Analysis

, - .
ii
.
. () , Supremum ,
,
. , , .
.
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,
, Supremum,
. , , Bolzano - Weierstrass ,
, .
: . ( )
, , ,
, ,
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1. . ,
n n. ,

.
2. ,
, 10 . , ,
.
3. Riemann , , Darboux . ,
Riemann .
Riemann , Darboux
Darboux
Riemann.
4. . .

:
R (
). Rd .
, ,
() .
,
.
5.
, iii
, . , (
, Riemann , , )
.
6.
Peano. ,
, . Foundations of Analysis
E. Landau . () () Dedekind.
, , Cauchy , .
7.
. , Cauchy .
8. , , , . :
- ,

. , ,
.
9. , , . , (, ). ,

IQ.
. ,

.
, ,
:
Mathematical Analysis, T. Apostol.
Differential and Integral Calculus, R. Courant.
The Theory of Functions of Real Variables, L. Graves.
Foundations of Analysis, E. Landau.
Principles of Mathematical Analysis, W. Rudin.
The Theory of Functions, E. C. Titchmarsh.
.
, Graves
,
.
,
, .
, , ,
.

2013.
iv

1 .
1.1 R R. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 Supremum infimum. . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 Supremum.
1.4 , , . . . . . . . . .
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1
1
5
9
11
2 .
2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 , . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 . . . .
2.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6 . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.7 .
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21
21
25
31
45
56
61
64
3 .
3.1 , .
3.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3 . . . . .
3.4 . . . . . . . .
3.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6 Cauchy. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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69
69
75
82
100
102
105
4 .
4.1 . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 . . . . .
4.3 . .
4.4 . . . . . . . .
4.5 . .
4.6 . . .
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107
107
115
120
124
132
141
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145
145
152
162
169
176
191
198
200
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5 .
5.1 . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 . . . . . . . . . .
5.3 . . . . . . .
5.4 . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5 .
5.6 . . .
5.7 Taylor, . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.8 , . . . .
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6 Riemann.
6.1 Darboux. .
6.2 . Darboux.
6.3 . . . . . . . . .
6.4 . . . . . .
6.5 . Riemann.
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207
207
211
218
220
235
7 .
7.1 , .
7.2 . . . . . . . . . .
7.3 . .
7.4 Taylor, . . . . . . . . . . .
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243
243
249
257
278
8 .
8.1 . . . .
8.2 - . . .
8.3 . . . . .
8.4 . .
8.5 Cauchy . . . . . . .
8.6 . . . . . . . . .
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279
279
285
298
307
312
313
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9 .
319
9.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
9.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
9.3 Weierstrass. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
10 .
10.1 . .
10.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3 Taylor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.4 . . . . . .
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337
337
346
360
366
11 .
11.1 . . . . . . . .
11.2 , , .
11.3 . . . . . . .
11.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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373
373
378
389
395
399
403
416
12 .
12.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.2 - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.4 .
12.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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425
425
432
436
442
451
13 .
13.1 Peano.
13.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.3 . . . . . . . . . .
13.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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457
457
463
469
477
vi
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13.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
vii
viii
.
1.1 R R.
R. , , , N, Z Q. :
N = {1, 2, 3, . . . }. , 0.
R .1

.
1.1. n N, n 2.
[] x, y
y n xn = (y x)(y n1 + y n2 x + + yxn2 + xn1 ).
(1.1)
[]
nxn1 (y x) y n xn ny n1 (y x)
0 x y.
(1.2)
. [] .
[] 0 x y ,
(1.1) x y, (
) n y n1 , y
x, ( ) n
xn1 .
BERNOULLI. n N.
(a + 1)n na + 1
a 1.
. 2 a 0, y = a + 1 x = 1 (1.2) ,
1 a 0, y = 1 x = a + 1 (1.2).
NEWTON. n N. x, y
( )
n!
(x + y)n = nk=0 nk xk y nk = nk=0 k!(nk)!
xk y nk .
1
2
11 .
Bernoulli 1.1.5 5.4.6.

(x + y)n = (x + y) (x + y)
(n )
,
n
x y . , k Z 0 k n
xk y nk x k y
n k . , k Z 0 k n,
xk y nk
n k k
x. , k n

(n )
n(n1)(nk+1)
n!
.
k = k!(nk)! =
k!
k Z 0 k n
(n)
k
xk y nk .
, , |x| x x 0. , , |x y| 4 x
y. |x y| x y.
, .
1.2. [] a > 0, :
|x| a
a x a.
|x| < a
a < x < a.
[] x, y :
|x y| |x| + |y|.
. x y 0 0. ,
.
. R,
R = R {, +}.
, + ,
+. :
< x,
x < +,
< +.

(+) = ,
() = + .

(+) + x = +,
x + (+) = +,
(+) + (+) = +,
Newton 1.1.5 5.4.8. , .

4
.
, ,
d- . ,
9 10.
11 .
() + x = ,
x + () = ,
() + () = .
,
(+) + (),
() + (+)
.

(+) x = +,
x () = +,
(+) () = +,
() x = ,
x (+) = ,
() (+) = .

(+) (+),
() ()
.

()x = ,
x() =
x > 0,
()x = ,
x() =
x < 0,
()() = .
()() = +,

()0,
0()
.

1
1
+ = 0,
= 0.

1
0
= x > 0,
= x < 0,
= 0.

x
0,
0 ,
.
,5
| + | = +,
| | = +.
1.8,
2.3.28 2.12.
R R
(a, +), [a, +), (, b), (, b] (, +)
{x | x > a}, {x | x a}, {x | x < b}, {x | x b} R, -
. R , , (a, +], [a, +], [, b), [, b],
[, +), (, +], [, +].
R R . (
) ( ) . ,
(+) + (+) = +.
, ,
.
(+) (+) . ,
( )
,
, .
(+)0 , , .
a A , , . , , , , a (3, +] a +.
A [, 2] A .
.
1.1.1. 6 a x b a y b, |x y| b a
.
1.1.2. x y < 0 z w < 0, 0 < yw xz.
1.1.3. [] b1 , . . . , bn > 0. l
a1
b1 ,
. . . , abnn u, l
a1 ++an
b1 ++bn u.
1 y1 ++n yn
u.
1 ++n
[]7 1 , . . . , n N. l y1 , . . . , yn u, l
, w1 , . . . , wn > 0 w1 + + wn = 1. l y1 , . . . , yn u,
l w1 y1 + + wn yn u.
1.1.4. x
x+3
x : |x+1| > 2, |x1| < |x+1|, x+2
> 3x+1
,
(x 2)2 4, |x2 7x| > x2 7x,
(x1)(x+4)
(x7)(x+5)
> 0,
(x1)(x3)
(x2)2
0.
x
x : (, 3], (2, +), (3, 7),
(, 2) (1, 4) (7, +), [2, 4] [6, +), [1, 4) (4, 8], (, 2] [1, 4) [7, +).
1.1.5. Bernoulli Newton .
6
, .
y1 , . . . , yn , yk k , ,
7
1 y1 ++n yn
1 ++n
1
1 ++n
y1 + +
n
1 ++n
yn = w1 y1 + + wn yn ,
k
yk ,
wk = 1 ++
n
yk y1 , . . . , yn . , w1 , . . . , wn > 0
w1 + + wn = 1, w1 , . . . , wn w1 y1 + + wn yn
y1 , . . . yn .
1.2 Supremum infimum.

. - A.
A u x u x A.
u A.
A l l x x A.
l A.
, A , l u l x u x A.
: u A, u0 u
A , l A, l0 l A.
1.3. [] l x x > a. l a.
[] u x x < b. u b.
. [] ( ) a < l. x =
a+l
2 a < x < l. , , x > a
l x. , , .
[] , u < b. x = u+b
2 u < x < b.
, , x a. , ,
1.3 l a. (a, b], (a, b), (a, +)
l a .
, , [a, b], (a, b], [a, b), (a, b), (a, +), [a, +)
, a, l a .
(, a].
1.2.2. , u b
[a, b], [a, b), (a, b], (a, b), (, b), (, b].
, , . [a, b], (a, b], (, b]
1.3 [a, b), (a, b), (, b). , ,
, b, u b
. [b, +).
1.2.3. (a, +), [a, +), (, +)
(, b), (, b], (, +) .
1.2.4. N , 1
, N l 1 . , 1
N N (, 1].
N .
5
SUPREMUM. -, .
supremum R. ,
,
.
supremum.
R
R N. , R
N supremum, 12.
, supremum, infimum.
: 0
, , .
INFIMUM. -, .
. -, A.

A = {x | x A}.
A A 0. ,
.
A -, A -.
, l A, l A,
A .
, , A - , supremum
u0 A.
u0 A, u0 A.
l A u0 , l A
u0 . u0 A.
l A u0 .
u0 A.
. - A
infimum A.
- A supremum
A.
infimum supremum A , ,
inf A
g.l.b. A
sup A
l.u.b. A.
1.2.5. 1.2.1 1.2.2, [a, b],

(a, b), (a, b], [a, b) (, b], (, b) supremum, b, [a, b],
(a, b), (a, b], [a, b), (a, +), [a, +) infimum, a.
. , , A minimum A.
, , A maximum A.
minimum maximum A , ,
min A
max A.
[a, b] [a, b) -, maximum maximum. , -,

supremum.
6
1.2.6. A maximum, sup A = max A, supremum

A maximum A.
, A max A, max A
A. , max A A A
max A. max A A.
, A minimum, inf A = min A,
infimum A minimum A.
A = {0} [2, 3] {4} min A = 0 max A = 4. inf A = 0 sup A = 4.
1.2.7. min N = 1, inf N = 1. , N :
n N N n + 1 N n.
, N N
supremum. N
. , , N
- . .
1.2.8. A = { n1 | n N} = {1, 12 , 13 , 14 , . . . } max A = 1, sup A = 1.
, A : n1 A A
1
1
n+1 A n . , A ,
, 0, A infimum. inf A .
. - A , inf A = .
- A , sup A = +.
(: ) . A ,
. , +
, , , , ,
A.
- A supremum infimum. A , supremum , , supremum +.
, A , infimum , , infimum . , - A
inf A sup A.
, x A inf A x x sup A , , inf A
A sup A A.
, sup A, ,
+. , inf A .
sup A
inf A.
sup A (i) (ii):
(i) A sup A.
sup A = + , sup A ,
sup A A.
(ii) sup A A.
, sup A = + u, .
u A ( A ), x A
u < x. + A.
sup A > 0, .
sup A A ( sup A
A), x A sup A < x , ( (i)),
sup A < x sup A.
7
x A, sup A . sup A A.
, inf A (i) (ii):
(i) A inf A.
(ii) inf A A.
supremum infimum
.
A . A : x1 , x2 A x1 < x2 x x1 < x < x2 x A.
: . 1.4
, - R, .
1.4. - A : x1 , x2 A x1 < x2
x x1 < x < x2 x A. A .
.
u = sup A,
l = inf A,
l u +. , , A [l, u].
x (l, u). x A,
x1 , x2 A x1 < x < x2 . , x A. , (l, u) A.
(l, u) A [l, u] :
A = (l, u)
A = [l, u]
A = (l, u]
A = [l, u).
A , , inf A sup A.
.
1.2.1. max{x, y} =
x+y+|xy|
2
min{x, y} =
x+y|xy|
.
2
1.2.2. (a, +) [a, b)

.
1.2.3. l a + > 0, l a.
|a b| > 0, a = b.
1.2.4. a

1
0 < < 1, a 0.
1.2.5. inf A = inf B sup A = sup B. A = B;

1.2.6. - A. [inf A, sup A]
R A.
1.2.7. [a, b];
1.2.8. - A. ( ) sup A
A, : sup A = + sup A < +.
A inf A.
1.2.9. - A. sup A A A
. inf A A.
1.2.10. A = [0, 2], A = [0, 2), A = [0, 1]{2}, ,
, -, A u = sup A :
A (u , u] 6= > 0;
A (u , u) 6= > 0;
, , u
/ A;
l = inf A.
8
1.2.11. - A u.
sup A u x u x A.
u sup A .
inf A l.
1.2.12. - A, B.
[] sup A inf B x y x A, y B.
[] , .
A = (, 0], B = [0, +) x y
x A, y B. , x y
x A, y B.
A = (, 0], B = (0, +), A = (4, 2), B = (2, +)
A = (, 0), B = [1, 13].
, , x y x A, y B. ( )
sup A, inf B x y x A,
y B.
[] x y x A, y B > 0 x A,
y B y x . sup A = inf B
x y x A, y B. ;
[] 0 < x y x A, y B > 0
x A, y B xy 1 + . sup A = inf B
x y x A, y B.
1.2.13. - A, B A B = R x < y x A,
y B. A, B A B.
A = (, ), B = [, +) A = (, ], B = (, +).
1.2.14. - A, B. A sup A sup B x A
< x y B y > .
1.2.15. - A, B A B. inf B inf A sup A sup B.
1.2.16. [] - A, B.
sup(A B) = max{sup A, sup B} inf(A B) = min{inf A, inf B}.
sup(A B) min{sup A, sup B} inf(A B) max{inf A, inf B}.
[] - A A = {x | x A}.
sup(A) = inf A inf(A) = sup A.
[] - A, B A + B = {x + y | x A, y B}.
A + B A = [3, 5], B = [1, 7] A = (3, 5), B = (1, 7) ;
inf(A + B) = inf A + inf B sup(A + B) = sup A + sup B.
[] - A, B A B = {xy | x A, y B}.
A B A = [3, 5], B = [1, 7], A = (3, 5), B = (1, 7) A = (1, 5),
B = (2, 7) ;
A, B (0, +), inf(A B) = inf A inf B sup(A B) = sup A sup B.
1.3 Supremum.
1.2.4 1.2.7.
1.1. N , , sup N = +.
. ( ) N ,
sup N .
sup N 1 N, n N sup N 1 < n.
sup N < n + 1 , n + 1 N.
1.1 :
. l > 0, n N 0 <
1
n
< l.
, l > 0, 1l , N ,
n N 1l < n , , 0 < n1 < l.
1.3.1. 1.2.8.
A = { n1 | n N} = {1, 12 , 31 , 14 , . . . } inf A = 0.
, 0 A l > 0 A. ,
A 0.
1.5 .
1.5. x k Z k x < k + 1.
. x.
1.1 n N n > x m N m > x.
l = m, l, n
l < x < n.
:
k Z, k x, k + 1 x.
k x k = l,
k x k Z k l. , ,
k x k = n.
, , k Z k x
k + 1 > x, k x < k + 1.
k k x < k + 1 .
k x < k + 1 k 0 x < k 0 + 1 k, k 0 Z. k < k 0 + 1 k 0 < k + 1,
1 < k 0 k < 1. k 0 k Z, k 0 k = 0, k 0 = k.
. k Z k x < k + 1,
1.5, x [x].
,
[x] Z
[x] x < [x] + 1.
1.3.2. [3] = 3, [3] = 3, [3.5] = 3, [3.5] = 4.

, , . ,
, ( R) Q (
R). .
YKNOTHTA . a, b a 0, , ,
n N n1 < b a. , na + 1 < nb,
na < [na] + 1 na + 1 < nb.
r =
[na]+1
n
a < r < b.
.
1.3.1. 1.2.3.
l a + n1 n N, l a.
|a b| n1 n N, a = b.
1.3.2. infimum supremum {(1)n n | n N}, N { n1 | n N},
+ 1
1
{(1)n + n1 | n N}, { n1 | n N} {2 n1 | n N}, +
n=1 [2n 1, 2n], n=1 [ 2n , 2n1 ].
1.3.3. infimum supremum (a, b) Q = {x Q | a < x < b}.
1.3.4. 1.2.12.
A = { n1 | n N}, B = { n1 | n N} x y
x A, y B. x y
x A, y B. A = {r Q | r < 0}, B = {r Q | r > 0}.
1.3.5. r a r Q r < b, b a.
{r Q | r > a} = {r Q | r > b}, a = b.
{r Q | r < a} {r Q | r > b} = , a b.
{r Q | r a} {r Q | r b} = Q, b a.
1.4 , , .
.
n Z, n 1 (, n N), an :
an = a a
(n ).
n Z, n 1 a 6= 0, :
an =
, n = 0 a 6= 0, :
1
aa (n ) .
a0 = 1.
1.4.3
.
.
.
.
, - , ,
.
supremum.
1.2. n N, n 2. y 0 x 0 xn = y.
11
. 8 n N, n 2 y 0.

X = {x | x 0, xn y}.
, 0 X, X -. , y + 1 1
(y + 1)n y + 1 > y. x X xn y < (y + 1)n , ,
x < y + 1. X y + 1.
X - , sup X .
= sup X.
, 0, 0 X. n = y.
y n
n < y. n(+1)
n1 > 0 > 0
1
y n
.
n(+1)n1
(1.2)
(
)
( + )n n n( + )n1 ( + ) = n( + )n1 n( + 1)n1 y n .
( + )n y, + X. , X. n y.
n y
n > y. n
n1 > 0 > 0
y
n
n1 . , (1.2),
(
)
n ( )n n n1 ( ) = n n1 n y.
n
y ( )n . x X xn y ( )n , , x .
X. ,
X. n y.
n y n y n = y.
, , - xn = y y 0.
- xn = y. :
1 , 2 0, 1 n = y 2 n = y, 1 n = 2 n , 1 = 2 .
. n N, n 2. y 0, - xn = y,
1.2, n-
y
n
y.
n = 2, 2 y y.
n y - y. ,
n- ( - xn = y) n 0 = 0
n y > 0 y > 0.
, - xn = y
y 0, . n , xn = y
(i) , n y n y, y > 0, (ii) , 0, y = 0,

(iii) , y < 0. n , xn = y (i)
, n y, y > 0, (ii) , 0, y = 0, (iii) ,
n y, y < 0. .
.
n y.
, supremum.
.
8
, 4.4.20 4 n-
- y. 2.4.12.
12
1.4.4 , ,
. .
1.2 . , n N,
xn (, , --) [0, +)
[0, +). . 1.2 xn
[0, +) [0, +). , y = xn
, [0, +), , [0, +).
, , x = n y
[0, +) [0, +). ,
y = xn ( [0, +)) x = n y . , y = xn
, x = n y .
- - .
.
1.6. n, k. n k k n-
. , n k , .
.
k n- , m N k = mn .
n
k = m
, , .
, n k , n k = ml , m, l N. , ,
m, l > 1.
n
m
k = l ln k = mn . ,
> 1 ,
. , l ln k, mn = mn1 m. l > 1 m, l mn1 = mn2 m. , l
mn2 = mn3 m. , l m0 = 1.
l = 1, k = mn k n- .
, , R .
1.7. R \ Q .
.
, , 2 , 1.6
2 .
1.2
, , supremum.
, , . ( R)
R \ Q ( R).
YKNOTHTA . a, b a 0, m, k Z, n, l N, n, l 2 m
n = l . ( y) = ( y) .
13
. c = ( n y)m d = ( l y)k , c = d.
, ,
( )mk
cnk = ( n y)mnk = ( n y)n

= y mk ,
( )mk
dml = ( l y)kml = ( l y)l

= y mk
, ,
cnk = dml .
(1.3)
, nk = ml.
nk = ml 6= 0, (1.3) c = d.
nk = ml = 0 , , m = k = 0, ( n y)m = ( l y)k = 1
.
. , y > 0 r Q r .
m
n
m Z, n N n 2 r = m
n . , 1.1, ( y)
. ,
y r = ( n y)m ,
m Z, n N n 2 r =
, r Q r > 0,
0r = 0.
m
n.
n N n 2 y 1/n = n y y 0.
.
, y r > 0 y > 0 r.
1.4.5 .
, ,
.
.
, y r - r
- y , , r 0, y r
y.
.
, x y > 1.
X = {y r | r Q, r < x}.
X - r < x ( ,
r = [x]) y r X. X
. , r Q r < x r < [x] + 1 , , y r < y [x]+1
( ). y [x]+1 X.
sup X .
. 9 y > 1 x ,
y x = sup{y r | r Q, r < x}.

, y = 1 x ,
1x = 1.
9
2.4.20.
14
0 < y < 1 x ,
1
y
> 1, ( y1 )x
yx =
1
(1/y)x .
, x x > 0,
0x = 0.
, , .
y < 0, y x x .10 y = 0, y x
x . y > 0, y x x.
1.2. y > 1. b > 1 n N 1 < y 1/n < b.
b1
. y > 1 b > 1, , y1
> 0,
1
b1
n N 0 < n < y1 . (1.2) , n,
bn 1 n(b 1) > y 1
, , y 1/n < b. 1 < y 1/n .

1.3. x Q y > 1. y x = sup{y r | r Q, r < x}.
. x Q y > 1.
r Q r < x, y r < y x . y x {y r | r Q, r < x}.
a {y r | r Q, r < x}.
, a > 0.
x
( ) a < y x , ya > 1. , 1.2,
x
n N 1 < y 1/n < ya , , a < y x(1/n) . , ,
x n1 Q x n1 < x , , y x(1/n) {y r | r Q, r < x}.
y x a.
y x {y r | r Q, r < x}.
1.3 y x = sup{y r | r Q, r < x}
x . , x
: y x .
1.4. [] r Q r < x1 + x2 . r1 , r2 Q r1 < x1
r2 < x2 r1 + r2 = r.
[] x1 , x2 > 0, r Q 0 < r < x1 x2 . r1 , r2 Q 0 < r1 < x1
0 < r2 < x2 r1 r2 = r.
. [] r Q r < x1 + x2 .
r x1 < x2 , r2 Q r x1 < r2 < x2 . r1 = r r2 ,
r1 Q. , r1 < x1 r2 < x2 r1 + r2 = r.
[] x1 , x2 > 0, r Q 0 < r < x1 x2 .
0 < xr1 < x2 , r2 Q 0 < xr1 < r2 < x2 . r1 = rr2 ,
r1 Q. , 0 < r1 < x1 0 < r2 < x2 r1 r2 = r.
1.8 . .
10
, 4.3, y x - y < 0.
15
1.8. [] y, y1 , y2 > 0. y1 x y2 x = (y1 y2 )x , y x1 y x2 = y x1 +x2 , (y x1 )x2 =

y x1 x2 .
[] x1 < x2 . y > 1, y x1 < y x2 . 0 < y < 1, y x1 > y x2 .
[] 0 < y1 < y2 . x > 0, y1 x < y2 x . x < 0, y1 x > y2 x .
. [] .
(i) y > 1, y r y x r Q r < x.
( y x {y r | r Q, r < x}.)
(ii) y > 1 y r a r Q r < x, y x a.
(, , a {y r | r Q, r < x}
y x .)
.
y1 , y2 > 1.
r Q r < x. (y1 y2 )r = y1 r y2 r y1 x y2 x . (y1 y2 )x y1 x y2 x .
r1 , r2 Q r1 , r2 < x. r = max{r1 , r2 } Q, r < x,
x
x
y1 r1 y2 r2 y1 r y2 r = (y1 y2 )r (y1 y2 )x . y1 r1 (yy12yr22) . y1 x (yy12yr22) .
x
y2 r2 (yy1 y1 x2 ) , , y2 x (yy1 y1 x2 ) . y1 x y2 x (y1 y2 )x .

(y1 y2 )x y1 x y2 x y1 x y2 x (y1 y2 )x y1 x y2 x = (y1 y2 )x .
.
.
y > 1.
r1 , r2 Q r1 < x1 r2 < x2 . y r1 y r2 = y r1 +r2 y x1 +x2
x1 +x2
x1 +x2
x1 +x2
, , y r1 y yr2 . y x1 y yr2 . y r2 y yx1 , ,
x1 +x2
y x2 y yx1 . y x1 y x2 y x1 +x2 .
r Q r < x1 + x2 . r1 , r2 Q r1 < x1 r2 < x2
r1 + r2 = r. y r = y r1 +r2 = y r1 y r2 y x1 y x2 . y x1 +x2 y x1 y x2 .
y x1 y x2 y x1 +x2 y x1 +x2 y x1 y x2 y x1 y x2 = y x1 +x2 .
.
.
y > 1 x1 , x2 > 0.
r1 , r2 Q r1 < x1 r2 < x2 . r10 , r20 Q r1 r10
0
0
0 0
r2 r20 0 < r10 < x1 0 < r20 < x2 . (y r1 )r2 = y r1 r2 y x1 x2 , ,
0
0
0
0
y r1 y r1 (y x1 x2 )1/r2 . y x1 (y x1 x2 )1/r2 . y x1 y r1 > 1, (y x1 )r2
0
(y x1 )r2 y x1 x2 , , (y x1 )x2 y x1 x2 .
r Q r < x1 x2 . r0 Q r r0 0 < r0 < x1 x2 .
0
r1 , r2 Q 0 < r1 < x1 0 < r2 < x2 r1 r2 = r0 . y r y r = y r1 r2 =
(y r1 )r2 (y x1 )r2 (y x1 )x2 . y x1 x2 (y x1 )x2 .
(y x1 )x2 y x1 x2 y x1 x2 (y x1 )x2 (y x1 )x2 = y x1 x2 .
.
[] x1 < x2 y > 1.
r1 , r2 Q x1 < r1 < r2 < x2 . r Q r < x1 y r y r1 .
y x1 y r1 . , y r1 < y r2 y x2 . y x1 < y x2 .
0 < y < 1 .
[] 0 < y1 < y2 x > 0.
1 < yy21 , [], 1 = ( yy21 )0 < ( yy21 )x , [], y1 x < y1 x ( yy12 )x = (y1 yy12 )x = y2 x .
x < 0 .
.
. y > 1, y x x R
16
, 0 < y < 1, y x x R.
, . x > 0, y x y [0, +) , x < 0, y x y
(0, +).
.
a+ = +
a = 0
(+)b = +
a+ = 0 0 a < 1,
a > 1,
a = + 0 < a < 1,
a > 1,
b > 0 b = +,
(+)b = 0 b < 0 b = .

00 ,
1+ ,
1 ,
(+)0 ,
.

1.1. , ,
,
.
.
, , .
1.3. a > 0, a 6= 1. y > 0 x ax = y.
. , a > 1 y > 1.

X = {x | ax y}.
, 0 X. , 1.2, n N an > y. ,
x X ax y an , x n. X - ,
sup X .
= sup X.
a = y.
a < y. 1.2 n N a1/n < ay . a+(1/n) < y,
+ n1 X. X. a y.
a > y. 1.2, , n N a1/n < ay . y < a(1/n) ,

x X ax y < a(1/n) , , x < n1 . n1
X. X. a y.
a y a y a = y.
.
a > 1 y = 1, ax = y x = 0.
a > 1 0 < y < 1, , y1 > 1, a = y1 , ,
= a = a = y.
, 0 < a < 1 y > 0, , a1 > 1, ( a1 ) = y,
= a = a = y.
ax = y : a1 = y a2 = y,
a1 = a2 , 1 = 2 .
17
. 11 y > 0 a > 0, a 6= 1, ax = y, -
1.3, y a
loga y.
a > 1. , , y = ax
(, +) (, +). y = ax .
, 1.3 (0, +). , y = ax
(, +) (0, +). , , x = loga y
(0, +) (, +). y = ax
x (, +), x = loga y y
(0, +).
0 < a < 1, a > 1 . y = ax
x (, +) (0, +) x = loga y
y (0, +) (, +). ,
.
1.9 .
1.9. a, b > 0, a, b 6= 1.
[] loga (y1 y2 ) = loga y1 + loga y2 y1 , y2 > 0.
[] loga (y z ) = z loga y y > 0 z.
[] logb y =
loga y
loga b
y > 0.
[] loga 1 = 0, loga a = 1.
[] 0 < y1 < y2 . a > 1, loga y1 < loga y2 . 0 < a < 1, loga y1 > loga y2 .
. [] x1 = loga y1 x2 = loga y2 , ax1 = y1 ax2 = y2 .
ax1 +x2 = ax1 ax2 = y1 y2 , loga (y1 y2 ) = x1 + x2 = loga y1 + loga y2 .
[] x = loga y, ax = y. azx = (ax )z = y z , , loga (y z ) = zx =
z loga y.
[] x = logb y w = loga b, bx = y aw = b. awx = (aw )x = bx = y.
loga y = wx = loga b logb y.
[] loga 1 = 0 a0 = 1 loga a = 1 a1 = a.
[] x1 = loga y1 x2 = loga y2 , y1 = ax1 y2 = ax2 . ax1 < ax2 ,
a > 1, x1 < x2 , 0 < a < 1, x1 > x2 .
.
1.4.1. infimum supremum (a, b) (R \ Q) = {x R \ Q | a < x < b}.
1.4.2. a A = {r Q | r < a}.
A Q A - Q. , u Q (
, u = [a] + 1) r u r A.
Q, A.
Q supremum.
1.4.3. [] a, b > 0 m, n Z, an bn = (ab)n , am an = am+n , (am )n = amn .
[] m, n Z m < n. a > 1, am < an . 0 < a < 1,
an < a m .
[] 0 < a 0, 0 < an < bn . n < 0,
0 < bn < a n .
11
2.4.21.
18
1.4.4. n, m N n, m 2.
[] y, y1 , y2 0, n y1 y2 = n y1 n y2 n m y = nm y.
[] n < m. y > 1, m y < n y. 0 < y < 1, n y < m y.
[] 0 y1 < y2 . n y1 < n y2 .
1.4.5. r, r1 , r2 Q.
[] y, y1 , y2 > 0, y1 r y2 r = (y1 y2 )r , y r1 y r2 = y r1 +r2 , (y r1 )r2 = y r1 r2 .
[] r1 < r2 . y > 1, y r1 < y r2 . 0 < y < 1, y r1 > y r2 .
[] 0 < y1 < y2 . r > 0, y1 r < y2 r . r < 0, y1 r > y2 r .
1.4.6. y > 1. y x = inf{y r | r Q, x < r}.

1.4.7. 3, 7 129 3 2 + 5 .
12 [] n, k, m N k, m > 1.
1.4.8.
n
k/m k, m n- .
k
[] a0 , a1 , . . . , an Z k, m Z > 1. m
an xn + an1 xn1 + + a0 , k a0
m an .
1.4.9. m, n N, m, n 2. ,
m, n, logm n .
12
1.6.
19
20
.
2.1 .
. ( ) x : N R
N . n N x(n)
, , xn . , n N
xn = x(n).
, , : x1 , x2 , x3 .
, / . xn+1 xn xn1 xn .
n, N, . x : N R ,
,
(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn , . . . ) (xn ) (xn )+
n=1 .
, , , x, n,
: (yn ), (xk ), (zm ) .
, , . ,
n, m, k, , ( 0),
n N m N k N.
2.1.1. ( n1 ) (1, 12 , 31 , . . . , n1 , . . . ).
2.1.2. (n) (1, 2, 3, 4, . . . , n, . . . ).
2.1.3. (1) (1, 1, 1, . . . , 1, . . . ).
2.1.4. ((1)n1 ) (1, 1, 1, 1, . . . , 1, 1, . . . ).
( )
1
2.1.5. 101n ( 10
, 1012 , 1013 , . . . , 101n , . . . ).
2.1.6. n- n,
(1, 2, 2, 3, 2, 4, 2, 4, 3, 4, 2, . . . ). n-
.
2.1.7. (m n)+
n=1 (m 1, m 2, m 3, . . . , m n, . . . ).
2.1.8. (m n)+
m=1 (1 n, 2 n, 3 n, . . . , m n, . . . ).
21
(xn )+
n=1 , (xn ), ,
, .
: . , .
(1)+
n=1 {1} . , ,
(1, 1, 1, . . . ). ,
.
, . ,
(1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, . . . ), (1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, . . . )
{1, 1}. (1, 12 , 13 , 41 , 15 , 61 , . . . ), ( 12 , 1, 41 , 13 , 16 , 51 , . . . )
{ n1 | n N}.
. (xn ) xn+1 xn n, -
xn+1 > xn n, xn+1 xn n

xn+1 < xn n.
(xn )
.
(xn ) , c
xn = c n. , (c) (c, c, c, . . . , c, . . . ).
. 2.1.1, 2.1.5, 2.1.7
, 2.1.2, 2.1.8
, 2.1.3 2.1.4, 2.1.6
.
. (xn )
, u : xn u n. u
(xn ).
(xn ) , l : l xn n. l
(xn ).
(xn ) , l u : l xn u n.
, u (xn ), u0 u
, l (xn ), l0 l .
2.1.9. (c) .
(
n1 )
n1 )
2.1.10. ( n1 ), (1)n
, ( n1
n ), ((1)
[1, 1].
(
n1 )n )
2.1.11. (1+(1)
(1, 0, 3, 0, 5, 0, 7, 0, . . . ) 2
. , l 0 .
, ,
. .
2.1.12. (1, 0, 3, 0, 5, 0, 7, 0, . . . ), , . l ,
l,
l, .
22
2.1.13. ((1)n1 n) (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, . . . ) . , , , ,

.
(xn ) , l, u
l xn u
n. , xn [l, u] n. , ,
0 [M, M ] [l, u],
M xn M
, , |xn | M n. , (xn ) ,
M |xn | M n. : M
|xn | M n, M xn M n, M
M (xn ). :
(xn ) M |xn | M n.

n. : n 234 4 n n2 n > 8
xn < xn+1 (xn ).
. , n,
, , n n0
n n0 .
n (xn )
(xn ), (xn ) , , n
. : xn+1 xn , xn+1 > xn ,
xn u, xn = c. , (xn ) , ,
, , u, c.
2.1.14. (1, 23 , 7, 2, 1, 1, 1, 1, . . . ) ,
.
2.1.15. (n2 14n + 8) . ,
n2 14n + 8 = (n 7)2 41 n 7 , ,
.
n
n0 0 , n0 00 n n0 0
n n0 00 .
n0 = max{n0 0 , n0 00 }.
n0 n0 0 , n n0 . , n0 n0 00 ,
n n0 . n n0 .
:
,
, , .
2.1.16. n2 3n 37 n 8. , 2n+1
n+1 >
2n+1
25
2
n 13. n 3n 37 n+1 > 13 n max{8, 13} = 13.
23
25
13
, , : , n0 0 , n0 00 ,
, . ,
,
!
. n .
2.1.17. (1)n1 > 0 n, n. ,

(1)n1 0 n, n.
n
n . ,
n , , , n.
.
2.1.1. , .
(
)
n1 ab .
2.1.2. a+b
2 + (1)
2
)
(
n +
m N, n m[ m
] n=1 .
m = 1, 2, 3.
2.1.3. : 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36.
49; 24; ;
2.1.4. .
2.1.5. (xn ) (yn ) (xn + yn ).
, ,
.
, , .
(xn ) (yn ) (xn yn ).
, , , xn , yn 0
n.
) ( 13n ) ( n30 ) ( n ) (
)
(
n1 ) (
n
, n218n
,
,
,
2[
]
,
n
3[
]
2.1.6. ((1)n1 n), (1)n

n
n!
2
2
3
+n+1
; ; ;
2.1.7. n k
n > k .
n
.
2.1.8. , ,
, , . , .
2.1.9. (xn ) .
c xn = c n.
2.1.10. 1 a, b, p, q, p, q 0, (xn )
x1 = a x2 = b xn+2 = pxn+1 + qxn .
1
n-
.
24
(i) p 6= 0, q = 0. xn = bpn2 n 2.
n1
n2
(ii) p = 0, q 6= 0. xn = aq 2 n xn = bq 2
n.
(iii) p 6= 0, q 6= 0.
x2 = px + q , 1 , 2 , ,
xn = 1 n1 + 2 n1 n.
x2 = px + q , , ,
xn = n1 + (n 1)n1 n.
x2 = px + q , , , [0, 2)
xn = n1 cos(n 1) + n1 sin(n 1) n.
n- 2
x1 = x2 = 1 xn+2 = 3xn , xn+2 = xn+1 + xn , xn+2 =
2xn+1 xn , xn+2 = xn+1 xn .
2.1.11. ( ) (xn )
xn+1 = x1 + + xn ;
xn+2
xn+3 = xnxn+1
, xn+1 = 1 x1n xn+1 = 2 x1n .
2.2 , .
2.2.1. ( n1 ) :
1
1
1
1
1, 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , . . . , 100
, 101
, . . . , 100000
, . . . , 100000000
, ... .
, n , n1
, , n1
0.
2.2.2. ( n1
n ) :
99 100
99999
99999999
0, 21 , 23 , 34 , 45 , . . . , 100
, 101 , . . . , 100000
, . . . , 100000000
, ... .
, n , n1
n
1 . , n1

n
n1
1
| n 1| = n , , n ,
n1 .
(xn ) :
n , xn x
.
. xn x
|xn x| . n n . ,
, :
|xn x| n
.
:
2.2.1. ( n1 ).
n1 0 | n1 0| = n1 , , n .
2
Fibonnaci 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13.
25
;
, 0.000132.
n1 0.000132 n ; , :
n n1 0.000132; :
n1 < 0.000132 n > 1000000
= 7575.75 . . . .
132
n > 1000000
;
7576
> 1000000
, , n 132
132
1
7576, n < 0.000132. ,
0.0000000000132. , n 75757575758, n1 < 0.0000000000132.
, , :
( 0.000132 0.0000000000132)
( 7576 75757575758). , , .
. ,
, .
, ,
,
n0 , , n n0 , n1 < . , , : > 0 n0 n10 ,
, n10 , n01+1 , n01+2 , . . . < .
( )
n0 . n0 ( )
n1 < ; , .
n1 < n > 1 (, n)
.
2.1. a 0, n0 = [a] + 1 n > a. a < 0,
n0 = 1 n > a.
. .
: n > 3 1, n > 83
3 = [ 38 ] + 1 n > 2 3 = 2 + 1 = [2] + 1.
( 1 0) n0 n0 = [ 1 ] + 1.
, ( )
n0 ,
n0 .
, .
. (xn ) x (xn ) x
x (xn ) > 0 n0 |xn x| < n n0 .

