An overview of the petroleum

system of Maracaibo Basin

Alejandro Escalona and Paul Mann

ABSTRACT
The geologically complex Maracaibo Basin in northwestern Venezuela is one of the most prolific hydrocarbon basins in the world.
Having a basinal area of 50,000 km2 (19,300 mi2), the basin has
produced more than 30 billion bbl of oil, with estimated recoverable oil reserves of more than 44 billion bbl. The central
elements of the petroleum system of the basin include (1) a worldclass source rock (Upper Cretaceous La Luna Formation), deposited on a shelf-to-slope environment under anoxic conditions and
modified by intermittent oxygenated periods and tectonic events;
(2) high-quality clastic reservoir rocks deposited in Eocene and
Miocene fluviodeltaic settings; (3) two main periods of rapid tectonic subsidence responsible for two pulses of voluminous hydrocarbon generation, first, during Paleogene CaribbeanSouth American oblique plate collision and, second, during the Neogene uplift
of the Sierra de Perija Merida Andes; and (4) lateral and vertical
migration of oil along strike-slip, normal, and inverted faults, as
well as a regional unconformity of late Eocene Oligocene age.
The maturation, migration, and trapping of hydrocarbons were
closely controlled by the tectonic evolution of the Maracaibo Basin.
During the Paleogene, the development of a foredeep along the
northeastern margin of the basin and the strike-slip reactivation of
the rift-related Jurassic faults on the Maracaibo platform controlled
the early structural setting of the source and reservoir rocks. Hydrocarbons migrated updip from source rocks beneath the northnortheastern margin of the basin along north-south strike-slip faults
and into overlying Eocene clastic reservoirs in the south-central parts
of the basin. The second period of the Maracaibo Basin petroleum
system developed during subaerial exposure of most of the Maracaibo Basin during Oligocene Miocene uplift of the adjacent Sierra
de Perija and Merida Andes. Uplift of mountain ranges surrounding the basin folded and depressed the interior of the basin to form
the extensive Maracaibo syncline. Because of the formation of the
Maracaibo syncline, oil generation began in the central and southern
parts of the synclinal basin and migrated northward. Hydrocarbons
migrated up the flanks of the Maracaibo syncline along reactivated

AUTHORS
Alejandro Escalona  Institute for Geophysics, Jackson School of Geosciences, University of Texas at Austin, 4412 Spicewood
Springs Road, Building 600, Austin, Texas,
78759; escalona@utig.ig.utexas.edu
Alejandro Escalona is a postdoctoral researcher
at the Institute for Geophysics, University of
Texas at Austin. He received his Ph.D. in geology at the University of Texas at Austin in
2003, where he focused on the stratigraphic
and structural evolution of the Maracaibo Basin,
Venezuela. He is currently interpreting regional seismic and well data from offshore
Venezuela to link offshore and on-land Cenozoic
depocenters.
Paul Mann  Institute for Geophysics, Jackson School of Geosciences, University of Texas
at Austin, 4412 Spicewood Springs Road,
Building 600, Austin, Texas, 78759;
paulm@utig.ig.utexas.edu
Paul Mann is a senior research scientist at the
Institute for Geophysics, University of Texas
at Austin. He received his Ph.D. in geology at
the State University of New York in 1983 and
has published widely on the tectonics of strikeslip, rift, and collision-related sedimentary basins. His current focus area of research is the
interplay of tectonics, sedimentation, and hydrocarbon occurrence in Venezuela and Trinidad.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank Petroleos de Venezuela, S. A., for
providing seismic and well data used in this
study. This work was supported by Grant
40499-AC8 from the Donors of the Petroleum
Research Fund of the American Chemical
Society to P. Mann. We thank S. Talukdar,
D. Goddard, and R. Erlich for valuable reviews. The authors acknowledge the financial
support for publication costs provided by the
University of Texas at Austins Geology Foundation and the Jackson School of Geosciences.
University of Texas, Institute for Geophysics
Contribution 1775.

Copyright #2006. The American Association of Petroleum Geologists. All rights reserved.

Editors Note

Manuscript received February 19, 2005; provisional acceptance April 21, 2005; revised manuscript
received September 28, 2005; final acceptance October 14, 2005.
DOI:10.1306/10140505038

Color versions of figures may be seen in the

online version of this article.

AAPG Bulletin, v. 90, no. 4 (April 2006), pp. 657 678

657

strike-slip faults and into Miocene rocks adjacent to

the uplifted mountain ranges. Escaping oil has formed
numerous surface seeps along the edges of the Maracaibo Basin.

INTRODUCTION
The Gulf Caribbean region currently contains 5% of
the total ultimate recoverable reserves of hydrocarbons on Earth (Horn, 2003) (Figure 1A). Venezuela
has the largest reserves of hydrocarbons of all the hydrocarbon regions of the western hemisphere, with
proved oil reserves of about 70 billion bbl oil and
proved gas reserves of 147 tcf (Figure 1) (U.S. Geological Survey, 2000; Audemard and Serrano, 2001).
These reserve estimates do not include the immense,
unconventional reserves of the Orinoco heavy oil belt,
with an estimated approximately 1200 billion bbl of

heavy and extra-heavy oil in place (Fiorillo, 1987;

