Vitamin K

Ashley Thompson
2/14/13

Vitamin K is one of the four fat-soluble vitamins. It is found in two primary

forms. One form is phylloquinone. Phylloquinone is found in green plants such as
broccoli, kale and spinach. The second form of vitamin K, menaquinone, is produced
by the bacteria in the intestine.1(461)
Although two different forms of vitamin K do not require digestion, they are
absorbed with a little variance. Phylloquinone is absorbed either by micelles in the
small intestine or by active transport in the duodenum and jejunum. Menaquinones
are absorbed by passive fusion from the ileum and colon. Phylloquinones are
transported through the lymphatic system and then into the circulatory system via
chylomicrons to several tissues. Many of these tissues are also where vitamin K is
stored including lungs, kidneys, bone marrow and adrenal glands. Another means of
transport that is utilized by both phylloquinones and menaquinones is their
incorporation into very-low-density proteins into the blood to be transported
extrahepatic tissues. 2(410)
Once vitamin K has been absorbed and transported, it performs a few major
functions in the body including blood clotting, bone mineralization, apoptosis,
growth and signal transduction. Vitamin K plays a vital role in blood clotting. One
of the inactivated forms of vitamin k-dependent factor is activated by factor Xa and
is necessary for the conversion of prothrombin to produce thrombin. Thrombin
catalyzes the conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin, which is the part of this process that
forms the insoluble fibrin clot thus halting the bleeding.2(410)

While phylloquinone form of vitamin K is metabolized into uncharacterized

metabolites and excreted primarily in the feces but also in the urine, there is little
know of the metabolism and excretion of menaquinone.2(413)
Another major function of vitamin K is its role in bone health. There are two
vitamin K dependent proteins involved in the bone, cartilage and dentine:
osteocalcin and matrix Gla protein.2(412)
Many studies have shown a link between decreased bone density and the
lack of vitamin K. The proposed reason for this is because of vitamin Ks role in the
synthesis of proteins (osteocalcin and matrix Gla protein) involved in bone
metabolism. In one particular study, vitamin K was shown to maintain bone
strength in the femoral neck by increasing bone mineral content in postmenopausal
women.3
Everybody is born with a vitamin K deficiency due to its poor transfer
through the placenta. This requires that newborns receive injects of phylloquinone
shortly after birth.2(414) Deficiencies are rare in adults and usually only occur in
those with disorders of fat digestion and absorption.4
The AI for vitamin K is 120 micrograms for males per day and 90 micrograms
for females per day. There are no known effects of large amounts of vitamin K that
cause toxicity. Therefore there is no Tolerable Upper Intake level. Assessment of
this nutrient is done by plasma or serum concentrations of phylloquinone. Another
way to check for a vitamin K deficiency is by measuring the amount of time it takes
for a blood clot to form.2(414)

As with all other vitamins, vitamin K is necessary to support and maintaining

specific processes in the body and prevent certain medical complications that arise
from its absence.

1. Manore MM, Thompson JL, Vaughan LA. The Science of Nutrition. 2nd ed.
San Francisco, CA:Pearson; 2011.
2. Gropper, SS, Smith JL. Advanced Nutrition Human and Metabolism. 6th ed.
Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cenage Learning; 2013.
3. Kapen MHJ, Schurgers JL, Vermeer C. Vitamin K2 supplementation improves
hip bone geometry and bone strength indices in postmenopausal women.
Osteoporosis International. 2007, Volume 18, Issue 7, pp 963-972.
http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00198-007-0337-9?LI=true
4. Booth SL. Vitamin K. Advances in Nutrition. 2011, vol. 2: 440-441, 2011.
http://advances.nutrition.org/content/2/5/440.short