: (xn ) x > 0 |xn x| < .
(xn ) x
xn x
lim xn = x
limn+ xn = x.
(xn ) , (xn ) .
, , (xn ) x
n- xn x n .
:
[
]
xn x
> 0 n0 N n N (n n0 |xn x| < )
26
xn x > 0
n0 ( )
n n0 () |xn x| <
, ,
|xn x| < () n n0 .
|xn x| <

n n0 . : n .
:
|xn x| < P1 Pn n n0 ,
P1 , . . . , Pn .
:
. , . .
.
2.2.1 .
2.2.1.
1
n
0.
> 0. n0 | n1 0| < n n0 . ,
, | n1 0| < n n0 .
, | n1 0| < ( ) n1 <
( ) n > 1 . :
| n1 0| <
< n > 1 .
1
n
, 1.1 n0 n0 > 1 . , n > 1 n0 n n0 . n0

n n0 n > 1 | n1 0| < . :
n n0 n >
1

1
n
< | n1 0| < .
( ) n0 . , 1 0,
n0 = [ 1 ] + 1 n > 1 . , n0
n0 , | n1 0| < n n0 .
2.2.3. (c) c.
c c.
> 0. n0 |c c| < n n0 .
|cc| < ( ) 0 < . , 0 <
n ( n). ,
n0 ( , n0 = 1), |c c| < n n0 .
2.2.4. ((1)n1 ) .
( ) ((1)n1 ) x. > 0
n0 n n0 |(1)n1 x| < . ,
27
n0 , n n0 . , n n0 |1x| <
n n0 |1 x| < . | 1 x| <
1 (x , x + ) |1 x| < 1 (x , x + ). , > 0
1, 1 (x , x + ). , , 0 < 1,
2, .
n1
0.
2.2.5. (1)n
(1)n1

> 0. n
0 < ( ) n1 <
( ) n > 1 . , n0 > 1 .
n0 , n n0 n > 1 | n1 0| < .
2
n +1
2.2.6. 2n
3 n 0.
n2 +1

> 0. 3 0 < ( )
n2 +1
2n3 n
<
( )
n >
+ 1). ,
n, .
( )
2n n
1
2
(n
2n3
n2 +1
2n3 n
n2 +n2
2n3 n3
= n2 ,
n +1
2
2n
3 n < (, ) n < ( ) n > 2 . .
n0 > 2 . n0 , n n0 n > 2
n2 +1

2n
3 n 0 < .
2
2
n +1
2n
3 n , , n . , ,
:
a b, a 0 n0 xn > M n n0 .

: (xn ) + M > 0 xn > M .
(xn ) +,
xn +
lim xn = +
limn+ xn = +.
, (xn ) (xn )
(xn ) M > 0 n0 xn < M n n0 .
: (xn ) M > 0 xn < M .
(xn ) ,
xn
lim xn =
limn+ xn = .
, , : (xn ) + n-
xn + n .
.
:
[
]
xn +
M > 0 n0 N n N (n n0 xn > M )
[
]
xn
M > 0 n0 N n N (n n0 xn < M )
28
2.2.7.
n +.
M > 0. n0 n > M n n0 .
. 1.1, n0 > M . ,
n > M n0 n n0 . n0
n n0 n > M .
( ) n0 = [M ] + 1 ,
n0 n0 , n > M n n0 .
2.2.8. ((1)n1 n) (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, . . . )
+ .
( ) +. M > 0
n0 (1)n1 n > M n n0 . ,
n0 , n n0 . n n0 n > M
n n0 n > M . , n > M , , , .
, .
2.2.9.
M > 0.
n3 +n
n2 +3
n2 +n
n+3
+.
> M n3 + n > M n2 +3M .

3
n, nn2+n
> M nn2+n
+3
+3
. ( )
n3
n3 +n
n
n2 +3n
2 = 4.
n2 +3
3
> M n4 > M n > 4M . nn2+n

+3
n0 n0 > 4M , , n0 , n n0
3
> M.
n > 4M nn2+n
+3
3
nn2+n
, , n4 .
+3
, :
a b, a > M b > M.
a > M b > M . , b a
a.3
, lim, limn+
, .
, .
limn+ xn , , R.
,
.
. > 0. (x , x + ) - x.
( 1 , +] - + [, 1 ) - .
Nx () = (x , x + ),
3
N+ () = ( 1 , +],
N () = [, 1 ).
2.2.6.
29
1
M = 1 , = M

1
+ ( , +] (M, +]
[, 1 ) [, M ).
:
x R , Nx () .
x Nx ().
Nx () x Nx ().
, .
l < x, x ( +) l,
> 0 Nx () l.
, x < u, x ( ) u,
> 0 Nx () u.
, , l < x < u, x () l, u,
> 0 Nx () l, u.
|xn x| < xn x , ,
x < xn < x + , , xn (x , x + ) , , xn Nx ().
, xn > M xn < M xn
, , xn (M, +] xn [, M ) , , xn N+ ()
1 4
.
xn N (), = M

.
. x R. xn x > 0 n0 xn Nx ()
n n0 , , > 0 xn Nx ().
, , . , ,
, .5
.
2.2.1. , :
n2 7n +,
n
2n2 1
0,
n4 n2 +1
n2 +3
1
n+8
0,
+, 2n 2n/2 +,
3n+1
2n+5
3+log2 n
1+3 log2 n
3 1
2 , n+5
1
3.
0,
2.2.2. .
2.2.3. x, y R, x 6= y. > 0 Nx () Ny () = .
2.2.4. x R.
, 0 < 1 2 , Nx (1 ) Nx (2 ).
> 0 n Nx ( n1 ) Nx ().
>0 Nx () = {x} , ,

x x.
1
+
n=1 Nx ( n ) = {x}.
2.2.5. xn x. > 0 n0 () n0 xn Nx ()
n n0 . , 0 < 0 < , n0 (0 ) n0 ().
4
, xn
+ xn N+ () = ( 1 , +] xn N () = [, 1 ).
5
,
.
30
2.2.6. 6 (xn ) x > 0

xn
/ Nx () n.
2.2.7. 7 0 > 0. xn x 0 < 0
xn Nx ().
2.2.8. (xn ) x : n0 > 0
|xn x| < n n0 . xn x.
(xn ) .
2.2.9. [] (xn ) . ,
xn x, (xn ) x .
[] (xn ) xn Z n. xn x, (xn )
x Z.
2.3 .
2.1 ,
, .
2.1. .
, .
. (xn ), (yn )
k0 , m0
xk0 = ym0 , xk0 +1 = ym0 +1 , xk0 +2 = ym0 +2 , . . . .
(2.1)
xn a R.
> 0. xn Na () . (2.1)
yn Na () . , xn Na ()
n0 . .
. n0 k0 , xn Na () k0 , ,
yn Na () m0 .
. n0 > k0 , n0 = k0 + p
yn Na () m0 + p .
yn a.
2.3.1. (1, 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , . . . ), (2, 5, 41 , 15 , 61 , . . . ). 0. , .
0.
2.3.2. (xn ) (x1 , x2 , x3 , . . . ). (xn+1 )
(x2 , x3 , x4 , . . . ) (xn+2 ) (x3 , x4 , x5 , . . . ). ,
(xn+m ) (x1+m , x2+m , x3+m , . . . ). 2.1,
limn+ xn = x
:
1
n+3
1
n
limn+ xn+m = x.
0.
.
. > 0
0 > 0.
7
31
.
2.2 :
.
2.2. xn x R u, l.
[] x > u, xn > u.
[] x < l, xn < l.
[] u < x < l, u < xn < l.
. [] > 0 Nx ()
u. xn Nx (), xn > u.
[] > 0 Nx () l.
xn Nx (), xn < l.
[] > 0 Nx ()
u, l. xn Nx (), u < xn < l.
. [] [] xn > u
xn < l. xn > u xn < l , , u < xn < l.
2.3 .
.
2.3. .
. (xn ) a, b.
> 0 Na () Nb ()
. xn Na () , , xn Nb ().
xn Na () xn Nb () .
. (xn ) a, b
c a, b. [] [] 2.2
xn < c xn > c. xn < c xn > c
.
2.4. [] xn x R, (xn ) .
[] xn +, (xn ) .
[] xn , (xn ) .
. [] x, (x 1, x + 1).
(xn ) n0 (x 1, x + 1). ,
(xn ) (x 1, x + 1)
x1 , . . . , xn0 1 . , ,
, (x 1, x + 1) [l, u]
(xn ). (xn ) .
[] +, (1, +].
(xn ) n0 (1, +].
(xn ) (1, +] x1 , . . . , xn0 1 .
, , ,
(1, +] [l, +] (xn ).
(xn ) .
, l xn > l. l (xn ),
(xn ) .
[] [].
32
2.3.3. H ((1)n1 ) . 2.4[].

(
n1 )n )
2.3.4. (1+(1)
, (1, 0, 3, 0, 5, 0, 7, . . . ),
2
. , +,
, 2.2, > 1, .
, (1, 0, 3, 0, 5, 0, 7, . . . ) ,
. 2.4[,] .
.
2.5 :
.
2.5
2.2. ,
.
2.5 - : ,
.8
2.5. [] xn l n xn x R, x l.
[] xn u n xn x R, x u.
[] u < l xn u n xn l n, (xn ) .
. [] x < l, , 2.2, xn < l,
xn l n . x l.
[] .
[] (xn ) , , [] [], u l , ,
l u . (xn ) .
2.3.5. xn x R xn [l, u] n, x [l, u].
2.3.6. ((1)n1 n), (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, . . . ), ,
1 1.
(
)
2.3.7. n 3[ n3 ] , (1, 2, 0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 2, 0, . . . ), ,
2 0.
2.6. xn yn n xn x R yn y R, x y.
. ( ) y < x.
a y < a < x. yn < a
a < xn . , yn < a a < xn . yn < xn , ,
xn yn n. .
x y.
2.3.8. n1 < n1 n n1 0 n1 0.
, xn < yn n xn x R yn y
R, x < y. xn < yn n
xn yn n x y. x < y x = y
.
8
. 2.5.15.
33
2.7 2.8 :
( ) .
2.7. xn yn .
[] xn +, yn +.
[] yn , xn .
. [] M > 0. xn > M , yn xn ,
xn > M yn xn . yn > M . ,
yn +.
[] .
2.3.9. 2n + (1)n n = 2n n n n n +. ,
2n + (1)n n +.
2.3.10.
n2 +2n+1
n+2
n n n +.
n2 +2n+1
n+2
+.
2.3.11. n! n n. n! +.
2.8 .
2.8. xn yn zn . xn a zn a, yn a.
. > 0. xn (a , a + ) , , zn
(a , a + ). xn , zn (a , a + ) , yn
xn , zn , yn (a , a + ). yn a.
(1)n
n
1
n
n. n1 0
1
n
n2[n/2]
n
1
n
n. 0 0
0,
2.3.12. n1
n
(1)
0.
n
2.3.13. 0
n2[n/2]
0.
n
1
n
0, -
.

.
. (xn ) (xn ).
(xn ) (yn ) (xn + yn ).

(xn ) (yn ) (xn yn ). xn yn =
xn + (yn ), (xn ) (yn ) (xn )
(yn ).
(xn ) (yn ) (xn yn ).
(xn ) (xn ). ,
(xn ) () (xn )
( )
(xn ) x1n .
(1)
xn xn 6= 0 n.
( )
(xn ) (yn ) xynn . xynn = xn y1n ,
(xn ) (yn )
( x ) (xn ) (yn ).
ynn yn 6= 0 n.
(xn ) (|xn |).
34
.
2.9. x, y R .
[] xn x, xn x.
[] xn x, |xn | |x|.
[] xn x yn y x + y , xn + yn x + y.
[] xn x yn y x y , xn yn x y.
[] xn x yn y xy , xn yn xy.
[] xn x x , xn x.
[] xn 6= 0 n. xn x x1 (,
x 6= 0), x1n x1 .
[] yn 6= 0 n. xn x yn y xy
, xynn xy .
. [] xn x x R. > 0 |xn x| < ,
,
|(xn ) (x)| = |xn x| < .
xn x.
xn +. M > 0 xn > M , , xn < M .
xn , xn (+).
xn . M > 0 xn < M , , xn > M .
xn +, xn ().
[] xn x x R. > 0 |xn x| < , ,

|xn | |x| |xn x| < .
|xn | |x|.
xn +. M > 0 xn > M , , |xn | > M .
|xn | +, |xn | | + |.
xn . M > 0 xn < M , , |xn | > M .
|xn | +, |xn | | |.
[] xn x yn y x, y R. > 0 |xn x| < 2
, , |yn y| < 2 , ,

|(xn + yn ) (x + y)| = |(xn x) + (yn y)| |xn x| + |yn y| <

2

2
= .
xn + yn x + y.
xn + yn y y (, +]. (yn ) ,
l yn > l n. , M > 0 xn > M l
, ,
xn + yn > (M l) + l = M.
xn + yn +, xn + yn x + y.
[].
[] [] [].
[] xn x yn y x, y R. (yn ) , M 0
|yn | M n. , > 0 |xn x| < 2M+1 ,

, |yn y| < 2|x|+1
, ,

|xn yn xy| = |(xn x)yn + x(yn y)| |xn x||yn | + |x||yn y|
35
M
2M +1
|x|
2|x|+1
< .
xn yn xy.
xn + yn y y (0, +]. l 0 < l < y.
l < yn . , M > 0 xn > Ml , ,
xn yn > Ml l = M.
xn yn +, xn yn xy.
[].
[] [].
[] xn x x R \ {0} xn 6= 0 n. |xn | |x|.
|x| > 0, l 0 < l < |x| |xn | > l. ,
> 0 |xn x| < |x|l , ,

1
xn

x1 =
|xn x|
|x||xn |
<
|x|l
|x|l
= .
x1n x1 .
xn +. > 0 xn > 1 , ,

1
0 = 1 < .
xn
xn
1
x1n 0, x1n +
.
xn [].
[] [] [].
2.3.14. xn x, x R k N, xn k xk .
, xn k = xn xn (k ) x x (k ) = xk .
n1 3
3
, n1
n 1 ( n ) 1 = 1.
xn +, , , xn k +. , xn , xn k +,
k , xn k , k .
, (
), , xn , xn1 k 0.
:
{
+, k Z, k > 0
nk
0,
k Z, k < 0

2.3.15. (1)n1 = 1 1 ((1)n1 ) . ,
2.9[] .
, , x = 0, :
xn 0 |xn | |0| = 0.
, |xn 0| < |xn | 0 <
xn 0 |xn | 0 .
2.3.16. a0 + a1 x + + ak xk . , k 1 ak 6= 0.

(
)
1
a0 + a1 n + + ak nk = nk a0 n1k + a1 nk1
+ + ak1 n1 + ak .
ak , 0. ,
nk +.
{
+, ak > 0
a0 + a1 n + + ak nk ak (+) =
, ak < 0
36
.
, limn+ (a0 + a1 n + + ak nk ) = limn+ ak nk .
: 3n2 5n + 2 + 12 n5 + 4n4 n3 .
: 2n5 2n2 + n 7 , (2n5 2n2 + n 7)8 +.
: n3 + 2n 1 , (n3 + 2n 1)5 .
2.3.17.
a0 +a1 n++ak nk
b0 +b1 n++bm nm
nk
nm
a0 +a1 x++ak xk
b0 +b1 x++bm xm ,
a0 n1k + + ak1 n1 + ak
ak 6= 0, bm 6= 0.
)/( 1
)
b0 nm + + bm1 n1 + bm .

k
ak bm . nnm = nkm ,
a0 +a1 n++ak nk
b0 +b1 n++bm nm
(ak /bm )(+),

ak /bm ,
0,
k > m
k = m
k < m

.
2 +n
3 2n2 +n+1
n2 +n+4
n4 n3
+, n
: n 2n
2 3n1
n+2 , n4 +1 1 n3 +n2 +5n+6 0.
(
3 +n2 +n+1
3 +n2 +n+1 )7
: 2n 2n+3
, 2n 2n+3
.
( n3 +n+7 )3
1
n3 +n+7
1
: 3n3 +n2 +1 3 , 3n3 +n2 +1 27 .
2.3.18.
{
+,
na
0,
a > 0
a < 0
a > 0. M > 0 n0 na > M

n n0 .
, na > M n > M 1/a . 1.1,
n0 > M 1/a . , n > M 1/a n0
n n0 . , n0 , n > M 1/a , , na > M n n0 .
( ) n0 = [M 1/a ] + 1 ,
n0 n0 , n > M 1/a n n0 .
a < 0. , , na 0 ,
: a > 0 , ,
1
1
na = na
+
= 0.
2.3.19. (a, a2 , a3 , a4 , . . . ), (an ).
: a.
a = 1, (1) 1. , a = 0,
(0) 0.
a 1, (an ) a 1, a2 1, a3 1, a4 1, . . . . ,
1 1 , , .
a > 1. Bernoulli 1.1
an n(a 1) + 1
n. n(a 1) + 1 +, an +.
, , . M > 0 n0
37
an > M n n0 . , an > M n > loga M .

n0 > loga M , n0 , n > loga M
, , an > M n n0 .
1
, 0 < |a| < 1. |a|
> 1,
1
1
n
n
|a | = (1/|a|)n + = 0. a 0.
:9
+,
1,
an
0,
a > 1
a = 1
1 < a < 1
a 1
2.3.20. (1 + a + a2 + + an1 + an )
a. :
a 1
+,
2
n
1 + a + a + + a
1/(1 a), 1 < a < 1
, a 1
a 1,
1 + a + a2 + + an 1 + 1 + 1 + + 1 = n + 1.
n + 1 +, 1 + a + a2 + + an +.
. 1 < a < 1,
1 + a + a2 + + an =
an+1 1
a1
01
a1
1
1a .
a 1. an+1 = 1 + (a 1)(1 + a + a2 + + an ) n.
1 + a + a2 + + an x R, an+1 1 + (a 1)x. , (an+1 )
. (1 + a + a2 + + an1 + an ) .
2.3.21.
{
loga n
+,
,
a > 1
0 < a < 1
a > 1. M > 0 n0 loga n > M

n n0 . a > 1, loga n > M n > aM . ,
n0 n0 > aM , , n0 , loga n > M , ,
n > aM n n0 .
0 < a < 1. a1 > 1, loga n = log1/a n (+) = .
- - .
2.3.22.
n
a1
a > 0.
a = 1 : n 1 = 1 1.
a1
n
a > 1. Bernoulli (1+ a1
n ) 1+n n = a
n
, , 1 n a 1 + a1
a 1.
n n. ,
1
1
1
n
0 < a < 1, a > 1, a =
=
1.
n
1
1/a
2.4.9
2.3.22 2.3.25.
38
2.3.23.
n
n 1.
n
Bernoulli (1 + n1
n ) 1+n
2
n
1 2
, 1 n n (1 + n1
n 1.
n ) < (1 + n ) n.
n1
n
n ,
2.10
.
2.10. 10 xn > 0 n.
[] 0 1 xn b, xn +.
[] 0 a < 1 xxn+1
a, xn 0.
n
xn+1
[] a > 1 xn a, xn +.
. ,
.
[] , n0 xxn+1
b n n0 .
n
n n0 + 1
0 < xn =
xn xn1
xn1 xn2
xn0 +2 xn0 +1
xn0 +1 xn0
xn0 b b b b xn0 = bnn0 xn0 =
xn0
bn0
bn = c bn ,
c = bnn00 . 0 1, bn +. xn +.
[] b a b > 1.
xn +.
xn+1
xn
b []
xn+1
xn
b []
2.3.24.
an
nk
a > 1 k N.
( n )k
n+1
k
n
a an/(n+1)
= a n+1
a a > 1. na k +.
/nk
:
(an ) a > 1
(nk ).
2.3.25.
an
n!
0.
an
n! = 0 0.
n
|a|n+1 /(n+1)!
|a|
an
a 6= 0.
= n+1
0. |a|
n! 0 , , n! 0. :
|a|n /n!
(an ) a > 1 (n!).
a = 0, , ,
10
2.4.11.
39
2.11
2.9 .
2.11. [] xn + (yn ) , xn + yn +.
xn (yn ) , xn + yn .
[] xn 0 (yn ) , xn yn 0.
[] xn + (yn ) , xn yn +.
xn (yn ) , xn yn .
[] xn 6= 0 n.
xn 0 (xn ) , x1n +.
xn 0 (xn ) , x1n .
[] xn 6= 0 n. |xn | +,
1
xn
0.
. [] xn + (yn ) ,
l yn l n. M > 0 xn > M l , ,
xn + yn > (M l) + l = M . xn + yn +.
.
[] xn 0 (yn ) , M 0
|yn | M n. > 0 |xn | < M+1 , ,
|xn yn | = |xn ||yn |
M
M +1
< .
xn yn 0.
[] xn + (yn ) ,
l > 0 yn l. M > 0 xn > Ml , ,
xn yn > Ml l = M . xn yn +.
.
[] xn 0 xn > 0. M > 0
1
1
. 0 < xn < M
, , x1n > M . x1n +.
|xn 0| < M
.
[] xn 6= 0 n |xn | +. |x1n | 0 , , x1n 0.
2.3.26. (xn ) ,
1+(1)n1
0.
n3[n/3]
n
0 sinnn 0.

(
)
2.3.27. (1)n1 n (1)n1 n = n +.
0. :
xn
n
1
1
n1 n 0. , (1)n1 n
((1) n1
)
(1)
n .
(1)n1
n
0.
x = 0 2.9[];
10 .
2.3.28.
.
(1)n1
n
(
)
0, (1)n1 n
2.3.28;
(
n1 )
(1)n
, ,
.
(xn ) , ( x1n )
+. , (xn ) , ( x1n )
. , (xn ) ,
. xn 0
40
|xn | 0 |x1n | +. |x1n | 1, ,

, x1n 1 n x1n 1
n. ( x1n ) .
, , :
10 0
0 .
0+ 0
0
0 , ,
2.11[].
.
1
0+
1
0
= +,
= .

1.1 : ,
,
, .
, 2.12, 4.3.
, ( )
. 1.4 ab . 00 , 1+ ,
1 , (+)0 0 .
)
(
. (xn ) (yn ) xn yn .
2.12. xn > 0 n. xn x R yn y R
xy , xn yn xy . , xn 0 yn ,
xn yn +.
2.3.29. 2.12, n a 1 a > 0.

, (a) ( n1 ). a a n1 0,
n a = a1/n a0 = 1.
2.3.30. (an ) a > 1 0 < a < 1 ,
, 2.12. (a)
(n). a a n +, an a+ ,
+, a > 1, 0, 0 < a < 1.
2.3.31. n n 1 2.12.
(n) ( n1 ), n + n1 0, (+)0
.
0 , , , 2.12 .
.
(0+) = +.
.
(
)
27 (n+3)79 ) ( n3 +(1)n n2 +1 ) ( n(n+1)
4n3
2.3.1. (n+1)
,
,
,
106
2
n1
2
n+4
(2n+1)
3n +2(1)
n
4n +1
( n3 +n+1 9 ) ( 3n +(2)n )
5
4
2
2
((1 n) + n ), ( 3n2 +3n+1 ) , 3n+1 +2n+1 , ( n + 1 n), ( n + n + 1 n + 1).
41
(
)
2.3.2. , , (1 + 2 + 22 + + 2n ), 1 + 21 + + 21n ,
( 7
8
n+6 ) ( n
n+1
2n )
(1 2 + 22 + + (1)n 2n ), 237 + 328 + + 23n+6 , 23n + 23n+1 + + 322n .
(
) ( 23 1 33 1
)
31
n1
n3 1
2.3.3. 21
2+1 3+1 n+1 , 23 +1 33 +1 n3 +1 .
1
2.3.4. x 6= 1 ( xxn +1
) .
n
x ( xx2n 1
) .
+1
2n
2.3.5. x limn+
(x+1)2n
(2x+1)n
2.3.6. x 6= 1 xn 6= 1 n. xn x
xn
x
1xn 1x .
n
2.3.7. 11 3+(1)
2n
( 3+(1)n )
.
2n

(3(1)n1 )n
2
0,
3+(1)n
2n
> 0 n
( (3(1)n1 )n )
2
2.3.8. (xn ) n2 2n < n2 xn n2 + 3.

: n + 1 2nxn n + 2xn + 3, n2 + nxn 15n
n2 xn 2 2n(n 1)xn + n2 2n 3 0.
2.3.9. xn x R yn y R. x < y, xn < yn .
2.3.10. xn x R yn y R x 6= y. |x y| > a,
|xn yn | > a.
2.3.11. , xn [l, u] n xn x, x [l, u].
x (xn ), xn (l, u) n;
;
2.3.12. 2.5[], )
(
) (
n1 )n ) (
n1 ) ((
n
, (1)n1 + n103 , (1)n1 n+1
.
2(1)
, 1 + (1)2
(
n1 )n
n1
2.3.13. 2n + (1)n1 n +, 22n+(1) n 0, 12 + (1)4
0.
[ 2 n+1 ]
[ 3n2 n+1 ]
2.3.14. 3n n+2
+, [n]
1 3n2n+2
1.
n+2
n+1
n
2
2.3.15. (1 + n1 )n +, (1 n12 )n 1, (1 + n12 )n 1.
+, x > 0
+,
12
2.3.16. [nx] 0,
x = 0 [nx] [ny] 0,
, x < 0
,
+,
x > y
0,
x = y Z
nx [ny]
,
x < y
, x = y Q \ Z
2.3.17.
(2n)!
(n!)2
x > y
x = y
x < y
+.
2.3.18. 0 a b c.
n n
a + bn b, n an + bn + cn c.
11
0 +, , , .
12
x = y R \ Q 2.7.18.
42
2.3.19.
n
n3 1, n n4 + 3n2 + n + 1 1.
2.3.20. a,
2.3.21.
n
n2 +1
[a]+[2a]++[na]
n2
n
n2 +2
2.3.22. limm+
++
a2 .
n
n2 +n
1
n2 +1
)
limn+ (cos m!x)2n =
{
1,
0,
1
n2 +2
++
1
n2 +n
1.
x Q
x R \ Q
2.3.23. (xn ) : xn+1 = xn +2, xn+3 = xn 3, xn+1 = xn 2 2, xn+2 = xn 2 +2,

xn+1 = xn 2 + 3, xn+2 = xn+1 + xn 3 ;
2.3.24. xn x yn y, max{xn , yn } max{x, y} min{xn , yn }
min{x, y}.
2.3.25. : n n1 = n1 + + n1 (n ) 0 + + 0 (n ) = n0 = 0.
: (1 + n1 )n = (1 + n1 ) (1 + n1 ) (n ) 1 1 (n ) = 1n = 1.
2.9[,];
2.3.26. x1 > 0 xn+1 x1 + + xn n N. 0 < a < 2,
xn
n
an +. a = 2 (2 ).
2.3.27. (xn ), (yn ) (xn + yn ) .
(xn ), (yn ) (xn yn ) .
2.3.28. (xn + yn ) (xn ), (yn ) , ,
, .
(xn yn ) (xn ), (yn ) , , ,
.
2.3.29. 13 (xn ), (yn ) xn +, yn (xn + yn ) (i)
c R (ii) .
(xn ), (yn ) xn 0, yn + (xn yn ) (i)
c R (ii) .
(xn ), (yn ) xn 0, yn 0 ( xynn ) (i)
c R (ii) .
(xn ), (yn ) xn +, yn + ( xynn ) (i)
c [0, +] (ii) . ( xynn ) c [, 0);
(
)
2.3.30. 14 (xn ), (yn ) xn +, yn 0 ( xn yn) (i)
c [0, +] (ii) . xn yn
c [, 0);
(
)
(xn ), (yn ) xn 0, yn 0 ( xn yn) (i) c [0, +] (ii) . xn yn c [, 0);
(
)
(xn ), (yn ) xn 0, yn xn(yn (i)
)
c {+, } (ii) . xn yn c R;
2.3.31. (xn ), (yn ) xn , yn > 0 n, xn 0, yn +
(xn yn ) .
13
14
.
. 2.4.10.
43
2.3.32. x (rn ) rn x.
x (tn ) tn x.
x (rn )
(sn ) rn x sn x. .
2.3.33. - A.
A sup A A
sup A. inf A.
[0, 2], [0, 2), {2}, [0, 1] {2}
supremum . ,
( )
, , . , ,
,
.
N, Z, Q, { n1 | n N}, (0, 1] (R \ Q), (0, 2) Q
, supremum infimum
.
2.3.34. - A u A. u = sup A
A u. inf A
l A.
2.3.35. - A.
sup A A A sup A.
sup A
/ A, A sup A.
inf A.
2.3.36. k N, k 2 xn 0 n.
xn x, k xn k x.
xn +, k xn +.
2.12.
2.3.37. |xn xm | 1 n, m n 6= m. |xn | +.
(xn ) ; (n), (n), ((1)n1 n).
2.3.38. xn x xn x n, sup{xn | n N} = x.
x < y xn < y n xn x, sup{xn |n N} < y.
2.3.39. xn x, k inf{xn | n k} x sup{xn | n k}.
2.3.40. xn x.
(xn ) k xk x.
(xn ) k xk x.
n
x.
2.3.41. 15 [] Cesro: xn x R, x1 ++x
n
x1 ++xn
n1
xn = (1)
n,
0.
n
1+(1)n
x1 ++xn
n n,
+.
xn =
2
n
(xn ) . Cesro.
[] an+1 an a R, ann a.
15
2.7.13.
44
[] Cesro: 16 (xn ), (yn )

n
yn > 0 n y1 + + yn +. xynn l R, xy11 ++x
++yn l.
[] xn > 0 n xn x [0, +], n x1 xn x.
n a a.
[] an > 0 n an+1
n
an a [0, +],
(
)
(
)
n
n
n
2
( n),
n!
(2n)!/(n!) .
2.4 .
2.1 .
, ,
, ,
. - : ((1)n1 )
((1)n1 n) .
2.1
.
2.1. 17 . :
[] (xn ) , limn+ xn = sup{xn | n N}.
: (xn ) , +, ,
. .
[] (xn ) , limn+ xn = inf{xn | n N}.
: (xn ) , , ,
. .
. [] - {xn | n N}. (
) supremum ,
( ) supremum +.
(xn ) .
sup{xn | n N} = +
xn +.
M > 0. M {xn | n N}, n0 xn0 > M .
(xn ) ,
xn xn0 > M
n n0 . xn +.
(xn ) .
x = sup{xn | n N}
xn x.
> 0. x < x, x {xn | n N}. n0
x < xn0 . (xn ) ,
x < xn0 xn
16
17
Cesro yn = 1 n.
supremum 2.4.17.
45
n n0 . , x {xn | n N},
xn x < x +
n.
x < xn < x +
n n0 . xn x.
[] .
2.1. (xn ) , , 2.1, (xn ) ,
x, . , xn x
n. , , (xn ) , xn < x n.
, xn0 = x n0 , ( )
x = xn0 xn x n n0 , , . , (xn ) , xn < x n.
. :
(xn ) xn x, xn x n. , ,
(xn ) (, , ), xn < x
n.
(xn ) xn x, xn x n. , ,
(xn ) (, , ), xn > x
n.
2.1 . ,
,
( ) .18
2.4.1. (xn ) x1 = 1

n +6
n 1.
xn+1 = 3x
xn +4

x1 = 1,
x2 = 95 ,
x3 =
57
29 ,
x4 =
345
173 .
, ,
4,
. , ,
xn 0
n. , x1 = 1 0 , xn 0, , ,
xn+1 0.
, xn+1 xn :
xn+1 xn =
3xn +6
xn +4
3xn1 +6
xn1 +4
6(xn xn1 )
(xn +4)(xn1 +4) .
xn+1 xn n , x2 x1 > 0,
xn+1 xn > 0 n. (xn ) .
n +6
xn+1 > xn 3x
xn +4 > xn , ,
xn 2 + xn 6 < 0 , , 3 < xn < 2 n. , (xn )
18
, , 2.3.23.
46
, , .
, , xn x. xn 0 n x 0 , ,

x=
3x+6
x+4 .
x = 3 x = 2 , x 0, x = 2. , xn 2.
, (xn ) , xn < 2 n.
. :
: xn 0 n (xn )
( ), (xn ) . xn +, ,
3+(6/xn )
xn+1 = 1+(4/x
n, + = 3,
n)
. (xn ) , , xn 2.
: . x1 = 1, x2 = 1.8, x3 = 1.9655...
x4 = 1.994219... . (xn ) 2,
xn < 2 n. , ,
, (xn )
2.
.
(
2.4.2. 1 + 1!1 +
1
xn = 1 + 1!1 + 2!1 + + n!
n.

xn+1 = 1 +
1
1!
1
2!
+ +
1
n!
1
(n+1)!
1
2!
= xn +
+ +
1
(n+1)!
1
n!
> xn
n, (xn ) .
,
n! 2n1
n. , n = 1 n 2 n! =
1 2 3 n 1 2 2 2 = 2n1 .
,
xn 1 +
1
1
1
2
+ +
1
2n1
=1+
1(1/2n )
1(1/2)
<1+
1
1(1/2)
= 3.
n. (xn ) , , .
(
)
2.4.3. (1 + n1 )n , ,
.19
)n
(
an = 1 + n1 n.
Newton ( 1.1) x = n1 y = 1,
( )
( )
( )
( )
an = 1 + n1 n1 + n2 n12 + + nk n1k + + nn n1n
=1+
1
1!
+ +
1
2! (1
1
n! (1
1
1
1
n ) + + k! (1 n )(1
1
n1
n ) (1 n ).
n2 ) (1
k1
n )
(2.2)
, , n + 1,
(n+1) 1
( ) 1
( ) 1
( ) 1
+ + n+1
an+1 = 1 + n+1
+ + n+1
n+1 +
2
n (n+1)n
1
k
(n+1)2
(n+1)k
(n+1)
1
+ n+1 (n+1)n+1
=1+
1
1!
+ +
19
1
1
2! (1 n+1 ) + +
1
1
n! (1 n+1 ) (1
1
1
2
k1
k! (1 n+1 )(1 n+1 ) (1 n+1 )
n1
1
n1
1
n+1 ) + (n+1)! (1 n+1 ) (1 n+1 )(1
2.4.4.
47
(2.3)
n
n+1 ).
(2.2) (2.3). k 2 k n, k-
(2.2) k-
(2.3),
n n + 1. , (2.3)
, k = n + 1.
an < an+1
n, (an ) .
1
xn = 1 + 1!1 + 2!1 + + n!
n, .
(xn ) xn < 3 n.
(2.2) > 0 < 1,
an 1 +
1
1!
1
2!
+ +
1
k!
+ +
1
n!
= xn < 3
(2.4)
n. (an ) , , ,
, . a (an ).
an a.
, , k (2.2) ,
() k-,
an 1 +
1
1!
1
2! (1
n1 ) + +
1
k! (1
n1 )(1 n2 ) (1
k1
n ).
n +, ( k)
a1+
1
1!
1
2!
+ +
1
k!
= xk .
, , k , , a xn n.
(2.4)
an x n a
n , an a,
xn a.
)
1
+ 2!1 + + n!
(1 + n1 )n .
e. ,
(
)n
(
)
1
.
e = limn+ 1 + n1 = limn+ 1 + 1!1 + 2!1 + + n!
(
2.4.2 2.4.3, 1 +
(
)
1
1!

