamental frequency and its harmonics

Physiological Characteristics
of Wave Motion (3)

Loudness

Fluctuation of air pressure created by sound waves

Observers auditory impression of the strength of a
sound and is associated with the rate at which
energy is transmitted to the ear.
Depends on the amplitude of the sound

Loudness Level measured by the sound level of a

standard pure tone or specified frequency which is
assessed by normal observers as being equally loud

PHON
Phon is the unit of loudness level
when:

The standard pure tone is produced by a

sensibly plane sinusoidal progressive
sound wave coming from directly in front of
the observer and having the frequency of
1kHz
The sound pressure level in the free
progressive wave is expressed in dB above
2 x 10-5 N/m2

SONE
Sone is the unit of loudness of an
individual listener.
Phon = 40 + 10 log2 sone

Sound Levels
Sound Pressure (P) and
Sound Pressure Level (SPL)
Sound Pressure

The alternating component of the pressure at

a particular point in a sound field
Expressed in N/m2 or Pa

Sound Levels
Sound Pressure Level

Equal to 20 times the logarithm to the base 10

of the ratio of the RMS sound pressure to the
reference sound pressure

SPL = 20 log (P/Po)

Where:
P = rms sound pressure
Po = reference sound pressure
Po = 2 x 10-5 N/m2 or Pa or 2 x 10-4
dynes/cm2
Po = 0.0002 bar or 2.089 lb/ft2

Sound Pressure Levels

Sound Pressure Levels

Sound Pressure Level (SPL) at any unit of

pressure in dB

SPL = 20log(P+N)
Where:
PN = rms sound pressure expressed in any of
pressure in dB
N = SPL constant corresponding to the unit
at which sound pressure is expressed

Sound Pressure Levels

SPL Constants
Unit of Sound Pressure

SPL Constant
Designation
(N)

Microbar
Pascal

bar
N/m2

74
94

lb/ft2
mmHg
torr
lb/in2
atm (technical)
atm (standard)

psf
mmHg
torr
psi
atm
atm

127.6
136.5
136.5
170.8
193.8
194.1

Sound Levels
Sound Intensity (I) and
Sound Intensity Level (SIL)
Sound Intensity

Defined as the acoustic power per unit area

The basic units are W/m2 or W/cm2
The average rate of transmission of sound
energy through a cross-sectional area of 1
m2 at right angles to a particular direction.

Sound Levels

Sound Levels

Sound Levels
For sound produced at ground level

Sound Levels
Sound Intensity

I = 2 / d v
Where: d density of the medium (kg/m3)
v velocity of sound in medium (m/sec)
rms pressure in Pa (N/m2)

Sound Levels
Sound Intensity in Air

I = 2 / 410
Where: dv 410 ray/sec
rms pressure in Pa (N/m2)

Sound Levels

Sound Intensity Level

Where:
I = sound intensity,
Io = threshold intensity,
Io = 10-12 W/m2 or 10-16 W/cm2

Sound Levels
Sound Power (W) and
Sound Power Level (PWL)
Sound Power (W)

The total energy radiated per unit time.

Sound Levels

Sound Power Level (PWL)

Where:
W = sound power , W
Wo = reference sound power
Wo = 10-12 w

Room Acoustics

Room Acoustics

Concerned with the behavior of sound

within an enclosed space with a view to
obtaining the optimum acoustic effect on
the occupants

Room Acoustics

Room Acoustics

Requirements
Adequate amount of sound must reach all
parts of the room.
Even distribution of sound
Noise must be reduced to an acceptable
level.
Optimum Reverberation time, RT60

Reverberation

Reverberation

Tendency for the sound to persist over a

definite period of time after it has been
produced originally and stopped at the
source.