U.S. Geological Survey, 2000).
The active tectonic setting of petroleum in Venezuela is complex. Several tectonic belts that include
volcanic-arc, fore-arc, and back-arc basins are found offshore of the Venezuelan margin (Figure 2A). A west-toeast younging pattern of thrusts and lateral ramp faults
and foreland basins onshore (Babb and Mann, 1999;
Mann, 1999) (Figure 2A) were produced by diachronous
oblique convergence between Caribbean arc terranes
and the South American continental margin from Late
Cretaceous (western area of Colombia) to the present
(eastern area of Trinidad) (Figure 2B). This ideal combination of tectonic and stratigraphic events yielded
one of the most prolific petroleum systems in the world.
The 50,000-km2 (19,300-mi2) area of the Maracaibo Basin (Figure 3) is the most productive hydrocarbon basin in the CaribbeanSouth America region
(Figure 1D). The ultimate total recoverable oil reserves

Figure 1. (A) Distribution of ultimate recoverable oil in the world; (B) distribution of recoverable oil in the world; (C) distribution of
giant oil fields; and (D) ultimate oil reserves in the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico (MMBOE). All data are from Horn (2003).
658

An Overview of the Petroleum System of Maracaibo Basin

Figure 2. (A) Topographic-bathymetric map showing six main tectonic belts observed along the northern margin of South America:
1 = Venezuela basin; 2 = Leeward Antilles Aves Ridge; 3 = Grenada-Bonaire-Falcon basins; 4 = Lesser Antilles arc Cordillera de la
Costa; 5 = Tobago-Carupano basins; 6 = Barbados accretionary prism Columbus basin Eastern Venezuela Basin Maracaibo Basin.
(B) Inferred position of the leading edge of the Great arc of the Caribbean at 90 Ma = Late Cretaceous; 60 Ma = Paleocene; 50 Ma =
Eocene; 35 Ma = Oligocene; 15 Ma = Miocene; 0 Ma = Holocene (modified from Lugo and Mann, 1995).
Escalona and Mann

659

Figure 3. Oil fields, oil seeps, and major faults of the Maracaibo Basin. Most oil fields are located along major subsurface strikeslip faults, including the Icotea and Pueblo Viejo faults (map modified from Zambrano et al., 1971; location of oil and gas seeps are
from Link, 1952).

are 44,188 billion bbl of hydrocarbon (Horn, 2003), and

total cumulative oil production is more than 30 billion
bbl of oil during its last 80 yr of commercial production
history (Talukdar and Marcano, 1994). The Maracaibo
Basin is considered a supergiant oil field because it contains more than 10 giant oil fields, each with ultimately
recoverable hydrocarbons greater than 500 million bbl
(Halbouty, 2001; Mann et al., 2003).
660

The Maracaibo Basin is located in a triangular intermontane depression bounded by the Merida Andes
and Sierra de Perija (Figure 3). Eocene clastic rocks of
the basin are the most prolific reservoirs for light and
medium oil and account for 50% of the basins reserves (Talukdar and Marcano, 1994). Miocene clastic rock reservoirs include 44% of known reservoirs,
whereas Paleocene, Cretaceous, and basement rocks

An Overview of the Petroleum System of Maracaibo Basin

include 6% of the known reservoirs (Talukdar and

Marcano, 1994). Eocene reservoirs are characterized by
complex stratigraphic and structural traps formed
during Eocene oblique convergence between the Caribbean and South American plates (Escalona, 2006;
Escalona and Mann, 2006a, b), Miocene reservoirs are
mainly found along the eastern edge (Bolivar Coast) of
the present-day Maracaibo syncline and are affected
mainly by east-west convergence (Taboada et al., 2000;
Guzman and Fisher, 2006) (Figure 3). Oil seeps fringing
the Maracaibo Basin are indicative of the prolific and
widespread petroleum system underlying the entire basin (Link, 1952) (Figure 3).
The main objective of this article is to provide an
overview of the petroleum system of the Maracaibo
Basin in the context of its tectonic history. In this article,
we summarize the most important tectonic events that
affected the generation, migration, and trapping of hydrocarbons and integrate relevant hydrocarbon and geochemical observations presented by previous workers.

GEOLOGIC SETTING
The sedimentary history of the Maracaibo Basin began
during the Late Jurassic, with the deposition of riftrelated rocks (La Quinta Formation) in structural lows
or half grabens controlled by linear, north-northeast
striking normal faults (Maze, 1984; Lugo and Mann,
1995). During the Early Cretaceous Paleocene, a
mixed clastic-carbonate platform developed across
the area of present-day Maracaibo Basin (Figure 1).
Thermal subsidence and tectonic quiescence of the
passive margin led to sediment accumulation and the
absence of deformation of the basin during this period
(Lugo and Mann, 1995). The few structures present in
the Maracaibo Basin during the Cretaceous formed by
tectonic uplift of the Western and Central Cordilleras
of Colombia (Figure 1). This uplift is responsible for an
increase in subsidence by the end of the Cretaceous
that resulted in deposition of thick marine shale of the
Colon Formation during the Maastrichtian (Lugo and
Mann, 1995; Parnaud et al., 1995). During the late
TuronianCampanian, the La Luna Formation was deposited in a shelf-slope setting under anoxic conditions.
The La Luna Formation became the main source rock
of northwestern South America (Renz, 1981; Bralower
and Lorente, 2003).
Late Paleocene and early to middle Eocene oblique
convergence between the Caribbean plate and the
northwestern margin of South America (Figure 2B)