(
) e
(
)
1
1 + 1!1 + 2!1 + + n!
(1 + n1 )n . e
, e .
((1 + n1 )n ) , (1 + n1 )n < e n.
1
, 1 + 1!1 + 2!1 + + n!
< e n.
, 1+ (
1.4 2.3). xn 1 yn +
: xn yn 1.
: xn yn 1yn = 1 1 . , , (1+ n1 )n e
. , 1 + n1 1 n + (1 + n1 )n 1.
. e -
y > 0, loge y,
log y
48
ln y.
2.13 , , 1.9.
2.13. [] log(y1 y2 ) = log y1 + log y2 y1 , y2 > 0.
[] log(y z ) = z log y y > 0 z.
log y
[] loga y = log
a y > 0 a > 0, a 6= 1.
[] log 1 = 0, log e = 1.
[] 0 < y1 < y2 , log y1 < log y2 .
.
2.4.4. 20
1+
1
2
1
3
+ +
1
n
+.
xn = 1 + 21 + 13 + + n1 n.
1
xn+1 xn = n+1
> 0 n, (xn ) , , .
n
x2n xn =
1
n+1
+ +
1
n+n
1
n+n
+ +
1
n+n
1
= n n+n
= 12 .
(xn ) x, , (xn ) ,
xn x2n x x. xn x, x2n x. x2n xn x x = 0
, x2n xn 21 n.
xn +.
xn + .
, n k 0 2k n < 2k+1 .
, n 2. , k log2 n < k + 1, k = [log2 n]. ,
k,
xn = 1 +
1+
=1+
=1+
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
+ ( 13 + 14 ) + ( 15 +
+
+
+
1
6
1
8
1
1
7 + 8)
( 14 + 14 ) + ( 18 + + 18 + 18 )
2 14 + 4 18 + + 2k1 21k
1
1
1
k
2 + 2 + + 2 = 1 + 2.
+ + ( 2k11 +1 + +
+ + ( 21k + +
1
)
2k
1
2k +1
+ +
1
n
1
)
2k

xn 1 + 12 [log2 n] > 1 + 12 (log2 n 1) =
1
2
log2 n +
1
2
n , log2 n +, xn +.
2.4.5. 21
(

1+
1
22
1
32
+ +
1
n2
xn = 1 + 212 + 312 + + n12 n.

1
xn+1 xn = (n+1)
2 > 0 n, (xn ) .
xn 1 +
1
12
1
23
+ +
1
(n1)n
1
= 1 + ( 11 12 ) + ( 12 31 ) + + ( n1
n1 ) = 2
1
n
<2
n. (xn ) , , .
20
2.5.4, 2.6.2 7.3.20

8.2.7, 8.2.10 8.3.1. 2.4.6, 6.4.11.
21
2.6.1, 8.2.7 8.2.10 6.4.11, 7.3.20 8.2.1.
49
. [a1 , b1 ], [a2 , b2 ], . . .
[an+1 , bn+1 ] [an , bn ] n. , (an ) (bn ) an bn n. :
(i) (an ) (bn ) .
(ii) x an x bn n.
(iii) x (ii) bn an 0.
(iii), (an ), (bn ) x
.
. (an ) (bn ) ,
a1 an bn b1
n, (an ) , , ( b1 )
(bn ) , , ( a1 ).

an a,
bn b.
an bn n, a b. ,
an a b bn
n.
x [a, b] an a x b bn n. , x
an x bn n, a x b, x [a, b].
x an x bn n [a, b]. , x [a, b]
, , a = b , , bn an 0.
x x = a = b.
an x bn , , x [an , bn ]. , an
x bn n x [an , bn ],
.
:
[an , bn ] ,
+
n=1 [an , bn ] = [a, b],
a = limn+ an b = limn+ bn .
2.4.6. p N, p 2. x [0, 1),
0 x < 1.
(2.5)
, x p
[ 1) [1 2)
[
)
0, p , p , p , . . . , p1
p ,1
p1 . x;
kp x < k+1
p k = 0, 1, . . . , p 1. , , ,
k px < k+1 , , k = [px].
k 0, 1, . . . , p 1 (2.5) 0
50
px < p, px 0, 1, . . . , p 1.
x1 = [px] ( k )
x<
x1
p
x1
p
x1 {0, 1, . . . , p 1}.
1
p
(2.6)
, [ xp1 , xp1 + p1 ), p1 , p
[x
, xp1 +
1
p2
) [x
, p1 +
1
.
p2
1 x1
,
p2 p
2
p2
, ... ,
[x
p1 x1
, p
p2
1
p
x ,
,
x < xp1 + k+1
k p2 x px1 < k + 1,
+
p2
2
k = [p x px1 ]. (2.6) 0 p2 x px1 < p , ,
p2 x px1 0, 1, . . . , p 1.
x2 = [p2 x px1 ] ( k )
x1
p
x1
p
x2
p2
k
p2
x<
x1
p
x2
p2
x1 , x2 {0, 1, . . . , p 1}.
1
p2
. n-
x1
p
+ + xpnn x <
x1
p
+ + xpnn + p1n
x1 , . . . , xn {0, 1, . . . , p 1}. (2.7)
[ xp1 + + xpnn , xp1 + + xpnn + p1n ), p1n , p

k
[ xp1 + + xpnn + pn+1
, xp1 + + xpnn + pk+1
n+1 ) k = 0, 1, . . . , p 1,
1
pn+1 . x
k
x < xp1 + + xpnn + pk+1
xp1 + + xpnn + pn+1
n+1
n+1
n
n+1
n
kp
x p x1 pxn < k + 1 k = [p
x p x1 pxn ]. (2.7)
0 pn+1 x pn x1 pxn < p, pn+1 x pn x1
pxn 0, 1, . . . , p 1.
xn+1 = [pn+1 x pn x1 pxn ]
xn+1
x1
p + + pn+1
x<
xn+1
x1
1
p + + pn+1 + pn+1
x1 , . . . , xn+1 {0, 1, . . . , p1}.
, , x [0, 1) : (xn ),
(sn ) (tn ). n :
sn =
x1
p
+ +
xn
pn ,
tn =
x1
p
+ +
xn
pn
1
pn .
, n, xn 0, 1, . . . , p 1
sn x < tn
(2.8)
n. ,
[sn , tn ) [sn+1 , tn+1 ). , (sn ) (tn )
. :
(
) ( n+1
)
1
1
n+1
sn+1 = sn + xpn+1
sn , tn+1 = tn p1n + xpn+1
+ pn+1
tn p1n + pp1
n+1 + pn+1 = tn .
, (sn ) (tn ) . ,
tn sn =
1
pn
0,
(sn ), (tn ) . ; (2.8)

sn x,
tn x.
51
(xn ) : p 1.
( ) n0 xn = p 1
n n0 . n n0
) ( n+1
)
(
1
1
tn+1 = tn p1n + xpn+1
+ pn+1
= tn p1n + pp1
n+1 + pn+1 = tn .
(tn ) , tn x, tn = x.
(2.8).
. (xn ) p- x.
(sn ) p- ( ) x (tn ) p- x.
:
p = 2 0, 1,
p = 3 0, 1, 2,
p = 10 0, 1, . . . , 9
p = 16 0, 1, . . . , 14, 15.
p- 8.
.
( 2n n! )
( n )
2.4.1. nn 4nnn! .
2.4.2. 2.4.2, n 4 1 + 1!1 + 2!1 +
1
1
1
1
1
1
32
35
3! xn 1 + 1! + 2! + 3! + 23 + + 2n1 2 < 12 e 12 < 3.
2.4.3. 22 k, (1 + nk )n ek ( n +, )
k N.
(1 + nk )n ek k Z.
(
)
2.4.4. 23 (1 + n1 )n , , : )n+1
( 2 +2n )n+1
(
1 n+1
n
= n2n+2n+1
(1 + n1 )n (1 + n+1
)
n+1
n(n+2)
(n+1)2
Bernoulli.
(
)
(1 + n1 )n+1 .
,
, e.
k+1 k+1
k
k = 1, 2, . . . , n 1
( k+1
k ) e ( k )
n
n+1
n
n
n1
n! e
n! n.
n
24 nn! 1e 25 n n! +.
2.4.5. 1 + 12 + + n1 log2 n + 1 n,
2.4.4.
2.4.6. (an ) (bn ) an = 1 + 12 + + n1 log(n + 1) bn =
1 + 12 + + n1 log n n. (an ) , (bn )
.26
22
2.5.3.
e.
24
7.3.19.
25
2.3.41 , , 8.3.7.
26
Euler .
6.4.11 7.3.20.
23
52
2.4.7.

2.4.2 ) 2.4.3 , t > 0,
(
(
2
n)
1 + 1!t + t2! + + tn! (1 + nt )n .27
2.4.8. [] x1 = 1 xn+1 = xn + xn1 2 n.
(xn ) .
[] x1 > 0 xn+1 = 2xn n. ,

x1 , (xn ) .
[] 7xn+1 = xn 3 + 6 n. , x1 ,
(xn ) .
n
[] x1 > 0 xn+1 = 6+6x
7+xn n. ,
x1 , (xn ) .
[] xn+1 = 2 x1n n. x1 = 1, (xn )
. x1 > 1, (xn ) . x1 < 1
x1 6= k1
k k N, (xn )
. x1 = k1
k k N;
[] x1 , x2 > 0 xn+2 = xn+1 + 2xn n.
( xxn+1
) .
n
[] xn+1 = sin xn n. (xn )
, , .
2.4.9. 28 [] a > 1, (an ) ,
an+1 = aan , an +. 0 < a < 1.
n
[] a > 1 k N, ( na k ) , an+1
(n+1)k
an
nk
+.
n
[] a > 1, ( a) , ( )2
2n a = n a, n a 1. a = 1, 0 < a < 1;
[] ( n n)
n n 1.

n
a
= a (n+1)
k nk ,
[] ( an! ) ,
an
n!
an+1
(n+1)!
an a
n! n+1 ,
0.
)
(
2.4.10. 29 (xn ), (yn ) xn 1, yn + ( xn yn) (i)
c [0, +] (ii) . xn yn
c [, 0);
(
)
(xn ), (yn ) xn 1, yn ( xn)yn (i)
c [0, +] (ii) . xn yn c [, 0);
1
1
1
1
2.4.11. [] b , b+1
+ b+2
+ b+3
+ + b+n
+.
[]30 (1 + a1 ) (1 + an ) 1 + a1 + + an ,
a1 , . . . , an 0, (1 a1 ) (1 an ) 1 a1 an , 0 a1 , . . . , an 1.
b , limn+ (a+1)(a+2)(a+n)
(b+1)(b+2)(b+n) , a = b, a > b, a < b.
[] xn > 0 n.
)
(
1
c, xn 0.
c < 0 n xxn+1
n
( xn+1
)
c > 0 n xn 1 c, xn +.
27
2.5.5.
2.3.19 2.3.22 2.3.25.
29
. 2.3.30.
30
(1 + a)n 1 + na Bernoulli a 0
1 a 0, .
28
53
)
1 c, xn 0.
)
c > 0
1 c, xn +.

2.10.
c < 0 n
( xn+1
( xn
n xxn+1
n

2.10;
(2n)!
4n (n!)2
en n!
nn
+.
2.4.12. 31 y 0 k N, k 2. (xn ) x1 > 0

y
1
xn+1 = k1
k xn + k xn k1 n.
xn > 0 n.
, Bernoulli, xn k y n 2
, , xn+1 xn n 2.
(xn ) , x = limn+ xn , xk = y x 0.
n+2
2.4.13. xn+1 xn +x
n.32
2
, , (xn ) . (xn xn+1 )
xn xn+1 0. (xn ) . (xn ) .
(xn ) , , , .
2.4.14. 0 < a b.
n
x1 = a y1 = b xn+1 = xn yn yn+1 = xn +y
n,
2
(xn ) , (yn ) , xn yn n (xn ), (yn )
, GA (a, b).33
n zn
zn+1 = wn zn n,
w1 = a z1 = b wn+1 = w2wn +z
n
(wn ) , (zn ) , wn zn n (wn ), (zn )
, HG (a, b).34
a,
b, HG (a, b), GA (a, b)
2ab
, G (a, b) = ab A (a, b) = a+b
H (a, b) = a+b
2 ;
2
2.4.15. xn = 135(2n1)
246(2n) n. (nxn )
)
(
(n + 12 )xn 2 .
.
2.4.16. [] f : [a, b] R [a, b]. f (a) > a f (b) < b,

(a, b) f () = .
[] I f : I R x I > 0
f (x0 ) f (x) f (x00 ) x0 , x00 (x , x + ) I x0 < x < x00 . f
I.
2.4.17. . , supremum.35
. 21n 0.
, - A.
x1 A y1 A. [x1 , y1 ] A
1
1
A. x1 +y
A, x2 = x1 , y2 = x1 +y
2
2 , ,
x1 +y1
x2 = 2 , y2 = y1 . [x2 , y2 ] A
31
1.2.
(xn ) . n, .
33
GA (a, b) - a, b.
34
HG (a, b) - a, b.
35
supremum : .
32
54
A. ,
x1
[x1 , y1 ], [x2 , y2 ], . . . [xn+1 , yn+1 ] [xn , yn ] yn xn = y21n1
n
[xn , yn ] an A un A.
u xn u, yn u , , an u, un u. u
A.
2.4.18. 36 I, .
( ) (an ) I = {an | n N}.
[x1 , y1 ] I y1 x1 > 0 a1
/ [x1 , y1 ]. [x2 , y2 ] [x1 , y1 ]
y2 x2 > 0 a2
/ [x2 , y2 ]. ,
[x1 , y1 ], [x2 , y2 ], . . . [xn+1 , yn+1 ] [xn , yn ] an
/
[xn , yn ] n. [xn , yn ] , , 6= an
n. I .
2.4.19. 37 1 , n 2, 2n
2n .
pn qn , , .
p2 = 4 2 q2 = 8
(
(
(
(
2 )1/2 )1/2
2 )1/2 )1
pn+1 = 2pn 2 + 4 p4nn
qn+1 = 4qn 2 + 4 + q4nn
n 2.
(
pn 2 )1/2
qn = pn 1 4n+1
n 2.
(pn ) , (qn ) pn < qn n 2.
(pn ), (qn ) .38
2.4.20. 39 x (rn ) rn x.
, p- x 2.3.32.
.
y > 1 x . (rn )
rn x (y rn ) . (rn ) rn x (y rn ) .
y x = limn+ y rn (rn ) rn x.
y x = limn+ y rn ( ) (rn ) rn x.
y > 1 x . y x = limn+ y rn (
) (rn ) rn x.
0 y 1 x . y x ( 1.4).
1.8 .
2.4.21. 40 y > 0.
(
)
n( n y 1) .
.
log y = limn+ n( n y 1).

A, R,
a : N A A. an = a(n),
A A = {an | n N} , , A
. A , .
37
.
38

, , , 2,
. , pn 2 qn n 2. pn 2 qn 2.
39
.
40
.
36
55
log y = limn+ y xn1 (xn ) xn 0 xn 6= 0

n.
2.13 ( []) .
log y
a > 0, a 6= 1 y > 0. loga y = log
a 1.9.
xn
2.5 .
. (xn ). n1 , n2 , n3 , . . . , nk , . . .
n n1 < n2 < < nk < nk+1 < .

(xn ). x1 , x2 , . . . , xn , . . . xn1 , xn2 , . . . , xnk , . . . .
: xn1 ,
xn2 . ,
(xnk ). , (xnk )
(xn ).
, n1 < n2 < < nk < nk+1 < ,

.
2.5.1. n1 = 2, n2 = 5, n3 = 6, n4 = 9, n5 = 13,
(xn ) x2 , x5 , x6 , x9 , x13 .
, n1 = 2, n2 = 5, n3 = 6, n4 = 10, n5 = 8
(xn ). x2 , x5 , x6 , x10 , x8
(xn ) : x10 x8 (xn ) ( x9 )
x10 x8 .
.
2.5.2. nk = 2k k,
(xn ), (x2k ) (x2 , x4 , x6 , x8 , x10 , . . . ).
2.5.3. nk = 2k 1 k,
(xn ), (x2k1 ) (x1 , x3 , x5 , x7 , x9 , . . . ).
2.5.4. nk = k k,
(xk ) (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 , . . . ). (xn ) (xn ).
2.5.5. nk = 2k1 k, (x2k1 )
(x1 , x2 , x4 , x8 , x16 , . . . ).
(xnk ) k. k 1, 2, 3, . . . , nk
(xn ).
, (xn )
(xn ). , ,
(xn ) (xn ). ,
(xn ), (xn ) . (xn )
n1 . , xn1 , (xn )
n2 . ,
xn1 xn2 , (xn )
n3 . (xnk )
(xn ) (xn ) .
2.2. nk N nk < nk+1 k. nk k k.
56
. n1 1 n1 N. nk k k.
nk+1 > nk nk , nk+1 N, nk+1 nk + 1 , , nk+1 k + 1.
nk k k.
2.2
nk +.
2.14. , .
. xn x R (xnk ) (xn ). xnk x.
> 0. n0 xn Nx () n n0 .
nk +. k nk n0 , , xnk Nx ().
xnk x.
2.14 , , :
, .41
2.5.6. ((1)n1 ) .
, (1)(2k1)1 = 1 1
(1)(2k)1 = 1 1.
2.15 .
2.15. x R x2k x x2k1 x. xn x.
. > 0. x2k x, xn Nx ()
n n0 . , x2k1 x,
xn Nx () n n00 .
xn Nx () n ( n0 n00 ) .
xn x.
2.5.7. 42
(

1 12 + 13
1
4
+ + (1)n1 n1
xn = 1 12 + 13 41 + + (1)n1 n1 n.
1
1
x2k+2 x2k = 2k+1
2k+2
> 0 k. ,
1
x2k = 1 ( 21 13 ) ( 14 15 ) ( 2k2
1
2k1 )
1
2k
<1
k, . (x2k )
, , .
1
1
, x2k+1 x2k1 = 2k
+ 2k+1
< 0 k. ,
1
x2k1 = (1 21 ) + ( 31 14 ) + + ( 2k3
1
2k2 )
1
2k1
>0
k, . (x2k1 ) , , .
,
1
x2k x2k1 = 2k
0,
(x2k ), (x2k1 ) . (xn ) .
x (xn ), :
x2 < x4 < . . . < x2n < x2n+2 < . . . < x < . . . < x2n+1 < x2n1 < . . . < x3 < x1 .
41
42
. 2.5.15.
2.6.3 6.4.11 8.3.9.
57
(x2n ) x , , (x2n1 )
x. , , [x2 , x1 ],
[x4 , x3 ], [x6 , x5 ], . . . x .
. .
, ((1)n1 ) . , ((1)n1 ),
, :
1
1. ((1)n1 )
. ,
.
BOLZANO - WEIERSTRASS.
.
. 43 (xn ) l, u l xn u n.
(xn ) ,
: ,
, .
l+u
[l, u] [l, l+u
2 ], [ 2 , u]. ()
(xn ) [l, u],
(xn ). [l1 , u1 ]. [l1 , u1 ] [l, u],
u1 l1 = ul
2 [l1 , u1 ] (xn ). (xn )
( ) [l1 , u1 ]: xn1 [l1 , u1 ].
l1 +u1
1
[l1 , u1 ] [l1 , l1 +u
2 ], [ 2 , u1 ]. [l1 , u1 ] (xn ),
(xn ). [l2 , u2 ] (
). [l2 , u2 ] [l1 , u1 ], u2 l2 = u1 2l1 [l2 , u2 ]
(xn ). (xn ) ( ) [l2 , u2 ]:
xn2 [l2 , u2 ]. , , n2 > n1 . ,
(xn ) [l2 , u2 ].
l2 +u2
2
[l2 , u2 ] [l2 , l2 +u
2 ], [ 2 , u2 ]. [l2 , u2 ] (xn ),
(xn ). [l3 , u3 ]. [l3 , u3 ] [l2 , u2 ],
u3 l3 = u2 2l2 [l3 , u3 ] (xn ).
(xn ) ( ) [l3 , u3 ]: xn3 [l3 , u3 ]. ,
, n3 > n2 .
.
, , [lk , uk ] k
[lk+1 , uk+1 ] [lk , uk ],
uk+1 lk+1 =
uk lk
2
k. , xnk (xn ) k
xnk [lk , uk ]
nk+1 > nk ,
k.
uk+1 lk+1 =
k,
uk lk
2
k uk lk =
uk lk 0.
43
2.5.9.
58
ul
2k
, (lk ), (uk )
. lk x uk x. nk+1 > nk k, (xnk ) (xn ) , lk xnk uk k, xnk x.
+ . . (1, 0, 3, 0, 5, 0, 7, . . . ) +.
, , +,
+: ,
(1, 3, 5, 7, . . . ). .
2.16. [] +.
[]
.
. 44 [] (xn ) .
u (xn ) > u. 45
( ) u (xn )
> u. (xn ) n0
(, u]. (xn ) (, u]
x1 , . . . , xn0 1 . ,
, , (, u] (, u0 ]
(xn ). (xn ) . .
(xn ) +,
.
(xn ) > 1. : xn1 > 1.
(xn ) > 2. : xn2 > 2.
, , n2 > n1 . > 2.
(xn ) > 3. : xn3 > 3
n3 > n 2 .
.
xnk (xn ) nk+1 > nk xnk > k
k. (xnk ) (xn ) xnk +.
[] .
.
2.5.1. a 0. ex ,
r, s Q r < x < s ex < er < es < ex + . ,
ex < (1 + nr )n < (1 + nx )n < (1 + ns )n < ex + (1 + nx )n ex .
44
2.5.9.
2.4[]
2.4[].
45
59
2.5.4. (xn ) (xnk ) xnk x R,

xn x.
(xn ) (xnk ) xnk x R,
xn x.
46 xn = 1 + 21 + 13 + + n1 n. 2.4.4
x2n xn 21 n. x2k k2 + 1 k ,
, xn +.
(
2.5.5. 2.4.7, , t 0, 1 + 1!t +
)
)
(
t2
tn
t n
.
2! + + n! (1 + n )
2.5.6. [] x1 > 0 xn+1 = 1 + x2n n.
(x2k ), (x2k1 ) . (xn )
.
3
[] x1 > 0 xn+1 = 1 + 1+x
n.
n
(x2k ), (x2k1 ) . (xn )
.
[] 0 < p < 1 xn+2 = (1 p)xn+1 + pxn n.
(x2k ), (x2k1 ) . (xn ) .
xn n, yn = xn+1 xn
n. (xn ).
2.5.7. a, b, x R a 6= b. x2k a x2k1 b (xnk ) xnk x. (xnk ) (x2k )
(x2k1 ). (xnk ) (x2k )
(x2k1 ); x = a x = b.
2.5.8. [] x R x3k x x3k1 x x3k2 x. 2.15, xn x. .
a, b, c, x R, a 6= b, a 6= c, b 6= c. x3k a x3k1 b x3k2 c
(xnk ) xnk x. x = a x = b x = c.
[] N (xn ). N,
. , (xn ) .
N .
.
n N n = 2m1 k m N k N. N
: A(m) = {2m1 k | k } m N.
A(1) , A(2) , A(3) . ,
xn = k1 n = 2m1 k m N k N.
(m)
(xn ) : (xk )+
k=1 m N, ,
(m)
1
m N, xk = k k N. ,
0. (xn ) 0, (x2m1 3 )+
m=1 .
2.5.9. (xn ). xn -
m > n xm > xn .47
46
2.4.4. 2.6.2 7.3.20 8.2.7, 8.2.10 8.3.1 2.4.6 6.4.11.

47
xn xm +.
60
(xn ) -,
(xn ). (xn ) -, , , .
.
Bolzano - Weierstrass 2.16.
2.5.10. (xn ) n
(xnk ) k.
2.5.11. 48 , .
2.5.12. (xn ) x R
(xn ) x.
: (xn ) (xn )
.
2.5.13. xn < x n. sup{xn | n N} = x
(xn ) x.
( n1 ). sup{ n1 | n N} = 1. , ( n1 )
0, ( n1 ), 1. ;
2.5.14. (xn ) (xnk ).
(xnk ) (xn ).
2.5.15. (xn ) ,
. 2.14.
(xn ) , l, u u < l xn u
n xn l n. 2.5[].
2.5.16. [] xn x xn 6= x n. (xn )
.
[] (rn ) , rn = pqnn
pn Z qn N n. qn +.
[] x (rn ) rn x rn = pqnn pn Z
qn N n. qn + pn x(+).
2.6 .
. (xn ) Cauchy > 0 n0
|xn xm | < n, m n0 . :
limn,m+ (xn xm ) = 0.
: (xn ) Cauchy
.
2.17. (xn ) , Cauchy.
48
2.1.9.
61
. xn x. > 0. n0 |xn x| <

n n0 . , n m, |xm x| <
m n0 .
|xn xm | = |(xn x) (xm x)| |xn x| + |xm x| <

2

2

2

2
=
n, m n0 .
(xn ) Cauchy.
Cauchy 2.17.
CAUCHY. (xn ) Cauchy, .
. 49 (xn ) Cauchy.
n0 |xn xm | < 1 n, m n0 . (
m = n0 ), n n0 |xn xn0 | < 1,
|xn | = |(xn xn0 ) + xn0 | |xn xn0 | + |xn0 | < 1 + |xn0 |.
, M = 1 + |xn0 |, (xn )
[M, M ], (xn ) .
(xn ) , , Bolzano - Weierstrass, (xnk ) .
xnk x.
xn x.
> 0. n0
|xn xm | <

2
n, m n0 .
n n0 , , .
nk +, nk n0 , ,
|xn xnk | < 2 .
(2.9)
, xnk x,
|xnk x| < 2 .
(2.10)
(2.9) (2.10).
k (2.9) (2.10) k
|xn x| = |(xn xnk ) + (xnk x)| |xn xnk | + |xnk x| <

2

2
= .
|xn x| < n n0 , xn x.
Cauchy
2.1. (xn )
x (xn ), |xn x|
x, |xn xm | . , ,
Cauchy Cauchy.
49
2.6.6, 2.6.7 2.7.14.
62
2.6.1. (xn ) xn = 1 + 212 + 312 + + n12 n.

, ( 2.4.5.50 ) (xn ) .
m > n.
|xn xm | =
<
=
1
1
1
1
+ (n+2)
2 + + (m1)2 + m2
(n+1)2
1
1
1
1
n(n+1) + (n+1)(n+2) + + (m2)(m1) + (m1)m
1
1
1
1
1
1
( n1 n+1
) + ( n+1
n+2
) + + ( m2
m1
) + ( m1
1
m)
1
n
1
m
< n1 .
, > 0. n0 n10 < . m > n n0

|xn xm | < n1 n10 < .
(xn ) Cauchy , , .
Cauchy R.
. Cauchy .
Bolzano - Weierstrass, , , supremum.
.
2.6.1. (xn ), (yn ) Cauchy. , , (xn +yn ),
(xn yn ) Cauchy.
2.6.2. 51 xn = 1 + 12 + + n1 n, 2.4.4
x2n xn 12 n. (xn ) Cauchy; xn +.
2.6.3. 52 xn = 1
1
2
1
3
1
4
(1)n1
n.
n
(1)mn1
1
+
n+1
m
+ +
1
1
n+2
+
|xn xm | = n+1
n < m. (xn ) Cauchy .
n, m
2.6.4. [] 0 M < 1 |xn xn+1 | cM n .

Mn
n0 |xn xm | c 1M
n, m n0 n < m. (xn )
Mn
Cauchy. x (xn ), |xn x| c 1M
.
[] 0 M < 1 |xn+1 xn+2 | M |xn xn+1 |.53
(xn ) Cauchy. x (xn ), c 0
Mn
|xn x| c 1M
.
3
[] x1 > 0 xn+1 = 1 + 1+x
n. (xn )
n
. n- xn
.
[] || < 1 xn+1 = a + sin xn n. (xn )
. n- xn
.
2.6.5. . , , supremum.54
50
8.2.7 8.2.10 6.4.11, 7.3.20 8.2.1.

2.4.4. 2.5.4 7.3.20
8.2.7, 8.2.10 8.3.1 2.4.6 6.4.11.
52
2.5.7. 6.4.11 8.3.9.
53
(xn ) . 0 M 1, .
54
supremum .
51
63
2.4.17 .
, . 21n 0 , ,
(xn ), (yn ) Cauchy. -
.
2.6.6. 55 Cauchy (xn ).
[a1 , b1 ] b1 a1 < 1 xn [a1 , b1 ]. [a2 , b2 ] [a1 , b1 ] b2 a2 < 12 xn [a2 , b2 ].
, [ak , bk ]
k [ak+1 , bk+1 ] [ak , bk ] bk ak < k1 k
xn [ak , bk ] k. x x [ak , bk ]
k , , xn x.
2.6.7. 56 Cauchy (xn ).
ln = inf{xk | k n} un = sup{xk | k n} n
ln un ln ln+1 un+1 un n. un ln 0
x ln x un x. ln xn un n,
xn x.
2.7 .
. (xn ) x R. x
(xn ) (xn ) x.
2.7.1. (xn ) , ,
. , ( n1 )
0 (n) .
2.7.2. (xn ) xn = (1)n1 n , 1 1. (x2k ) 1 (x2k1 )
1.
x (xn ).
(xnk ) (xn ) x.
(x2k ) (x2k1 ) (xn ), (xnk )
(x2k ) (x2k1 ).
(xnk ) (x2k ), (xnk ) (x2k ) , (xnk ), x ,
(x2k ), 1 , , x = 1.
, (xnk ) (x2k1 ), x = 1.
, x (xn ), x = 1 x = 1.
(xn ) 1 1.
)
(
n1
2.7.3. , (1) 2 +1 n
0 +.
Bolzano - Weierstrass 2.16,
: , , ,
. -.
55
56
Cauchy.
Cauchy.
64
2.2. .
. : (xn ) .
+ (xn ) , , (xn ).
: (xn ) .
, , (xn ).
: (xn ) 6= .
(xn ) , u xn u n.
(xn ) , ,
(xn ) u. (xn ) 6= u. L
(xn ),
L = {x R | x (xn ) }.
- R. L supremum
x = sup L.
x (xn ). x
L, L , ,
(xn ).
> 0. x = sup L, x L x < x x , ,
x < x < x + . x L, (xn ) x.
(x , x + ) , ,
(xn ) (x , x + ).
= 1, 12 , 13 , . . . .
(xn ) (x 1, x + 1), ,
xn1 ,
x 1 < xn1 < x + 1.
(xn ) (x 12 , x + 12 ), ,
xn2 ,
x 12 < xn2 < x + 12
n2 > n1 .
(xn ) (x 13 , x + 13 ), ,
xn3 ,
x 13 < xn3 < x + 13
n3 > n2 .
, (xnk ) (xn )

x k1 < xnk < x + k1
k
, ,
xnk x.
x , , (xn ).
, (xn )
.
(xn ) .
65
. 57 (xn )
(xn )
lim sup xn
lim sup xn
lim xn .
n+
(xn ) (xn )

lim inf xn lim inf xn lim xn .
n+
2.18. [] lim xn :
(i) lim xn < x, xn < x.
(ii) x < lim xn , x < xn n.
[] lim xn :
(i) x < lim xn , x < xn .
(ii) lim xn < x, xn < x n.
. [] (i) lim xn < x xn < x.
(xn ) x. (xn )
x.
, , (xn ) x .
x, (xn ) x.
, lim xn < x lim xn (xn ).
(ii) x < lim xn . lim xn (xn ), (xn ) lim xn . > x,
(xn ) > x.
[] .
. , , ,
.
2.19. (xn ).
[] lim xn lim xn .
[] (xn ) lim xn = lim xn . , (xn ) ,
lim xn = lim xn = lim xn .
. [] , lim xn lim xn
(xn ).
[] (xn ) .
lim xn , ,
(xn ). lim xn = lim xn = lim xn . ( 2.7.1.)
, lim xn = lim xn .
lim xn = lim xn = +, (i) 2.18[] x
x < xn , , lim xn = +.
lim xn = lim xn = , (i) 2.18[] x
xn < x , , lim xn = .
, lim xn = lim xn = x R. (i) 2.18[]
> 0 xn < x + (i) 2.18[]
> 0 x < xn . > 0 x < xn < x + .
lim xn = x.
57
2.7.15
.
66
.
2.7.1. a < b < c (a, b, a, b, a, b, a, b, . . . ) (a, b, c, a, b, c, a, b, c, . . . ).
lim lim .
(
n1 )
2.7.2. , , lim, lim : ( n+1
), ((2)n ), 2(1) n ,
n
(
) (
)
(1)n1 (1 n1 ) , 2n3[n/3] .
2.7.3. lim xn = + (xn ) .
lim xn = xn .
lim xn ;
2.7.4. lim xn = lim(xn ).
2.7.5. xn yn , lim xn lim yn lim xn lim yn .
2.7.6. an bn cn . lim cn lim an ,
(an ), (bn ), (cn ) .
2.7.7. lim xn + lim yn lim(xn + yn ) lim(xn + yn ) lim xn + lim yn
.
lim xn lim yn lim(xn yn ) lim(xn yn ) lim xn lim yn xn > 0
yn > 0 .
t > 0, lim(txn ) = t lim xn lim(txn ) = t lim xn . t < 0;
2.7.8. (yn ) ,
lim(xn + yn ) = lim xn + lim yn lim(xn + yn ) = lim xn + lim yn .
xn , yn > 0, (yn )
, lim(xn yn ) = lim xn lim yn lim(xn yn ) = lim xn lim yn .
2.7.9. m N, (xn ), (xn+m ) .
2.7.10. (xnk ) (xn ).
2.5.14 (xnk ) (xn ).
lim xn lim xnk lim xnk lim xn .
2.7.11. [] x R (xn )
> 0 xn Nx () n.
[] X R (xn ). (yn )
X yn y R, y X.
a 0 n, lim xn lim n x1 xn lim n x1 xn

lim xn .
n
[] yn > 0 n y1 + + yn +, lim xynn lim xy11 ++x
++yn
xn
n
lim xy11 ++x
++yn lim yn .
67
2.7.14. 58 Cauchy (xn ).

x = lim xn R x = lim xn R. Cauchy
(xn ) , x, x R. x < x. l, u x < l u n. xn xm > u l
n, m. . x = x, (xn ) .
2.7.15. (xn ). un = sup{xk | k n}, ln = inf{xk | k n} n.
ln un n.
(xn ) , un = + n.
(xn ) , un R un+1 un n,
(un ) [, +). un lim xn .59
(xn ) , ln = n.
(xn ) , ln R ln ln+1 n,
(ln ) (, +]. ln lim xn .60
2.7.16. 2.18. lim xn x
: (i) x < x, xn < x (ii) x < lim xn ,
x < xn n. lim xn .
2.7.17. (xn ) : xn+1 xn 0. ,
+ (1 + 21 + + n1 ).
x = lim xn x = lim xn , (xn )
[x, x] R.
(0, 1, 12 , 0, 13 , 32 , 1, 34 , 42 , 14 , 0, 15 , 25 , 53 , 45 , 1, 65 , 46 , 63 , 26 , 16 , 0, . . . ). ;
(xn ) xn+1 xn 0
R.
2.7.18. []61 a > 0. (xn ) xn = na [na] n.
(xn ) [0, 1].
[] a > 0. (xn ) xn = sin(na) n.
(xn ) [1, 1].
58
Cauchy.
: lim xn = +, (xn )
, lim xn = lim un , (xn ) .
60
: lim xn = , (xn )
, lim xn = lim ln , (xn ) .
61
2.3.16.
59
68
.
3.1 , .
.
f
R.
f : A R,
A R f . f (x) f
, f (x) y = f (x) ,
x f (x). A
f (x) x A f (x)
A.
3.1.1. c (, +)
{c}.
1 0.
3.1.2.
xa .
a N, xa (, +). a , xa
(, +) (, +). a ,
xa (, 0] [0, +)
[0, +) [0, +).
a Z \ N, xa (, 0) (0, +). a = 0, x0
1 (, 0) (0, +) {1}. a , xa (, 0) (, 0)
(0, +) (0, +). a
, xa (, 0) (0, +)
(0, +) (0, +).
: x0 (, 0) (0, +) 1
(, +). x = 0, 1.
x = 0 x0 .
a R \ Z a > 0, xa [0, +). xa
[0, +) [0, +).
, a R \ Z a < 0, xa (0, +). xa
(0, +) (0, +).
69
3.1.3.
P (x) = a0 + a1 x + + an xn
R.

R(x) =
a0 +a1 x++an xn
b0 +b1 x++bm xm
R\{1 , . . . , k }, 1 , . . . , k
b0 +b1 x+ +bm xm . , , 1 < 2 < . . . < k1 < k ,
(, 1 ) (1 , 2 ) . . . (k1 , k ) (k , +).
3.1.4.
ax
expa x.
a = e, exp x expe x.
a > 1, ax (, +) (0, +).
0 < a < 1, ax (, +) (0, +).
a = 1, ax 1 (, +). a = 0, ax 0 (0, +).
, a < 0, ax Z. ,
a = 1 a 0, x.
3.1.5.
loga x.
a = e, log x ln x loge x.
a > 1, loga x (0, +) (, +).
0 < a < 1, loga x (0, +) (, +).
a > 0, a 6= 1, y = ax x = loga y . ,
x (, +) y (0, +) y = ax x = loga y.
3.1.6.
x > 0
1,
sign x = 0,
x = 0
1, x < 0
x
sign x R, |x|
R \ {0}.
, x 6= 0, .
3.1.7.
[x]
R ( ) R. n Z,
[x] = n [n, n + 1).
3.1.8. , .
cos x,
sin x,
tan x =
sin x
cos x ,
cot x =
cos x
sin x
R , R \ { 2 + k | k Z} R \ {k | k Z}
.
70
.

10.4 .
.