Reverberation

Reverberation

Reverberation

Reverberation Time, RT60

Time taken for the density of sound energy

in the room to drop to 1 millionth (60dB)
below of its initial value

Optimum Periods of
Reverberation

Factors Affecting
Reverberation Time

Volume of the room

Type of materials
Surface area of
material

TYPES OF ROOM
LIVE ROOM
- Little absorption (RT60 > 1 sec)
DEAD ROOM
- Large absorption (RT60 < 1 sec)
ANECHOIC ROOM
- 100% absorption (free field conditions)

Room Acoustics

Coefficient of absorption,

Ratio of incident sound and absorbed sound

Efficiency of sound absorption

Room Acoustics
Coefficient of Absorption

Room Acoustics
Coefficient of Absorption

Reverberation Time
Equations
a. Sabines Equation

For actual reverberation time with average

absorption less than or equal to 0.2; (absorption
coefficient, 0.2)

Where;
V = room volume,
m3
A = total absorption
units

Reverberation Time
Equations

Where;
V = room volume, ft3
A = total absorption units

Reverberation Time
Equations
Example:
Calculate the reverberation time of a
broadcast studio 8 ft. high by 13 ft
wide by 20 ft. long. The material used
has a total absorption of 180.75
sabines.

Reverberation Time
Equations
b. Norris Eyring Equation

For actual reverberation time with average

absorption greater than 0.2; ( 0.2 )
Where;
V = room volume, m3
= average coefficient
of reflecting surfaces

Reverberation Time
Equations
Example:
A lecture room, 16 m. long, 12.5 m.
wide and 5 m. high has a reverberation
time of 0.75 sec. Calculate the average
absorption coefficient of the surfaces
using the Eyring formula.

Reverberation Time
Equations
c. Stephens and Bate Equation
For ideal reverberation time computation

Where:
r = 4 for speech
r = 5 for orchestra
r = 6 for choir

Optimum Volume / person

Concert Halls
Italian type opera houses
Churches
Cinemas
Rooms for Speeches

7.1
4.2 5.1
7.1 9.9
3.1
2.8

Reverberation Time
Equations
Example:
Suggest the optimum volume and
reverberation time for a concert hall to
be used mainly for orchestral music
and to hold 450 people.

MICROPHONES

Microphone

An acoustic device classified as a transducer

which converts sound waves into their
corresponding electrical impulses

Transducer

A device which when actuated by energy in

one transmission system, supplies energy in
the same form or in another form, to a
second transmission system

Classification of
Microphones
A. General Categories
1.

Passive (Generator Type) Microphone

2.

Does not require external power source

Active (Amplifier Type) Microphone

Needs an external power source for its

operation

Classification of
Microphones
B. According to Impedance
1.

High Impedance

2.

Greater than 1000 ohms

Low Impedance

1000 ohms and below

Classification of
Microphones
C. According to Method of Coupling
Pressure Type
Actuated by the
pressure of sound
waves against
the diaphragm.

Classification of
Microphones
C. According to Method of Coupling
Velocity Type
- actuated by
velocity of
sound waves

Classification of
Microphones
C. According to Method of Coupling

Contact Type

Classification of
Microphones
D. According to Elements Used
1. Dynamic

Uses the principle of electromagnetic

induction
Electromagnetic moving coil microphone
A medium-priced instrument of high
sensitivity

Classification of
Microphones

Classification of
Microphones
2. Ribbon

Velocity microphone
Ribbon moves as if it is a part of the air
that experiences rarefactions and
condensations

Classification of
Microphones

Classification of
Microphones
3. Capacitor

Condenser type or electrostatic

microphone

Classification of
Microphones
4. Carbon

Uses principle of variable resistance

Classification of
Microphones
5. Crystal

Uses principle of piezoelectric effect

Classification of
Microphones
6. Magnetic

Operated on the magnetic reluctance due to

the movable core

Classification of
Microphones
E. According to directional
Characteristics
Unidirectional

Classification of
Microphones
E. According to directional
Characteristics
Bidirectional

Classification of
Microphones
E. According to directional
Characteristics
Omnidirectional

Classification of
Microphones
E. According to directional
Characteristics
Cardioid