produced a complex foreland wedge filled by clastic

sediments in the northeastern part of the Maracaibo
Basin (Stephan, 1977; Pindell and Barrett, 1990; Lugo
and Mann, 1995). The foreland basin was characterized
by an approximately 5-km (3.1-mi)-thick Eocene
wedge of fluvial-deltaic sedimentation (Misoa Formation), where the most prolific hydrocarbon reservoirs
of the Maracaibo Basin are concentrated. Paleogene
collision was characterized by northwest to southeast
migration of the depocenter through time over a lateral
distance of about 150 km (93 mi) (Stephan, 1985;
Lugo and Mann, 1995; Escalona and Mann, 2006a).
Isostatic rebound affected the central and eastern parts
of the Maracaibo Basin and produced the widespread
Eocene unconformity that exposed and subaerially
eroded the central and northeastern parts of the basin
until the end of the Oligocene (Escalona and Mann,
2003a, 2006a). Fluvial and shallow-marine sedimentation continued in the south and southwest areas of
the Maracaibo Basin (Erlich et al., 1997). The Eocene
unconformity represents the main seal above Eocene
reservoirs, but it is locally breached by faulting, allowing
the upward ascent of hydrocarbons into Miocene reservoirs at the basin edges (Figures 3, 4).
The MioceneHolocene period is characterized by
the uplift and erosion of the Sierra de Perija and the
Merida Andes on the western and southeastern flanks
of the basin (Kohn et al., 1984; Shagam et al., 1984).
The formation of the north-southtrending Maracaibo
syncline (Castillo, 2001; Mann et al., 2006) represents
the final stage of this uplift and convergence. The Maracaibo syncline closely controls the present-day geographic configuration of the basin and the location of its
marginal oil seeps (Figure 3). The convergent structural
styles seen on seismic lines at deeper levels in the basin
are controlled by Oligocene and Miocene inversion of
Eocene rift-related structures in the central part of the
basin (Escalona and Mann, 2003b; Castillo and Mann,
2006; Duerto et al., 2006). Eocene inversion of riftrelated structures also caused faulting of lower Miocene rocks overlying Eocene reservoir rocks. Following
a period of isostatic rebound during the Oligocene
(Escalona, 2003; Escalona and Mann, 2006a), a phase
of rapid Miocene Holocene subsidence began. Subsidence was caused by the uplift of the bounding Sierra
de Perija and Merida Andes mountain ranges that is,
in turn, related to the convergence and subduction of
the Caribbean plate and collision of the Panama arc in
northwestern South America (Kellogg and Bonini,
1982; Taboada et al., 2000; Colmenares and Zoback,
2003; Cortes and Angelier, 2005).
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661

PETROLEUM SYSTEMS
Figure 3 shows the distribution of hydrocarbon reservoirs in the Maracaibo Basin (Zambrano et al., 1971).
Most Eocene reservoir rocks are spatially aligned with
the north-southstriking Icotea and Pueblo Viejo faults,
whereas most Miocene reservoirs rocks are clustered
along the eastern and northeastern margin of the presentday Lake Maracaibo (Figure 3). Ninety four percent of
hydrocarbon reservoirs in the Maracaibo Basin are found
within Eocene Miocene clastic rocks (Talukdar and
Marcano, 1994). Only 6% of reservoirs are found within
underlying CretaceousPaleocene carbonate rocks and
basement.
Figure 4 shows an east-west and a north-south
interpreted seismic line in the central Maracaibo Basin, summarizing the main elements of the Maracaibo petroleum system from Cretaceous source
rock to Eocene and Miocene reservoirs. The two interpreted seismic lines show the northeast thickening of the Eocene clastic wedge, the southwest thickening of the Miocene Holocene clastic wedge, and
the main structural and stratigraphic controls of the
basin inherited from the north-northeaststriking fault
family.

Source Rocks
Hydrocarbon source rocks in the Maracaibo Basin are
Upper Cretaceous marine carbonate rocks (calcareous shales and argillaceous limestones) that make up
the La Luna Formation of Cenomanian Campanian
age. Previous geochemical studies show that the La
Luna Formation is the source of 98% of the total
oil reserves found in the Maracaibo Basin (Zambrano
et al., 1971; Young et al., 1977; Renz, 1981; Talukdar
and Marcano, 1994). An additional 2% of the total oil
reserve was derived from nonmarine coals and shales
of the Paleocene Orocue Formation that are found in
the southwestern part of the basin (Talukdar and
Marcano, 1994; Yurewicz et al.1998). Gonzalez de
Juana et al. (1980) proposed that Eocene and Miocene terrestrial source rocks, now deeply buried in
the southern part of the basin, may act as additional
source rock to the La Luna Formation. Geochemical
analysis of Tertiary sedimentary rocks indicates no
significant hydrocarbon potential for Eocene and Miocene shale, nor is there any evidence for oils correlated to this type of source rocks (Talukdar and Marcano, 1994; Tocco and Margarita, 1999).
662