. .
cos x sin x [0, 2] :
cos 0 = 1,
sin 0 = 0,
cos 2 = 0,
sin
= 1,
cos = 1,
sin = 0,
cos 3
2 = 0,
sin
3
2
= 1,
cos 2 = 1,
sin 2 = 0.

cos(x + y) = cos x cos y sin x sin y,
sin(x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y
x, y
(cos x)2 + (sin x)2 = 1
x.
| sin x| 1,
| cos x| 1
x.
cos(x + 2) = cos x,
sin(x + 2) = sin x
x. cos x sin x 2.
k . cos x ( 2 + 2k, 2 + 2k)
( 2 +2k, 3
2 +2k) sin x (2k, +2k)
( + 2k, 2 + 2k). , cos x
(2k, + 2k) ( + 2k, 2 + 2k) sin x
( 2 + 2k, 2 + 2k)
( 2 + 2k, 3
2 + 2k).
tan x cot x k . tan x
( 2 + k, k) (k, 2 + k) cot x
(k, 2 + k) ( 2 + k, + k). ,
tan x ( 2 + k, 2 + k) cot x
(k, + k).

| sin x| |x|
|x| | tan x|
x,
|x| < 2 .
-
,
. 10.4 , , ,
.
.
2.2 R. R > 0,
N () = ( , + ).
71
= > 0,
N () = [, 1 ),
N+ () = ( 1 , +].
N () - .
. R A > 0
x A N () x 6= .
, R A
A . , ,
R A
A . , , R A
A .
: (i) R A > 0
x A 0 < |x | < , (ii) + A N > 0
x A x > N (iii) A N > 0
x A x < N .
: (i) R A > 0, ,
A ( , ) (, + ), (ii) +
A N > 0, , A (N, +) (iii)
A N > 0, ,
A (, N ).
. A. A
A , , > 0 A
N () , A ( , + ) = {}.
3.1.9. a < b. [a, b], a b,

(a, b). ,
/ [a, b]
(a, b). , (a, b)
[a, b].
, (a, b], [a, b), [a, b]
[a, b].
3.1.10. (a, +), [a, +)
[a, +]. , a + (a, +), [a, +). , (, b),
(, b] [, b]. , (, +)
[, +].
3.1.11. a < b. {a, b} . , {a, b} .
3.1.12. a 0,
N () = ( , ],
N+ () = [, + )
- - , .
72
: N () N+ () = N () N () N+ () = {}.
- -.
. R A
> 0 x AN () x 6= , , x A < x < .
R A > 0
x A N+ () x 6= , , x A < x < + .
, () A
A () . ,
, () A
() A.
:
R A
A.
3.1.15. (a, b] (a, b)
[a, b) (a, b). (a, b)
(a, b).
3.1.16. b (a, b)
(b, c). b
(a, b) (b, c).
3.1.17. 0 { n1 | n N}
{ n1 | n N}. , 0
{ n1 | n N} { n1 | n N}.
x
A, A x A
x A. f (x) > 0 f (x) 6= 7,
f : A R .
x A f . x
A f x A .
3.1.18.

1
x
1 .
x
> 2 (0, +),
(0, 41 ) [ 41 , +).
. A R
A. > 0
x A N () x 6= .
3.1.19. , 1x > 2
(0, +) 0. , M > 0
, 1x > M 0.
3.1.20. > 0, 0 <
( 1 , +).
1
x
< +,
1
3.1.21. M > 0, |x|
> M 0,
1
1
( M , 0) (0, M ). , x1 > M 0.
. A R
A. > 0
x A N () x 6= .
73
:
, .
.
3.1.22. sin x > 0 R + R. +,
x = 2 + 2k k Z. , , sin x 0
+, x = 2 + 2k k Z.
sin x > 0 +.
A , ,
A R A.

, , , , , .
, 0 > 0 x A N ( 0 ) x 6=
00 > 0 x A N ( 00 ) x 6= .
= min{ 0 , 00 } > 0,
0 00 . N () N ( 0 ) N () N ( 00 ).
x A N () x 6= .
.
. A.
R A.
> 0
x A ( , ).

> 0 x A ( , ).
R A.
> 0
x A (, + ).
> 0
x A (, + ).

()
() .
3.1.23. 3.1.21. 0
1
(, 0) (0, +). |x|
> M 0 ,
, 0 0 . ,
x1 > M 0 0
, , 0.
3.1.24. 1x > M 3.1.19 0 ,
, 0 . 0
, 0 (0, +),
1x .
.
3.1.1. a 0 N () A.
3.1.4. R A B. A,
B.
3.1.5. R Q R \ Q.
(a, b) Q (a, b) \ Q.
3.1.6. - A. , sup A A,
A. , inf A.
- A sup A inf A .
3.1.7.
x+2
1
1
1
: x12 > 100, |x1|
> 1000, 100
< x+3
< 100
;
0, 1 .

: (1)[1/x] < 0, x [x] > 12 , sin x1 > 21 ;
0, +
0.
0, +, 0.
3.1.8. R A
(xn ) A xn xn 6= n.
R () A
(xn ) A xn xn > (xn < )
n.
A. A
(xn ) A .
3.1.9. A R A.
(xn ) A xn , xn 6= n xn
n.
()
(xn ) A xn , xn > (xn < )
n xn n.
3.2 .
, ,
.
. f : A R , R A.
f > 0 > 0 f (x) N ()

x A N () x 6= . : f > 0
f (x) N () .
:
f (x)
x
f (x) x
75
lim f (x) = .
,
, , , = .
f , f .
: f
f (x) x
.
limx f (x) = , f (x) N () x A N () x 6=
: f A (N () \ {})
N () , ,
(
)
f A (N () \ {}) N ().

:
[
[
]]
lim f (x) = > 0 > 0 x A (x N () x 6= ) f (x) N ()
x
, , ,
, .
1: R R.
f > 0 > 0 |f (x) | <
x A 0 < |x | < .
2: R = +.
f + M > 0 > 0 f (x) > M
x A 0 < |x | < .
3: R = .
f M > 0 > 0 f (x) < M
x A 0 < |x | < .
4: = + R.
f + > 0 N > 0 |f (x) | <
x A x > N .
5: = + = +.
f + + M > 0 N > 0 f (x) > M
x A x > N .
6: = + = .
f + M > 0 N > 0 f (x) < M
x A x > N .
7: = R.
f > 0 N > 0 |f (x) | <
x A x < N .
8: = = +.
f + M > 0 N > 0 f (x) > M
x A x < N .
9: = = .
f M > 0 N > 0 f (x) < M
x A x < N .
limx f (x) = ,
R, R.
- limx f (x) R
f . ,
76
, .
. ,
f (a, b], limx f (x)
[a, b]. , f
(a, b) (b, +), limx f (x)
[a, +]. , f (, b] {c} (d, e], b < c < d,
limx f (x) [, b] [d, e]
c, .
3.2.1.
.
(
)1/2
f (x) = x sin x1
.
A f x sin x1 0
(
]
[
A = , 1 +
n=1
1
1
2n , (2n+1)
+ [
n=1
1
1
(2n+1) , 2n
[1
, +
A 0 0 0. , 0 (
) A , , limx0 f (x).
0.
f ,
0 0 f .
- f 0 , , 0, 0,
f .

. limx f (x) = , R,
> 0 > 0 (
)
0 < |x | < () |f (x) | <
, ,
|f (x) | < () 0 < |x | < .
, , x
f .
|f (x) | <
0 < |x | < (, x)
:
.
x .
.
3.2.2. limx4 (3x + 2) = 14.
> 0. > 0 x 0 < |x 4| < |(3x + 2) 14| < .
77
|(3x + 2) 14| < |3x 12| < |x 4| < 3 .

:
|(3x + 2) 14| < |3x 12| < |x 4| < 3 .
, 0 < 3 , x 0 < |x 4| <
|x 4| < 3 , , |(3x + 2) 14| < . :
0 < |x 4| < |x 4| <
|3x 12| < |(3x + 2) 14| < .

3
.
x2 +1
x1 = 5.
2
+1
| xx1
5| <
3.2.3. limx2
> 0. > 0
x 6= 1 0 < |x 2| < .
x 6= 1, x
x2 +1
x1 .
|x2||x3|
|x1|
5x+6|
+1
<
< .
| xx1
5| < |x |x1|
x,

: |x2||x3|
|x1|
. , |x 1| x = 1,
0 < |x 2| < x 1.
: x 2, 1. ,
0 < 12 , 0 < |x 2| < |x 2| < 12 ,
1 2 1, |x 1| > 12 . ,
x 2, 3. ,
3 2 1, |x 2| < 12 |x 3| < 32 .
, 0 < 12 , 0 < |x 2| <
2
|x2||x3|
|x1|
<
|x2|(3/2)
1/2
= 3|x 2|.
:
0<
1
2
0 < |x 2| <
|x2||x3|
|x1|
< 3|x 2|.
(3.1)
|x 2| < 3 3|x 2| < . ,

0 < 3 , 0 < |x 2| < 3|x 2| < . :
0<

3
0 < |x 2| < 3|x 2| < .
(3.2)
, , > 0 12 3 ,
(3.1) (3.2) : 0 < |x 2| < |x2||x3|
< 3|x 2| (
|x1|
12 ) 3|x 2| < ( 3 ) , , |x2||x3|

< . :
|x1|
}
{
|x2||x3|
<
3|x
2|
|x1|
0 < min{ 21 , 3 } :
|x2||x3|
0 < |x 2| <
< .
|x1|
3|x 2| <
.
R =
( ).
3.2.4. c. R
lim c = c.
> 0. x |c c| = 0 < . ,
> 0 ( , = 1) x N () x 6=
|c c| = 0 < .
78
3.2.5. R,
lim x = .
> 0. > 0 x N () x 6= x N ().

, , 0 < N () N ().
, x N () x 6= x N ().
3.2.6.
limx+
1
x
= 0,
limx
1
x
= 0.
, > 0. N > 0 | x1 0| < x > N .

1
| x1 0| < |x|
< |x| > 1
x > 1 . , N 1 , x > N x > 1 ,
, | x1 0| < .
, > 0. N > 0 | x1 0| < x < N .
1
| x1 0| < |x|
< |x| > 1
x < 1 . , N 1 , x < N x < 1
, , | x1 0| < .
. f : A R, A R.
f > 0 > 0
f (x) N () x A N () x 6= . : f
> 0 f (x) N () .
:
f (x)
x
f (x) x
lim f (x) = .
f : A R, A R. f
> 0 > 0 f (x) N ()
x A N+ () x 6= . : f > 0
f (x) N () .
:
f (x)
x+
f (x) x +
lim f (x) = .
x+
: f () f (x)
x () .
- limx+ f (x)
f -
limx f (x) f .
, ,
.

.
3.2.7.
limx0 sign x = limx0
x
|x|
= 1,
limx0+ sign x = limx0+

79
x
|x|
= 1.
x

> 0. > 0 |x|
(1) < x < x < 0.
x

x
, x < 0, |x|
= 1, |x|
+ 1 = 0.
x

> 0 x < x < 0 |x|
+ 1 < .
x

> 0. > 0 |x|
1 < x 0 < x < .
x

x
, x > 0, |x|
= 1, |x|
1 = 0.

x
1 < .
> 0 x 0 < x < |x|
3.2.8.
limx0
1
x
= ,
limx0+
1
x
= +.
M > 0. > 0 x1 < M x < x < 0.

1
< x < 0. 0 <
x1 < M M
1
x < x < 0 M
< x < 0 , , x1 < M .
M > 0. > 0 x1 > M x 0 < x < .
1
x1 > M 0 < x < M
. 0 <
1
, , x1 > M .
x 0 < x < 0 < x < M
1
M
1
M
3.1. f : A R R A. f
f , , limx f (x) = limx f (x) =
limx+ f (x).
. limx f (x) = R.
> 0. f (x) N () . f (x) N ()
.
limx f (x) = limx+ f (x) = .
, limx f (x) = limx+ f (x) = R.
> 0. f (x) N ()
. f (x) N () .
limx f (x) = .
3.2.9. limx0 sign x = limx0
.
3.2.10. , limx0
1
x
x
|x|
, -
3.2. f : A R R.
[] A. f
f , ,
limx f (x) = limx+ f (x).
[] A. f
f , ,
limx f (x) = limx f (x).
. [] limx+ f (x) = R.
> 0. f (x) N () . f (x) N ()
.
limx f (x) = .
, limx f (x) = R.
> 0. f (x) N () , f (x) N ()
.
limx+ f (x) = .
[] .
80
2
3.2.11. x+|x|
(0, +) (0, +)
2
2
1
1
x+|x| x+x = x . , , limx0+ x = +, 2
= +. , 0
limx0+ x+|x|
2
2
(0, +) limx0 x+|x|
= limx0+ x+|x|
= +.
.
.
R limx f (x) = . x . (i) R, (x, f (x))
f (, ), x = . (ii) = +, (x, f (x)) ,
x = . (iii) ,
= , (x, f (x)) ,
x = . , (x, f (x))
x = , x .
, R limx f (x) = ,
x = f .
. limx+ f (x)
(x, f (x))
x = limx f (x) (x, f (x))
x = . :
. x =
f : limx f (x) = , limx f (x) = .

, R limx+ f (x) = . , x ,
(x, f (x)) f
y = . , limx f (x) = , , x , (x, f (x))
y = .
. R limx+ f (x) = limx f (x) = ,
y = + , ,
f .
. l y = x + ()
+ f , , limx (f (x) x ) = 0
limx+ (f (x) x ) = 0.
(x, f (x)) f
(x, x + ) l ( x )
, . : l +.
, ,
= 0.
, , .
.
3.2.1. limx0
1
x+|x| ,
limx1
1
3x2 +2x6
, limx0
x2 , limx3+ 18 2x2 ,
limx1 log(x2 1), limx (x + 2)6/4 ;

: .
81
limx+
.
1
sin x ,
limx0
1
sin(1/x) ,
limx+ log sin x, limx0 log sin x1 -
3.2.2. limx2 3x = 6, limx1 ( x1 + 1) = 2, limx1 x2 = 1,

3x
x
x3
1
2
limx1 (x1)
2 = +, limx2+ 2x = , limx 2x+1 = 2 , limx (3x + x) = +.
3.2.3. A B R A, , 3.1.4,
B. g : B R limx g(x) = R.
f : A R g A, f (x) = g(x) x A.
limx f (x) = .
3.2.4. 1 A B = R {
A B. f : A R
f (x), x A
g : B R, h : A B R h(x) =

g(x), x B
limx h(x) limx f (x), limx g(x) ,
, limx h(x) = limx f (x) = limx g(x).
3.2.5. 2 f : A R R A.
limx f (x) = > 0
f (x)
/ N () .
limx f (x) = > 0 > 0
x A N () x 6= f (x)
/ N ().
( ) .
3.2.6. 3 f : A R R A 0 > 0.
limx f (x) = 0 < 0 f (x) N () .
3.2.7. f : A R R A. > 0
> 0 f (x) N () x A N () x 6= . ;
3.3 .
.
2.3.
,
. , ( x ) ( x + x )
. ()
, limx limx+ (limx ),
()
() .
3.3. f, g : A R R A f , g
. f , g ,
.
. limx f (x) = R.
> 0. f (x) N () . , f (x) = g(x) ,
f (x) N () f (x) = g(x) , , g(x) N () .
limx g(x) = .
1
h f g.
.
3
. 2.2.7 :
> 0 0 > 0.
2
82
,
( ),
() .
{
1/x, 0 < |x| < 104
3.3.1. f (x) =
f (x) = x1
x,
x = 0 |x| 104
0 limx0 x1 , limx0 f (x) .
{
1/x, x > 10100
3.3.2. f (x) =
f (x) = x1 +
x,
x 10100
limx+ x1 = 0, limx+ f (x) = 0. f (x) = x
limx x = , limx f (x) = .
.
3.4
.
3.4. f : A R, R A limx f (x) = R.
[] > u, f (x) > u .
[] < l, f (x) < l .
[] u < < l, u < f (x) < l .
. [] > 0 N ()
u. f (x) N () , f (x) > u
.
[] > 0 N () l.
f (x) N () , f (x) < l .
[] > 0 N () u, l.
f (x) N () , u < f (x) < l .
5
+1
3.3.3. f (x) = 2x5 x3x+x
2 +8x+1 .
1
limx f (x) = 2 = 0.5. ,
0.4999999 0.5000001, N > 0
0.4999999 < f (x) < 0.5000001 (, N ). ,

0.0000001 0.5. ,
N ,
. ,
, , 101000
0.5. , N (
- ) N .
3.5 . ,
.
3.5. f : A R R A. f ,
, .
. ( ) f a, b .
> 0 Na () Nb () .
f (x) Na () f (x) Nb () . f (x) Na ()
f (x) Nb () . .
83
3.6. f : A R R A.
[] limx f (x) = R, f .
[] limx f (x) = +, f
.
[] limx f (x) = , f
.
. [] l u l < < u,
l = 1, u = + 1. 3.4, l < f (x) l , f .
, l f (x) > l . l f
, f .
[] .
3.3.4. limx+ x1 = 0. x1 +.
x1 . x1
R \ {0} (0, +). , , (N, +) x1 .
. , 0 x1 1
x (1, +).
.
3.7
. 3.7 3.4.
- :

, .
3.7. f : A R R A.
[] f (x) l limx f (x) = R, l.
[] f (x) u limx f (x) = R, u.
[] u < l f (x) l f (x) u
, f .
. [] < l, f (x) < l ,
f (x) l . l.
[] .
[] f , l u , , l u.
f .
3.3.5. limx f (x) = R f (x) [l, u]
, [l, u].
3.3.6.
lim cos x
lim sin x .
, - cos x 1
, , cos x 1
. , 2k k Z
84
(2k + 1) k Z.
- .
, limx0 cos x1 limx0 sin x1 .
, cos x1 1 0
. , cos x1 1 0
1
. , 2k
k Z
1
(2k+1) k Z. - limx0 sin x1 .
3.8. f, g : A R R A. f (x) g(x)
limx f (x) = R limx g(x) = R,
.
. ( ) < .
a < a < . g(x) < a a < f (x)
. g(x) < a a < f (x) , , g(x) < f (x) . .
.
3.9. f, g : A R R A. , ,
f (x) g(x) .
[]. limx f (x) = +, limx g(x) = +.
[] limx g(x) = , limx f (x) = .
. [] M > 0. f (x) > M . f (x) > M
g(x) f (x) , , g(x) > M . limx g(x) = +.
[] .
2 +x1
3.3.7. x
2
limx+ x +x1
= +.
x
x2
x
= x x (1, +) limx+ x = +.
3.10 .
3.10. f, g, h : A R R A
f (x) g(x) h(x) . limx f (x) = limx h(x) = R,
limx g(x) = .
. > 0. f (x) (, +) h(x) (, +)
. f (x), h(x) ( , + ) , g(x)
f (x), h(x) , g(x) ( , + ) .
limx g(x) = .
3.3.8. x1 sinx x < x1 x > 0 limx+ ( x1 ) = limx+ x1 =
0. limx+ sinx x = 0. limx sinx x = 0
limx cosx x = 0.
.

.
. f : A R f : A R
(f )(x) = f (x) x A.
f, g : A R f + g : A R (f +
g)(x) = f (x) + g(x) x A.
f, g : A R f g : A R (f g)(x) =
85
f (x) g(x) x A.
f, g : A R f g : A R (f g)(x) =
f (x)g(x) x A.
f : A R f : A R
(f )(x) = f (x) x A.
( )
1
f : A R f1 : A R f1 (x) = f (x)
x A.
f1 : A R f (x) 6= 0 x A.
( )
(x)
f, g : A R fg : A R fg (x) = fg(x)
x A.
fg : A R g(x) 6= 0 x A.
f : A R |f | : A R |f |(x) =
|f (x)| x A.

, .
3.11. f, g : A R R A , R
. x .
[] f (x) , f (x) .
[] f (x) , |f (x)| ||.
[] f (x) , g(x) + , f (x)+g(x) +.
[] f (x) , g(x) , f (x)g(x) .
[] f (x) , g(x) , f (x)g(x) .
[] f (x) , f (x) .
[] f (x) 6= 0 x A. f (x) 1
1
1 .
( 6= 0), f (x)
[] g(x) 6= 0 x A. f (x) , g(x)
,
f (x)
g(x)
. [] f (x) R. > 0 |f (x) | < ,

,
|(f (x)) ()| = |f (x) | <
. f (x) .
f (x) +. M > 0 f (x) > M , , f (x) < M
. f (x) , f (x) (+).
f (x) . M > 0 f (x) < M , , f (x) > M
. f (x) +, f (x) ().
[] f (x) R. > 0 |f (x) | < , ,

|f (x)| || |f (x) | <
. |f (x)| ||.
f (x) +. M > 0 f (x) > M , , |f (x)| > M
. |f (x)| +, |f (x)| | + |.
f (x) . M > 0 f (x) < M , , |f (x)| > M
. |f (x)| +, |f (x)| | |.
[] f (x) g(x) , R. > 0 |f (x) | < 2 ,
86
, |g(x) | <
,

2
|(f (x) + g(x)) ( + )| = |(f (x) ) + (g(x) )| |f (x) | + |g(x) | <

2

2
=
. f (x) + g(x) + .
f (x) + g(x) (, +]. g ,
l g(x) > l . , M > 0 f (x) > M l
, ,
f (x) + g(x) > (M l) + l = M
. f (x) + g(x) +, f (x) + g(x) + .
[].
[] [] [].
[] f (x) g(x) , R. g ,
M 0 |g(x)| M . , > 0 |f (x)

| < 2M+1 , , |g(x) | < 2||+1
,
,
|f (x)g(x) | = |(f (x) )g(x) + (g(x) )| |f (x) ||g(x)| + |||g(x) |
M
2M +1
||
2||+1
<
. f (x)g(x) .
f (x) + g(x) (0, +]. l 0 <
l < . l < g(x) . , M > 0 f (x) > Ml , ,
f (x)g(x) >
M
l l
=M
. f (x)g(x) +, f (x)g(x) .
[].
[] [].
[] f (x) R \ {0} f (x) 6= 0 x A.
|f (x)| ||. || > 0, l 0 < l < ||
|f (x)| > l . , > 0 |f (x) | < ||l , ,

1
f (x)

1 =
|f (x)|
|||f (x)|
<
||l
||l
=
1
. f (x)
1 .
f (x) +. > 0 f (x) > 1 , ,
1

= 1 <
0
f (x)
f (x)
1
1
1
.
. f (x)
0, f (x)
+
f (x) [].
[] [] [].
(
)
3.3.9. limx0 1 + x1 = 1 + () = .
(
)
3.3.10. limx+ 1 + x1 = 1 + 0 = 1.
3.3.11. limx1
1
x+1
3.3.12. limx+
1
1+1
1
x2 +x+1
= 12 .
1
(+)2 +(+)+1
87
1
+
= 0.
3.3.13. limx1
x2 +x
x2
12 +1
12
= 2.
3.3.14. R,
k Z, k > 0 k Z, k < 0 6= 0.
lim xk = k
, k N, limx x = limx xk = limx (x x) = = k .

, , 6= 0, limx x1k = 1k .
3.3.15. k N.
limx0+ x1 = +, limx0+
1
xk
= limx0+ ( x1 )k = (+)k = +.
limx0 x1 = , , k , limx0 x1k = limx0 ( x1 )k =

()k = + , k , limx0 x1k = limx0 ( x1 )k = ()k = .
, ,
{
+, k Z, k < 0, k
lim xk = + k Z, k < 0
lim xk =
x0+
x0
, k Z, k < 0, k
,
{
lim xk
x0
= +,
,
k Z, k < 0, k
k Z, k < 0, k
3.3.16. k N.
limx+ x = +, limx+ xk = (+)k = +.
limx x = , , k , limx xk = ()k = +
, k , limx xk = ()k = .
limx x1k = 0.
:
+, k Z, k > 0, k
+, k Z, k > 0
k
k
lim x =
lim x = , k Z, k > 0, k
x+
x
0,
k Z, k < 0
0,
k Z, k < 0
3.3.17. limx1 |x 2| = |1 2| = 1.

3.3.18. limx0 x1 x12 = |() (+)| = | | = +.
3.3.19. limx+ (x2 x) = limx+ x(x 1) = (+)((+) 1) = +.
limx+ (x2 x) .
3.3.20. limx0 ( x22 + x1 ) = limx0 x12 (2 + x) = (+)(2 + 0) = +.
limx0 ( x22 + x1 ) limx0 x1 .
3.3.21. limx+
x2 x+1
x+2
= limx+ x 1(1/x)+(1/x
1+(2/x)
limx+
x2 x+1
x+2
2)
= (+) 10+0
1+0 = +.
3.3.22. 3.11[].
, limx0 |sign x| = limx0 1 = 1, limx0 sign x .
= 0.
88
3.3.23. P (x) = a0 + a1 x + + an xn .
lim P (x) = lim (a0 + a1 x + + an xn ) = a0 + a1 + + an n = P ().
P (x) 1.
(
P (x) = an xn aan0 x1n + +
an1 1
an x
)
+1 ,
limx P (x) = limx an xn . , limx P (x)

,
{
an (+), n
lim P (x) = an (+),
lim P (x) =
x+
x
an (), n
: limx+ (5x3 +x2 4x12) = , limx (5x3 +x2 4x12) = +,
limx (7x4 + x3 x + 5) = +.
n
+a1 x++an x
3.3.24. R(x) = ba00+b
m , an , bm 6= 0.
1 x++bm x
)/( b 1
)
n (
bm1 1
1
0
R(x) = bamnxxm aan0 x1n + + an1
an x + 1
bm xm + + bm x + 1 ,
, , limx R(x)
(an /bm )(+), n > m

an nm
limx+ R(x) = limx+ bm x
= an /bm ,
n = m
0,
n < m
limx R(x) = limx
an
bm
xnm
(an /bm )(+),
(a /b )(),
n m
=
a
n /bm ,
0,
n m > 0
n m > 0
n = m
n < m
3 +4x2 +2
2 2x+3
x3 x2 +4
= 12 , limx+ x
= , limx+ 3x
= 0,
2x3 +1
2x2 +x+1
x4 +x2 +1
3
x3 4
x3 1
3x4 2
2 , limx x4 +2 = 0, limx 2x+1 = , limx 2x+1 = .
: limx+
2
+4
limx 3x
=
2x2 1
R, limx R(x) .
b0 + b1 + + bm m 6= 0, limx R(x) =
a0 +a1 ++an n
b0 +b1 ++bm m
= R(). ,
lim R(x) = R().
: limx1
3x2
312
= 14 +21
3 4
x4 +2x3 4
m
= 0, x
= 1.
b0 + b1 + + bm
b0 + b1 x + + bm xm . (x )k
x b0 + b1 x + + bm xm ,
b0 + b1 x + + bm xm = (x )k Q(x),
Q(x) x , , Q() 6= 0.
, x a0 + a1 x + + an xn ,
a0 + a1 x + + an xn = (x )l P (x),
89
l 0 P (x) x , ,
P () 6= 0. , ,
P (x)
R(x) = (x )lk Q(x)
, limx
P (x)
Q(x)
P ()
Q()
6= 0,
= 0,
= (P ()/Q()),
lim R(x)
x
= (P ()/Q())(+),
l > k
l = k
k l > 0
k l > 0
,
limx R(x) =
P ()
Q() (),
limx+ R(x) =
P ()
Q() (+),
k l > 0.
x+1
limx1 xx4x
.
2x2 +1
1 x4 2x2 + 1, x4 2x2 + 1 x 1.
, ,
3
x4 2x2 + 1 = (x2 1)2 = (x 1)2 (x + 1)2 .

1 x3 x2 x + 1, :
x3 x2 x + 1 = (x 1)x2 (x 1) = (x 1)2 (x + 1).
x3 x2 x+1
x4 2x2 +1
(x1)2 (x+1)
(x1)2 (x+1)2
1
x+1
x 6= 1, 1. ,
limx1
x3 x2 x+1
x4 2x2 +1
3
= limx1
1
x+1
1
1+1
= 12 .
+x6
.
limx1 xx3+4x
x2 x+1
3
2
1 x x x + 1 , , x3 x2 x + 1 = (x 1)2 (x + 1).
1 x3 + 4x2 + x 6, :
x3 + 4x2 + x 6 = x3 x2 + 5x2 5x + 6x 6 = (x 1)x2 + (x 1)5x + (x 1)6

= (x 1)(x2 + 5x + 6).
x 1 x2 + 5x + 6 1 .
x3 +4x2 +x6
x3 x2 x+1
(x1)(x2 +5x+6)
(x1)2 (x+1)
1 x2 +5x+6
x1
x+1
x 6= 1, 1. :
limx1+
x3 +4x2 +x6
x3 x2 x+1
= (+) 1
limx1
x3 +4x2 +x6
x3 x2 x+1
= () 1
, limx1
2 +51+6
1+1
2 +51+6
x3 +4x2 +x6
.
x3 x2 x+1
90
1+1
= +
= .
3.3.25. y = x + +
f , limx+ (f (x) x ) = 0.
0
limx+ f (x)x
= +
= 0, limx+ ( f (x)
x
x x ) = 0 , ,
= limx+
f (x)
x .
, , , limx+ f (x)
x ,
+.
, . ,

= limx+ (f (x) x),
.
, limx+ (f (x) x) ,
+.
, , .
, x + x1 . = limx+ x1 (x + x1 ) = 1
= limx+ (x + x1 1x) = 0. +
y = 1x + 0 = x. : = limx x1 (x + x1 ) = 1 = limx (x + x1 1x) = 0.
y = 1x + 0 = x.
3.12
3.11 . [] 3.12
1
1
= + 0
= ,
0+
2.3.
3.12. f, g : A R R A.
x .
[] f (x) + g , f (x) + g(x) +.
f (x) g , f (x) + g(x) .
[] f (x) 0 g , f (x)g(x) 0.
[] f (x) + g , f (x)g(x) +.
f (x) g , f (x)g(x) .
[] f (x) 6= 0 x A.
1
f (x) 0 f , f (x)
+.
1
f (x) 0 f , f (x) .
[] f (x) 6= 0 x A. |f (x)| +,
1
f (x)
0.
. [] f (x) + g ,
l g(x) l . M > 0 f (x) > M l
, , f (x) + g(x) > (M l) + l = M . f (x) + g(x) +.
.
[] f (x) 0 g , M 0
|g(x)| M . > 0 |f (x)| < M+1 , ,
|f (x)g(x)| = |f (x)||g(x)|
M
M +1
<
. f (x)g(x) 0.
[] f (x) + g ,
l > 0 g(x) l . M > 0 f (x) > Ml ,
, f (x)g(x) > Ml l = M . f (x)g(x) +.
.
91
[] f (x) 0 f (x) > 0 . M > 0

1
1
1
|f (x) 0| < M
. 0 < f (x) < M
, , f (x)
> M .
1
f (x) +.
.
1
[] f (x) 6= 0 x A |f (x)| +. |f (x)|
0 , ,
1
f (x) 0.
3.3.26. limx+ x1 = 0 x [x] (, , +), 0 x [x] < 1 x. limx+ x[x]
= 0.
x
3.3.27. x [x] (, , +)
limx+ x = +. limx+ (2x [x]) = limx+ (x + (x [x])) = +.
1
1
3.3.28. 2sin
x 3 x (, , +) , ,
x
limx+ x = +. limx+ 2sin
x = +.
3.3.29. limx0 x = 0 limx0 x1 . x 0.

3.3.30. limx+ ( x1 x12 ) = 0 0 = 0
1
limx+ (1/x)(1/x
2 ) = +.
1
x
x12 > 0 x > 1.
.
. f : A B g : B R g f :
A R (g f )(x) = g(f (x)) x A.
3.13 .
3.13. 4 f : A B, g : B R, R A R
B. f (x) x , f (x) 6=
g(y) R y , (g f )(x) x .
. > 0. > 0
g(y) N ()
y B N () y 6= .
(3.3)
f (x) x , f (x) N () . , , f (x) 6=

f (x) B x A,
f (x) B N () f (x) 6=
(3.4)
(
(3.4) (3.3) y = f (x) (g f )(x) = g f (x) N ()

.
(g f )(x) x .
, x y = f (x)
(
)
limx g f (x) = limy g(y).
3.3.31. limx0
(x7 +1)4
.
(x7 +1)8 +(x7 +1)12 +5
limx0 (x7 + 1) = 1 x7 + 1 6= 1 x 6= 0. ,
x y = x7 + 1,
limx0
4
(x7 +1)4
(x7 +1)8 +(x7 +1)12 +5
= limy1
4.10.
92
y4
y 8 +y 12 +5
= 71 .
3.3.32. limx1
limx1
1
(x1)2
1
(x1)2
1
(x1)6
)
+1 .
= +. x y =
limx1
1
(x1)2
1
(x1)6
1
,
(x1)2
)
+ 1 = limy+ (y y 3 + 1) = .
(
)
3.3.33. limx+ ( x2x1
)2 + ( x2x1
)4 .
+x+1
+x+1
limx+ x2x1
= 0
+x+1
x1
x y = x2 +x+1 ,
x1
x2 +x+1
6= 0 x > 1.
(
)
limx+ ( x2x1
)2 + ( x2x1
)4 = limy0 (y 2 + y 4 ) = +.
+x+1
+x+1
3.3.34. f (x) 6=
3.13 .
{
0, y 6= 0
f (x) = sinx x g(y) =
1, y = 0
limx+ f (x) = 0 limy0 g(y) = 0. f (x) 6= 0
+, f (x) = 0 + , ,
n n Z \ {0}. {
0, x 6= n n Z \ {0}
, (g f )(x) =
1, x = n n Z \ {0}
, limx+ (g f )(x) , (g f )(x) 0
+ (g f )(x) 1 +.
3.13 .
, . ,
. ()
B g () , ,
f , f (x) > (f (x) < )
. :
f : A B, g : B R, A
B, f (x) x +, f (x) <
g(y) R y , (g f )(x) x +.
.
, , .
3.3.35. 3.3.14, 3.3.15 3.3.16
xk k . - .
a R \ Z. xa [0, +), a > 0, (0, +),
a < 0.

lim xa = a
> 0.
a > 0. > 0. > 0 |xa a | <

x > 0 0 < |x | < .
0 = min{, a } > 0,
93
0 0 a . |xa a | < |xa a | < 0

a 0 < xa < a + 0 ( a 0 )1/a < x < ( a + 0 )1/a .
( a 0 )1/a ( a + 0 )1/a .
{
}
0 < min ( a 0 )1/a , ( a + 0 )1/a ,
> 0
( a 0 )1/a ( a + 0 )1/a . x 0 < |x | < ( a 0 )1/a < x <
( a + 0 )1/a , , |xa a | < .
1
1
a < 0, a > 0 , , limx xa = limx xa
= a
= a.
,
{
{
+,
a
>
0
0,
a > 0
lim xa =
lim xa =
x+
x0+
0,
a < 0
+, a < 0
, a > 0. M > 0 N > 0 xa > M
x > N . , xa > M x > M 1/a . ,
N M 1/a , x > N x > M 1/a , ,
xa > M .
,
.
1
1
= +
= 0.
a < 0, a > 0 limx+ xa = limx+ xa
a > 0, limx0+ xa = limy+ ( y1 )a = limy+
1
ya
1
+
1
limx0+ xa
= 0.
1
, a < 0, a > 0 limx0+ xa =
= 0+
= +.
.
(i) limx+ x + 1 = limy+ y = +.
(ii) limx+ ( x + 1 x) = 0. (i)

(+) (+). 2 b2
a b = aa+b
,
limx+ ( x + 1 x) = limx+
(x+1)x
x+1+ x
= limx+
1
x+1+ x
1
(+)+(+)
= 0.
1/5 = lim
1/5 = ( 2 )1/5 .
(iii) limx3 ( xx+1
2 +1 )
y2/5 y
5
3.3.36. f (x) = (x sin x1 )1/2 3.2.1

A ( ) 0.
0 (x sin x1 )1/2 |x|1/2
x A, limx0 (x sin x1 )1/2 = 0.
3.3.37. ax .
:
lim ax = a .
x
a > 1. > 0 > 0 |ax a | < x

0 < |x | < .
0 = min{, a2 } > 0,
0 0 < a . , |ax a | < |ax a | < 0
a 0 < ax < a + 0 loga (a 0 ) < x < loga (a + 0 ).
loga (a 0 ) loga (a + 0 ).
{
}
0 < min loga (a 0 ), loga (a + 0 ) ,
94
x 0 < |x | < loga (a 0 ) < x < loga (a + 0 ) , ,

|ax a | < .
1
1
0 < a < 1, a1 > 1, limx ax = limx (1/a)

x = (1/a) = a .
,
{
lim ax =
x+
+,
0,
a > 1
0 < a < 1
lim ax =
0,
+,
a > 1
0 < a < 1
, a > 1. M > 0 N > 0 ax > M

x > N . ax > M x > loga M .
N > 0 N loga M x > N x > loga M ,
, ax > M .
1
1
0 < a < 1, a1 > 1 , , limx+ ax = limx+ (1/a)
x = + = 0.
a > 1, limx ax = limy+ ay = limy+
, 0 < a < 1,
1
a
> 1, limx
ax
1
ay
1
+
= 0.
1
limx (1/a)
x
1
0+
= +.
a = e,
:
lim ex = e ,
lim ex = 0,
lim ex = +.
x+
3.3.38. loga x.
:
lim loga x = loga
> 0.
x
a > 1. > 0 > 0 | loga x loga | <

x > 0 0 < |x | < . , | loga x loga | <
loga < loga x < loga + a < x < a .
a a . ,
{
}
0 < min a , a ,
x 0 < |x | < a < x < a , | loga x loga | < .
0 < a < 1, a1 > 1, limx loga x = limx log1/a x = log1/a = loga .
,
{
{
+, a > 1
, a > 1
lim loga x =
lim loga x =
x+
x0+
, 0 < a < 1
+, 0 < a < 1
, a > 1. M > 0 N > 0
loga x > M x > N . loga x > M x > aM . ,
N aM , x > N x > aM , , loga x > M .
0 < a < 1, a1 > 1, limx+ loga x = limx+ log1/a x = .
a > 1, limx0+ loga x = limy+ loga
1
y
= limy+ loga y = (+) = .
, 0 < a < 1, > 1, limx0+ loga x = limx0+ log1/a x = () = +.