Characteristics of
Microphone
1. Frequency Response

Frequency over which the microphone will

operate normally

Magnetic
Crystal
Condenser
Carbon

:
:
:
:

60 10
50 10
50 15
200 3

000Hz
000Hz
000Hz
000Hz

Characteristics of
Microphone
2. Sensitivity

Ability that would be covered by the

microphone

3. Dynamic Range

Range of sound intensity that would be

covered by the microphone

Special Types of
Microphones

Line Microphone

Capable of picking up sound from a great

distance at an angle of 45 degrees and is
highly sensitive

Special Types of
Microphones
Differential Microphone
Used in noisy places; good up to 3-in
distance

LOUDSPEAKERS

Types of Loudspeakers
Direct Radiator Type

1.

Those in which the vibrating surface

(diaphragm) radiates sound directly into the
air

Dynamic or Moving Coil Loudspeaker

Makes use of a moving coil in a magnetic
field and a permanent magnet

Types of Loudspeakers
Dynamic or Moving Coil Loudspeaker

Types of Loudspeakers
Electrostatic Loudspeaker
Operates on the same principle as a
condenser microphone

Types of Loudspeakers
Horn Type

Those in which a horn is interposed between the

diaphragm and the air
Used for efficient coupling of sound into the air

Types:

Conical Horn
Parabolic Horn
Exponential Horn
Hyperbolic Horn

Types of Loudspeakers

To cover the entire range of audible

frequencies, the following speakers
are used:

Types of Loudspeakers

Woofer for low frequencies

Types of Loudspeakers
Tweeter for high frequencies

Types of Loudspeakers
Midrange for normal range

Types of Loudspeakers

Subwoofer for very low frequencies

DIVIDING NETWORK

Loudspeaker Phasing

When more than one speaker is used:

Phasing must be uniform

Polarities and voice coils are in phase such
that the cone of all the speakers move
inwards at the same instant.

Loudspeaker Enclosure
(Baffle)

Loudspeaker mounting that is used to

prevent the sound waves from the rear
from interfering with the sound waves
in the front of speaker

QUESTIONS
1. Which best describe the sound wave?
a. It may be longitudinal
b. It is always transverse
c. It is always longitudinal
d. All of the above
2. Which of the following cannot travel through a vacuum?
a. Electromagnetic wave
b. Radio wave
c. Sound wave
d. Light wave

3. Through which medium does sound travel fastest?

a. Air
b. Water
c. Steel
d. Mercury
4. Speed that is faster than that of sound.
a. Ultrasonic
b. Supersonic
c. Subsonic
d. Transonic

5. What is the speed of sound in air at 20C?

a. 1087 ft/s
b. 1100 ft/s
c. 1126 ft/s
d. 200 ft/s
6. Calculate a half wavelength sound for sound of 16000
Hz
a. 35 ft
b. 10 ft
c. 0.035 ft
d. 100 ft

7. The lowest frequency that a human ear can hear is

a. 5 Hz
b. 20 Hz
c. 30 Hz
d. 20 kHz
8. Sound that vibrates at frequency too high for the
human ear to hear (over 20 kHz)
a. Subsonic
b. Ultrasonic
c. Transonic
d. Stereo

9. The frequency interval between two sounds whose frequency

ratio is 2.
a. Octave
b. Half octave
c. Third-octave
d. Decade

10.
Hz
a.
b.
c.
d.

A 16 KHz sound is how many octaves higher than a 500

sound
2
5
4
8

11. Sound waves composed of but one frequency is a/an

a. Infra sound
b. Pure tone
c. Structure borne
d. Residual sound

12. Sound wave has two main characteristics which are

a. Highness and loudness
b. Tone and loudness
c. Pitch and loudness
d. Rarefactions and compressions

13. When waves bend away from straight lines of travel, it is

called
a. Reflection
b. Diffraction
c. Rarefaction
d. Refraction
14. The amplitude of sound waves, the maximum displacement
of each air particle, is the property which perceive as _____ of
a sound
a. Pitch
b. Intensity
c. Loudness
d. Harmonics