Depositional Setting of Source Rocks of the La Luna Formation

The La Luna Formation has been the subject of many
previous studies since the beginning of the petroleum
exploration in the Maracaibo Basin in the early 20th
century. Previous studies that describe the depositional setting and composition of the La Luna Formation include the pioneering study of Renz (1981) and
more recent works by Perez-Infante et al. (1996), Erlich et al. (1999a), Erlich et al. (2000), and a source
rock conference convened by SEPM and Petroleos de
Venezuela S.A. (PDVSA) (Bralower and Lorente, 2003).
Figure 5 shows a stratigraphic chart with the position
of the La Luna Formation in the Cretaceous sequences
of the Maracaibo Basin, its isopach, and its typical welllog response.
The La Luna Formation was deposited over a period of approximately 20 m.y., extending from the
upper Cenomanian to upper Campanian (Figure 5).
Its thickness ranges from 60 m (196 ft) beneath the
southern part of the basin to 150 m (492 ft) beneath
the northern part of the basin (Renz, 1981; Lugo and
Mann, 1995; Bralower and Lorente, 2003) (Figure 5B).
The La Luna Formation was deposited in oxygendepleted bottom-water conditions in a shelf-to-slope
marine environment (Perez-Infante et al., 1996), influenced by episodic bottom currents, debris flows,
turbidites, faulting, and intermittent upwelling conditions (Macsotay et al., 2003; Zapata et al., 2003).
Paleowater depth of the La Luna Formation is interpreted to have been more than 40 m (131 ft) in a deep
shelf setting, ranging from below storm-wave base
(Macsotay et al., 2003) to a depth of several hundred
meters (Boesi and Goddard, 1991; Parra et al., 2003).
Figure 6 shows the paleogeographic reconstructions for the La Luna Formation in the Maracaibo
Basin during the CenomanianCampanian (Erlich et al.,
1999a). The structural configuration of the basin during the Late Cretaceous was possibly influenced by
uplift of the Central Cordillera of Colombia (Renz, 1981;
Erlich et al., 1999a; Macsotay et al., 2003) (Figure 6).
Renz (1981), using cross sections from outcrops along
the mountain range bounding the Maracaibo Basin,
identified basement paleohighs (e.g., Merida arch)
and basins (e.g., Machiques, Uribante, and Barquisimeto) in the areas surrounding the Maracaibo Basin
(Figure 6A). These paleohighs produced the thickness
variations in Cretaceous passive-margin sediments, including the La Luna Formation in the south and southwestern areas of the basin (Renz, 1981).
The most controversial of these geological features
is the Merida arch in the southern and central regions

An Overview of the Petroleum System of Maracaibo Basin

Escalona and Mann

663

Figure 4. (A) Interpreted east-west seismic line in the Maracaibo Basin. The section shows the main structural and stratigraphic features of the Maracaibo Basin and its petroleum
systems (see Figure 3 for location). Migration paths from source to reservoir are localized along major faults in the basin (e.g., Icotea fault, Pueblo Viejo, and A, B, and E faults).
Hydrocarbon reservoirs are concentrated in structural highs beneath the Eocene unconformity and in the Miocene along the north and eastern flanks of the Maracaibo syncline.
(B) Interpreted north-south seismic line in the Maracaibo Basin (see Figure 3 for location). Hydrocarbon reservoirs in the Miocene are concentrated in the updip part of the Miocene
clastic wedge. Eocene turbidites provide good exploration targets north of the Burro Negro fault.

664

An Overview of the Petroleum System of Maracaibo Basin

of the present-day Maracaibo Basin (Dewey and

Pindell, 1986; Salvador, 1986). The existence and orientation of the Merida arch is significant for petroleum
systems because its existence likely controlled the distribution and thickness of Cretaceous source rock beneath the Maracaibo Basin. Two proposed orientations
for the Merida arch follow:
1. An arch perpendicular to the trend of the presentday Merida Andes: This postulated arch would
be parallel to other arches in the region like the
northwest-southeast striking Baul arch that outcrops east of the Andes and separates the Barinas basin from the Guarico subbasin to the east (Figure 2).
Cross sections along the Merida Andes based on
outcrop mapping by Renz (1981) and Salvador
(1986) show thinning or absence of Lower Cretaceous rocks (Ro Negro, Apon, and Aguardiente
formations), overlain by a thin section of Upper
Cretaceous rocks (Maraca, La Luna, and Colon formations). Isopach maps of Cretaceous rocks beneath
the central Maracaibo Basin show Cretaceous rocks
thinning 10 20 m (33 66 ft) in the south and central areas of Lake Maracaibo (Gonzalez de Juana
et al., 1980; Lugo and Mann, 1995). Figure 5B shows
an isopach of the La Luna Formation from Lugo and
Mann (1995). The La Luna Formation thins approximately 10 m (33 ft) in the south-central part of
Lake Maracaibo (dashed in Figure 5B). This subtle
change in thickness is interpreted by Lugo and
Mann (1995) as the continuation of the Merida
arch in the south and central areas of the Maracaibo
Basin.
2. An arch parallel to the trend of the present-day Merida Andes and not affecting the area of the Maracaibo Basin: This proposed arch formed the Turonian uplift of the Cordillera Central of Colombia
(Macsotay et al., 2003). This tectonic event might
have produced partial tectonic inversion along preCretaceous rift-related faults, which followed the
present-day strike of the Merida Andes (Macsotay
et al., 2003) and the trend of the Neogene rightlateral Bocono strike-slip fault zone (Schubert, 1982;
Kellogg, 1984; Stephan, 1985; Dewey and Pindell,
1986; Audemard et al., 1999).