, a = e, , :
1
a
lim log x = log
> 0,
lim log x = ,
x0+
.
95
lim log x = +.
x+
3.3.39.
(
)x
limx+ 1 + x1 = e.
(1 + n1 )n e.
1 n
1 n+1
1
(1 + n+1
) = (1 + n+1
)
/(1 + n+1
)
e
1
(1 + n1 )n+1 = (1 + n1 )n (1 + n1 ) e 1 = e.
= e,
> 0. n0 N
e < (1 +
1 n
n+1 )
e < (1 + n1 )n+1 < e +
< e + ,
n N, n n0 . ( ) x > n0 [x] n0 ,
)[x]
)
(
(
1
1 [x]+1
(1 + x1 )x 1 + [x]
< e + .
e < 1 + [x]+1
> 0 n0 > 0 e < (1 + x1 )x < e + , ,
|(1 + x1 )x e| < x > n0 .
3.3.40. .
x+
| sin x| |x| cos x cos = 2 sin x
2 sin 2 ,

sin x+ 2 sin x 2 x = |x |.
| cos x cos | = 2 sin x
2
2
2
2
, > 0. 0 < , , x 0 <
|x | < | cos x cos | |x | < .
lim cos x = cos .
x+
, sin x sin = 2 sin x
2 cos 2 | sin x
sin | |x | , ,
lim sin x = sin .
x
:
6=
lim tan x = tan ,
+ k k Z.
6= k k Z.
lim cot x = cot ,
, ,
lim tan x =
lim tan x = +,
x+
lim cot x = ,
lim cot x = +
x+
+ k k Z.
= k k Z.
3.3.41. :
sin x
x
limx0
= 1,
limx0
1cos x
x2
= 12 .
00 .
| sin x| |x| |x| | tan x|, |x| <

cos x
sin x
x
x ( 2 , 0) (0, 2 ).
limx0 cos x = cos 0 = 1, limx0

(
)2
x
limx0 1cos
= limx0 21 sin(x/2)
= limy0 21 ( siny y )2 = 12 .
x/2
x2
sin x
x
:
limx0
1cos x
x2
= limx0
2,
1(cos x)2
x2 (1+cos x)
= limx0
96
( sin x )2
x
1
1+cos x
= 12
1
1+1
= 12 .
= 1.
3.3.42. limx0
tan x
x
= limx0
=1
sin x 1
x cos x
1
1
= 1.
sin(ax)
sin(ax)
sin(bx) sin(bx)
limx0 sin(bx)
= limy0 siny y
bx
3.3.43. limx0
sin(ax)
= limy0 siny y
ax
a
a 1
limx0 sin(ax)
sin(bx) = b 1 = b .
limx0
= 1
a
b
sin(ax)/(ax)
sin(bx)/(bx) .
= 1. ,
, 3.14, 4.2.
. f : A R, f (x) > 0 x A,
g : A R f g : A R (f g )(x) = f (x)g(x)
x A.
3.14. f, g : A R R A , R
f (x) > 0 x A. x . f (x) ,
g(x) , f (x)g(x) . , f (x) 0,
g(x) , f (x)g(x) +.
3.14 (0+) = +
2.3.
.
3.3.1. limx1
x3 +2x2 x2
,
x4 x3 +x2 1
3.3.2. limx
x3 +1
,
x2 +1
2
3.3.3. limx0 (
3x
limx1
limx
3 2 ),
x
x4 x3 3x2 +5x2
,
x4 +x3 4x2 +x+1
(2x+1)3 (3x2 +2)6

,
(x2 +1)(x+4)13
limx+
3.3.4. a 6= 0. limx1
1
xa 1 ,
limx1
limx0 ( x13 +
3x2 +2x6/5 4
,
x6/5 2x9/8 +2
limx1
x3 x2 x+1
.
x5 3x4 +6x3 10x2 +9x3
1
,
(xa 1)2
limx+
limx1
1
|x| ),
limx0
1
.
x2 |x|
x3/2 2x6/5
.
4x4/3 +2
x3a 1
xa 1 .
x( x + 1 x), limx+ x3 ( x + 1 2 x + x 1).
3.3.6. a > 0 limx+ ( ax2 + bx + c Ax B) = 0, A, B
2
.
a, b, c , A, B, limx+ x( ax2 + bx + c Ax B) = 4acb
8a a
3.3.5. limx+
3.3.7. limx ( 3xx27x

)1/2 , limx0 (1
+1
2
3.3.8. limx (ex e2x + 1), limx

x
e2x +ex +1
,
2e2x +1
limx0
1
x
1
ex 1 ,
1 1/5
) .
x3
limx0
1
,
(ex 1)2
e
.
limx log ex/2
+1
3.3.9. limx0
log(2x)
log(3x) ,
limx1
1
log x ,
1log x
limx0 log 1+(log
.
x)2
3.3.10. R limx [x]. limx [x];

limx [1/x], limx x[1/x].
a, b > 0, limx0 (b/x)[x/a].
sin(3x)
tan(3x)
sin x , limx0 x+sin x ,
cos((/2) cos x)
1
cos x
.
x , limx/2 x(/2) , limx0
sin(sin x)
3.3.11. limx0 x cot x, limx0

limx0
cos(8x)cos(15x)
,
x2
limx x sin
1cos x
x sin x ,
limx0
1cos x
,
(sin x)2
limx
3.3.12. limx [x], limx ([x]/x), limx ([x2 ]/x), limx+ ([x]/x2 ).
a, b > 0, limx0 (x/a)[b/x].
(
)
n N, limx0 x [1/x] + [2/x] + + [n/x] .
97
0,
a
3.3.13. limx0+ x sin x = 1,
+,
a > 1
a = 1
a < 1
3.3.14. x sin x, x2 sin x, x sin x x1 sin x

.
x sin x1 , x2 sin x1 , x sin x1 x1 sin x1

0.
{
= 0,
a > 0
limx0+ xa sin x1
, a 0
3.3.15. limx1 f (x), (x 1)f (x) 1 x 0 < |x 1| < 14 .
3.3.16. limx+ f (x)
f ( x) = 3(f (x))2 + 1 x > 0.

3x2 +1
x2 5
x5
3.3.17. , .
x8 +1
4x4 x2 +2x1
5
8
1;
+;
108
<
x4 +13x3 +25x2 +33

x5 +2x+1
<
301
100 +;
7x3 + x2 107
< 107 ;
3.3.18. , , -
-
{
x,
x 1
4
2 +x1
1
x1 , x2 , 3x x5x
, 1x
x, f (x) =
3 +x2 2
2,
3x/(x 1), x < 1
3.3.19. f : (1, 0) (0, 1) R.
limx0 f (|x|) = l limx0+ f (x) = l.
limx0 f (x2 ) = l limx0+ f (x) = l.
f (1/x). limx+ f (1/x) = l
limx0+ f (x) = l limx f (1/x) = l limx0 f (x) = l.
f : (1, 0) (0, 1) R limx0 f (|x|)
limx0 f (x).
(
)
1
3.3.20. f : (1, 0) (0, 1) R. limx0 f (x) + f (x)
= 2, limx0 f (x).
(
)
1
f : (1, 0) (0, 1) R. limx0 f (x) + |f (x)| = 0, limx0 f (x).
3.3.21. f, g : A R, R A limx f (x) < limx g(x).
f (x) < g(x) .
3.3.22. f, g : A R, R A. limx f (x) =
R limx g(x) = R, limx max{f (x), g(x)} = max{, }
limx min{f (x), g(x)} = min{, }.
3.3.23. limx (f (x) + g(x))
limx f (x), limx g(x).
limx f (x)g(x) limx f (x), limx g(x).
3.3.24. 5 f , g f (x) +, g(x)
f (x) + g(x) (i) c R (ii) .
f , g f (x) 0, g(x) + f (x)g(x) (i)
c R (ii) .
5
98
f , g f (x) 0, g(x) 0
f (x)
g(x)
(i)
c R (ii) .
f , g f (x) +, g(x) +
c [0, +] (ii) .
c [, 0);
f (x)
g(x)
f (x)
g(x)
(i)
3.3.25. 6 f , g f (x) +, g(x) 0

f (x)g(x) (i) c [0, +] (ii) .
f (x)g(x) c [, 0);
f , g f (x) 0, g(x) 0 f (x)g(x) (i)
c [0, +] (ii) . f (x)g(x)
c [, 0);
f , g f (x) 0, g(x) f (x)g(x) (i)
c {+, } (ii) . f (x)g(x)
c R;
f , g f (x) 1, g(x) + f (x)g(x) (i)
c [0, +] (ii) . f (x)g(x)
c [, 0);
f , g f (x) 1, g(x) f (x)g(x) (i)
c [0, +] (ii) . f (x)g(x)
c [, 0);
3.3.26. f : A R, R A, limx f (x) =
f (x) x A x 6= . sup{f (x) | x A, x 6= } = .
3.3.27. f : A R, R A limx f (x) = .
inf{f (x) | x A, 0 < |x | < } sup{f (x) | x A, 0 < |x | < } > 0.
3.3.28. |a1 sin x + a2 sin 2x + + an sin nx| | sin x| x.
|a1 + 2a2 + + nan | 1.
3.3.29. [] f : (0, +) R (0, +). limx+
a > 0
limx+ ff(ax)
(x)
f (2x)
f (x)
= 1,
= 1.
[] f : (0, 1] R f (2x) = 3f (x) x (0, 12 ]. f

(0, 1], limx0 f (x) = 0.
3.3.30. f : A R R A. limx f (x) = R
f (x) 6= ,
{f (x) | x A}. 3.13 .
3.3.31. [] - - y+1
y = 2x+1
x1 x = y2 .
[] y = 2x x1 (0, +).
(, +) x = 41 (y + y 2 + 8).
- - .
[] , f
f 1 ;
6
99
3.4 .
3.1
.
3.1. f : A R R A.
(xn ) A : (i) xn 6= n (ii) xn .
[] f (x) R x , (xn ) A (i), (ii)
f (xn ) .
[] , (xn ) A (i), (ii)
(f (xn )) , f .
. [] limx f (x) = R (xn ) A (i)
(ii).
> 0. > 0
f (x) N ()
x A N () x 6= .
(3.5)
xn , xn N (). xn A xn 6= n,

xn A N () xn 6= .
(3.6)
(3.6) (3.5) x = xn
f (xn ) N ().
f (xn ) .
[] (xn ) A (i), (ii)
(f (xn )) R.
A (i)
(ii). , A, n
xn A N ( n1 ) xn 6= .
, (xn ) A
(i), (ii). (i) . , > 0 n1 < ,
N ( n1 ) N () xn N (). xn .
, (xn 0 ), (xn 00 ) A (i), (ii),
(f (xn 0 )), (f (xn 00 )) ( ) R.
(x1 0 , x1 00 , x2 0 , x2 00 , x3 0 , x3 00 , . . . ),
(i), (ii) ( 2.15).
(
)
f (x1 0 ), f (x1 00 ), f (x2 0 ), f (x2 00 ), f (x3 0 ), f (x3 00 ), . . .
R. (f (xn 0 )), (f (xn 00 )), ,
.
R (xn ) A (i), (ii) f (xn ) .
( ) limx f (x) = .
> 0 f (x) N () .
f (x)
/ N () . n
xn A N ( n1 ) xn 6= f (xn )
/ N ().
100
(xn ) A
(i), (ii). , , f (xn ) .
f (xn )
/ N () n.
limx f (x) = .
1 2n
3
2
3
3.4.1. limxe (1 + x2 3x
( ) =1 1n+
) e 3e 1 + (1 + n )
1 3n
2
3
3(1+ n ) 1+e 3e . (1+ n )
1 + x2 3x3 , (1 + n1 )n 6= e n (1 + n1 )n e.
3.4.2.
3.1 xn 6= n .
{
n1
0, x 6= 0
, f (x) =
(xn ) xn = 1+(1)
n.
n
1, x = 0
limx0 f (x) = 0 xn 0. xn 6= 0 n, xn = 0
n. , f (xn ) = 0 n f (xn ) = 1 n ,
, (f (xn )) .
3.1 () , xn 6= xn >
(xn < ) limx limx+ (limx ).
3.1 .
3.4.1, , .
, limx f (x). (xn )
f , 6= (f (xn ))
, limx f (x) . , (xn 0 ),
(xn 00 ) f , 6=
(f (xn 0 )) (f (xn 00 )) , limx f (x) .
3.4.3. limx+ (1)[x] .
(n) (1)[x] n +
((1)n ) . limx+ (1)[x] .
(n) limx (1)[x] .
3.4.4. limx+ sin x .
(2n) ( 2 +2n) sin x 2n +
2 + 2n +. , sin(2n) = 0 0 sin( 2 + 2n) = 1 1.
limx+ sin x.
(2n) ( 2 2n) limx sin x.
, limx cos x.
.
3.4.1. limx0 (1)[1/x] , limx (x [x]), limx0 sin x1 ,
limx0 cos x1 , .
(( n )3/4 ) (( n3 +n+1 )2 ) (( n5 +1 )1/4 ) (
)
2
3.4.2. 4n2+1
, 2n6 +1
,
, log nn+1
,
2
2n2 1
(( 4n 2n )1/5 ) ( n3 /(n+1) ) (
) ( (log n)2 log n+2 )
e2n +1
, e
, log en +1 , (log n)2 +log n8 .
4n 3n +2
3.4.3. f : A R R A. , , (xn )
A xn 6= n xn .
limx f (x) = R f (xn ) l n, l.
limx f (x) = R f (xn ) u n, u.
u < l f (xn ) l n f (xn ) u n,
limx f (x).
101
3.4.4. f : R R > 0, f (x + ) = f (x) x.

, limx f (x), f .
limx cos x, limx sin x, limx (x [x]).
3.4.5. 3.1, 3.3 2.3.
3.5 .
3.2 , 2.1 . 3.2
() () ,
() ,
, , + .
3.2. [] R {+}, A (, ), f : A R
A. f , limx f (x) = sup{f (x) | x A}.
, limx f (x) , f , +, f
.
[] [], f , limx f (x) = inf{f (x) | x A}.
, limx f (x) , f , , f
.
[] R {}, A (, +), f : A R
A. f , limx f (x) = inf{f (x) | x A}. , limx f (x)
, f , , f .
[] [], f , limx f (x) = sup{f (x) | x A}.
, limx f (x) , f , +, f
.
. [] f . -
{f (x) | x A} ,
= sup{f (x) | x A}
. limx f (x) = .
> 0. {f (x) | x A}, x0 A
< f (x0 ). f , x A (x0 , )
f (x) f (x0 ) > .
{f (x) | x A},
f (x) < +
x A.
< f (x) < +
, , |f (x) | < x A (x0 , ). |f (x) | < .

limx f (x) = .
f . - {f (x) | x A}
,
sup{f (x) | x A} = +.
102
limx f (x) = +.
M > 0. M {f (x) | x A}, x0 A
f (x0 ) > M . f , x A (x0 , )
f (x) f (x0 ) > M.
f (x) > M .
limx f (x) = +.
[] - [] .
[] [] 3.2, R, limx f (x)
limx f (x). , [] [], R, limx+ f (x)
limx f (x).
, [] 3.2. = limx f (x)
f , f (x)
x A. f , f (x) <
x A. , f (x0 ) = x0 A, , f A,
= f (x0 ) f (x) x A (x0 , ), f
. , f A, f (x) < x A.
3.2. :
f () A (, ) limx f (x) = , f (x)
(f (x) ) x A. , , f , ,
( ) A, f (x) < (f (x) > ) x A.
f () A (, +) limx f (x) = , f (x)
(f (x) ) x A. , , f , ,
( ) A, f (x) > (f (x) < ) x A.
3.5.1. a > 0, limx+ xa = +, limx0+ xa = 0, xa (0, +).
+ .
( ) limx+ xa = R.
limx+ (2x)a = limy+ y a =
, ,
= limx+ (2x)a = limx+ 2a xa = 2a limx+ xa = 2a .
= 0. , xa 1a = 1 x 1, = limx+ xa 1.
limx+ xa = +.
xa > 0 x > 0, limx0+ xa 0 , ,
-: limx0+ xa = 0. ,
limx0+ (2x)a = limy0+ y a = .
= limx0+ (2x)a = limx0+ 2a xa = 2a

, , = 0.
.
3.5.1. [] f : [1, +) R [1, +) f (n)
n N. limx+ f (x); , .
103
[] f : (0, 2) R (0, 2) f ( n1 ) = 1 n1 n N.
limx0 f (x); , .
[] f
;
3.5.2. a > 1.
[] loga (ax) = 1 + loga x x > 0
loga x limx+ loga x, limx0 loga x.
[] ax+1 = aax x ax
limx ax .
3.5.3. f : A R A R
A.
= limx f (x) = limx+ f (x),
.
y : f (x0 ) y f (x00 ) x0 , x00 A
x0 < < x00 . y [, ].
f A.
3.5.4. 7 R{+}, A (, ), f : A R A
A. = limx f (x) R {+}
f (x) < x A. B = {f (x) | x A} (, ).
f A, f 1 : B A
B.
A8 B limy f 1 (y) = .
f A
A (, +), R {} A
f A.
3.5.5. 9 f : A R R A. R
f > 0 f (x) N ()
.
R f (xn )
A xn 6= n, xn f (xn ) .
L R f -
limx f (x) = inf L limx f (x) = sup L.
limx f (x) limx f (x) L,
f .
limx f (x) limx f (x) f
lim supx f (x) lim infx f (x).
: (i) limx f (x) < y, f (x) < y , (ii) y < limx f (x),
y < f (x) .
: (i) y < limx f (x), y < f (x) , (ii) limx f (x) < y,
f (x) < y .
limx f (x) limx f (x).
limx f (x) limx f (x) = limx f (x)
7
.
3.3.30.
9

.
.
8
104
limx f (x) = limx f (x) = limx f (x).

limx+ f (x) = + limx f (x) = ,
limx f (x) = min{ , + } limx f (x) = max{ , + }.
limx0 limx0 [x], x1 , x12 , sin x1 , x sin x1 , x1 sin x1 .
f , 0 0 > 0 f
(A \ {}) N (0 0 ). u : (0, 0 0 ] R
u() = sup{f (x) | x (A \ {}) N ()} (0, 0 0 ]. u
(0, 0 0 ] , , lim0 u(). lim0 u() = limx f (x).
f , > 0
sup{f (x) | x (A \ {}) N ()} = +. limx f (x) = +.
f , 0 00 > 0 f
(A \ {}) N (0 00 ). l : (0, 0 00 ] R
l() = inf{f (x) | x (A \ {}) N ()} (0, 0 00 ]. l
(0, 0 00 ] , , lim0 l(). lim0 l() = limx f (x).
f , > 0
inf{f (x) | x (A \ {}) N ()} = . limx f (x) = .
3.6 Cauchy.
CAUCHY. f : A R R A. f
, , > 0 > 0
|f (x0 ) f (x00 )| < x0 , x00 A N () x0 , x00 6= .
. limx f (x) = R.
> 0. > 0 |f (x) | <
x0 , x00 A N () x0 , x00 6=

2
x A N () x 6= .
|f (x0 ) f (x00 )| |f (x0 ) | + |f (x00 ) | <

2

2
= .
, > 0 > 0 |f (x0 ) f (x00 )| <

x0 , x00 A N () x0 , x00 6= .
(xn ) A : (i) xn 6= n (ii) xn .
> 0. . n0 xn A N () xn 6=
n n0 . n, m n, m n0 |f (xn ) f (xm )| < . (f (xn ))
Cauchy, .
(xn ) A (i) (ii) (f (xn ))
R. 3.1, limx f (x) .
> 0 > 0 |f (x0 ) f (x00 )| < x0 , x00
A N () x0 , x00 6=
limx0 ,x00 (f (x0 ) f (x00 )) = 0.
Cauchy, Cauchy
,
.
|f (x)| f , |f (x0 )f (x00 )|
f .
.
3.6.1. f : A R, R A > 0, M 0, > 0
|f (x0 )f (x00 )| M |x0 x00 | x0 , x00 A 0 < |x0 | < 0 < |x00 | < .
limx f (x) .
105
3.6.2. f : A R R A.
f , 0 > 0 f
(A \ {}) N (0 ).
0 sup{f (x0 ) f (x00 ) | x0 , x00 (A \ {}) N ()} < + (0, 0 ].
0
00
0 00
: (0, 0 ] R+
0 () = sup{f (x )f (x ) | x , x (A\{})N ()}
(0, 0 ].
(0, 0 ], lim0 () 0.
(f ; ) = lim0 ().
f .
sup{f (x0 ) f (x00 ) | x0 , x00 (A \ {}) N ()} = + > 0.
(f ; ) = +.10
limx f (x) (f ; ) = 0.
limx f (x). limx f (x)
(f ; ) = + limx f (x) 0 (f ; ) < + (f ; ) =
| limx+ f (x) limx f (x)|.
3.5.5 limx f (x), limx f (x)
(f ; ) = + limx f (x), limx f (x)
0 (f ; ) < +
(f ; ) = limx f (x) limx f (x).
(f ; 0) [x], x1 ,
1
,
x2
sin x1 , x sin x1 ,
1
x
sin x1 .
10
[], [], (f ; ) f .
4.1.16.
106
.
4.1 .
. f : A R A. f > 0
> 0 |f (x) f ()| < x A |x | < , ,
f (x) Nf () () x A N ().
: f f (x) f () x
( ). ,
f , : f , x
, (x, f (x)) f (, f ()).
f , f (x) Nf () () x A N ()
: f A N ()
Nf () () , ,
(
)
f A N () Nf () ().
.
: A A.
f . , > 0 > 0
|f (x) f ()| < x A |x | < . , > 0
> 0 |f (x) f ()| < x A 0 < |x | < . (
x , x , , .) ,
limx f (x) = f ().
, limx f (x) = f (). , > 0 > 0
|f (x) f ()| < x A 0 < |x | < . , x = ,
|f (x) f ()| = |f () f ()| = 0 < . > 0 (
) > 0 |f (x) f ()| < x A |x | < . (
, x ,
x .) f .
: A A , , A. , > 0 A ( , + ) = {}.
, > 0 , , x A
|x | < x = , |f (x) f ()| = |f () f ()| = 0 < . f
.
:
A A, f
limx f (x) = f (). A A, f , ,
.
- f
, f ().
107
. f : A R A.
f > 0 > 0
|f (x) f ()| < x A < x , , f (x) Nf () ()
x A N ().
f > 0 > 0 |f (x)
f ()| < x A x < + , , f (x) Nf () ()
x A N+ ().
, () A, f ()
limx+ f (x) = f () (limx f (x) = f ()) ,
() A, f , , ()
.
3.1 3.2 . (i) A, f
. (ii)
A, f
. (iii) A, f
.
4.1.1. x2 3, limx3 x2 = 9 = 32 .
.
.
> 0 > 0 x |x 3| <
|x2 9| < .
, |x2 9| < |x+3||x3| < .
x,
, 3.2.3.
|x + 3||x 3| . ,
|x + 3||x 3| M |x 3| 3, M
x .
|x + 3| M . , x 3, |x + 3|
. , > 0 1, x
|x 3| < |x 3| < 1 , , |x + 3| = |(x 3) + 6| |x 3| + 6 < 7.
, > 0 1, x |x 3| <
|x + 3||x 3| < 7|x 3|. :
0<1 :
|x 3| < |x + 3||x 3| < 7|x 3|.
(4.1)
7|x3| < |x3| < 7 . ,

> 0 7 , x |x 3| < |x 3| < 7 , , 7|x 3| < .
:
0 < 7 :
|x 3| < 7|x 3| < .
(4.2)
, , > 0 1 7 ,
(4.1) (4.2) : x |x 3| < |x + 3||x 3| < 7|x 3| ( 1)
7|x 3| < ( 7 ) , , |x + 3||x 3| < . :
0 < min{1, 7 } :
|x3| <
{
}
|x + 3||x 3| < 7|x 3|
|x+3||x3| < .
7|x 3| <
4.1.2. x2 (x + 1) A = (, 1] {0}.
0 A, 0.
108
4.1.3. [x].
Z. [x] 1 [1, ) , limx [x] =
limx ( 1) = 1 6= []. , (, + 1) ,
limx+ [x] = limx+ = = []. [x]
, .

/ Z. n Z , , n = [] n < < n+1.
n [n, ) (, n + 1), limx [x] = limx n = n = [].
[x] .
[x] .
4.1.4. c R, limx c = c.
. f : A R A , ,
A.
4.1.5. P (x) , R
limx P (x) = P ().
P (x)
4.1.6. R(x) = Q(x)
. ,
, R
Q(x), limx R(x) = R().
4.1.7. xa , (
a) limx xa = a .
4.1.8. ax , limx ax = a .
4.1.9. loga x , > 0 limx loga x = loga .
4.1.10. cos x, sin x , limx cos x = cos
limx sin x = sin . , tan x, cot x .
limx tan x = tan limx cot x = cot .
. f : A R B A. f B
f B, g : B R g(x) = f (x) x B, B.
{
1, 0 x 1
4.1.11. f (x) =
R.
0, x < 0 x > 1
f R 0 1. : limx0 f (x) =
limx0 0 = 0 6= 1 = f (0) limx0+ f (x) = limx0+ 1 = 1 = f (0). f
0. , f
1.
f [0, 1], g : [0, 1] R
g(x) = 1. g [0, 1]. f [0, 1].
. f : A R
A, (;) {}. ,
!
.
. f : A R A. f ,
f . f , f
f ( ) .
f , ,
A, .
109
. = limx f (x) 6= f ().

f f .
f , f
. ,
g : A R
{
f (x), x A, x 6=
g(x) =
,
x =
g f f . g(x) = f (x)
x A x 6= , limx g(x) = limx f (x) = . ,
g() = , limx g(x) = g(), g .
{
x + 1, x 6= 0
4.1.12. f (x) =
0,
0,
x = 0
{
x + 1, x 6= 0
limx0 f (x) = limx0 (x + 1) = 1 f (0) 6= 1. g(x) =
1,
x = 0
0. g x + 1 R, f
x + 1 R \ {0}.
. limx f (x) +
limx+ f (x) limx f (x) . f f .
limx+ f (x) limx f (x), 6= 0, f .
{
1/x2 , x 6= 0
4.1.13. f (x) =
0,
0,
x = 0
{
1/ x, x > 0
limx0 f (x) = +. f (x) =
0,
x = 0
{
1/x, x 6= 0
4.1.14. f (x) =
0,
1,
x = 0
limx0+ f (x) = + limx0 f (x) = , 0 +() = +.
{
x + 1, x 0
4.1.15. f (x) =

x,
x < 0
0, limx0+ f (x) = 1 limx0 f (x) = 0. 0 1 0 = 1. f
0.
. f limx+ f (x) f
limx f (x), f f
.
{
sin(1/x), x > 0
4.1.16. f (x) =
0,
x,
x 0
limx0+ f (x) = limx0+ sin(1/x) . limx0 f (x) = limx0 x =
0 = f (0), f 0.
{
sin(1/x), x 6= 0
4.1.17. f (x) =
0,
0,
x = 0
0.
110
sin(1/x), x > 0
0,
0,
x = 0
0.
4.1.18. f (x) =
, , .
{
x sin(1/x), x 6= 0
0. ,
4.1.19. H f (x) =
0,
x = 0
limx0 f (x) = limx0 x sin(1/x) = 0 = f (0), limx0 x = 0 sin(1/x) .
f , f ().
.1
.
f .
4.1. f : A R A A.
[] A.
f .
f , , , .
[] A.
f .
. [] f A.
f A(, ) , f (x)
f () x A (, ). 3.2, limx f (x)
, ,
limx f (x) f ().
, f A (, +), f () f (x)
x A (, +). limx+ f (x)
f () limx+ f (x).
limx f (x), limx+ f (x)
limx f (x) f () limx+ f (x).
(4.3)
.
limx f (x) = limx+ f (x), limx f (x) = f () =
limx+ f (x) , , f .
limx f (x) < limx+ f (x), f
limx+ f (x) limx f (x) > 0.
f A : ,
limx f (x) f () limx+ f (x).
[] f A A.
, limx+ f (x) limx+ f (x) f (). ,
limx f (x) limx f (x) f ().
. limx f (x) = f () , , f
1
4.1.8.
111
. limx f (x) > f (),

f .
.
4.1,
f .
4.14.2
(i) f : A R A, A
A f ,
.
= lim f (x),
+ = lim f (x),
x+
f + > 0. (4.3)
f () + .
, f ,
f (x)
x A (, )
+ f (x) x A (, +).
f ( , + )
f (). , f () = f () = + , ( , + )
f , < f () < + , ( , f ()) (f (), + )
f .
f , + <
+ f () : (+ , )
f (+ , f ()) (f (), ) f .
(ii) f : A R A, A
A f , .
+ = limx+ f (x), f () < + . f ,
f (x) f () x A (, ) + f (x) x A (, +).
(f (), + ) f .
f , + < f ()
(+ , f ()) f .
f A A
A, , = limx f (x), , f ,
( , f () f , f , (f (), )
f .
:
f : A R A, A
A f .
f - f () -
.
.
2 +1
4.1.1. x, 2x 3, x2 , x1 , x, xx+1
1.
{
{
{
x2 , x 6= 0
x2 + 1, x < 0
x,
x 0
4.1.2. f (x) =
f (x) =
f (x) =
1,
x = 0
x + 1, x 0
1/x, x > 0
{
{
(sin x)/x, x 6= 0
(1 cos x)/x2 , x 6= 0
f (x) =
f (x) =

1,
x = 0
1,
x = 0
0;
2
4.1.15.
112

4.1.3. [x], x [x], x [x] 12 , x [x] 12 , [x] + x [x].
; .
{
{
{
x2 , x 6= 0
1/|x|, x 6= 0
x,
x 0
4.1.4. f (x) =
f (x) =
f (x) =
1,
x = 0
1,
x = 0
1/x, x > 0
{
{
sin(1/x), x > 0
(tan x)/x, x 6= 0
f (x) =
f (x) =
1,
x 0
0,
x = 0
0. f
0 0. .
4.1.5. f (x) = limn+
.
nx nx
nx +nx
; -
4.1.6. f : ( , + ) R.
[] , f , limh0 (f ( + h) f ( h)) = 0.
{
1, x 6= 0
f (x) =
= 0 ;
0, x = 0
[] , f , limh0 (f ( + h) + f ( h) 2f ()) = 0.
[]
.
4.1.7. f : A R, A > 0, M 0 |f (x)| M x A
|x | < . g : A R g(x) = (x )f (x). g
.
4.1.8. f : A R, A A
{ f (x), x A, x 6=
f . R g(x) =
,
x =
, f .
{
1, x Z
4.1.9. f (x) =
x Z
0, x R \ Z
x R \ Z.
{
1, x Q
f (x) =
x.
0, x R \ Q
{
0, x Q
f (x) =
0 x 6= 0.
x, x R \ Q
{
1/n, x = m/n m Z, n N gcd(m, n) = 1
f (x) =
0,
x R \ Q
x Q x R \ Q.
.
4.1.10. A B, A, g : B R f : A R g
A. , g , f .
{
x(1)[1/x] , x 6= 0
4.1.11. 3 f (x) =
f
0,
x = 0
0 0.
3
, f
(, f ()). , .
113
: 4.1.9 0
x 6= 0. !
4.1.12. f : A R, A > 0, M 0, > 0 |f (x) f ()|
M |x | x A |x | < . f .4
x, |x|, x2 , |x|, x |x| = 0

.
6= 0 .

= 0 6= 0.5
4.1.13. , n N,
{ An Am An = m, n N
1/n, x An n
m 6= n. f (x) =
f
0,
x
/ An n
+
x R \ +
n=1 An x
n=1 An .
4.1.14. - B. f (x) = inf{|x b| | b B} x.6
f B {a}, [a, b],
(a, +), [a, b] [c, d], [a, b] [c, d] [p, q] ( a 0 f
A N (0 ). 0 sup{f (x0 ) f (x00 ) | x0 , x00 A N ()} < +
0
00
0 00
(0, 0 ]. : (0, 0 ] R+
0 () = sup{f (x ) f (x ) | x , x
A N ()} (0, 0 ]. (0, 0 ],
lim0 () 0. (f ; ) = lim0 ().
f . > 0
sup{f (x0 ) f (x00 ) | x0 , x00 A N ()} = +. (f ; ) = +.8
f (f ; ) = 0.
4.1.17. I f : I R I.
a, b I a < x1 < < xn < b jk = limxxk + f (x) limxxk f (x)
f xk k = 1, . . . , n, j1 + + jn limxb f (x) limxa+ f (x).
a, b I k N, x (a, b),
f k1 , k(limxb f (x) limxa+ f (x)).
4
f , Hlder- Hlder- .
= 1, f Lipschitz- .
4.6.3.
5
5.6.7.
6
inf{|x b| | b B} dist(x, B) x B.
7
, .
. 4.14
.
8
, (f ; ) f . 3.6.2. 6.1.3.
114
(am ), (bm ) I (am ) I, (bm ) I a1 < b1 .

