ch1

Structure:
The fundamental to the study of syntax .
.,
.,
) ( complex
:
:
a- It is divisible into parts .. called constituents
constituents
subject/verb/object....
b- There are different kind of parts .. called categories
categories
verb ,.

c- The constituents are arranged or organized in a
specifiable way


d- Each constituents has specifiable function

:


(.. ,)I still ,

 :
The parts themselves consist of parts, which may in turn consist of further parts.

. NP

hierarchy

7

ungrammatical
well - formed
8

]a [2
hierarchical
hierarchical

/ bicycle - wheel - spoke
.,
hierarchical relathion
phrases:
words to form groups


.,
while the sentences certainly contain words
they don't consist of words
they consist of phrases

.,
] a/b 9 [ ] 8 [
stream
a road

laughing
(.. ,)I still ,


surreptitously

noun


.

establishing constituents
.,
.,
complete and grammatical
03-02-01-00-01
10

+ +

amani smiled



:
obligatory
optional
:
amani smiled invitingly
obligatory optional
01
=

02

(.. ,)I still ,

amani sunbathed beside stream

amani synbathed here
amani sunbathed somewhere

?where did amani sunbathed

stream beside

03
the movement of a sequence of words in forming a
construction indicates that the sequence is a phrase

=

<<
.,
the boy eat the apple

the apple eat the boy

semantic syntactic

04
(.. ,)I still ,

phrase and constituent

p.15
.,



food I like

07

:
dominate

(.. ,)I still ,

 :
2
NP + NP + VP


immediately dominate

s

NP - VP

Ch2: sentence structure: function

constituents
1- Category
2- Function
= : Subject + Predicate

}Subject= S {used to mention something
NP
}Predicate= P {used to say something about the subject
NP VP
:
Ducks paddle
SP
The ducks are paddling away
SP
24 1 25
3
(.. ,)I still ,

 65 NP VP
26 Question test for subject
Yes , No 10


*
29
Noun Phrase and Verb Phrase


Noun Phrase: the single words that can replace them are all NOUNS or
PRONOUNS= Subject
S = NP NP = S
Verb Phrase: all contain, and are centred on, a VERB= Predicate
33 30
31
The SUBJECT of sentence is the NP that is immediately dominated by S

The PREDICATE of sentence is the VP that is immediately dominated by S

31 34
*
Dependency and function
Subject and Predicate are dependent on each other. An NP only function as a subject
in the presence of a sister VP , and a VP only function as predicate in the presence of
a sister NP.



S

OBLIGATORY
32
HEAD

The head of a phrase is the element that the phrase is centred on . It is the one
obligatory element in that phrase.

The Modifier Head relation
The big difference between Modifier & Head is:In the structure of a phrase, modifiers
are OPTIONAL ; the head is the OBLIGATORY element.

:
Phrases can function as head & modifiers


7

)I still , , (..

ONE HEAD
Modifier = M
Head = H
:
][Their] [[rather dubious] jokes
MH
_____________________________
][[rather dubious] jokes
MH
____________________________
][rather dubious
MH
37 33
*
35
HEAD 36
The head complement relation:
When a head DEMANDS a further expression, that further (OBLIGATORY) is said
to complement the head.

:
Amani sunbathed beside a stream
beside a stream
beside
stream
H beside
Cstream
36 45 44
46 37
complement modifiers
Head Modifiers
Head Head complement

38

Ch3/ sentence structure : category

Nouns/ the name of a person, place, or thing.
.. 84
.

/ Proper N

(.. ,)I still ,

 "

/ Common Noun

.
.
All common noun can combine with the definite article, to form
NP

) e.g( the car
.. . 84
.

1the indefinite article,a/an.
2/ numerals, one. two. three.
3/ plural, suffix-s. e.g. ( accidentaccidents), and irregular
plural, e.g (man. men/foot. Feet ).
NP
. ..
..
..... .
/ a.an
/ Some
00 ..
..
Lexical and phrasal(noun and noun phrase).
,
, ".
.. . +. ..
)
. .45 " , "
Adjectives, adjective phrases. And adverbs, adverb phrases.

Adjective/ describes word, to modify the sense of the noun.
.
Able, al, ate/ nice, old, blue, yellow.etc

And comparative , -er/ superlative, -est
(.. ,)I still ,

 " . "
Er/est
Gradable adjective,
00

AP(advp)+A
,advp, optional.
Function, A
e.g. 'the dog is quite disgustingly fat'
adverb/ is modifying the verb, its work to define the sense of
the verb by telling something of the way it's done.
"answer the question of, how, where, when"
Degree adverb/ telling us to what degree much something is
done.
e.g.(less, rather, more..etc)
05
AP(advp)+A
advp(degree)+adv
function,A
{advp. Dominated by VP}
Prepositions and preposition phrase.
Prepositions/ class of word which express relation of place,
direction, time, or passion.
e.g." at, to, till foretc"
it can appear alone .e.g. Johnny looked up.
PPP (+NP)
Function, A 'adverbial'.
Coordinate phrase.
Coordination/ joining class together by coordinate them.
.Coordinators. "and, but, or"

CH 4/The Basic Verb Phrase.