Small changes in thickness of passive-margin rocks

between 10 and 20 m (33 and 66 ft) in the southcentral areas of Maracaibo Lake might be attributed
to facies changes or depositional processes instead
of paleostructural relief above a northwest-southeast
striking arch. Integration of outcrop and subsurface
data in both flanks of the Merida Andes foothills and
in southern Lake Maracaibo is required to solve the
extent and orientation of the Merida arch in the Maracaibo Basin. Geologic data used for interpreting the
Merida arch have been limited to outcrops in the
Merida Andes (Renz, 1981; Salvador, 1986) or using
sparse wells and two-dimensional seismic lines in the
southern Maracaibo Basin (Audemard, 1991; Lugo,
1991).
A Santonian change in depositional environment to
more oxygenated and cooler waters in the La Luna
Formation (Tres Esquinas Member) suggests the advent of tectonic activity (Erlich et al., 2000; Bralower
and Lorente; 2003; Parra et al., 2003; Zapata et al.,
2003). Late Cretaceous tectonic activity was possibly
related to the reactivation of faults beneath the basin
or regional plate convergence in western Colombia
that caused abrupt changes in the paleotopography
and paleoclimate and ended passive-margin conditions.
An increase in upwelling and more oxygenation of
shelf waters of northern South America may be related
to (1) the migration of the South American plate toward the Cretaceous intertropical convergence zone
(Villamil et al., 1999); (2) an increase in freshwater runoff produced by the emergent Central Cordillera of Colombia (Erlich et al., 2003); and (3) the establishment
of wet-dry cycles and submersion of paleobathymetric
barriers for ocean circulation (Erlich et al., 2003).
La Luna Source Rocks and Hydrocarbon Characteristics
The La Luna Formation is considered a good to excellent, oil-prone source rock (Talukdar et al., 1986;
Talukdar and Marcano, 1994; Yurewicz et al., 1998).
Comparison of gas-chromatographic and biomarker
characteristics of oils and La Luna source rock extracts
shows that the La Luna Formation is the source rock
for more than 98% of the oil accumulations in the Maracaibo Basin (Talukdar et al., 1986; Talukdar and Marcano, 1994; Yurewicz et al., 1998; Erlich et al., 1999b;

Figure 5. (A) Regional-stratigraphic chart of the Albian to Maastrichtian stages in four different areas of the Maracaibo Basin (I to
IV) (modified from Erlich et al., 1999a; Castillo, 2001). (B) Location map showing locations I to IV of the stratigraphic chart and the
total thickness in meters of the La Luna Formation from well logs (modified from Lugo and Mann, 1995). (C) Gamma-ray log of a
well in the south Lake Maracaibo area showing a typical response from Albian to Maastrichtian (modified from Castillo, 2001).
Escalona and Mann

665

Figure 6. Paleogeographic maps from Albian to Campanian (modified from Erlich et al., 1999a).
The Cenomanian to Turonian period represents a mixed carbonate-clastic platform in the Maracaibo Basin areas. The middle to outer shelf depositional environment characterized the central
Maracaibo Basin from the Albian to Campanian.
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An Overview of the Petroleum System of Maracaibo Basin

Tocco and Margarita, 1999; Gallango et al., 2002). The

La Luna source rocks contain oil-prone type II kerogen
and are rich in hydrogen content, with the bulk of the
organic matter derived from algae and bacteria (PerezInfante et al., 1996). The average original total organic
carbon (TOC) of La Luna source rocks in the Maracaibo Basin is 5.6% (Talukdar and Marcano, 1994).
Maximum TOC values are locally as high as 16.7%
(Erlich et al., 1999b). In the southwestern area of the
basin, the average TOC is 4.3% (Catatumbo; Yurewicz
et al., 1998; Llanos et al., 2000). In the Sierra de Perija
area, TOC values range from 3.7 to 5.7% (Gallango
et al., 2002) (Figure 7). In the Merida Andes, TOC values range between 1.7 and 2% (Erlich et al., 1999b)
(Figure 7).
Oil quality variations in oils derived from La Luna
source rocks are controlled by thermal maturity and
in-reservoir alteration (Talukdar and Marcano, 1994).
Unaltered oils vary in oil quality (API) according to
their maturity: marginally mature oils range from
11 to 16j API; mature oils range from 20 to 39j API;
and highly mature oils range from 37 to 55j API. With
increasing maturity, API gravity and saturated hydrocarbon content increase, whereas vanadium, sulfur, and
polar compounds decrease (Talukdar et al., 1986;
Talukdar and Marcano, 1994). Unaltered oils are widely distributed in the Maracaibo Basin. The oils migrated into reservoirs during the Eocene and later
during the Miocene Holocene (Talukdar and Marcano, 1994).
Oil alteration in reservoirs occurred mainly as a
result of biodegradation and oil-oil mixing (Talukdar
et al., 1986; Talukdar and Marcano, 1994). Altered
oils mostly occur in the central and northeastern reservoirs of the Maracaibo Basin (Figure 2). Biodegradation of oils in shallow Eocene reservoirs occurred
during the Oligocene and in shallow Miocene reservoirs during the late MioceneHolocene. Biodegraded
oils have low API (<25j), high sulfur, vanadium, polar
compounds, and low saturates content. Oil-oil mixing
occurred by natural mixing of oil that migrated in the
MioceneHolocene. Strongly biodegraded oil is derived
form earlier migrated oil found in Eocene and Miocene
reservoirs (Figure 4). In addition to these alteration processes, Tocco and Margarita (1999) observed alteration
of oils by migration fractionation in the Centro Lago
field (Figure 3).
Natural gas derived from the La Luna source in
the Maracaibo Basin is mainly solution gas (Talukdar
and Marcano, 1994). Free gas accumulations are uncommon in the Maracaibo Basin.