(a1 , b1 ) f 1. (a2 , b2 ) f 21 ,
. (a3 , b3 ) f 13 , . ,
f I .
f I .
f : I R I;
[x] R [ x1 ] (0, +) .9
4.2 .
4.2. f, g : A R A A. f () = g()
f , g . f, g ,
.
. f .
limx f (x) = f () , f , g , limx g(x) =
limx f (x), limx g(x) = f () = g().
g .
{
x + 1, x < 1
4.2.1. f (x) =
x2 x2 ,
1 x < 4
[1, 4). x2 2, f (x) 2.
(1, 4). , f (x) x + 1
(, 1). x + 1 (, 1), f (x)
. , 4.2,
= 1. , , f (x) = 1.
4.3. f : A R, A A f
.
[] f () > u, f (x) > u .
[] f () < l, f (x) < l .
[] u < f () < l, u < f (x) < l .
. 3.4 limx f (x) = f ().
4.2.2.
x8 +x3 +1
x5 +3x4 x2 +1
0.75. > 0 0.7499999 <

x (1 , 1 + ).
x8 +x3 +1
x5 +3x4 x2 +1
18 +13 +1
15 +314 12 +1
3
4
< 0.7500001
4.4. f : A R A A. f
, .
. 3.6 limx f (x) = f ().
1
4.2.3. x(x1)
12 ,
1
1
1
1
2 . , > 0 x(x1) ( 2 , 2 + ).
(0, 1), < 21 .
9
10.1.23 10.1.24
Q .
115
4.5. f : A R A A.
[] f f (x) l ,
f () l.
[] f f (x) u ,
f () u.
[] u < l f (x) l f (x) u
, f .
. 3.7 limx f (x) = f ().
4.6. f, g : A R A A. f, g
f (x) g(x) , f () g().
. 3.8 limx f (x) = f () limx g(x) = g().
4.2.4. f : [0, 1) R 0 f (x) x3
x (0, 1). f (0) 03 = 0.
4.7. f, g, h : A R A A. f, h
, f (x) g(x) h(x)
f () = g() = h(), g .
. 3.10 limx f (x) = f (), limx h(x) = h().
4.8. f, g : A R, A, f , g .
f + g, f g, f g, f, |f | : A R . , , g(x) 6= 0
x A, f /g : A R .
. A, , , . A,
3.11 limx f (x) = f () limx g(x) = g().
4.2.5.
x+ex
(x2x2 ) log x
x2 + x
sin x+cos x
f /g. f, g : A R,
A A f , g .
g(x) 6= 0 x A, f /g
A. , , g() 6= 0. 4.3
g(x) 6= 0 . , > 0 g(x) 6= 0 x
A ( , + ). , g g().
, , f /g : A ( , + ) R .
4.9. f : A B, g : B R A. f g
= f (), g f : A R .
. f g = f ().
> 0. 0 > 0
|g(y) g()| <
y B |y | < 0 .
(4.4)
, 0 > 0
|f (x) | = |f (x) f ()| < 0
x A |x | < .
(4.5)
(4.5) (4.4) y = f (x) ( f (x) B) x A

|x | < |g(f (x)) g()| < , , |(g f )(x) (g f )()| < .
g f .
116
4.2.6. e
x,
log x, sin
x sin x .
4.9 - - 3.13
g f = limx f (x)
g .
4.10. f : A B, g : B R, A. limx f (x) =
B g , limx (g f )(x) = g().
. limx f (x) = B g .
> 0. 0 > 0
|g(y) g()| <
y B |y | < 0 .
(4.6)
, 0 , > 0
|f (x) | < 0
x A 0 < |x | < .
(4.7)
, (4.7) (4.6)
f (x) B)
( y =)f (x) (
x A 0 < |x | < g f (x) g() < , , |(g f )(x) g()| < .
limx (g f )(x) = g().
,
x y = f (x)
(
)
limx g f (x) = limy g(y) = g().
(
)
, limx g f (x) = g() limx f (x) =
(
)
(
)
limx g f (x) = g limx f (x) .
, limx g g
, f .
(x7 +1)4
.
(x7 +1)8 +(x7 +1)12 +5
4
1 y8 +yy 12 +5 1. ,
7 +1)4
14
1
x7 + 1, limx0 (x7 +1)(x
8 +(x7 +1)12 +5 = 18 +112 +5 = 7 .
4.2.7. limx0
limx0 (x7 + 1) =
x y =
4.2.8. limx+
limx+
x y =
x1
x2 +x+1
x1
,
x2 +x+1
x1
)5 +4( 2x1 )3 +1
x2 +x+1
x +x+1
x1
3( 2
)4 +2( 2x1 )2 +1
x +x+1
x +x+1
y 5 +4y 3 +1
0. ,
3y 4 +2y 2 +1
( 2x1 )5 +4( 2x1 )3 +1
05 +403 +1
x +x+1
= 30
limx+ 3(x +x+1
x1
4 +202 +1 = 1.
)4 +2( x1 )2 +1
= 0
x2 +x+1
x2 +x+1
)
4.2.9. limx+ ( sinx x )3 + sinx x .
limx+ sinx x = 0 y 3 + y
(
) 0. ,
x y = sinx x , limx+ ( sinx x )3 + sinx x = 03 + 0 = 0.
3.13 4.10.
(i) 3.13 f 4.10
f . 4.10 3.3.32.
(ii) limx f (x) = , 3.13 f (x) 6=
. 4.10 g .
4.10 3.3.33, y 2 + y 4
0, 3.13 4.2.9, N
117
sinx x 6= 0 x > N . ,
3.3.34, g 0 , ,
N sinx x 6= 0 x > N .
4.10 3.13 ,
g , f (x) 6= .
4.2.10. 3.3.39, , t,
(
)x
limx+ 1 + xt = et .
3.3.39 t = 1 . t = 1.
y y+1
x
limx+ (1 x1 )x = limx+ ( x1
x ) = limy+ ( y+1 )
y
= limy+ ( y+1
)/(1 + y1 )y =
1
e
= e1 .
t > 0 t < 0 t = 1 t = 1, , . t > 0,
(
)t
limx+ (1 + xt )x = limy+ (1 + y1 )ty = limy+ (1 + y1 )y = limze z t = et
, t < 0,
(
)t
limx+ (1 + xt )x = limy+ (1 y1 )ty = limy+ (1 y1 )y
= limze1 z t = et .
t = 0 , , .
3.14. h(x) = f (x)g(x) f (x)
g(x) .
0 < < +, < < + h(x) .
4.10, log f (x) log , , log h(x) = g(x) log f (x) log .
4.10, h(x) = elog h(x) e log = .
3.13 4.10.
0 < < 1 = , log f (x) log log h(x) = g(x) log f (x) + ,
, h(x) = elog h(x) + = .
0 < < 1 = +, log f (x) log log h(x) = g(x) log f (x) ,
, h(x) = elog h(x) 0 = .
> 1 = , log f (x) log log h(x) = g(x) log f (x) ,
, h(x) = elog h(x) 0 = .
> 1 = +, log f (x) log log h(x) = g(x) log f (x) + ,
, h(x) = elog h(x) + = .
= + 0 < +, log f (x) + log h(x) = g(x) log f (x) +
, , h(x) = elog h(x) + = .
= + < 0, log f (x) + log h(x) = g(x) log f (x)
, , h(x) = elog h(x) 0 = .
= 0 = , log f (x) log h(x) = g(x) log f (x) + ,
, h(x) = elog h(x) +.
.
2
x+xe
4.2.1. x logx1
, x3/4 log(1 x), log(x2 + 1),
log(x2 5x + 6), (ex 1)1/2 , 1 cos x, e1/ log x , (1 x + [x])(x [x]), [x], sin(log x),
e1/ sin x , log(sin x), log(1 cos x).
118
4.2.2. f, g : A R A f (x) > 0 x A.

f g : A R (f g )(x) = f (x)g(x) .
xx , (x2 3)(x2)/(x+2) , (log x)log x .
;
4.2.3. limx+ e1/x , limx+ e[x]/x , limx0 ex sin(1/x) , limx cos sinx x
4.10. 3.13;
4.2.4. f : A R A A. f
f (x) l f (x) l
, f ().
()
4.2.5. f : ( , + ) R. limx f (x) = l R limh0 f (+h)+f (h)2f
=
h
m R, f .
limx f (x) ;
4.2.6. f, g : A R max{f, g} : A R min{f, g} : A R

max{f, g}(x) = max{f (x), g(x)} min{f, g}(x) = min{f (x), g(x)} x A.
, f , g A, max{f, g} min{f, g}
.
4.2.7. f, g, h : A R A. m : A R , x A,
m(x) f (x), g(x), h(x) .
m A.
{
1,
x Q
4.2.8. f (x) =
R
1, x R \ Q
|f | R.
{
n, x = m/n m Z, n N gcd(m, n) = 1
4.2.9. f (x) =
0, x R \ Q
f .
4.2.10. 10 f : [a, b] R [a, b].
f (a) = 0 f (b) 6= 0, f [a, b].
f (a) 6= 0 f (b) = 0, f [a, b].
4.2.11. 11 I f : I R I.
f (r) 0 r I, f (x) 0 x I.
f (r) = 0 r I, f (x) = 0 x I.
f: [0, 2] R [0, 2] f (r) = r2 r [0, 2],
f ( 2).
4.2.12. 12 [] f : R R f (x1 + x2 ) = f (x1 ) + f (x2 ) x1 , x2 .
, f , f (x) = cx
c.
[] f : R R f (x1 + x2 x3 ) = f (x1 ) + f (x2 ) f (x3 )
x1 , x2 , x3 . , f ,
f (x) = cx + d c, d.
[] f : R R f (x1 + x2 ) = f (x1 )f (x2 ) x1 , x2 f (0) 6= 0.
, f , f (x) = ecx
c.
10
.
. 4.3.2.
12
.
11
119
4.2.13. f : R R R.
, f ,13
R.
, f R ,
R.
{
1, x Q
- f (x) =
0, x R \ Q
.
4.2.14. f : A R A. g : A R
g(x) = sup{f (t) | t A, t x} x A.
g A f (x) g(x) x A.
h : A R A f (x) h(x) x A,
g(x) h(x) x A. , g
A f A.
, f A, g .
4.2.15. f : R R R limx f (x) = , limx+ f (x) = +.
g : R R g(y) = sup{x | f (x) < y} y.
x + 1, x 1
3
f (x) = x, f (x) = x , f (x) = 0,
1 x 1
x 1, 1 x
g.
f (g(y)) = y y.
, , f , g f .
g R y. g
y;
4.3 .
4.1 . 3.1 , , .
4.1. f : A R, A. f
(xn ) A xn f (xn ) f ().
. f (xn ) A
xn .
> 0. > 0
|f (x) f ()| <
x A |x | < .
(4.8)
,
|xn | < .
(4.9) (4.8) x = xn
|f (xn ) f ()| < .
13
f , f .
120
(4.9)
f (xn ) f ().
, (xn ) A xn f (xn ) f ().
( ) f . > 0
> 0 x A |x | < |f (x) f ()| .
= n1 , n N
xn A |xn | <
1
n
|f (xn ) f ()| .
(xn ) A xn , ,
f (xn ) f (). .
f .
4.3.1. P (x) xn , P (xn ) P ().
P (x)
4.3.2. R(x) = Q(x)
, Q() 6= 0 Q(xn ) 6= 0
n xn , R(xn ) R().
4.3.3. xn , exn e .
4.3.4. > 0 xn > 0 n xn , log xn log .
4.3.5. xn , cos xn cos sin xn sin .
limn+ xn = limn+ f (xn ) = f ()
)
(
limn+ f (xn ) = f limn+ xn .
limn+ f
f , (xn ).
4.1,
() xn (xn )
n.
, 4.1 3.1. , 4.1 (
) 3.1 , ,
6= .
n
4.3.6. 1+(1)
0 sin x 0. sin 1+(1)
sin 0 = 0.
n
n
1+(1)n
3.1,
= 0 n.
n
2.12. zn = xn yn xn x yn y.
0 < x < + < y < + zn xy .
4.1, log xn log x , , log zn = yn log xn y log x.
4.1, zn = elog zn ey log x = xy .
3.1 4.1.
0 < x < 1 y = , log xn log x log zn = yn log xn + , ,
zn = elog zn + = xy .
0 < x < 1 y = +, log xn log x log zn = yn log xn , ,
zn = elog zn 0 = xy .
x > 1 y = , log xn log x log zn = yn log xn , ,
zn = elog zn 0 = xy .
x > 1 y = +, log xn log x log zn = yn log xn + , ,
zn = elog zn + = xy .
x = + 0 < y +, log xn + log zn = yn log xn + ,
121
, zn = elog zn + = xy .
x = + y < 0, log xn + log zn = yn log xn ,
, zn = elog zn 0 = xy .
x = 0 y = , log xn log zn = yn log xn + , ,
zn = elog zn +.
- .

- . , a < 0, ax
x A,
A . , , A
Z ( ax x Z)
A Q , , R.
a < 0.
ax x A ax ay = ax+y x, y A. ,
, A : x + y A x, y A.
r Q. , , m Z, n N gcd(m, n) = 1
r=m
n . r .
: (i) r = m
n r n ,
m0
m . (ii) r = n0 , m0 Z n0 N, r = m
n r
m0
0
n0 . m m n
n0 . , m0 , m , n0 ,
n .
r
, , r Q r = m
n r. a ,
( )
(ar )n = ar ar = ar++r = anr = am ,
ar xn = am . , n , m
, (ar )n = am < 0, . , r
, ar . ,
n
n m
n
m
, x = a
: a ,
m ( am > 0), n am , m ( am < 0).

: r ,
r
ar , r = m
n r , a
n
m
x = a .
A . A , m Z,
m m = m
1 1 . Z A. , A
Q, , , 12 A. A
. , r, s A, r + s A. ,
k
r, s A r = m
n s = l r, s, n, l .
ml+kn
r + s = nl nl . , ,
r + s ( r + s = ml+kn
nl ) ,
r + s A. , ar r A
, ar as = ar+s
r, s A. . ,
, , ar a < 0 r A,
1.8[].
A : Q. ,
122
Z
ax Z ,
. : ax
A. ax A
, , A.
r A ( ) ax r. r = m
n
r. k N
tk =
2k m
,
2k n+1
sk =
2k m+1
.
2k n+1
2k n + 1 , tk , sk
, tk , sk A k N. ,
tk r,
sk r.
ax r,
a tk a r ,
ask ar .
k n+1
atk x2
k N.
ar 0.
ask x2
k N.
ar 0.
km
= a2
k n+1
> 0, atk > 0
k m+1
= a2
< 0, ask < 0
, ar = 0.
ar ar = ar+(r) = a0 = 1.
( a < 0) ax x
A , , , . , ,
, : ,
x, y A, x + y A. , : x, y A, x + y A.
r.
A , r 2 A
2 A, r = (r 2) + 2 A. A . ,
ax x Q.
, A, ,
ax , ax
x . , , ,
ax x.
.
) (
)
n) (
, log(1 + n1 ) ,
4.3.1. (1 + n1 )8 + 4(1 + n1 )5 + 7 , exp 1+(1)
n
) (
(
)
(
)
4 +n4 ) ( n2 +3
n log(1 + n1 ) , exp 3n
, ( 4n2 3 )3/2 , (tan 21n ), 2log(cos(1/n)) .
n4 +n3 +4
(
4.3.2. 2.3.32, 4.2.11.

4.3.3. 2.3.41[] 2.3.41[].
4.3.4. f : [a, b] R [a, b]. x [a, b] x0 [a, b]
|f (x0 )| |f (x)|
2 . [a, b] f () = 0.
123
4.3.5. 14 f : [a, +) [a, +) M 0 M < 1

|f (x0 ) f (x00 )| M |x0 x00 | x0 , x00 [a, +). 4.1.12, f
[a, +). [a, +) f () = .
[a, b], (, b], (, +)
[a, +).
4.3.6. f : A R (xn ) A lim xn A.
f A lim xn , lim f (xn ) = f (lim xn ).
lim xn ; f
A;
4.4 .
, , .
.
. f : [a, b] R [a, b]. f
[a, b].
. 15 f : [a, b] R [a, b].

A = {x [a, b] | f [a, x]}.
, a A f [a, a]. , b
A , , A [a, b]. ,
= sup A,
[a, b].
f a, a, c (a, b] f
[a, c]. c A, a < c b,
a < b.
f , , c [a, ) f
[c, ]. , = sup A, d A c < d . ,
f [a, d] [c, ], [a, ].
A.
< b. f , , c
(, b] f [, c]. , f [a, ] [, c],
[a, c] , , c A. , < c
A.
= b , , f [a, b].
. ( ) f [a, b].
, n N xn [a, b]
|f (xn )| > n.
f : A A A M 0 M < 1
|f (x0 ) f (x00 )| M |x0 x00 | x0 , x00 A. A
f A f () = . .
4.4.10.
15
4.4.24 4.4.25.
14
124
(xn ) [a, b] |f (xn )| > n n , ,

|f (xn )| +.
(4.10)
Bolzano - Weierstrass, (xnk ) (xn )

.
xnk .
a xnk b k, a b. [a, b], f
, xnk
f (xnk ) f ()
, , |f (xnk )| |f ()|. , (4.10) |f (xnk )| + .
{
1/x, 0 < x 1
4.4.1. f (x) =
[0, 1].
0,
x = 0
{
x, 0 < x 1
4.4.2. f (x) =
[0, 1].
1, x = 0
4.4.3. H
1
x(x1)
(0, 1).
4.4.4. x (1, 1).

4.4.5. x R.
4.4.6.
1
x2 +1
R.
4.4.7. x + x1
(0, +), (0, +). , (0, 1] [1, +).
4.4.8. 0 < a < b. u log(ux x1 )
[a, b]. , x + x1 [a, b] [a, b],
u x + x1 < u x [a, b].
- . f : [a, b] R [a, b].
, [a, b] f () f (x) f () x [a, b].
. 16 f : [a, b] R [a, b].
, f [a, b],
{f (x) | x [a, b]} .
u = sup{f (x) | x [a, b]},

(4.11)
u .
, f (x) u x [a, b].
( ) f (x) < u x [a, b].
g : [a, b] R
g(x) = uf1 (x)
(4.12)
, , [a, b]. , M
g(x) M
(4.13)
16
-
4.4.25.
125
x [a, b]. (4.12) (4.13)

f (x) u
1
M
1
x [a, b]. u M
{f (x) | x [a, b]}. , ,
(4.11).
[a, b] f () = u, f (x) f () x [a, b].
, infimum {f (x) | a x b},
f () f (x) x [a, b].
. u = sup{f (x) | x [a, b]}.
n N u n1 {f (x) | a x b}, xn [a, b]
u n1 < f (xn ).
u {f (x) | a x b},
u
1
n
< f (xn ) u.
(xn ) [a, b] u
1
n
< f (xn ) u n,
f (xn ) u.
(4.14)
Bolzano - Weierstrass, (xnk ) .

xnk .
a xnk b k, a b, f .
xnk
f (xnk ) f ().
(4.14) f (xnk ) u , ,
f () = u,
f (x) f () x [a, b].
, infimum {f (x) | a x b}, .
, -
. f f . ,
- , f

. 5.
x + 1, 1 x < 0
4.4.9. f (x) = 0,
[1, 1]
x = 0
x 1, 0 < x 1
. , , [1, 1].
{
0, 1 x < 0
4.4.10. f (x) =
[1, 1]
1, 0 x 1
.
4.4.11. H x ( ) (1, 1)
(1, 1).
126
x + 2,
4.4.12. f (x) = x,
x 2,
.
4.4.13.
.
x|x|
x2 +1
2 < x < 1
1 x 1 (2, 2)
1 < x < 2
( ) R
4.4.14. f (x) =
1/x, |x| > 1

R
x,
|x| 1
.
4.4.15. 4.4.8. u
log(u x x1 ) [a, b]. , x + x1
[a, b], [a, b] x + x1 + 1 x [a, b].
u + 1 + 1 .
. f : [a, b] R [a, b].
f (a) f (b) f (b) f (a) [a, b] f () = .
. 17 f : [a, b] R [a, b] f (a) f (b).

A = {x [a, b] | f (x) }.
A - , a A A [a, b].
= sup A,
[a, b] A [a, ].
f () > . , , (a, b]. f , c [a, )
f (x) > x (c, ]. A [a, c]. , c <
= sup A. f () .
f () < . , , [a, b). f , c (, b]
f (x) < x [, c). [, c) A. A [a, ].
f () .
f () f () f () = .
[a, b] f () = .18
f (b) f (a).
. f (a) f (b).
a+b
a+b
[a, a+b
2 ], [ 2 , b] f (a) f ( 2 )
a+b
f ( a+b
2 ) f (b). a1 = a, b1 = 2 .
a1 = a+b
2 , b1 = b. , [a1 , b1 ] [a, b], b1 a1 =
ba
f
(a
)
f
(b
).
1
1
2
a1 +b1
1
, [a1 , a1 +b
2 ], [ 2 , b1 ] f (a1 )
a1 +b1
1
f ( a1 +b
2 ) f ( 2 ) f (b1 ). a2 = a1 , b2 =
a1 +b1
a1 +b1
2 . a2 =
2 , b2 = b1 . ,
1
[a2 , b2 ] [a1 , b1 ], b2 a2 = b1 a
f
(a
)
f
(b
2
2 ).
2
.
[an , bn ] n
[an+1 , bn+1 ] [an , bn ],
bn+1 an+1 =
17
bn an
2 ,
f (an ) f (bn )
(4.15)
4.6.13.
, , f () = .
A = {x [a, b] | f (x) } = inf A, f () = .
18
127
n.
(4.15) bn an =
ba
2n
n , ,
bn an 0.
, (an ), (bn )
.
an ,
bn .
an , bn [a, b] n, [a, b], f .
f (an ) f (),
f (bn ) f ()
, (4.15) f () = .
f (b) f (a), .
. f (a) = f (b), ,
, = f (a) = f (b), f (x) = :
a, b. , f (a) 6= f (b) = f (a) = f (b), f (x) =
: a b, . f (a) < < f (b)
f (b) < < f (a) . ,
a, b f (x) = , (a, b)
f () = . :
f : [a, b] R [a, b]. f (a) < < f (b)
f (b) < < f (a) (a, b) f () = .
. ,
:
.
{
1, 0 < x 1
4.4.16. f (x) =
[0, 1].
0, x = 0
(f (0), f (1)) = (0, 1) f .
{
x,
0 x < 1/2
4.4.17. f (x) =
[0, 1],
x (1/2), 1/2 x 1
(f (0), f (1)) = (0, 21 ) f .
.
4.4.18. 3x7 1 = x
[0, 1].
3x7 1 x [0, 1]. 3 07 1 0 = 1 3 17 1 1 = 1
1 < 0 < 1. (0, 1) 3 7 1 = 0.
4.4.19. x3 5x2 18x + 7 = 0
, .
f (x) = x3 5x2 18x + 7. a, b a 0. (a, b) f () = 0.
128
4.4.20. n N. y > 0.
limx+ xn = +, b > 0 bn > y. ,
b > max{y, 1} b > 1 b > y ,
, bn > b > y.
xn [0, b] 0n < y < bn . x (0, b)
xn = y.
, , 1.2:
y > 0 x > 0 xn = y.
xn = y
1.2 y = 0 .
, , .
BOLZANO. f : [a, b] R [a, b]. f (a)f (b) < 0,
(a, b) f () = 0.
. f : [a, b] R [a, b] f (a)f (b) < 0.
f (a) < 0 < f (b) f (b) < 0 < f (a), (a, b) f () = 0.
. I f : I R I.
f (x) 6= 0 x I, f (x) > 0 x I f (x) < 0
x I.
. f : I R I f (x) 6= 0 x I.
( ) a, b I f (a) < 0 f (b) > 0.
I , [a, b] [b, a] I, f
. (a, b) (b, a) , , I f () = 0. .
f (x) > 0 x I f (x) < 0 x I.
Bolzano . ,
, .
, Bolzano f : [a, b] R [a, b]
f (a) f (b) f (b) f (a).
= f (a) = f (b), [a, b] f () = : a b, . ,
, f (a) < < f (b) f (b) < < f (a). g : [a, b] R
g(x) = f (x) x [a, b]. g [a, b] g(a)g(b) < 0.
(a, b) g() = 0 , , f () = .
.
, Bolzano .19
, :
I f : I R I. f ,
f .
, f (a) f (b) a, b I. I ,
[a, b] [b, a] I, f .
[a, b] [b, a] , , I f () = f .
.
4.4.1. x2 x + 1 (0, 1);
19
, , .
4.4.21.
129
4.4.2. sin x1 (0, +)

(0, +). ;
x sin x, x1 sin x1 (0, +).
1
1+x
sin x1 (0, +).
4.4.3. x7 3x6 + 5x5 + 13x4 x3 12x2 5x + 1 = 0
[0, 1].
2
1
5
+ x2
+ x3
= 0
x3 + x1
(0, 1), (1, 2), (2, 3).
ex = x + 2 .
4.4.4. a1 < b1 < a2 < b2 < < an < bn .
P (x) = 2(x a1 ) (x an ) + 3(x b1 ) (x bn ) n .
4.4.5. f : I R I n N, n 2.
(xn )
x1 , . . . , xn I I f () = f (x1 )++f
.
n
4.4.6. f : [0, 1] R [0, 1] f (0) = f (1). k N k 2
1
x [0, k1
k ) f (x) = f (x + k ).
4.4.7. f, g : [a, b] R [a, b] f (x) > g(x)
x [a, b]. > 0 f (x) g(x) + x [a, b].
4.4.8. |f | : [a, b] R, 4.3.4.
4.4.9. f : (a, b) R (a, b) f (x) Q x (a, b).
f (a, b).
4.4.10. [] f, g : [a, b] R [a, b]. f (a) g(a) f (b) g(b),
[a, b] f () = g().
[]20 , f : [a, b] [a, b] [a, b], [a, b]
f () = .
[] f : R R . limx f (x) = limx+ f (x) = +,
f () = .
4.4.11. I f, g : I R I f (x) 6= g(x)
x I.
f (x) < g(x) x I f (x) > g(x) x I.
h : I R I. h(x) = f (x) h(x) = g(x) x I,
h(x) = f (x) x I h(x) = g(x) x I.
4.4.12. [] I f, g : I R I. g(x)2 = f (x)2 > 0
x I, g(x) = f (x) x I g(x) = f (x)
x I.
[] I [0, +) I (, 0] f : I R I.
f (x)2 = x2 x I. f (x) = x x I
f (x) = x x I.
f : R R f (x)2 = x2 x;
2
2
[] I [1, 1] f : I R
I. x + f (x) = 1
2
x I. f (x) = 1 x x I f (x) =
1 x2 x I.
20
2.4.16[].
. 4.3.5. .
130
4.4.13. 21 [] I f1 , . . . , fn : I R I. f1 , . . . , fn
x I n .
;
, , h : I R I x I ( x) n , ,
(h(x) f1 (x)) (h(x) fn (x)) = 0 x I. h
f1 , . . . , fn ;
[] I [1, +) I [0, 1] h : I R I.
(h(x) x)(h(x) x2 )(h(x) x3 ) = 0 x I. h(x) = x
x I h(x) = x2 x I h(x) = x3 x I.
I = [0, +), - - h;
4.4.14. 22 a, b R, a limxa f (x)
f (x0 ) > limxb f (x), f (a, b).
f (a, b).
4.4.15. I f : I R I. x I,
I, > 0 x0 (x, x + ) I f (x) f (x0 ). f
I.
{
x,
0 x < 1
f (x) =

x 1, 1 x 2
2.4.16[].
4.4.16. 23 f : R R R. x f
x0 > x f (x0 ) > f (x).24 x (a, b) f a, b
f . A f (x) < f (b) x (a, b)
f (a) = f (b).
4.4.17. f : (a, +) R (a+). b > 0
(xn ) (a, +) xn + f (xn + b) f (xn ) 0.
4.4.18. f, g : [a, b] [a, b] [a, b]. g f g = g f .
[a, b] f () = g() = .25
4.4.19. 26 , f : I R -- I,
f I.
{
x,
x [0, 1] Q
f : [0, 1] [0, 1] f (x) =
f
1 x, x [0, 1] \ Q
--, 12 [0, 1].
21
4.4.11.
7.3. 4.5.9, 4.5.10 4.5.11.
22
- .
4.5.12 4.13
.
23
.
2.5.9.
24
f (x) , , f (x0 ) +.
25
4.3.5 4.4.10, f, g .
26
. --. , .
131
4.4.20. I ( ) f : I R f (x) =
. f
I. , I = [a, b), I = (a, b), I = [a, b]
f ;
4.4.21.
.
4.4.22. - A . 1.4,
a, b A a < b f : A R A
f (a) < < f (b) A f () = . : f : A R
A A A .
4.4.23. f : [a, b] R [a, b] , f (a) f (b) f (b) f (a)
[a, b] f () = . f [a, b].
4.4.24. 27 f : [a, b] R [a, b].
a+b
f [a, b]. f [a, a+b
2 ] [ 2 , b].
[a1 , b1 ] f .
, [an , bn ] n [an+1 , bn+1 ]
n
f [an , bn ].
[an , bn ], bn+1 an+1 = bn a
2
[a, b] an bn f .
n0 f [an0 , bn0 ] .
f [a, b].
4.4.25. 28 f : [a, b] R [a, b].
u = sup{f (x) | x [a, b]}, u R {+}. (xn ) [a, b]
f (xn ) u. (xnk ) (xn ).
xnk . f (xnk ) f () f () = u. u
f [a, b].
4.5 . .
f
, ,
f (x) = .
4.11. ,
.
. I f : I R I.
A = {f (x) | x I} f y1 , y2 A y1 < y < y2 . y
y1 y2 f , y f , y A.
1.4, A .
4.11 1.4.
f : I R I
l = inf{f (x) | x I}
27
28
u = sup{f (x) | x I}.
.
- .
132
4.11 {f (x) | x I} , 1.4, l, u R. ,

{f (x) | x I} = (l, u) [l, u] (l, u] [l, u).
.
(i) f ( ) ( ), l u
f , , [l, u].
(ii) f , (l, u).
(iii) f , l f ,
, [l, u).
(iv) f , u f ,
, (l, u].
, infimum supremum
.
. 4.5.13.

- - .
4.12. f : [a, b] R [a, b]. {f (x) | x [a, b]}
f I.
. 4.11 - .

.
. 5 , ,
. ,
.
4.5.1. x2 [1, 4],
[1, 4] 12 = 1 42 = 16. x2
[1, 4] [1, 16].
4.5.2. x1 [ 21 , 3],
[ 21 , 3] 13 2. x1
[ 12 , 3] [ 13 , 2].
4.5.3. f (x) = x2 6x + 5 = (x 3)2 4
[1, 6]. f [1, 3] [3, 6]. f
[1, 6] f (3) = 4 max{f (1), f (6)} = 12.
f [1, 6] [4, 12].
, ,
.
4.13. 29 P (x) = a0 + a1 x + + an xn .
[] P , n = 2k 1, k N, an 6= 0.
P (, +).
[] P , n = 2k, k N, an 6= 0. an > 0, P
, l, [l, +). an < 0, P
, u, (, u].
29
4.5.12.
133
. [] an > 0, limx P (x) = limx+ P (x) = +.

P , infimum
supremum +. 4.11, P
(, +).
an < 0, limx P (x) = + limx+ P (x) = .
[] an > 0. limx P (x) = limx+ P (x) = +,
a, b a < 0 < b
P (0) < P (x)
x (, a) (b, +).
(4.16)
, P [a, b], , l, . ,
l P (x)
x [a, b].
(4.17)
0 [a, b], l P (0), , (4.16),

l < P (x)
x (, a) (b, +).
(4.18)
(4.17) (4.18) l P R.
, limx P (x) = limx+ P (x) = + P
. P l supremum
+. P [l, +).
an < 0, .
4.5.4. 2x5 + 4x4 3x3 x2 1 (, +).
4.5.5. P (x) = x4 4x3 + 4x2 7 = x2 (x 2)2 7. ,
P (x) 7 x 7 = P (0) = P (2). 7 P
[7, +).

.30 4.14
, 3.2, ,
(, ) .
, , --. ,
f : I J I J,
f 1 : J I J
I. , f , f 1 , ,
. ,
4.14, f f 1 .
4.14. [] f : [a, b] R [a, b].
f [A, B], A = f (a), B = f (b). , f 1 : [A, B] [a, b]
[A, B].
[] a, b R, a < b f : (a, b) R (a, b).
f (A, B), A = limxa f (x) R, B = limxb f (x) R. ,
f 1 : (A, B) (a, b) (A, B).
[] a R, a < b f : (a, b] R (a, b].
f (A, B], A = limxa f (x) R, B = f (b). , f 1 : (A, B]
(a, b] (A, B].
[] b R, a < b f : [a, b) R [a, b).
f [A, B), A = f (a), B = limxb f (x) R. , f 1 : [A, B)
30
5
.
134
[a, b) [A, B).

[] - [] f
. A, B . ,
[] [B, A] [A, B].
. f . 4.11 3.2.
[] 4.12 4.11, f
[A, B], A = f (a), B = f (b), f 1 : [A, B] [a, b]
[A, B] [a, b].
[] 3.2 infimum supremum
f A = limxa f (x) B = limxb f (x), ,
A < f (x) < B x (a, b). , 4.11 (
), f (A, B),
f 1 : (A, B) (a, b) (A, B) (a, b).
[] infimum f A = limxa f (x) A < f (x)
x (a, b]. B = f (b) . f (A, B], f 1 : (A, B] (a, b]
(A, B] (a, b].
[] supremum f B = limxb f (x) f (x) < B
x [a, b). A = f (a) .
f [A, B), f 1 : [A, B) [a, b)
[A, B) [a, b).
, f .
.
f 1 : J I J I. f 1
J. J ,
J. f 1 , ,
4.1, f 1
f 1 . , , ,
f 1 I. f 1 J.
4.5.6. f : (1, 3) R f (x) = 2x2 + 1. f
(1, 3) limx1 f (x) = 3, limx3 f (x) = 19. f
(3, 19). f 1 : (3, 19) (1, 3) (3, 19).
f 1 (3, 19),
limy3 f 1 (y) limy19 f 1 (y).
f , (1, 3). limy3 f 1 (y) = 1 limy19 f 1 (y)
= 3.
f 1 . : f 1 (y) = (y 1)/2.
f 1 3 19.
4.5.7. f : (1, +) R f (x) = x+1
x1 . f
(1, +) limx1 f (x) = +, limx+ f (x) = 1.
f (1, +). f 1 : (1, +) (1, +)
(1, +). f 1 (1, +),
limy+ f 1 (y) limy1 f 1 (y).
(1, +), limy+ f 1 (y) = 1 limy1 f 1 (y) = +.
y+1
f 1 f 1 (y) = y1
. f 1
1 +.
f 1 .
f 1 . , f 1
135
4.14
f 1 .
4.5.8. f : R R f (x) = x5 + x3 + x
R limx f (x) = , limx+ f (x) = +. f R
( , f ). f 1 : R R
R. , f 1
limy f 1 (y) = limy+ f 1 (y) = +.
f 1 .
4.5.9. f : [0, +) R f (x) = xex + 1
[0, +). f (0) = 1, limx+ f (x) = , f
(, 1] f 1 : (, 1] [0, +) (, 1].
, f 1 limy f 1 (y) = +.
f 1 , x xex +1 = y.
.
4.5.10. n N, n 2. 1.2 4.4.20
y [0, +) xn = y [0, +).
1.4, n y n-
y. , x = n y, [0, +).
4.14.
y = xn [0, +) [0, +) 0n = 0 limx+ xn = +. 4.14
[0, +) ,
x = n y, [0, +).
x = n y , [0, +).
x = n y ( )
limy n y = n
0.
, x = n y [0, +)
, 4.14
limy+ n y = +.
4.5.11. a > 1. y = ax
(, +) limx ax = 0 limx+ ax = +,
4.14 (0, +).
, , x = loga y,
, (0, +)
(, +).

4.14.
y = ax 4.14 , x = loga y, (0, +).
x = loga y y = ax , (, +).
x = loga y
logy loga y = loga
, x = loga y (, +) , 4.14
limy0+ loga y = .
limy+ loga y = +,
136
0 < a < 1.
,
,
.
.
.
cos [0, ]. H cos : [0, ] R
[0, ]. cos 0 = 1 cos = 1, [1, 1].
.
. cos : [0, ] [1, 1]
arccos : [1, 1] [0, ].
, x [0, ], y [1, 1], : x = arccos y cos x = y.

arccos : [1, 1] [0, ] [1, 1]
[0, ].
sin [ 2 , 2 ]. H sin : [ 2 , 2 ] R
[ 2 , 2 ]. sin( 2 ) = 1 sin 2 = 1, [1, 1].
.
. sin : [ 2 , 2 ] [1, 1]
arcsin : [1, 1] [ 2 , 2 ].
, x [ 2 , 2 ], y [1, 1], : x = arcsin y sin x = y.

arcsin : [1, 1] [ 2 , 2 ] [1, 1]
[ 2 , 2 ].
tan ( 2 , 2 ). H tan : ( 2 , 2 ) R
( 2 , 2 ). limx 2 + tan x = limx 2 tan x = +,
(, +). .
. tan : ( 2 , 2 ) (, +) -
arctan : (, +) ( 2 , 2 ).
, x ( 2 , 2 ), y (, +), : x = arctan y tan x = y.

arctan : (, +) ( 2 , 2 ) (, +)
( 2 , 2 ).
, ,
limy arctan y = 2 ,
limy+ arctan y = 2 .
, cot (0, ). H cot : (0, ) R (0, ). limx0+ cot x = + limx cot x = ,

(, +). .
. cot : (0, ) (, +) -
arccot : (, +) (0, ).
, x (0, ), y (, +), : x = arccot y cot x = y.

arccot : (, +) (0, ) (, +)
(0, ).
,
limy arccot y = ,
limy+ arccot y = 0.
137
.
. , , -
:
cosh x =
ex +ex
,
2
sinh x =
ex ex
,
2
tanh x =
ex ex
,
ex +ex
coth x =
ex +ex
.
ex ex
x x 6= 0.
:
(cosh x)2 (sinh x)2 = 1,
tanh x =
sinh x
cosh x ,
coth x =
cosh x
sinh x ,
cosh(x1 + x2 ) = cosh x1 cosh x2 + sinh x1 sinh x2 ,

sinh(x1 + x2 ) = cosh x1 sinh x2 + sinh x1 cosh x2 .
cos x, sin x,
tan x cot x. :
ex = cosh x sinh x
ex = cosh x + sinh x,

eix = cos x i sin x
eix = cos x + i sin x,
.
cosh [0, +). cosh 0 = 1
limx+ cosh x = +, cosh [0, +) [1, +).
cosh , (, 0]
[1, +). , cosh -- R. ,
cosh [0, +).
. cosh : [0, +) [1, +) -
arccosh : [1, +) [0, +).
arccosh : [1, +) [0, +) [1, +)

[0, +).
arccosh y = log(y + y 2 1)
1 y.
sinh (, +). , limx sinh x =
limx+ sinh x = +, sinh (, +).
.
. sinh : (, +) (, +)
arcsinh : (, +) (, +).
arcsinh : (, +) (, +) (, +)
(, +)
arcsinh y = log(y + y 2 + 1)
y.
tanh (, +).
limx tanh x = 1 limx+ tanh x = 1, tanh
(1, 1). .
. tanh : (, +) (1, 1) -
arctanh : (1, 1) (, +).

