1

INTRODUCTION

Virtual machine Mn, with

machine language Ln

Level 3

Virtual machine M3, with

machine language L3

Level n

Level 2

Level 1

Level 0

Programs in Ln are
either interpreted by
interpreter running
on a lower machine, or
are translated to the
machine language of a
lower machine

Virtual machine M2, with

machine language L2

Programs in L2 are
either interpreted by
interpreters running
on M1 or M0, or are
translated to L1 or L0

Virtual machine M1, with

machine language L1

Programs in L1 are
either interpreted by
an interpreter running on
M0, or are translated to L0

Actual computer M0, with

machine language L0

Programs in L0 can be
directly executed by
the electronic circuits

Figure 1-1. A multilevel machine.

Level 5

Problem-oriented language level

Translation (compiler)

Level 4

Assembly language level

Translation (assembler)

Level 3

Operating system machine level

Partial interpretation (operating system)

Level 2

Instruction set architecture level

Interpretation (microprogram) or direct execution

Level 1

Microarchitecture level
Hardware

Level 0

Digital logic level

Figure 1-2. A six-level computer. The support method for

each level is supported is indicated below it (along with the
name of the supporting program).

*JOB, 5494, BARBARA

*XEQ
*FORTRAN

FORTRAN
program

*DATA

Data
cards

*END

Figure 1-3. A sample job for the FMS operating system.

2222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222
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1
1
1
Year 1
Name
Made by
Comments
1
1
1
1
1
1834 1 Analytical Engine 1 Babbage
12222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222
1 First attempt to build a digital computer
1
12222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222
1
1
1
1
1936 Z1
Zuse
First working relay calculating machine
1
1
1
1
1
1943 1 COLOSSUS
12222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222
1 British govt
1 First electronic computer
1
12222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222
1
1
1
1
1944 Mark I
Aiken
First American general-purpose computer
1
1
1
1
1
1946 1 ENIAC I
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1 Eckert/Mauchley 1 Modern computer history starts here
1
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1
1
1
1
1949 EDSAC
Wilkes
First stored-program computer
1
1
1
1
1
1951 1 Whirlwind I
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1 M.I.T.
1 First real-time computer
1
12222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222
1
1
1
1
1952 IAS
Von Neumann
Most current machines use this design
1
1
1
1
1
1960 1 PDP-1
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1 DEC
1 First minicomputer (50 sold)
1
12222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222
1
1
1
1
1961 1401
IBM
Enormously popular small business machine
1
1
1
1
1
1962 1 7094
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1 IBM
1 Dominated scientific computing in the early 1960s1
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1 Burroughs
1 First machine designed for a high-level language 1
1963 1 B5000
1
1
1
1
1
1964 1 360
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1 IBM
1 First product line designed as a family
1
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1
1
1
1
1964 6600
CDC
First scientific supercomputer
1
1
1
1
1
1965 1 PDP-8
12222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222
1 DEC
1 First mass-market minicomputer (50,000 sold)
1
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1
1
1
1
1970 PDP-11
DEC
Dominated minicomputers in the 1970s
1
1
1
1
1
1974 1 8080
12222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222
1 Intel
1 First general-purpose 8-bit computer on a chip
1
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1
1
1
1
1974 CRAY-1
Cray
First vector supercomputer
1
1
1
1
1
1978 1 VAX
12222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222
1 DEC
1 First 32-bit superminicomputer
1
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1
1
1
1
1981 IBM PC
IBM
Started the modern personal computer era
1
1
1
1
1
1985 1 MIPS
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1 MIPS
1 First commercial RISC machine
1
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1
1
1
1
1987 SPARC
Sun
First SPARC-based RISC workstation
1
1
1
1
1
1990 1 RS6000
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1 IBM
1 First superscalar machine
1

Figure 1-4. Some milestones in the development of the modern digital computer.

Memory

Control
unit

Arithmetic
logic unit

Input

Output
Accumulator

Figure 1-5. The original von Neumann machine.