Burial History, Timing, and Amount of Petroleum Generated

Figure 8 shows an integration of burial-history curves,
compiled from several workers, and oil-generation
curves calculated by Horn (2002). The oil-generation
curves were derived using time-temperature indices
based on Lopatin (1971) and Arrhenius reaction rates
for oil generation using a type II kerogen as an Upper
Cretaceous source rock (Horn, 2002). These plots
illustrate the close relation between burial history, oil
generation, and distribution of hydrocarbons in the
basin. In the Maracaibo Basin, burial peak and maturation of the La Luna Formation occurred in two major pulses that were controlled by regional tectonic
events:
1. Paleogene (6040 Ma) subsidence event: Cretaceous rocks were deeply buried to depths of 4
5 km (2.5 3.1 mi) in the central and northeastern
areas of the Maracaibo Basin. These depths reach
the thermal maturation window (Zambrano et al.,
1971; Gonzalez de Juana et al., 1980) (Figure 8,
well locations A, E, G, and H). Paleogene tectonically induced subsidence was responsible for
the creation of a depocenter along the northeastern
margin of the basin (Escalona and Mann, 2003a).
Overmature source rocks of the La Luna Formation
and the main Paleogene depocenter are located
along the northeastern margin of the Maracaibo
Basin, roughly parallel to the trace of the northweststriking Burro Negro fault zone (Figures 7, 8) (Talukdar and Marcano, 1994; Escalona and Mann, 2003a,
2004, 2006a). By late EoceneOligocene, the northnortheastern areas of the basin had generated most
of the oil that is now being exploited (Figures 7, 8,
well locations A, E, G, and H) (phase 1 of Talukdar
and Marcano, 1994).
2. Miocene Holocene (200 Ma) subsidence event:
Cretaceous and Paleocene source rocks were buried
to depths of 26 km (1.23.7 mi) in the southwestern areas of the Maracaibo Basin. This burial
event initiated a post-Eocene period for hydrocarbon generation (Figure 8, well locations B G). The
central and south-southwestern areas of the Maracaibo Basin have generated less than 50% of their
potential oil (Horn, 2002) (Figure 7). This part of
the basin entered its peak of oil generation during
the Miocene (2015 Ma, Figures 7, 8, well locations CF). Total organic carbon values of more
than 2% in the south-southwest areas of the Maracaibo Basin (Figure 7) indicate high potential for
continuing oil generation in this region.
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667

Figure 7. Distribution in percentages of hydrocarbon generated by La Luna Formation source rocks in the Maracaibo Basin based
on calculations by Horn (2002). Total organic carbon (TOC) values were taken from the following sources: Llanos et al. (2000), Erlich
et al. (1999b), Yurewicz et al. (1998), and Gallango et al. (2002). Distribution of oil seeps from Cretaceous and Paleocene source
rocks is taken from Link (1952).
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An Overview of the Petroleum System of Maracaibo Basin

Reservoir Rocks
Reservoir rocks in the Maracaibo Basin are found
throughout the stratigraphic section and range from
fractured basement metamorphic rocks to shallow, unconsolidated, Miocene rocks. Structural traps are controlled by a variety of features, including normal faults,
inverted faults on the flexed continental plate (Harding
and Tuminas, 1989; Escalona and Mann, 2003b), folds
in the foreland basin, and subsurface strike-slip faults
forming north-south anticlines (Escalona and Mann,
2003b). All trap types were charged with hydrocarbons
from underlying Cretaceous source rocks of the La
Luna Formation (Zambrano et al., 1971; Gonzalez de
Juana et al., 1980; Talukdar and Marcano, 1994; Erlich
et al., 1999a). Stratigraphic traps are found in heterogeneous, mixed fluvial, and tidal-dominated deltaic
systems defining regressive-transgressive cycles on the
Eocene Maracaibo shelf and nearshore to fluvial Miocene sandstone rocks (Guzman and Fisher, 2006).
Major reservoir facies are stacked distributary channels
and tidal bars (Maguregui, 1990; Ambrose et al., 1995;
Escalona, 2003). Hydrocarbon reservoirs can be classified in three main types:
1. Sub-Eocene reservoirs (Figures 9, 10): These reservoirs are located in deeply buried Cretaceous limestone and Paleocene sandstone in central and southern Maracaibo Basin (Figure 9A, D) and in less deeply
buried Cretaceous limestone and basement rocks
in northwestern areas of the basin (Figure 10H).
Reservoirs include fractured rocks (basement and
Cretaceous limestone) associated with the reactivation of north-south strike-slip, northwest-southeast
striking normal faults (Figure 10B, D) and thrusts
(Figure 9A, C) related to the uplift of the Merida
Andes (Castillo and Mann, 2006).
2. Eocene reservoirs (Figures 10, 11): These are the
most prolific reservoir rocks in the Maracaibo Basin.
They are characterized by structural traps associated
with anticlines formed by strike-slip reactivation
of north-northeast striking faults (e.g., Icotea and
Pueblo Viejo faults and their related northwestsoutheast normal faults; Escalona and Mann, 2003b).
Traps also formed in fluvial-deltaic (tide-influenced)
sandstone facies traps truncated by the Eocene unconformity (cf. Figures 10E, H; 11K, L). The most
productive Eocene reservoirs are located in the central and northeastern regions of the Maracaibo Basin.
3. Miocene reservoirs (Figure 11I, L): These form the
second most prolific reservoirs in the Maracaibo