138
arctanh : (1, 1) (, +) (1, 1)

(, +).
arctanh y =
1
2
log 1+y
1y
1 < y < 1.
coth (0, +) limx0+ coth x = +

limx+ coth x = 1, coth (0, +)
(1, +). coth , (, 0)
(, 1). coth (, 0) (0, +) --
(, 1) (1, +). .
. coth : (, 0)(0, +) (, 1)(1, +) -
arccoth : (, 1) (1, +)
(, 0) (0, +).
arccoth : (, 1) (1, +) (, 0) (0, +)
(, 1) (1, +) (, 0)
(0, +). : arccoth (, 1) (1, +)
(, 1) (1, +).
y+1
y < 1 1 < y.
arccoth y = 21 log y1
arctanh arccoth x = 21 log | y+1
y1 |
(, 1) (1, 1) (1, +) (, +).
.
4.5.1. 2x3 + x2 5x + 6, x4 2x2 + 7, x6 3x4 + 3x2 1 ;
4.5.2. x +
1
x
(, 1], [1, 0), (0, 1], [1, +).
4.5.3.
c.
3
x
2
1
5
+ x1
+ x2
+ x3
= c ;
4.5.4. x2 + 2x [0, 1], x1 (0, 1] x21+1 [0, +).

.
;
4.5.5. P (x) = a0 + a1 x + + an xn . a0 an < 0,
> 0 P () = 0.
4.5.6. 0, 12 ,
2
2 ,
3
2
1.
4.5.7. arctan y + arccot y = 2 y arccos y + arcsin y = 2

y [1, 1].
y y = cos(arccos y) y = sin(arcsin y); y
y = tan(arctan y) y = cot(arccot y);
arctan y + arctan y1 = 2 y > 0 arctan y + arctan y1 = 2
y < 0.
arccos(cos x) = x x [0, ]. , arccos(cos x) x [k, (k + 1)] k Z ;
arcsin(sin x), arctan(tan x)
arccot (cot x) ;
4.5.8. y+1
x = 12 log | y1
|.
139
4.5.9. 31 f1 : (, 0) (, +), f2 : (0, +) (, +)

f1 (x) = f2 (x) = 21 (x x1 ).
f1 , f2 (, +).
f1 1 , f2 1 ,
, , ;
, g f1 1 , f2 1 , g(y)2 2yg(y) 1 = 0
y (, +).
g : (, +) R (, +) g(y)2 2yg(y) 1 = 0
y (, +). g = f1 1 g = f2 1 .
.
4.5.10. f1 : (, 1] R, f2 : [1, 0) R, f3 : (0, 1] R, f4 : [1, +) R
f1 (x) = f2 (x) = f3 (x) = f4 (x) = 12 (x + x1 ).
f1 , f4 f2 , f3
. , ,
f1 1 , f2 1 , f3 1 , f4 1 ;
, g f1 1 , f2 1 , f3 1 , f4 1 , g(y)2
2yg(y) + 1 = 0 y .
g : (, 1] R (, 1] g(y)2 2yg(y) + 1 = 0
y (, 1]. g = f1 1 g = f2 1 .
g : [1, +) R [1, +) g(y)2 2yg(y) + 1 = 0
y [1, +). g = f3 1 g = f4 1 .
.
4.5.11. f1 : (, 1] R, f2 : [1, 1] R, f3 : [1, +) R
f1 (x) = f2 (x) = f3 (x) = x3 3x.
f1 , f3 f2
. , ,
f1 1 , f2 1 , f3 1 ;
, g f1 1 , f2 1 , f3 1 , g(y)3 3g(y) = y
y .
I g : I R I g(y)3 3g(y) = y y I.
I = [2, +), g = f3 1 . I = (, 2], g = f1 1 . , ,
I = [2, 2], g = f1 1 g = f2 1 g = f3 1 .
.
4.5.12. a, b R , a < b f : (a, b) R (a, b).
limxa f (x) = limxb f (x) = . 4.4.14, f
(a, b). u f , f (, u].
limxa f (x) = limxb f (x) = +;
4.5.13. a, b R, a < b f : (a, b) R (a, b).
A = limxa f (x) R, B = limxb f (x) R A < B.
A < f (x) < B x (a, b), f (A, B).
f (x) < B x (a, b) x0 (a, b) f (x0 ) A,
f (a, b). l , f
[l, B).
31
4.4.11 4.4.13. g
- .
7.3. 7.3.28.
140
A < f (x) x (a, b) x0 (a, b) B f (x0 ),

f (a, b). u , f
(A, u].
x0 0 , x0 00 (a, b) f (x0 0 ) A B f (x0 00 ), f
(a, b). l u ,
f [l, u].
A > B A = B;
(a, b] [a, b) (a, b);
4.6 .
f : A R. f A. f
> 0 > 0 |f (x) f ()| <
x A |x| < . .
: = (, ). : (i) ,
f , ,
, , , (ii) ,
.
.
4.6.1. f : R R f (x) = x2 .
f . , > 0
> 0 |x2 2 | < x |x | < .
.
( ) , > 0,
> 0 , ,
|x2 2 | < x |x | < . , , x = + 2
|x | < , , |x2 2 | < . , ,
2
| + 4 | < .
2
: | + 4 | < , . !!
2
2
, | + 4 | : lim+ | + 4 | = +.
2
, | + 4 | < .

f : A R A , ,
.
: > 0 > 0 A |f (x) f ()| <
x A |x | < . ,
: > 0 > 0
|f (x) f ()| < , , A x A |x | < .
: > 0 > 0 |f (x)f ()| <
x, A |x | < . , x,
, .
. f : A R. f A > 0
> 0 |f (x0 ) f (x00 )| < x0 , x00 A |x0 x00 | < .
, f : A R A,
A. , .
4.6.2. 4.6.1, f : R R f (x) = x2
R R.
141
4.6.3. f : R R f (x) = 3x 2.
> 0. |f (x0 ) f (x00 )| < |(3x0 2) (3x00 2)| <
3|x0 x00 | < |x0 x00 | < 3 . :
|f (x0 ) f (x00 )| < |(3x0 2) (3x00 2)| < 3|x0 x00 | < |x0 x00 | < 3 .
0 < 3 . , x0 , x00 R |x0 x00 | <
|x0 x00 | < 3 , , |f (x0 ) f (x00 )| < .
f R.
4.2 6 .
4.2. 32 f : [a, b] R [a, b],
[a, b].
. f [a, b].
> 0 > 0 x0 , x00 [a, b] |x0 x00 | <
|f (x0 ) f (x00 )| . n N
xn 0 , xn 00 [a, b] |xn 0 xn 00 | <
1
n
|f (xn 0 ) f (xn 00 )| .
(xn 0 ) , , Bolzano - Weierstrass,

(xnk 0 ) .
xnk 0 .
a xnk 0 b k, a b. |xnk 0 xnk 00 | <
k,
xnk 0 xnk 00 0.
xnk 0
1
nk
xnk 00 .
[a, b], f . xnk 0 xnk 00

f (xnk 0 ) f () f (xnk 00 ) f ().
,
f (xnk 0 ) f (xnk 00 ) 0.
, , |f (xnk 0 ) f (xnk 00 )| k.
, f [a, b].
.
{
0, x [0, 1)
4.6.1. f (x) =

1, x (1, 2]
[0, 1) (1, 2].
4.6.2. x, |x|, x2 + 1 R, x
[0, +) x1 (0, +).
f (x) = x sin(log(x + 1)) -
[0, +) limx+ f (x).
sin(x2 ) [0, +)
[0, +).
32
4.2, - -
5.3.20. , 4.6.3, 4.6.7, 4.6.9, 4.6.11
4.6.12.
142
4.6.3. f : A R > 0, M 0 |f (x0 ) f (x00 )| M |x0 x00 |

x0 , x00 A. f A.33
x |x| R.
x2 [a, b] R.
4.6.4. A B, f : B R. f B,
A.
4.6.5. f : A B, g : B R. f A g
B, g f : A R A.
4.6.6. f, g : A R A.
f + g : A R A.
, , f, g , f g : A R A.
A f, g : A R A f g
A.
4.6.7. a < b < c, f : (a, c) R. f (a, b] [b, c),
(a, c).
4.6.8. f : [0, 1] R [0, 1]. n1 nk=1 (1)k f (k/n) 0.

4.6.9. f : A R. f A
(xn 0 ), (xn 00 ) A xn 0 xn 00 0 f (xn 0 ) f (xn 00 ) 0.
4.6.10. f : A R A. (xn ) A Cauchy,
(f (xn )) Cauchy.
x2 ;
4.6.11. 34 b R {+} f : [a, b) R [a, b).
, limxb f (x) , f
[a, b).
, , , b R f [a, b),
limxb f (x) .
, , , b R, f [a, b)
g : [a, b] R [a, b] g(x) = f (x) x [a, b).
(a, b] (a, b) [a, b).
4.6.12. f : R R R . > 0
f (x + ) = f (x) x. f R.
4.6.13. 35 f : [a, b] R [a, b] f (a) < < f (b).
k N > 0 = 1/k
. [a, b] a = x0 < x1 < . . . < xn1 < xn = b
< . nk 1, . . . , n 1 f (xnk ) .
f (xnk ) < f (xnk +1 ) |f (xnk ) | < 1/k , ,
f (xnk ) . Bolzano - Weierstrass [a, b]
f () = .
33
f , Hlder- A Hlder- . ,
= 1, f Lipschitz- A. 4.1.12. ,
, 5.3.20 5.4.10.
34
.
35
.
143
4.6.14. [] f : [0, +) R [0, +).

a, b 0 |f (x)| ax + b x 0.
4.6.15. f : [0, +) R [0, +).
f (x + n) 0 x 0, limx+ f (x) = 0.
(xn ) xn + xn+1 xn 0 f (xn ) 0,
limx+ f (x) = 0. (xn ) xn +
xn+1 xn 0 ;
4.6.16. A f : A R A. f
.
4.6.17. f : R R > 0. a - f
|f (a + x) f (x)| < x.
f : R R > 0 L > 0
L - f .
.
.
, f, g : R R , f + g, f g
.
sin x 2. a ,
sin x + sin(ax) .
144
.
5.1 .
. f : A R A A. limx
, f 0 () f . ,
f 0 () = limx
f (x)f ()
x
f (x)f ()
.
x
, f 0 () R. f 0 () R,
f .
f 0 ()
Dx f (),
df
dx (),
dy
dx ().
y = f (x) x
y.
. , dy dx
f 0 (). .
, ,
. , .
, , x, ,
df
dy
Dx f (x), dx
(x) dx
(x),
Dx f,
df
dx ,
dy
dx ,
x .
5.1.1.
1.
dx2
dx (1)
= limx1
x2 12
x1
= limx1 (x + 1) = 2. x2
3
0
5.1.2. ddxx (0) = limx0 x
= limx0
x0
0 0.
3 2
x
= +.
3
x
()
()
limx f (x)f
limh0 f (+h)f
,
x
h
x h = x .
()
limx f (x)f

x
0. , f ,
0 00 .
145
. f : A R, A. A
()
limx f (x)f
, f0 () ()
x
f .
()
, A limx+ f (x)f
,
x
f+0 () () f .
df
dy
Dx f (), dx
() dx
()
.
. (i)
A. f 0 () f0 (), f+0 ()
, , f 0 () = f0 () = f+0 (). (ii)
A. f 0 () f0 ()
, , f 0 () = f0 (). (iii)
A. f 0 () f+0 () ,
, f 0 () = f+0 ().
d|x|
d|x|
|x|
(0) = limx0+ |x|
5.1.3. dx+
x = 1 dx (0) = limx0 x = 1. |x|
0.
d |x|
|x|
d |x|
|x|
5.1.4. dx+ (0) = limx0+ x = + dx (0) = limx0 x = .
|x| 0.
{
x,
x 0
5.1.5. f (x) =
f+0 (0) = limx0+ xx = +
x, x 0
f0 (0) = limx0
x
x
= +. f 0 f 0 (0) = +.
{
x sin(1/x), x 6= 0
5.1.6. f (x) =
0,
x = 0
f+0 (0) = limx0+ x sin(1/x)
= limx0+ sin x1 . f0 (0) = limx0 x sin(1/x)
=
x
x
limx0 sin x1 , , . f 0.
4.1.19 0.
{
x2 sin(1/x), x 6= 0
5.1.7. f (x) =
0,
x = 0
2
. , , f 0 (0) = limx0 x
limx0 x = 0 sin x1 .
5.1.8. x [0, +). ddxx (0) =
sin(1/x)
x
= limx0 x sin x1 = 0,
d x
dx+ (0)
= limx0+
x
x
= +.
. f : A R B A. B f 0 (), f
B. B f 0 () , f
B.
. f : A R. B = { A | f 0 () R},
f .
f B f 0 : B R.
.
5.1.9. c
dc
dx ()
= limx
cc
x
= limx 0 = 0
. , 0 :
dc
dx
=0
x.
146
5.1.10. x
dx
dx ()
= limx
x
x
= limx 1 = 1.
, 1 :
dx
dx
=1
x.
5.1.11.
dxn
dx
= nxn1
x, n N, n 2.
n
n1 n = 1.
: dx
dx = nx
dx
0
dx = x . 1,
, x x0
x 6= 0.
.
, .
dxn
dx ()
= limx
xn n
x
= limx (xn1 + xn2 + + x n2 + n1 ) = n n1 .
.
.
.
f : A R A
f , , x
, (x, f (x)) (, f ()). x A
x > lx,+ (, f ()),
(x, f (x)). (, f ())
()
.
, (, f ()) f (x)f
x
.
()
(i) f+0 () = limx+ f (x)f
, l+ ,
x
0
(, f ()), f+ () (, f ()). K x
, lx,+
l+ , ,
lx,+ l+ . l+
f (, f ()).
()
= +, l+ ,
(ii) f+0 () = limx+ f (x)f
x
(, f ()) (, f ()). K x
, lx,+
, lx,+ l+ , lx,+ l+ . l+ f
(, f ()).
()
(iii) f+0 () = limx+ f (x)f
= , l+ ,
x
(, f ()) (, f ()). K x
, lx,+
, , lx,+ l+ , lx,+
l+ . l+ f
(, f ()).
()
, (i) - (iii) limx+ f (x)f
,
x
f (, f ()).
147
.
A f
. x A x < lx,
(, f ()), (x, f (x)),
()
f (x)f
. .
x
()
(i) f0 () = limx f (x)f
, l ,
x
0
(, f ()), f () (, f ()). K x
, lx,
l , ,
lx, l . l
f (, f ()).
()
(ii) f0 () = limx f (x)f
= +, l ,
x
(, f ()) (, f ()). K x
, lx,
, , lx, l , lx,
l . l f
(, f ()).
()
= , l ,
(iii) f0 () = limx f (x)f
x
(, f ()) (, f ()). K x
, lx, ,
, lx, l , lx,
l . l f
(, f ()).
()
,
, (i) - (iii), limx f (x)f
x
f (, f ()).
, , A
f . ,
, , l l+
f , , (, f ()) , , , l f
(, f ()). ,
, , . , ,
, , .
5.1.12. |x| (0, 0).

d|x|
(0, 0), dx+
(0) = 1 (0, 0).
d|x|
(0, 0), dx
(0) = 1 (0, 0).
, |x| (0, 0).
5.1.13.
|x|
(0, 0). ddx+x (0) = +, (0, 0)
(0, 0). , ddxx (0) = , (0, 0)

(0, 0).
,
|x| (0, 0). , ,
(0, 0).
{
x,
0 x
5.1.14. f (x) =
x, x 0
(0, 0). f+0 (0) = +, (0, 0)
148
(0, 0). , f0 (0) = +, (0, 0) (0, 0).

(0, 0), x = 0.
A f , , ,
(, f ()).
5.1.15. x
(0, 0). ddx+x (0) = +, (0, 0) (0, 0).
f : A R A
f ( , 5.3,
). , l (, f ()) f 0 (),

y = f 0 ()(x ) + f ().
, f f 0 () = + f 0 () = ,
(, f ()) x = .
5.1.16. x2
(, 2 ) y = 2(x ) + 2 .
(, 2 ) y = x, , 2 = 1, = 21 .
. .
dy
dx
. x = x
y = y = f (x) f ()
()
, f (x)f
x
y
x
f (x)f ()
.
x
y
f 0 (), x
x
0 x . f , y
y
0. , x
f 0 (). ,
dy
y
dy
f 0 () = dx
, , , x
dx
. ,
, dx x (: -
0) dy y. dx dy
x y. , x ,
y
0
0
x f () , , y f ()
x. , , , , dy f 0 ()
dx. ,
dy
dx
= f 0 (),
dy = f 0 ()dx.
(5.1)
, :
dy
dx
dx dy .
y
(5.1) x
f 0 () x
- (5.1) y f 0 () x
x - .
149

dy =
dy
dx dx.
x,
f 0 (x),
dy
0
dy = f 0 (x)dx.
dx = f (x),
x y, y = f (x)
.
. l(x) = x .
l(x) = x + .
, .

- (0, 0).
, , - .
,
.
. f : A R A A. L limx f (x)f ()L(x)
= 0, L f .
x
5.1. f : A R A A.
f f . , f ,
,
f (, f ()).
. f .
limx
f (x)f ()
x
limx
= f 0 () f 0 () R,
f (x)f ()f 0 ()(x)

x
= 0.
(5.2)
,
L(x) = f 0 () x,
(5.3)
(5.2)
limx
f (x)f ()L(x)
x
=0
, , L f .
,
L(x) = x
(5.4)
f ,
limx
f (x)f ()(x)
x
= 0.
limx
f (x)f ()
x
= .
f f 0 () = , (5.4) L L(x) =
f 0 () x, (5.3). L, f .
150
, f , f
f 0 () x , , (0, 0).
, f (, f ()) , , f 0 () (x ) + f () = f 0 () x + f () f 0 () .
x, .
.
2
5.1.1. f (x) = 3x2 5x + 3, f (x) = x + 1, f (x) = x 3x+1
x+2 ,
{
{
{
0, x 6= 0
2x,
x 0
2x2 ,
x 0
f (x) = sign x, f (x) =
f (x) =
f (x) =
2
1, x = 0
3x, x 0
3x , x 0
f (x) = x2 sign x f (x) = (x2 + 1)sign x. , , f 0 (0), f+0 (0), f0 (0).
5.1.2. M 0, > 1, > 0 |f (x) f ()| M |x |
x ( , + ). f 0 () = 0.
{
2x2 + x + 1, x 0
5.1.3. f (x) =
a, b f 0 (0).
ax + b,
x > 0
{
2x2 + x + 1, x < 0
f (x) =
ax + b,
x 0
5.1.4. g : (a, ] R, h {: [, b) R g() = h() g 0 () = h0 ()
g(x) , a < x
f : (a, b) R f (x) =
f 0 () = g 0 () = h0 ().
h(x) , x < b
{
x sin(1/x), x 6= 0
5.1.5. f (x) =
5.1.6
0,
x = 0
0, 0. f
x 0+ lx,+
(0, 0) (x, f (x)). lx,+
(0, 0); x 0 lx,
(0, 0) (x, f (x)).
{
x2 sin(1/x), x 6= 0
f (x) =
5.1.7 0 f 0 (0) = 0.
0,
x = 0
, x 0+ x 0 lx,+ lx, ,
, (0, 0) (x, f (x)).
{
x2 (1)[1/x] , x 6= 0
5.1.6. f (x) =
f 0 (0) = 0.
0,
x = 0
f . 0 f .
{
x2 ,
x Q
f (x) =
f 0 (0) = 0. f
2
x , x
/Q
x 6= 0. f ;
5.1.7. f : A R A A. f
g : A R
f (x) f () = g(x)(x ) x A.1
1
g : A R f (x)
f () = g(x)(x ) x A Caratheodory .
151
5.1.8.
. ;
y = x2 .
.
y = x3 y = x4
y = x2 (x 1)2 .
: y = p(x), p
n, ;
5.2 .
5.2. f, g : A R A A. , ,
f () = g() f, g .
f 0 (), g 0 (), f 0 () = g 0 ().
. f, g f () = g(),
g(x)g()
x
()
limx f (x)f
x
f (x)f ()
x
limx g(x)g()
.
x
5.2, f, g
, .

. , , .
5.2.1. sign x 1 (0, +). ,
(0, +) . sign0 = 0
(0, +). , sign x 1 (, 0).
sign0 = 0 (, 0).
5.3. f : A R A A. f , f 0 () R, f .
.
f (x) =
f (x)f ()
(x
x
) + f ()
x A x 6= ,
limx f (x) = f 0 ()0 + f () = f (),
f .
5.2.2. |x| 0 0.
5.3 .
5.2.3. 5.3 f 0 () R. f 0 () = , f
. , sign x
10
0. , sign0+ 0 = limx0+ x0
= + sign0 0 = limx0 10
x0 = +,
0
sign 0 = +.
5.4. f, g : A R A A. f, g
, f + g, f g, f g : A R . , ,
g(x) 6= 0 x A, f /g : A R .
:
(f + g)0 () = f 0 () + g 0 (),
(f g)0 () = f 0 () g 0 (),
( f )0
f 0 ()g()f ()g 0 ()
(f g)0 () = f 0 ()g() + f ()g 0 (),
.
g () =
(g())2
152
. f + g
(f + g)0 () = limx
(f (x)+g(x))(f ()+g())
x
= limx
( f (x)f ()
x
g(x)g() )
x
= f 0 () + g 0 ().
f g.
f g :
(f g)0 () = limx
f (x)g(x)f ()g()
x
0
= limx
( f (x)f ()
x
g(x) + f () g(x)g()
x
= f 0 ()g() + f ()g ().

, f /g :
( f )0
g
f (x)
f ()
g()
g(x)
() = limx
= limx
1
= f 0 () g()
f () 0
g ()
(g())2
( f (x)f ()
x
1
g(x)
f () g(x)g() )
x
g()g(x)
f 0 ()g()f ()g 0 ()
.
(g())2
y1 = f (x) y2 = g(x), :
d(y1 y2 )
dx
dy1
dx
d(y1 y2 )
dx
dy2
dx ,
dy1
dx y2
2
+ y1 dy
dx ,
( )
d y1
dx y2
1 dy1
y2 dx
y1 dy2
.
y2 2 dx
dx
d(y1 y2 ) = dy1 dy2 ,
d(y1 y2 ) = y2 dy1 + y1 dy2 ,
d(y1 /y2 ) = (1/y2 )dy1 (y1 /y2 2 )dy2 .
5.2.4. f : A R A A. f
c R, cf : A R
(cf )0 () = cf 0 ().
, (cf )0 () = c0 ()f () + c()f 0 () = 0f () + cf 0 () = cf 0 ().
5.2.5.
n N, n 2. ,
dx2
dx
,
dxn+1
dx
dxn
dx
d(xn x)
dx
d(xx)
dx
dx
dx x
dxn
dx
= nxn1
+ x dx
dx = 1x + x1 = 2x
= nxn1 ,
dxn
dx x
n1 x + xn 1 = (n + 1)xn .
+ xn dx
dx = nx
5.2.6.
d
dx (a0
+ a1 x + + an xn ) = a1 + 2a2 x + + nan xn1 .
n 1 n 1.
5.2.7.
dxn
dx
= nxn1
x 6= 0, n N, n 0.
d1
01 .
n = 0 x 6= 0, dx
dx = dx = 0 = 0x
n 1 x 6= 0, m = n 1 :
dxn
dx
d
1
dx ( xm )
mxm1
x2m
= mxm1 = nxn1 .
153
5.2.8. R(x) =
P (x)
Q(x) .
R, x Q(x) 6= 0, R0 (x) =
.
, x
P 0 (x)Q(x)P (x)Q0 (x)
.
(Q(x))2
.
.
. f : A B, g : B R, A A
= f () B B. f g
, g f : A R
(g f )0 () = g 0 ()f 0 () = g 0 (f ())f 0 ().
. G : B R
{ g(y)g()
G(y) =
g 0 () ,
y B, y 6=
y =
G
limy G(y) = limy
g(y)g()
y
= g 0 () = G().
f , , G f : A R
.
limx G(f (x)) = G(f ()) = G() = g 0 ().
(5.5)
g(y) g() = G(y)(y )
(5.6)
,
y B. , y B y 6= ,
G(y) , y = , 0.
(5.6) y = f (x) (5.5),
limx
(gf )(x)(gf )()

x
G(f (x))(f (x)f ())

x
f (x)f ()
limx G(f (x)) limx x = g 0 ()f 0 ().
= limx
=
g(f (x))g(f ())

x
= limx
(g f )0 () = g 0 ()f 0 ().
y = f (x) z = g(y), :
dz
dy
= g 0 ()
dy
dz
dx
= f 0 (). , z = g(y) = g(f (x)) = (g f )(x), dx
= (g f )0 ().
0
0
0
, (g f ) () = g ()f () , ,
dz
dx
dz dy
dy dx .
(5.7)
(5.7). ,
dz
dx, dz = dy
dy.
5.2.9. h(x) = (x2 + 3)5 . h0 (2).
f (x) = x2 + 3 g(y) = y 5 . h = g f , h0 (2) = g 0 (f (2))f 0 (2) =
g 0 (7)f 0 (2) = 5 74 4.
:
h0 (x) = g 0 (f (x))f 0 (x) = 5(f (x))4 f 0 (x) = 10x(x2 + 3)4
x.
, y = x2 + 3 z = y 5
dz
dx
dz dy
dy dx
= 5y 4 2x = 10x(x2 + 3)4 .
154
.
f -- . f
--, , x 6= , f (x) 6= f (),
(gf )(x)(gf )()
x
g(f (x))g(f ()) f (x)f ()

x
f (x)f ()
g(y)g() f (x)f ()
.
y
x
(5.8)
, f , limx f (x) = , , x y = f (x),

(g f )0 () = limx
(gf )(x)(gf )()

x
= limy
g(y)g()
y
limx
f (x)f ()
x
= g 0 ()f 0 ().
y = f (x) z = g(y) (5.8)

z
x
z y
y x
, , (5.7) .
x, y z
. ,
, , f --, y = y = f (x) f ()
0 x = x 0.2
f : A R A A. f
()
0
A f 0 (). f , f (x)f
x
()
0.
x A x 6= , , f 0 () = limx f (x)f
x
0
, f A f (), f 0 () 0.
A (, ] A [, +),
f0 () f+0 ().
.
. 3 I, I, f : I R
I = f (). f ,
J, , , J f 1 : J I
J. f 0 (), (f 1 )0 ()
0
0
1/f (), 0 < f () < +

(f 1 )0 () = 0,
f 0 () = +
+,
f 0 () = 0
f ,
+.
. f 0 () R f 0 () > 0. f 1 ,
limy f 1 (y) = , , y x = f 1 (y),
(f 1 )0 () = limy
f 1 (y)f 1 ()
y
= limx
x
f (x)f ()
f 0 () = +,
1
+
/(
() )
=
= limx 1 f (x)f
x
1
f 0 () .
= 0, (f 1 )0 () = 0.
()
, f 0 () = 0, , f (x)f
> 0 x I x 6= ,
x
1
0
+, (f ) () = +.
2
3
.
5.2.18 .
155
(f 1 )0 () = 1/f 0 () .
dy
1 )0 (). (f 1 )0 () = 1/f 0 ()
y = f (x) x = f 1 (y). dx
= f 0 () dx
dy = (f
/( dy )
dx
dy = 1
dx .

/( y )
x
y = 1
x ,
. ,
dy
, dx
dy = 1/( dx ).
.
5.2.10. y = xn , [0, +),
x = n y [0, +). ,
dy
= 1/( dx
)=
dx
dy
y > 0. y = 0, ,
dy
dx (0)
dny
dy
1
nxn1
= 0,
x
nxn
dx
dy (0)
{
n y/(ny),
=
+,
y
ny
= +.
y > 0
y = 0

.
5.2.11.
.

dxr
dx
x > 0, r Q \ Z.
= rxr1
r
m
n
n
, r = m
x
n m Z n N, n 2, x = ( x) . y =
r
m
z = x = y
dxr
dx
dz
dx
dz dy
dy dx
= my m1
nx
nx
m( n x)m1 n x
nx
m (m/n)1
nx
= rxr1 .
r > 1 x = 0,
dxr
dx (0)
dxr
dx+ (0)
= limx0+
xr 0r
x0
= limx0+ xr1 = 0 = r0r1 ,
xr .
0 < r < 1 x = 0,
dxr
dx (0)
dxr
dx+ (0)
= limx0+
xr 0r
x0
= limx0+ xr1 = +.
0 < r < 1
5.2.10, r = 1/n.
, r < 0, 0 xr , 0
.
5.2.12. a > 0, a 6= 1.
d loga x
dx
1 1
log a x
x > 0.
156
a = e
limx+ (1 + xt )x = et
4.2.10. ,
d log x
dx+
log(x+h)log x
= limh0+ h1 log(1
h
y
limy+ log(1 + 1/x
y ) = limze1/x log z
= limh0+
+ hx )
= log e1/x = x1 .
,
d log x
dx
log(x+h)log x
= limh0 h1 log(1 + hx )
h
y
limy+ log(1 + 1/x
y ) = limze1/x log z
= limh0
=
= log e1/x = x1 .
d log x
dx
1
x
x > 0.
log x
log a
loga x =
x > 0.
d loga x
dx
1 d log x
log a dx
1 1
log a x
5.2.13.
d log |x|
dx
x 6= 0.
1
x
, x > 0, , x < 0,
x y = x = |x|
d log |x|
dx
d log y dy
dy dx
= y1 = x1 .
5.2.14. a > 0, a 6= 1.
dax
dx
= ax log a
x.
y = ax x = loga y . ,
/( dx )
/( 1 1 )
dy
dx = 1
dy = 1
log a y = y log a.
, a = e
dex
dx
= ex
x.
5.2.15.
,
d cosh x
dx
= sinh x,
d sinh x
dx
= cosh x,
d tanh x
dx
1
,
(cosh x)2
d coth x
dx
, x = arccosh y y = cosh x y > 1 x > 0,

/( dy )
dx
1
1 2 = 1
dy = 1
dx = sinh x =
2
(cosh x) 1
y 1
= (sinh1 x)2 .
sinh x = (cosh x)2 1 + sinh x > 0

x > 0.
, x = arcsinh y y = sinh x,
/( dy )
dx
1
1 2 = 1 .
dy = 1
dx = cosh x =
2
(sinh x) +1
157
y +1

cosh x = (sinh x)2 + 1 cosh x > 0 x.
d arccosh y
d arcsinh y
= 12
y > 1
= 12
y.
dy
dy
y 1
y +1

d arctanh y
dy
|y| < 1
1
1y 2
d arccoth y
dy
|y| > 1.
1
1y 2
5.2.16. .
dxa
dx
x > 0, a R \ Q.
= axa1
xa = ea log x z = xa y = a log x, z = ey ,
dz
dx
dz dy
dy dx
= ey a x1 = za x1 = xa a x1 = axa1 .
a > 1 x = 0,
dxa
dx (0)
dxa
dx+ (0)
= limx0+
xa 0a
x0
= limx0+ xa1 = 0 = a0a1 ,
xa .
0 < a < 1 x = 0,
dxa
dx (0)
dxa
dx+ (0)
= limx0+
xa 0a
x0
= limx0+ xa1 = +.
, a < 0, 0 xa , 0
.
5.2.17.
.
d cos x
dx ()
= limx
cos xcos
x
sin((x)/2)
(x)/2
= limx
sin((x + )/2) = sin
d sin x
dx ()
= limx
sin xsin
x
= limx
sin((x)/2)
(x)/2
cos((x + )/2) = cos
.
d cos x
dx
= sin x,
d sin x
dx
= cos x.
,
tan0 x =
sin0 x cos xsin x cos0 x

(cos x)2
1
,
(cos x)2
cot0 x =
d tan x
dx
1
,
(cos x)2
d cot x
dx
cos0 x sin xcos x sin0 x

(sin x)2
= (sin1x)2 .
= (sin1x)2 .
x = arcsin y y = sin x 1 < y < 1 2 < x < 2 ,

d arcsin y
dy
dx
dy
/( dy )
= 1 dx
=
1
cos x
1
1(sin x)2
= 1
1y 2
cos x = 1 (sin x)2 + cos x > 0

2 < x < 2 .
, x = arccos y y = cos x 1 < y < 1 0 < x < ,
/( dy )
d arccos y
1
1
= dx
= 1 .
dy
dy = 1
dx = sin x =
2
1(cos x)
158
1y 2
, sin x =
0 < x < .
d arcsin y
dy
= 1
1y 2
1 (cos x)2 + sin x > 0
|y| < 1
d arccos y
dy
= 1
, x = arctan y y = tan x y R 2 < x <

d arctan y
dy
dx
dy
=1

d arctan y
dy
1
1+y 2
/( dy )
dx
d arccot y
dy
= (cos x)2 =
|y| < 1.
1y 2
1
1+(tan x)2
1
.
1+y 2
1
= 1+y
2 ,
d arccot y
dy
1
= 1+y
2
y.
.
5.2.1. x + x2 + x3 + + xn = x x11 1
x + 2x2 + 3x3 + + nxn x + 4x2 + 9x3 + + n2 xn .
n+1
x
e 1
x 1
5.2.2. limx1 log
x1 , limx0 x , limx1 x1
.
x
limx1
limx0
eax ebx
,
x
limx0
eax eax
.
x(eax +eax )
log x
xa 1 ,
limx1
xa xb
x1 ,
limx1
xa xb
log x ,
limx0
ax bx
x ,
5.2.3. arcsin(sin x), sin(arcsin x).

5.2.4. log3 (sin x), x log(x log(x log(x log x))), logx 3.
{
x sin(1/x), x 6= 0
5.2.5. f (x) =
f 0 .
0,
x = 0
{
x2 sin(1/x), x 6= 0
f (x) =
f 0 .
0,
x = 0
{
xa sin(1/x), x 6= 0
. f (x) =
a
0,
x = 0
f R; f R; f 0 R;
5.2.6. f : A R f (x) > 0 x A A A.
(
)1/h
( f (x) )1/(log xlog )
f , limh0 f (+h)
lim
.
x
f ()
f ()
A (0, +).
5.2.7. f, g : A R, A A f (x) > 0 x A.
f, g , f g : A R
(f g )0 ().
xx , (x2 + 1)log x , |x 1|x2 |x 2|x1 .
5.2.8. 4 P , P () = 0.
k N P Q
P (x) = (x )k Q(x) x Q() 6= 0. Q() 6= 0 Q x . P
4
5.3.11. -
5.6.13.
159
k (x )k P .
P , P () 6= 0, ,
P 0. .
P . k N
P k 1 P 0 .
5.2.9. f1 , . . . , fn : A R A A. f1 , . . . , fn
f1 () fn () 6= 0 g = f1 fn : A R,
0 ()
0 ()
0 ()
gg()
= ff11 ()
+ + ffnn ()
.
5.2.10. R limx+
xR0 (x)
R(x)
= 0;
5.2.11. (a, b) R
R0 (x) = x1 x (a, b).
5.2.12.
.
.
5.2.13. f : A R, A A
f . |f | : A R.
f () 6= 0, |f |0 () = sign(f ()) f 0 ().
f () = 0 f 0 () = 0, |f |0 () = 0.
f () = 0 f 0 () 6= 0, |f | . , ,
|f |0+ () = |f 0 ()| |f |0 () = |f 0 ()|.
5.2.14. P , Q, P n 2 n
x1 , . . . , xn Q n 1.
n
Q(xk )
=
Q(x)
k=1 P 0 (xk )(xxk ) x R \ {x1 , . . . , xn }.
P (x)
1
nk=1 P 0 (x
.
k)
(m) (1)k
1
1 m
x(x+1)(x+m)
= m!
k=0 k x+k x R \ {0, 1, . . . , m}.
5.2.15. f : A R A (f (x))2 +4f (x) = x3 5x2 9x+41
x A. (2f (x) + 4)f 0 (x) = 3x2 10x 9 x A
f . A,
f A f 0 .
5.2.16. f (x) = x3 + 3x2 + 3x + 7. f
R.
{ f ;
(
)
(1/3)(f 1 (y) + 1)2 , y 6= 6
0
f 1 , f 1 (y) =
,
+,
y = 6
f 1 , .
5.2.17. g 4.5.9, 4.5.10 4.5.11;
5.2.18. 5 f : A B -- A B f 1 : B A.
A A, f f 0 () 6= 0
f 1 = f ().
B f 1
5
160
(f 1 )0 () = 1/f 0 ().
(f 1 )0 () = 1/f 0 ().
f 1 (f (x))) = x x A (f 1 )0 ()f 0 () =
1. (f 1 )0 () (f 1 )0 () = 1/f 0 ().
. ( )
(f 1 )0 () , , (f 1 )0 () = 1/f 0 ().
5.2.19. f, g : A R A A. f , g
()g(x)
.
, limx f (x)g()f
x
5.2.20. 6 f : A R, A A, f
(xn 0 ), (xn 00 ) A xn 0 , xn 00 .
f (xn 0 )f (xn 00 )
f 0 ().
xn 0 xn 00
0
(xn 00 )
f (xxnn)f
0 x 00
n
xn 0 < < xn 00 n,
0
| xnx0nx
f 0 ().
00 | M n,
n
f 5.1.7 ( 5.1.5). , xn 0 =
1
1
00
0
00
(/2)+2n xn = (/2)+2n n. f 0 xn 0, xn
0,
f (xn 0 )f (xn 00 )
xn 0 xn 00
6 f 0 (0).
5.2.21. k N f : R R .
(
)
n f ( + n1 ) + f ( + n2 ) + + f ( + nk ) kf () k(k+1)
f 0 ().
2
f ( + n12 ) + f ( + n22 ) + + f ( + nn2 ) nf () 12 f 0 ().
5.2.22. f : R R 0 0 < < 1 limx0
b
f 0 (0) = 1
.
f (x)f (x)
x
= b R.
5.2.23.
.
.