CPU

Memory

Console
terminal

Paper
tape I/O

Other
I/O

Omnibus

Figure 1-6. The PDP-8 omnibus.

2 222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222
12 222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222
1 Model 30 1 Model 40 1 Model 50 1 Model 65 1
Property
1
1
1
1
1
1
performance
1
3.5 1
10
21
222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222
12Relative
1
1
1
1
12Cycle
1
1
1
1
1
time (nsec)
1000
625
500
250
222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222
1
1
1
1
1
1
memory (KB)
64
256
512
2
222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222
1 Maximum
1
1 256
1
1
1
12Bytes
1
1
1
1
fetched
per
cycle
1
2
4
16
2222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222221
1
1
1
1
1
1
number of data channels 1
3
3
4
6
12Maximum
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1
1
1
1

Figure 1-7. The initial offering of the IBM 360 product line.

100000000

16M
64M

10000000

1M

Transistors

1000000
100000

256K

4K

10000
1000

4M

64K
16K
1K

100
10
1
1965

1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

Figure 1-8. Moores law predicts a 60 percent annual increase

in the number of transistors that can be put on a chip. The data
points given in this figure are memory sizes, in bits.

1995

22222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222
122222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222
1 Price ($) 1
1
Type
Example application
1
1
1
1
Disposable computer
1
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1
1 Greeting cards
1
122222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222
1
1
1
Embedded computer
10
Watches, cars, appliances
1
1
1
1
Game computer
2
1 2222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222
1 100
1 Home video games
1
122222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222
1
1 Desktop or portable computer
1
Personal computer
1K
1
1
1
1
Server
10K
Network
server
2
2222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222
1
1
1
1
Collection of Workstations 1 100K 1 Departmental minisupercomputer 1
122222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222
1 Mainframe
1
1
1M 1 Batch data processing in a bank
2
1 2222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222
1
1
1
Supercomputer
10M
Long
range
weather
prediction
122222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222
1
1
1

Figure 1-9. The current spectrum of computers available. The

prices should be taken with a grain (or better yet, a metric ton)
of salt.

2222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222
12222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222
1 Date 1 MHz Transistors
1
1 Memory 1
1
Chip
Notes
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
4004
2,300 1
640 1 First microprocessor on a chip
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1 4/1971 1 0.108 1
1
12222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222
1
1
1
1
1
1
8008
4/1972
0.108
3,500
16 KB First 8-bit microprocessor
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
8080
2 1
6,000 1 64 KB 1 First general-purpose CPU on a chip 1
12222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222
1 4/1974 1
12222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222
1 6/1978 1
1
8086
5-10 1
29,000 1
1 MB 1 First 16-bit CPU on a chip
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
8088
5-8 1
29,000 1
1 MB 1 Used in IBM PC
12222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222
1 6/1979 1
1
12222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222
1
1
1
1
1
1
80286
2/1982
8-12
134,000
16 MB Memory protection present
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
80386
4 GB 1 First 32-bit CPU
12222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222
1 10/1985 1 16-33 1 275,000 1
1
12222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222
1
1
1
1
1
1
80486
4/1989 25-100
1.2M
4 GB Built-in 8K cache memory
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Pentium
3.1M 1
4 GB 1 Two pipelines; later models had MMX 1
12222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222
1 3/1993 1 60-233 1
12222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222
1
Pentium Pro 1 3/1995 1 150-200 1
5.5M 1
4 GB 1 Two levels of cache built in
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Pentium II 1 5/1997 1 233-400 1
7.5M 1
4 GB 1 Pentium Pro plus MMX
12222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222
1

Figure 1-10. The Intel CPU family. Clock speeds are measured in MHz (megahertz) where 1 MHz is 1 million cycles/sec.

Pentium
II

10M

Pentium

1M

Transistors

80286
100K

Moore's law

8080
4004
1K
8008

10K

80486

Pentium
Pro

80386

8086
8088

100
10
1
1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998
Year of introduction

Figure 1-11. Moores law for CPU chips.