Basin. The reservoirs are mainly fluvial sandstone

facies located in anticlines of early Miocene age (reactivation of Eocene structures, Figure 11J, L) and
stratigraphic wedges beneath the Eocene unconformity (Figure 11I).These productions occur along the
northeastern shore of the Maracaibo Lake, near the
trace of the Burro Negro fault (Figures 3, 8). Where
no structural or stratigraphic traps existed, oil escaped to the surface and formed seeps that outline
the edges of the Maracaibo Basin (Figures 3, 8).
Migration and Trapping
The petroleum system evolution of the Maracaibo Basin is summarized in four schematic cross sections in
Figure 12. Hydrocarbon migration and trapping occurred in two main, tectonically controlled phases as
previously proposed by Zambrano et al. (1971), Gonzalez de Juana et al. (1980), Talukdar et al. (1986),
and Talukdar and Marcano (1994).
1. Carbonate platform phase (Late Cretaceous
Paleocene) (Figure 12A): During this phase, the La
Luna Formation source rock was deposited on a
shallow, passive-margin, shelf-to-slope environment.
It thickness ranges from 40 to 150 m (131 to 492 ft)
(Figure 5B). Carbonate thickness variations were
controlled by minor basement relief of underlying
pre-Cretaceous structures like the Merida arch.
2. Foreland phase (early Eocene) (Figure 12B): Oblique
collision between the Caribbean and South American plates formed an asymmetric wedge of fluvialdeltaic Eocene rocks that were deposited in a foreland
basin (Lugo and Mann, 1995; Escalona and Mann,
2006a). Cretaceous source rocks were buried to
depths of 5 km (3.1 mi) in the north-northeastern
part of the Maracaibo Basin and reached the oil window. A pull-apart basin controlled by reactivated Jurassic north-northeast striking faults formed in the
central Maracaibo Basin (Icotea subbasin; Escalona
and Mann, 2003b). Strike-slip faults provided vertical pathways for hydrocarbon migration from Cretaceous source rocks (La Luna Formation) to Eocene
reservoir sands.
The deeply buried Icotea pull-apart basin provides an
alternative setting for hydrocarbon generation above
deeply buried Cretaceous rocks (Figures 4; 12B, C)
(Escalona and Mann, 2003b). Vertical displacement
of major strike-slip faults bounding pull-aparts allowed juxtaposition of Cretaceous source rocks and
Eocene reservoir rocks (Figure 4). Anticlinal traps
Escalona and Mann

669

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An Overview of the Petroleum System of Maracaibo Basin

formed during creation of the pull-apart basin are

sealed by the Eocene unconformity (Escalona and
Mann, 2003b). The regional north-northeast dip of
the basin contributed to updip oil migration toward
the central areas of the Maracaibo Basin, where
higher quality fluvial and deltaic reservoir facies
are present (Escalona, 2003; Escalona and Mann,
2006). Trapping beneath the Eocene unconformity
in the south-central Maracaibo Basin also occurs in
fluvial-dominated reservoirs of Eocene age (Escalona
and Mann, 2006b) (Figures 4B, 10).
3. Isostatic rebound phase (late EoceneOligocene)
(Figure 12C): During the Oligocene, most of the
Maracaibo Basin was subaerially exposed and eroded
by isostatic rebound that followed the end of the
convergence foreland basin phase. This period of rebound and erosion lasted approximately 20 m.y. in
the central parts of the basin and is characterized by
the loss of hydrocarbons to the surface (Talukdar
and Marcano, 1994). Furthermore, biodegradation
of oils occurred because of the invasion of meteoric
waters into shallowly buried Eocene reservoirs
(Bockmeulen et al., 1983; Talukdar and Marcano,
1994) (Figure 12C).
4. Maracaibo syncline phase (Miocene Holocene)
(Figure 12D): This phase of basin development was
characterized by uplift of the Sierra de Perija and the
Merida Andes, the formation of the north-south
trending Maracaibo syncline (Castillo and Mann,
2006), and early Miocene inversion of Eocene structures in the central part of the basin. In contrast to
the Eocene, the Neogene depocenter was located in
the southern Maracaibo Basin, where continental
facies pinch out to the east-northeast to form major
stratigraphic traps (Figures 3, 4, 11).
The migration of depocenters from the northeastern basin during the Eocene to the south-southeastern
basin in the MioceneHolocene contributed to a second pulse of maturation of Cretaceous source rocks of
the La Luna Formation in the central and southern parts
of the Maracaibo Basin (Figure 8). This new period of
oil generation charged reservoirs of Eocene and Miocene age. For reservoir rocks younger than Eocene, hydrocarbon migration occurred along fault zones that

breached the Eocene unconformity (Figure 12). These

diverse migration paths allowed east-northeast updip migration from the deep part of the basin to Miocene reservoirs (Figures 4, 12D). In Miocene reservoir
rocks, hydrocarbons are mainly trapped by (1) inverted
structures (Figures 4, 11I, L; 12D); (2) stratigraphic
wedges to the northeast (Guzman and Fisher, 2006)
(Figures 4, 11); and (3) seeps to the east, west, and south
of the Maracaibo syncline (Zambrano et al., 1971;
Gonzalez de Juana et al., 1980) (Figures 3, 8).