(VP) must contains is a verb(V) .VP are centered on V
.
10

)I still , , (..

 ..
( lexical ). ,( run, eat, seem )
( auxiliary ). , ( can/could,
will/would ).be, have and do.(which can also be lexical)
*..
Diana played the piano.
/..54..-s, - ing.etc
* , ..
5( /..00).
/1transitive verb.. require a single noun phrase to complement it.(has to
have a direct object (NP) to be complete.
Function. Direct object (dO).
..
.. .. ..)21(
dO
..
2/ in transitive verb..has no complement.( class of verb doesn't have a
direct object to be complete.
.. . .
e.g.. Omar sighed.
..
3/ditransitive verb..require two complement..
Function..
1/DidO+iO
dO=NP
iO=pp
e.g..William gave some bleach to Millie.
2/DitiO+dO
iO=NP
dO=NP
e.g..William gave Millie some bleach..
.. . ..
..
4intensive verb..require a single complement, which can take the form
of an adjective phrase, a noun phrase, or prepositional phrase..
Function/ sP
. . ..
.
..
(be )(am , is, are, was, were )
(the copula )
( become, seem, appear, turn, look, etc)
* . .^^
..
..
AP (advp)+A..e.g. Johnny seems un happy
11

)I still , , (..

PP P (+NP).. e.g..Johnny is in the garden.

Function/ sP
..
5complex transitive verb ..take two complement, a direct object
(NP)and an object predictive (oP).
..
..
Function../ oP
comdO + oP
dO=NP
oP= AP, or, NP, or, PP
*45( )

6prepositional verbs..class of verb complemented by a prepositional
phrase.
Function../PC
.. ( glance, lean
)
..
..

CH 5/ Adverbials and other matters.

Adjunct adverbials (vp adverbials).
:
(where)..
( back- up- everywhere- in- out- near- down- far- inside)
(how) (ly)..
In what manner?
(when)..
(early- late- still- soon- then- last year- before- at night- yesterday).
(how often) (frecuency).
(always-never- often- usually- occasionally-sometimes-now-then- again )
( relative)
(where- when- why)

12

)I still , , (..

Adverb/ is modifying the verb. it works to define the sense of the verb by telling
something of the way its done.
Adverbials/ is phrase consisting of noun and preposition.
Adjuncts/ express a wide range of ideas, including manner, means, purpose, reason,
time, and place. ..
.
*Advp function as adjunct, i.e.(jack bout the flower for his wife) advp.
*Advp function as inventive, most of them express purpose, i.e.(I'm saving many to
buy a car). advp.

Level of verb phrase.

. ..

max spotted those wildcats in the spring./

Those wildcat..
In the spring..

Phrasal verbs
Aer usually tow word consisting of verb+ adverb or verb+ prepositional
Pps functioning as adjunct or complements with vp..
..

Ch6/ More on verbs: auxiliary vps.

Lexical and auxiliary verbs.

Auxiliary
13

)I still , , (..

-Tense
1_( past / perfect,have+ en, i.e. had given / , passive / be+en, i.e. was chased)
2_ (present / prog+ being, i.e. was giving )
3_ (none finite / to+ infinitive, i.e. she wants to hold the baby)
4_( bare infinitive / infinitive without to, i.e. she made him hold the baby)
-Modals ( can- could..etc )
-Primary (have- be- do)

..

Auxiliary VPs and asverbials.

1-If any adverbial precedes a verb, assume it modifies the following VP.
,
2-Assume that sentence final adverbials modify (and form aVP constituent
with the lexical VP.
,
...
.

CH7/ The structure of noun phrases..

NP= {Pronoun, Name}=non-branchaing
{ Det+ Nom}
{Pre-Det +NP
branching
Det={art, the
{Dem, this, that, these, those,
{Q, some, any, its, each, no, every, either, neither
{Poss, my, her, his, our, their, 's, yours, Its}
Nom={N+(AP)}
*the empty determiners gives the NP an indefinite and or more general
interpretation.
14

)I still , , (..

 (.)01 .!

Pre- determiners:
Consider word like ( all, both, half, double, treble)..

Pre- modifiers in NOM.

( )3
:
1- Quantifying adjectives.(QA) ,{much. Many, few, little}. The come under
NOM in NP.
( )147

2- Participle Phrases (part P).
( )6
NOM
3- Nouns

Pre- modifiers,, Prepositional Phrases.

( )42 ..
( )54 53
NOW ....
..

More on Adjective Phrases..

( including, absent, present, visible, responsible).
When, in a NP, a modifying AP includes a complement, it always post modifies the
head noun..

**** + +

(.. ,)I still ,

15

(.. ,)I still ,

16