15. It is the weakest sound that average human hearing can

detect.
a. SPL = 0 dB
b. Threshold of hearing
c. Reference pressure = 2 x 10-5N/m2
d. A, b, c
16. What is a device that is used to measure the hearing
sensitivity of a person?
a. Audiometer
b. OTDR
c. SLM
d. Spectrum analyzer

17. What is the device used in measuring sound pressure levels

incorporating a microphone, amplification, filtering and a
display.
a. Audiometer
b. OTDR
c. SLM
d. Spectrum analyzer
18. It is the device used to calibrate an SLM?

a.
b.
c.
d.

Microphone
Pistonphone
Telephone
Filter

19.
_____ is the sound power measured over the area upon
which is received.
a. Sound pressure
b. Sound energy
c. Sound intensity
d. Sound pressure level
20.
A measure of the intensity of sound in comparison to
another sound intensity
a. Phon
b. Decibel
c. Pascal
d. Watts

21. Calculate the sound intensity level in dB of a sound whose

intensity is 0.007 W/m2.
a. 95 dB
b. 91 dB
c. 98 dB
d. 101 dB
22. What is the sound pressure level for a given sound whose
RMS pressure is 200 N/m2?
a. 200 dB
b. 20 dB
c. 140 dB
d. 14 dB

23.
What is the sound intensity for an RMS pressure of 200
Pascal?
a. 90 W/m2
b. 98 W/m2
c. 108 W/m2
d. 88 W/m2
24.
The sound pressure level is increased by _____ dB if the
pressure is doubled.
a. 3
b. 4
c. 5
d. 6

25.
The sound pressure level is increased by _____ dB if the
intensity is doubled.
a. 3
b. 4
c. 5
d. 6
26.
If four identical sounds are added what is the increase in
level in dB?
a. 3
b. 4
c. 5
d. 6

27. The transmission of sound from one room to an adjacent

room, via common walls, floors or ceilings.
a. Flanking transmission
b. Reflection
c. Refraction
d. Reverberation
28. _____ is the continuing presence of an audible sound after
the sound source has stop.
a. Flutter echo
b. Sound concentration
c. Sound shadow
d. Reverberation

29. Required time for any sound to decay to 60 dB

a. Echo time
b. Reverberation time
c. Delay time
d. Transient time
30. A
a.
b.
c.
d.

room containing relatively little sound absorption

Dead room
Anechoic room
Live room
Free-field

31. A room in which the walls offer essentially 100% absorption,

therefore simulating free field conditions.
a. Dead room
b. Anechoic room
c. Live room
d. Closed room
32. Calculate the reverberation time of the room, which has a
volume of 8700 ft3 and total sound absorption 140 sabines.
a. 0.3 sec
b. 3.5 sec
c. 3 sec
d. 0.53 sec

33. It is an audio transducer that converts acoustic pressure in

air into its equivalent electrical impulses
a. Loudspeaker
b. Amplifier
c. Baffle
d. Microphone
34. _____ is a pressure type microphone with permanent coil as
a transducing element.
a. Dynamic
b. Condenser
c. Magnetic
d. Carbon

35. A microphone which has an internal impedance of 25

k is _____ type.
a. High impedance
b. Low impedance
c. Dynamic
d. Magnetic
36. A
a.
b.
c.
d.

microphone that uses the piezoelectric effect

Dynamic
Condenser
Crystal
Carbon

37. _____ is a type of loudspeaker driver with an effective

diameter of 5 inches used at midrange audio frequency.
a. Tweeter
b. Woofer
c. Mid-range
d. A or C
38. _____ is measure of how much sound is produced from the
electrical signal.
a. Sensitivity
b. Distortion
c. Efficiency
d. Frequency response

39. It describes the output of a microphone over a range of

frequencies.
a. Directivity
b. Sensitivity
c. Frequency response
d. All of the above