CONCLUSIONS
The complex interplay of deformation, burial, and
sedimentation in the Maracaibo Basin during the Cretaceous and Tertiary combined to make the basin one
of the most effective and prolific petroleum systems on
Earth. Deposition and distribution of ideal source and
reservoir rocks were stratigraphically and structurally
controlled by multiple tectonic events that led to hydrocarbon generation, migration, and accumulation. The
main conclusions of this review include the following:
1. Geochemical analysis reveals that more than 98% of
the oil accumulation of the Maracaibo Basin was
sourced by the CenomanianCampanian La Luna
Formation. The La Luna Formation was deposited
under anoxic conditions with intermittent tectonic
and depositional events, including reworking by bottom currents, and entry of turbidites and debris flows
into the basin.
2. Three main tectonic phases of deformation are responsible for the multiphase evolution of the petroleum system in the Maracaibo Basin:
 Phase 1: Paleogene oblique collision between the
Caribbean and northwestern South America: The
Maracaibo passive margin during the Paleocene
early Eocene created an ideal mechanism for the
rapid burial and maturation of the source rock,
the La Luna Formation in the northeastern area
of the Maracaibo Basin (Figures 7, 8, 12). The
Paleogene foreland basin and a major right-lateral
ramp fault (Burro Negro fault) controlled the initial
generation and migration event of hydrocarbons

Figure 8. Burial histories of wells in the Maracaibo Basin based on data compiled by Horn (2002) from the following sources:
(A) Sanchez (1993), (B) Delgado (1993), (C) Molina (1992), (D) Molina (1993), (E) Ramirez and Marcano (1992), and (F H) Lugo and
Mann (1995). The percentage of hydrocarbon generation using Lopatins (1971) equations for a type II kerogen source rock basin
is based on calculations by Horn (2002) for each well location. Shaded areas represent main periods of tectonic subsidence.
Escalona and Mann

671

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An Overview of the Petroleum System of Maracaibo Basin

Figure 9. Examples of four sub-Eocene hydrocarbon reservoirs in the Maracaibo Basin. These reservoirs are located in deeply buried and fractured metamorphic basement rocks
and in Cretaceous and Paleocene sedimentary rocks ( > 5-km [> 3.1-mi] depth). The inset map in the upper right corner (modified from PDVSA pamphlets, 1995 and 1996,
unpublished data) provides the location of the sections.

Escalona and Mann

673

Figure 10. Examples of Eocene hydrocarbon reservoirs in the Maracaibo Basin. Eocene clastic rocks are the most prolific reservoirs in the Maracaibo Basin and are concentrated
mainly in the central and northeastern areas of the basin along north-northeaststriking faults. The inset map in the upper right corner (modified from PDVSA pamphlets, 1995 and
1996, unpublished data) provides the location of the sections.

674

An Overview of the Petroleum System of Maracaibo Basin

Figure 11. Examples of Miocene Holocene hydrocarbon reservoirs in the Maracaibo Basin. These reservoirs are located mainly in the north and northeastern areas of the
Maracaibo Basin. The most prolific reservoirs are located along the northeastern coastline of the present-day Lake Maracaibo (Bolivar Coast) and along the trace of the Burro Negro
fault zone. The inset map in the upper right corner (modified from PDVSA pamphlets, 1995 and 1996, unpublished data) provides the location of the sections.

Figure 12. Summary

of four main tectonic
phases controlling
the petroleum system
of the Maracaibo Basin:
(A) carbonate platform
phase; (B) foreland basin
phase; (C) isostatic rebound phase; and (D)
Maracaibo syncline
phase.

in the Maracaibo Basin. The source rock entered

the oil window in the northeastern part of the
basin adjacent to the Burro Negro fault zone
(Figures 7, 8). The fault was the approximate

southern boundary of the Paleogene depocenter

and fold-thrust belt located north of the fault.
Hydrocarbons migrated updip and southward
into the platform using strike-slip and normal
Escalona and Mann

675

faults as pathways. Hydrocarbons were trapped

in reservoir facies located within different structural highs. The La Luna Formation source rock
in the northen part of the basin is presently in
an overmature stage because of its deep (>5 km;
>3.1 mi) burial (Figures 7, 8).
 Phase 2: Late EoceneOligocene isostatic rebound:
Isostatic rebound was related to the release of convergent stresses as the collision progressed eastward and southeastward of the Maracaibo Basin. Hydrocarbons trapped during this period
in near-surface settings may have undergone
biodegradation.
 Phase 3: Uplift of the Sierra de Perija and Merida
Andes: This regional uplift is the main tectonic
mechanism responsible for the inversion of the
basin depocenter and creation of the second mature area of the La Luna source rock in the southern part of the basin (Figure 7). The main clastic
depocenter tilted from the northeast to the southsouthwest during the Miocene to Holocene. The
La Luna Formation source rock entered the oil
window across the entire Maracaibo Basin. Eastwest convergence formed the Maracaibo syncline, reactivated major strike-slip faults as reverse
faults that breached the Eocene unconformity
(Figure 12D). The hydrocarbons used fault
breaches in the Eocene unconformity to migrate
updip from Eocene to Miocene reservoirs along
the flanks of the basin (Figure 4). The La Luna
source rocks in the south-central areas of the basin
are still in the mature to early mature stage and,
therefore, still have significant remaining hydrocarbon generation potential (Figures 7, 8).
3. The Maracaibo Basin has a promising hydrocarbon
discovery potential in the mostly undrilled deeper
structural and stratigraphic traps of the central and
eastern basin (e.g., Icotea and Pueblo Viejo subbasins) (Figure 4A). More than 14 billion bbl of medium to light oil of ultimate recoverable reserves
are predicted to be produced from these areas (U.S.
Geological Survey, 2000).

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An Overview of the Petroleum System of Maracaibo Basin