40. A loudspeaker radiates an acoustic power of 1 mW if the

electrical input is 10 W. What is its rated efficiency?
a. -10 dB
b. -20 dB
c. -30 dB
d. -40 dB

41. An amplifier can deliver 100 W to a loudspeaker. If the rated

efficiency of the loudspeaker is -60 dB. What is the maximum
intensity 300 ft from it?
a. 10 dB
b. 20 dB
c. 30 dB
d. 40 dB
42. Speaker is a device that
a. Converts sound waves into current and voltage
b. Converts current variations into sound waves
c. Converts electrical energy to mechanical energy
d. Converts electrical energy to electromagnetic energy

43. The impedance of most drivers is about _____ ohms at their

resonant frequency.
a. 4
b. 6
c. 8
d. 10
44. It is a transducer used to convert electrical energy to
mechanical energy.
a. Microphone
b. Baffle
c. Magnetic assemble
d. Driver

45. It is an enclosure used to prevent front and back wave

cancellation.
a. Loudspeaker
b. Driver
c. Baffle
d. Frame
46. A circuit that divides the frequency components into
separate bands in order to have individual feeds to the
different drivers.
a. Suspension system
b. Dividing network
c. Magnet assembly
d. Panel board

47. _____ is early reflection of sound.

a. Echo
b. Pure sound
c. Reverberation
d. Intelligible sound
48. Noise reduction system used for film sound in movie.
a. Dolby
b. DBx
c. dBa
d. dBk

49. Using a microphone at less than the recommended working

distance will create a _____ which greatly increases the low
frequency signals.
a. Roll-off
b. Proximity effect
c. Drop out
d. None of the choices
50. What is the unit of loudness of an individual listener?
a. Sone
b. Phon
c. Decibel
d. Mel

51. A unit of noisiness related to the perceived noise level

a. Noy
b. dB
c. Sone
d. Phon

52. What is the loudness level of a 1KHz tone if its intensity is

1 x 10-5W/cm2?
a. 100 phons
b. 105 phons
c. 110 phons
d. 100 phons

53. A transducer that converts acoustic signals into electrical

signals.
a. microphone
b. loudspeaker
c. both a and b
d. none of these

54. A characteristic of a microphone which indicates the

frequency range over which the microphone the frequency
range over which the microphone will operate normally.
a. sensitivity
b. frequency response
c. dynamic range
d. directional characteristic

55. An ability of the microphone to detect very slight changes of

sound.
a. sensitivity
b. frequency response
c. dynamic range
d. directional characteristic
56. The range of sound intensity that would be covered by the
microphone.
a. sensitivity
b. frequency response
c. dynamic range
d. directional characteristic

57. A special microphone characterized by a long perforated

tube and high sensitivity, suitable for TV applications.
a. line microphone
b. dynamic microphone
c. differential microphone
d. ribbon microphone
58. A sound intensity that could cause painful sensation to the
human ear.
a. threshold of sense
b. threshold of pain
c. hearing threshold
d. sensation intensity

59. What is the speed of sound in a material having a density of

1000 kg/cu.m. and Youngs modulus of elasticity of 2.3 x
10exp 9 N/sq.m.?
a. 1517 m/sec
b. 1571 m/sec
c. 1715 m/sec
d. 1751 m/sec
60. In acoustics, the volume velocity component is a function of
the _____ of the material.
a. density
b. volume
c. diameter
d. Youngs modulus

61. If the sound source radiates 1 watt, what is its sound power
level?
a. 0 dB
b. 60 dB
c. 120 dB
d. 240 dB
62. If a note has a fundamental frequency of 100Hz, what is its
5th octave?
a. 6400 Hz
b. 3200 Hz
c. 500 Hz
d. 1600 Hz

63. A church has an internal volume of 2550 cu.m. When it

contains absorption of 186 metric sabines, what will be its
reverberation time in sec.?
a. 2
b. 2.2
c. 2.5
d. 3.0