.
; . : , .
5.2.24.
.
.
5.2.25.
.
;
5.2.26. l
.
v ( ),
( ). , ,

.
6

.
. 5.3.17.
161
5.2.27. y 2 = 4x3 .
( )
( );
x, y.
5.2.28. .

dz dy
dz
dx = dy dx .
.
5.3 .
. f : A R, A.
f > 0 f (x) f ()
x A |x | < .
f > 0 f (x) f ()
x A |x | < .
f .
, , () , . ,
, ()
, .
FERMAT. f : A R A
A. f ,
f 0 () f 0 () = 0.
. f . , f (x)
f () .
f 0 (), f+0 () = f0 () = f 0 ().
()
f (x)f
0 .
x
f 0 () = f+0 () = limx+
,
f (x)f ()
x
f (x)f ()
x
0.
0 .
f 0 () = f0 () = limx
f (x)f ()
x
0.
f 0 () = 0.
, 0
0 .
Fermat , f
,
.
f 0 () f 0 ()
.
, Fermat f A.

.
5.3.1. 0 |x|
162
d|x|
dx (0).
5.3.2. 0 x2
dx2
dx (0)
= 0.
3
5.3.3. dx
dx (0) = 0 0 x .
Fermat.
Fermat .
,
: () ,
0.
.
5.3.4. f : [0, 4] R f (x) = 2x3 9x2 + 12x + 5. f 0 (x) =
6x2 18x + 12 = 6(x 1)(x 2), f
0, 4 [0, 4] 1, 2 f 0 . f
5, 37, 10, 9, .
f [0, 4], .
, , 0
, f 5, 4 ,
f 37. 1, 2 .
f [0, 2], [0, 2].
0, 1, 2,
f 0 . f 5, 10, 9, 1 [0, 2]
, , [0, 4].
, 1, 2, 4 10, 9, 37, , 2
[1, 4] , , [0, 4].
.
Fermat .
5.5. [] f : A R A A.
f , f+0 () f+0 () 0
f+0 () 0, .
[] f : A R A A.
f , f0 () f0 () 0 f0 () 0,
.
. [] f , f (x) f () .
()
f+0 (). f (x)f
0 ,
x
()
f+0 () = limx+ f (x)f
0.
x
.
[] .
, f+0 () 0 f+0 () 0,
f+0 () = f+0 () = +, . f0 ().
5.3.5. f : [0, 2] R f (x) = x 0
f+0 (0) = 1 0. 2 f0 (2) = 1 0.
5.3.6. f : [0, 2] R f (x) = x 0

f+0 (0) = + 0.
ROLLE. f : [a, b] R [a, b]
(a, b). f (a) = f (b), (a, b) f 0 () = 0.
163
. f [a, b], f (x) = f (a) = f (b)

x (a, b). f 0 () = 0 (a, b).
f [a, b]. (i) f > f (a) =
f (b) (ii) f < f (a) = f (b).
.
(i) - , [a, b]
f . f f (a) = f (b), f () >
f (a) = f (b), (a, b). , f 0 () ,
Fermat, f 0 () = 0.
(ii) - , [a, b]
f . f f (a) = f (b), f () <
f (a) = f (b), (a, b). , f 0 () ,
Fermat, f 0 () = 0.
Rolle , , f (a) = f (b),
(a, b) f (, f ()) .
5.3.7.
f
:
[2,
3] R f (x) = x3 + 2x
3x 5
0
2
[2, 3], f (x)
=
3x
+
4x
(2,
3)
f
(2)
=
f
(
3)
=
1.
3
=
0.
(2, 3) 3 2 + 4
3x2 + 4x 3 = 0. 23 13 (2, 3).

Rolle .
f 0 () = 0. , f
(a, b), (a, b) f 0 () = 0.
,
(a, b). .
5.3.8. f : [1, 1] R f (x) = |x| [1, 1] f (1) =
f (1) = 1. , (1, 1) f 0 () = 0.
{
x x,
0 x 1
5.3.9. f (x) =
f (1) = f (1) = 0.
x x, 1 x 0
0 < x 1
(1/(2 x)) 1,
0
f (x) = +,
f 0 () = 0 = 14 .
x = 0
(1/(2 x)) 1, 1 x < 0

(LAGRANGE).
f : [a, b] R [a, b] (a, b). (a, b)
f 0 () =
f (b)f (a)
.
ba
. h : [a, b] R
h(x) = (b a)f (x) (f (b) f (a))x.
h [a, b]
h0 (x) = (b a)f 0 (x) (f (b) f (a))
(a, b). , h(a) = h(b). (a, b) h0 () = 0,
(a)
= f 0 ().
f (b)f
ba
Lagrange , ,
(a, b) f (, f ()) (
) (a, f (a)) (b, f (b)).
164
(CAUCHY). f, g :
[a, b] R [a, b] (a, b). (a, b)
(f (b) f (a))g 0 () = (g(b) g(a))f 0 ().
. h : [a, b] R
h(x) = (g(b) g(a))f (x) (f (b) f (a))g(x).
h [a, b] (a, b)
h0 (x) = (g(b) g(a))f 0 (x) (f (b) f (a))g 0 (x).
, h(a) = h(b). (a, b) h0 () = 0,
(g(b) g(a))f 0 () (f (b) f (a))g 0 () = 0.
Rolle
Lagrange Lagrange (
g(x) = x) Cauchy. ,
Cauchy Rolle.
.
Cauchy . , g(a) 6= g(b) f 0 (x) = g 0 (x) = 0 x (a, b),
(a, b)
f 0 ()
f (b)f (a)
(5.9)
g(b)g(a) = g 0 () .
(b)f (a) 0
, (f (b) f (a))g 0 () = (g(b) g(a))f 0 () fg(b)g(a)
g () = f 0 ().
, g 0 () = 0, f 0 () = 0, . g 0 () 6= 0
.
, (5.9)
f 0 ()
g 0 ()
(f (b)f (a))/(ba)
(g(b)g(a))/(ba) ,
Cauchy (a, b)
f g (, f ()) (, g()) (a, f (a))
(b, f (b)) (a, g(a)) (b, g(b)) .
.
5.3.1. a < b. (a, b)
a
(a, b) sinebbsin
= e cos .
ea
5.3.2. a < b. (a, b)
(a, b)
b1/n a1/n
bn an
1/n
n2 n
sin bsin a
ba
bn an
ba
= cos
= n n1
5.3.3. , c, x3 12x = c
[2, 2]; (, 2]; [2, +);
5.3.4. x2 = x sin x+cos x
0.
a1
an
n
n1 + + a x + a = 0
5.3.5. n+1
+ an1
1
0
n + + 2 + a0 = 0, an x + an1 x
(0, 1).
165
5.3.6. xn + ax + b = 0
, n , , n .
2
x
5.3.7. 1 + 1!
+ x2! + +
, , n .
5.3.8. ex = 1 +
x
1!
x2
2!
xn
n!
= 0 , n
+ +
xn
n!
5.3.9. [] I f : I R I f 0 (x) 6= 0
x I. f -- I.
[] I f : I R I |f 0 (x)| M
x I. c 6= 0 g : I R g(x) =
x + cf (x) -- I.
5.3.10. f : [a, b] R [a, b] (a, b)
f (a) = f (b) = 0. (a, b) f 0 () = f ().
5.3.11. [] Rolle ,
n n .
[] a1 < < an P (x) = (x a1 ) (x an ). P 0
n 1 . P 0 a1 , . . . , an .
[] 5.2.8.
P 1 , . . . , m . k1 , . . . , km
P , P (x) = (x1 )k1 (xm )km Q(x)
x, Q . P
k = k1 + + km P k.
P k, P 0
k 1. , P n P n,
P 0 n 1.
5.3.12. m > 0, I f : I R I f 0 (x)
x I. x1 , x2 I |f (x2 ) f (x1 )| = d.
d
|f 0 (x)| m x I, |x2 x1 | m
.
|f 0 (x)| m x I, |x2 x1 |
d
m.
5.3.13. f : [ h, + h] R [ h, + h] ( h, )
(, + h).
(0, h)
(0, h)
f (+h)f (h)
= f 0 ( + ) + f 0 ( ).
h
f (+h)2f ()+f (h)
= f 0 ( + ) f 0 (
h
).
5.3.14. f : (0, +) R (0, +) |f 0 (x)|
x > 0. limx+ (f (x + x) f (x)) = 0.
1
x
5.3.15. f : (0, +) R (0, +) limx+ f 0 (x) = 0.

limx+ (f (x + 1) f (x)) = 0.
5.3.16. 7 f : [, b) R [, b) (, b).
limx+ f 0 (x), f+0 () .
limx f 0 (x) f0 ();
5.3.17. 5.2.20 A , f A f 0
0
(xn 00 )
, f (xxnn)f
f 0 ().
0 x 00
n
7
166
x sin(1/x), x 6= 0
0. f
0,
x = 0
0 ; f .
{
|x|(2 + sin(1/x)), x 6= 0
f (x) =
f 0; f
0,
x = 0
0 ; f .
f : R R f 0 (0) = 0 0
f ;
5.3.18. f (x) =
5.3.19. 8 f, g : I R I. W (f, g) : I R

f (x) g(x)

= f (x)g 0 (x) f 0 (x)g(x)
W (f, g)(x) = 0
f (x) g 0 (x)
Wronski f g I.
W (f, g)(x) 6= 0 x I. 4.2.10
f , f (x) = 0, . ,
f f , f
(, ) , ,
f , f (,
). g. , ,
f g .
f g ;
cos x sin x ;
5.3.20. 9 []10 f : I R I f
I. |f (x0 ) f (x00 )| M |x0 x00 | x0 , x00 A
|f 0 (x)| M x I.
[]11 f : I R I |f 0 (x)| M
x I. f I.
x [0, 1];
[0, 1]; [1, +);
4.6.2.
[] f : I R I |f 0 (x)| M
x I. , (xn ) Cauchy I, (f (xn ))
Cauchy.
[] b R f : [a, b) R [a, b) |f 0 (x)| M
x (a, b). limxb f (x) g : [a, b] R
[a, b] g(x) = f (x) x [a, b).
5.3.21. [] f : [a, b] R [a, b] (a, b).
f (a, f (a)) (b, f (b)),
(a)
1 , 2 (a, b) f 0 (1 ) < f (b)f
< f 0 (2 ).
ba
[] f : [a, b] R [a, b] (a, b). f (a) =
f (b) = 0 f (x0 ) = 1 x0 (a, b), (a, b) |f 0 ()|
2
2
0
ba . , (a, b) |f ()| > ba .
8
7.2.14.
. 4.6.3, 4.6.10 4.6.11.
10
4.6.3 . : f
I I, f Lipschitz- I f 0
I.
11
.
9
167
5.3.22. f : [a, b] R [a, b] f 0 [a, b]. A

(y)
0 (y) <
> 0 > 0 f (x)f
f
xy
x, y [a, b] 0 < |x y| < .
5.3.23. [] f : [a, b] R [a, b] f 0 (a) < 0 < f 0 (b),
f [a, b] (
- ) (a, b).
f 0 (a) > 0 > f 0 (b);
[] Darboux:12 f : [a, b] R
[a, b] f 0 (a) < < f 0 (b) f 0 (a) > > f 0 (b). (a, b)
f 0 () = .
[] I f : I R I. f 0 I,
I.
5.3.24. []13 f : [a, b] R [a, b], f (a) = f (b) f0 (x), f+0 (x)
x (a, b). (a, b) f0 () 0 f+0 ()
f+0 () 0 f0 ().
[]14 f : [a, b] R [a, b] f0 (x), f+0 (x)
(a)
x (a, b). (a, b) f0 () f (b)f
f+0 () f+0 ()
ba
f (b)f (a)
ba
f0 ().
5.3.25. Tn : [1, 1] R :
T0 (x) = 1
Tn (x) =
1
2n1
cos(n arccos x) 1 x 1 n N.
T1 (x) = x 4Tn+2 (x) = 4xTn+1 (x) Tn (x) x [1, 1]

n 1. n 1 Tn [1, 1]
R n 1.
, , Tn .15
T2 , T3 , T4 .
n
1
Tn (1) = (1)
n 1.
Tn (1) = 2n1
2n1
n 1 Tn n : xk =
cos( 2k1
2n ) k = 1, . . . , n. (1, 1).
1
|Tn (x)| 2n1
x [1, 1] n 1.
0
n 1 Tn n 1 : tk = cos( nk )
k = 1, . . . , n 1. (1, 1). Tn (tk )
k = 1, . . . , n 1.
n 1 Tn Tn 0
Tn [1, 1].
n 1 P n
1
1 2n1
= max{|Tn (x)| | 1 x 1} max{|P (x)| | 1 x 1}.
P n 1
;16
12
:
, , .
13
Rolle.
14
Lagrange.
15
Tn Chebyshev.
16
- :
max{|P (x)| | 1 x 1} P n 1
1. 2n1
Tn Chebyshev.
168
5.4 .
I . I - I - I,
I.
5.6 :
, , .
,
- (-) , ().
5.6. I f : I R I
I.
[] f f 0 (x) = 0 x I.
[] f f 0 (x) 0 x I.
[] f f 0 (x) 0 x I.
. [] f , f 0 (x) = 0 x
I ( I, I).
, f 0 (x) = 0 x I. x1 , x2 I
x1 < x2 , x1 , x2 I. f
[x1 , x2 ] f 0 (x) x (x1 , x2 ). (x1 , x2 ) , ,
I,
f (x2 )f (x1 )
= f 0 () = 0.
x2 x1
f (x1 ) = f (x2 ). f , f .
[] f , , ,
f 0 (x) 0 x I.
, f 0 (x) 0 x I. x1 , x2 I
x1 < x2 . , (x1 , x2 ) , I,
f (x2 )f (x1 )
x2 x1
= f 0 () 0.
f (x1 ) f (x2 ) , , f .
[] [].
5.6 .
. f I,
, ,
, 0. , ,
. ,
. -
- .
. : (, ) ,
. 7
. 5.6
.
5.6. 5.7 ,
()
, ( ).
169
5.7. I f : I R I
I.
[] f 0 (x) > 0 x I, f .
[] f 0 (x) < 0 x I, f .
. 5.6.
5.6, 5.7 5.8 f 0 (x) 0 f 0 (x) > 0
f 0 (x) = +. , f 0 (x) 0 f 0 (x) < 0
f 0 (x) = .
[], [] 5.7.
f , f
, f 0 (x) 0 x I.
f . , 5.6 5.7
. ,
.
5.4.1. x3 R
3
dx3
2
x R. , dx
dx = 3x > 0 x 6= 0 dx (0) = 0.
dx3
dx
>0
x
5.4.2. f (x) = |x|
. f 0 (x) = 0 x (, 0)
(0, +), f (, 0) (0, +). 1
(, 0) 1 (0, +).
5.4.3. d(1/x)
= x12 < 0 x (, 0) (0, +). x1
dx
(, 0) (0, +). (, 0)
(0, +).

.
5.8. f : A R, (a, b) A, a < < b f
(a, b).
[] f 0 (x) 0 x (a, ) f 0 (x) 0 x (, b),
f .
[] f 0 (x) 0 x (a, ) f 0 (x) 0 x (, b),
f .
. [] f (a, ] [, b), f ()
(a, b).
[] .
, 5.8, f .
.
.
f I, I I
I+ , , I .
I I+ . f
I I+ , f . f
I I+ , f . f ()
I () I+ , f () I. f
() I () I+ , f () I.
( ).
, 5.8.
170
f 1 , 2 , . . . , n ,
() ,
f 0 . (i) ()
, (ii) k f 0
(iii) k f 0
.
5.4.4. 5.3.4 . f : [0, 4] R f (x) = 2x3 9x2 +
12x + 5 [0, 4] f 0 (x) = 6x2 18x + 12 = 6(x 1)(x 2)
x (0, 4). , f 0 (x) > 0 x (0, 1) x (2, 4) f 0 (x) < 0
x (1, 2). f [0, 1], [1, 2]
[2, 4]. , 0, 2 f 1, 4
.
0 x 1
x,
5.4.5. f (x) = 2 x, 1 x 2 f
x 2, 2 x 3
0
[0, 3] f (x) = 1 x (0, 1) x (2, 3) f 0 (x) = 1 x (1, 2).
f [0, 1], [1, 2]
[2, 3]. , 0, 2 1, 3 .
f (0) = f (2) = 0, f (1) = f (3) = 1 0 f (x) 1 x [0, 3], 0, 2
1, 3 .
, f 1 2.
5.6
5.7 R.
5.4.6. n N, n 2. f (x) = (x + 1)n nx 1.
f 0 (x) = n(x + 1)n1 n, f 0 (x) < 0
x [1, 0) f 0 (x) > 0 x (0, +).
[1, 0] [0, +). f (x) > f (0) = 0 , ,
x 1, x 6= 0.
(x + 1)n > nx + 1
, , Bernoulli. , ,
n 2, [1, 0) (0, +)
x = 0. ( n = 1, , , R.)
5.4.7.
ex > x + 1
x 6= 0.
f (x) = ex x 1, R f 0 (x) =
ex 1 < 0 x < 0 f 0 (x) = ex 1 > 0 x > 0.
(, 0] [0, +). ex x 1 =
f (x) > f (0) = 0 x 6= 0. x = 0.
5.4.8. Newton:
( )
n!
(x + y)n = nk=0 nk xk y nk = nk=0 k!(nk)!
xk y nk .
n = 1, (x + y)1 = x + y , , .
n N
f (x) = (x + y)n+1
n+1
(n+1)!
k n+1k
k=0 k!(n+1k)! x y
171
x. , k = 0
x,
(n+1)!
k1 y n+1k
f 0 (x) = (n + 1)(x + y)n n+1
k=1 k!(n+1k)! kx
n!
k1 y n+1k .
= (n + 1)(x + y)n (n + 1) n+1
k=1 (k1)!(n+1k)! x
m = k 1 ,
n!
f 0 (x) = (n + 1)(x + y)n (n + 1) nm=0 m!(nm)!
xm y nm = 0,
.
f , x f (x) = f (0) = y n+1 y n+1 = 0 , ,
(n+1)!
k n+1k .
(x + y)n+1 = n+1
k=0 k!(n+1k)! x y
n + 1 , , n N.
.
5.4.1. x2
2
, x , x2 ex , logx x , |x|e|x1| , sin xcos x,
x1, x3 15x2 +72x+7, x4 (x1)4 , x+ x1 , xx2 2x+3
+2x+3 x+4
sin(3x)
3
cos x, x + sin x, x + | sin x|, arctan x log(1 + x2 ).
5.4.2. (x1)|x| [1, 3], |x2 3x+2|

[3, 10], x + x1 [ 13 , 3], (log x)2 /x [1, 3] ex sin x [0, 2].
cos x+a
sin x .
(x a1 )2 + + (x an )2
5.4.3. a,
5.4.4. a1 < . . . < an .
|x a1 | + + |x an |.
5.4.5. (1 + x1 )x (0, +).

5.4.6. a > 0 xa e2ax
[0, +) .
5.4.7. a sin x = ax.
5.4.8. a tan x = ax
( 2 + k, 2 + k) k Z.
5.4.9. f, g : [0, b] R [0, b] (0, b), f (0) = g(0) = 0
0
f 0 (x), g 0 (x) > 0 x (0, b). fg0 (0, b),

f
g
(0, b].
(1/2)x2 (1/6)x3
x
sin x , 1cos x , xsin x ,
(0, 2 ).
5.4.10. 4.6.3 5.1.2. I f : I R M 0, > 0

|f (x0 ) f (x00 )| M |x0 x00 | x0 , x00 I. > 1, f
I.
5.4.11. f : [a, b] R [a, b] (a, b).
f 0 (x) x (a, b).
f (a) + (x a) f (x) f (b) + (x b) x [a, b].
, c (a, b] f (a) + (c a) = f (c), f (a) + (x a) =
f (x) x [a, c].
, , c [a, b) f (c) = f (b) + (c b), f (x) =
f (b) + (x b) x [c, b].
f 0 (x)
x (a, b).
172
5.4.12. f : [1, 4] R [1, 4], f (1) = 7 f 0 (x) 3

x (1, 4). f (4) 2.
a 2 f f (4) = a.
5.4.13. 17 [] f (x) = arccos x + arcsin x. f 0 (x) = 0
x (1, 1). arccos x + arcsin x = 2 x [1, 1].
[] arctan y + arccot y = 2 x.
[] f (x) = arctan x+arctan x1 . f 0 (x) = 0 x 6= 0.
arctan x + arctan x1 = 2 x > 0 arctan x + arctan x1 = 2
x < 0.
2x3
3 x (0, 1).
x4
1
2 x (0, 2 ].
5.4.14. log 1+x

1x > 2x +
1+x
log 1x
< 2x +
2x3
3
ex/(x+1) < 1 + x x > 1.

3
x x3 < arctan x < x x > 0.
5.4.15. [] sin x < x x > 0 x < sin x x < 0.
2 x < sin x < x x (0, 2 ).
x < sin x < 2 x x ( 2 , 0).
, 0, sin x
x.
[] x < ex 1 x 6= 0.
x < ex 1 < (e 1) x x (0, 1).
x < ex 1 < e1
e x x (1, 0).
, 0, ex 1
x.
[] log x < x 1 x > 0 x 6= 1.
1
(x 1) < log x < x 1 x (1, e).
e1
e
e1
(x 1) < log x < x 1 x ( 1e , 1).
, 1, log x
x 1.
5.4.16. 0 < x < y. axa1 <

ay a1 <
y a xa
yx
y a xa
yx
< ay a1 , a < 0 a > 1,
< axa1 , 0 < a < 1.
x < y, a > 0, a 6= 1. ax log a <
ay ax
yx
< ay log a.
1
0 < x < y. y1 < yx
log xy < x1 .
| arctan x arctan y| < |x y| x, y x 6= y.
n
x
+ + xn! .
5.4.17. x > 0 ex > 1 + 1!
n
x
x < 0 ex > 1 + 1!
+ + xn! , n , ex <
n
x
1 + 1!
+ + xn! , n .
5.4.18. x 6= 0 cos x > 1

, cos x < 1
x2
2!
17
x
1!
2m
x
+ + (1)m (2m)!
, m
2m
x
+ + (1)m (2m)!
, m .
x
x3
1! 3!
x3
m1 x2m1 ,
3! + + (1)
(2m1)!
x > 0 sin x <

, sin x >
x2
2!
2m1
x
, m
+ + (1)m1 (2m1)!
m . x < 0 ;
4.5.7 ( ) .
173
5.4.19. (x + 1)a ax + 1 x 1 a 1.
Bernoulli.
.
( ), ,
x a, x 6= 0 0 < a < b, (1 + xa )a < (1 + xb )b .
5.4.20. [] A > 0 n N.
nA+x

.
n+1
n
(n+1)
A x
n a1 , . . . , an 0
Cauchy - ,
n a a 1 (a + + a ),
1
n
1
n
n
[]18
a1 = . . . = an .
5.4.21. 19 a, b 0 p, q > 1
1
p
1
q
= 1. Young,
ab p1 ap + 1q bq .
ap = bq .
5.4.22. a1 , . . . , an , b1 , . . . , bn 0 p, q > 1
[]20
1
p
1
q
= 1.
Hlder,
)1/q
)1/p ( q
(
.
b1 + + bn q
a1 b1 + + an bn a1 p + + an p
s, t 0 0
sak p = tbk q k = 1, . . . , n.
12 + 12 = 1, Cauchy,
(
)1/2 ( 2
)1/2
a1 b1 + + an bn a1 2 + + an 2
b1 + + bn 2
,
Hlder.
[] Minkowski,
(
(a1 + b1 )p + + (an + bn )p
)1/p
)1/p ( p
)1/p
(
.
a1 p + + an p
+ b1 + + bn p
s, t 0 0
sak = tbk k = 1, . . . , n.
5.4.23. a1 , . . . , an , w1 , . . . , wn > 0 w1 + + wn = 1.
f (p) = (w1 a1 p + + wn an p )1/p R \ {0}.
limp0 (w1 a1 p + + wn an p )1/p = a1 w1 an wn .
p0 < 0 < p00 , 21
0
00
00
00
(w1 a1 p + + wn an p )1/p a1 w1 an wn (w1 a1 p + + wn an p )1/p .

- 5.4.20 .
n
a1 ++a
n a1 an , , a1 , . . . , an .
n
- 5.5.39.
- 5.4.23.
19
Young 5.5.38 6.3.2.
20
Hlder 5.5.39.
21
5.5.39.
18
174
5.4.24. f : A R, A A f 0 () > 0.
f 0 (), f (x) > f () f (x) < f ()
. f ;
f 0 () < 0;
{
x + 2x2 sin(1/x), x 6= 0
f (x) =
f 0 (0) = 1. 0,
x = 0
a > 0 f (a, a).
5.6 5.7.
5.4.25. 22 f : I R I. I
f , f I.
5.4.26. f : I R I f 0 (x) 6= 0 x
I. 5.3.9[] f -- I.
f I.
f 0 (x) > 0 x I f 0 (x) < 0
x I.23
5.4.27. f, g : (a, b) R (a, b), a < 0 < b. , ,
f 0 (x) = g(x), g 0 (x) = f (x) x (a, b) f (0) = 0, g(0) = 1.
;
f (x)2 + g(x)2 = 1 x (a, b).
F, G ( F f G g),
F (x) = f (x) G(x) = g(x) x (a, b).
5.4.28. f : [a, b] R [a, b] (a, b) k > 0
|f 0 (x)| k|f (x) f (a)| x (a, b). f [a, b].
5.4.29. l M = (x0 , y0 ) .
M l M l
dist(M, l).
l x = , dist(M, l) = | x0 |.
l y = x+, dist(M, l) = |x0 + y0 |/(1+2 )1/2 .
ax + by = c, a, b
6= 0, dist(M, l) = |ax0 + by0 c|/(a2 + b2 )1/2 .
5.4.30. l . ;
5.4.31.
A1 d1 A2
d2 . () v1
v2
.
A1 A2 .
22
4.4
.
23
, , , , . Darboux
5.3.23[].
175
5.4.32. h r.

;

;
5.4.33. a b c > a + b.

.
;
5.5 .
. f : A R B = {x A | f 0 (x) R} A B
B. , f 0 : B R. ,
0
0 ()
f 0 , (f 0 )0 () = limx f (x)f
, ,
x
00
, f () f . ,
f 00 () = limx
f 0 (x)f 0 ()
.
x
, , , n- (n 1)-
.
f f (1) ()
f (2) (). f 000 (), f (3) ()
f (n) ().
n
dn y
Dxn f , ddxnf dx
n.
, , n- f
f (n) () = limx
f (n1) (x)f (n1) ()

.
x
, f () f (0) ().
5.5.1. n N, xn :
dxn
dx
d2 xn
dx2
= nxn1 ,
= n(n 1)xn2 ,
d3 xn
dx3
= n(n 1)(n 2)xn3 ,
dn1 xn
dxn1
= n(n 1) 2x,
dn xn
dxn
= n(n 1) 2 1 = n!.
dn xn
dxn
dm xn
dxm
, 0. ,
= 0 m N, m > n.
5.5.2. a
/ N {0}, xa :
2
a
d x
= a(a 1)xa2 , ,
dx2
dn xa
dxn
= a(a 1) (a n + 1)xan
dxa
dx
= axa1 ,
n N.
xan 6= 0 , ,
0.
176
5.5.3. a > 0, ax
ax (log a)2 , ,
dn ax
x
n
n N.
dxn = a (log a)
:
d n ex
dxn
dax
dx
= ax log a,
d 2 ax
dx2
n N.
= ex
5.5.4. sin x : sin(1) x = cos x, sin(2) x = sin x,

sin(3) x = cos x, sin(4) x = sin x. : sin x, cos x, sin x, cos x. , ,
d2k sin x
dx2k
d2k1 sin x
dx2k1
= (1)k sin x,
= (1)k1 cos x
k N.
,
d2k cos x
dx2k
= (1)k cos x,
d2k1 cos x
dx2k1
= (1)k sin x
k N.
d y
dx
n , , ,
limh0 f (+2h)2fh2(+h)+f () = f 00 (),
(5.10)
5.6.9. y = f ( + h), = f () x = h,
y = y = f ( + h) f (). , f ( + h) f ()
+ h , f ( + 2h) f ( + h).
,
(y)() = f ( + h) f ().

(y)( + h) = f ( + 2h) f ( + h)

f ( + 2h) 2f ( + h) + f () = (y)( + h) (y)() = (y).
f ( + 2h) 2f ( + h) + f ()
. f
(y) , , 2 y.
, , (5.10)
limx0
2 y
x2
= f 00 ().

d2 y
dx2
= f 00 (),
y
dy
limx0 x
= f 0 () dx
= f 0 ().
.
.
.
5.9. 24 I, f : I R, f
I f 00 () I.
[] f 0 () = 0 f 00 () > 0, f .
[] f 0 () = 0 f 00 () < 0, f .
24
5.6.12.
177
. []
limx
f 0 (x)
x
= limx
f 0 (x)
x
>0
f 0 (x)f 0 ()
x
= f 00 () > 0,
, I , , f 0 (x) < 0
f 0 (x) > 0 . , a, b
a < 0
x (, b). f (a, ] [, b), (a, ]
[, b). f .
[] .
5.5.5.
x2 .
dx2
dx (0)
= 0
d2 x2
(0)
dx2
= 2. , 0
2 4
d x
5.5.6. dx
dx (0) = 0 dx2 (0) = 0. , 0
x4 . 5.9.
.

.
. I f : I R. f I x1 , x2
I x1 < x2
f ((1 t)x1 + tx2 ) (1 t)f (x1 ) + tf (x2 )
0 < t < 1.
, f I.
, f I x1 , x2 I x1 < x2
f ((1 t)x1 + tx2 ) (1 t)f (x1 ) + tf (x2 )
0 < t < 1.
, , f I.
5.5.7. x + R.
5.5.8. x2 R.
5.5.9. |x| R.
f ((1 t)x1 + tx2 ) (1 t)f (x1 ) + tf (x2 )
( ) .
x1 < x2 .
x = (1 t)x1 + tx2
t [0, 1]
[x1 , x2 ]. ,
t=
xx1
x2 x1
x [x1 , x2 ]
[0, 1]. t x x
, , 1 t = xx22x
, ,
1
178
. f : I R I x1 , x2 I
x1 < x2
f (x)
x2 x
x2 x1 f (x1 )
xx1
x2 x1 f (x2 )
x1 < x < x2 .
f I
.
, f I x1 , x2 I x1 < x2
f (x)
x2 x
x2 x1 f (x1 )
xx1
x2 x1 f (x2 )
x1 < x < x2 .
f I
.

. ,
y=
x2 x
x2 x1 f (x1 )
xx1
x2 x1 f (x2 )
(x1 , f (x1 )) (x2 , f (x2 )). ,

f () I x1 , x2 I x1 < x2
f (x1 , f (x1 )) (x2 , f (x2 ))
() . f
() I x1 , x2 I x1 < x2
f (x1 , f (x1 )) (x2 , f (x2 ))
() .
5.10. I f : I R I. f
I.
. I, a, b I a < < b. f
I.
b
x
xa
a < x < . f (x) x
a f (a) + a f () f () bx f (x) + bx f (b).
bx
b f ()
x
b f (b)
f (x)
x
a f (a)
, , limx f (x) = f ().

< x < b. f (x) bx
b f () +
x
a f (a)
xa
a f ()
f (x)
xa
a f ()
x
b f (b)
bx
b f ()
a < x < ,
f ()
x
b f (b)
x
a
xa f (a) + xa f (x).
< x < b,
, , limx+ f (x) = f ().

limx f (x) = f () f .
f I.
5.11. I f : I R.
[] f I, (i) I I
()
x I x > (ii)
f+0 () f+0 () f (x)f
x
()
I I f0 () f (x)f
f0 () x I x < .
x
f I, .
, < f0 () f+0 () < + I.
[] f I, (i) I I
()
f+0 () f+0 () f (x)f
x I x > (ii)
x
()
I I f0 () f (x)f
f0 () x I x < .
x
f I, .
, < f+0 () f0 () < + I.
179
. [] f I.
I. x1 , x2 I x1 < x2 < .
x2
2 x1
f (x2 ) x
f (x1 ) + xx
f (),
1
1
f (x1 )f ()
x1
f (x2 )f ()
x2
x1 < x2 < .
()
g(x) = f (x)f
I ,
x
, 3.2 , limx g(x) =
()
()
limx f (x)f
= f0 () > , , f0 () g(x) = f (x)f
x
x
x I x < .
f I, , , g ,
()
f0 () > g(x) = f (x)f
x I x < .
x
I. x3 , x4 I < x3 < x4 .
x3
3
f (x3 ) xx44x
f () + x4 f (x4 ) , ,
f (x3 )f ()
x3
h(x) =
f (x)f ()
x
f (x4 )f ()
x4
< x3 < x4 .
I ,
limx+ h(x) = limx+
f (x)f ()
x
= f+0 () < + , ,
()
x I x > .
f+0 () h(x) = f (x)f
x
f I, , , h ,
()
x I x > .
f+0 () < h(x) = f (x)f
x
b
a
ba f (a) + ba f (b)
()
limb+ f (b)f
=
b
I. a, b I a < < b. f ()
f+0 ().
[] .
f (a)f ()
a
f (b)f ()
,
b
f0 () = lima
f (a)f ()
a
5.11. f
I I, f 0 () R, f .
5.11
. f I I,

< f+0 () f0 () < +.
f
(, f ()) , . , x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 I x1 < x2 < < x3 < x4
f (x1 )f ()
x1
f (x2 )f ()
x2
f0 () f+0 ()
f (x3 )f ()
x3
f (x4 )f ()
.
x4
()
f (x)f
f
x
(, f ()) (x, f (x))
. , , (x, f (x))
(, f ()),

(, f ()).
f
I.

.
180
5.12. I f : I R I
I.
[] f () I f 0 ()
I.
[] f () I f 0 ()
I.
. [] f I. x1 , x2 I x1 < x2 .
5.11,
f 0 (x1 )
f (x2 )f (x1 )
x2 x1
f 0 (x2 ),
f 0 I. f ,
, f 0 .
, f 0 I. x, x1 , x2 I x1 <
x < x2 . 1 , 2 x1 < 1 < x < 2 < x2
f (x)f (x1 )
xx1
= f 0 (1 ),
f (x2 )f (x)
x2 x
= f 0 (2 ).
f 0 (1 ) f 0 (2 ),
f (x)f (x1 )
xx1
f (x)
f (x2 )f (x)
.
x2 x
x2 x
xx1
x2 x1 f (x1 ) + x2 x1 f (x2 ),
f 0 ,
f I. ,
, f .
[] .
5.12
f I
I. f () I
f ()
. , f ()
I f
() .
{
{
2x2 , x 0
4x, x 0
5.5.10. f (x) =
f 0 (x) =
2
x , 0 x
2x, 0 x
f 0 R, f R. ,
5.13, f 00 (0).
n
x
5.5.11. ddx
= nxn1 R.
, n N , xn1 R, xn
R.
n N , xn1 (, 0)
(0, +), xn (, 0] [0, +).
,
5.12.
5.13. I f : I R I
I.
[] f I f 00 (x) 0 x I.
f 00 (x) > 0 x I, f I.
[] f I f 00 (x) 0 x I.
f 00 (x) < 0 x I, f I.
181
. .
5.5.12. f (x) = x(x 1)(x 2). f 0 (x) = 3x2 6x + 2
f 00 (x) = 6x 6 x. f 00 (x) < 0 x (, 1), f
(, 1]. , f 00 (x) > 0 x (1, +), f
[1, +).
5.5.13.
5.5.11.
d2 xn
dx2
= n(n 1)xn2 R
2 a
5.5.14. ddxx2 = a(a 1)xa2 x > 0. xa

(0, +), a < 0, [0, +), 0 < a < 1,
[0, +), a > 1.
5.5.15. a > 0, a 6= 1. ax R
ax (log a)2 > 0 x.
d2 ax
dx2
d2 log x
5.5.16. a > 0, a 6= 1. dx2a = log1 a x12 x > 0. loga

(0, +), a > 1, (0, +), 0 < a < 1.
5.5.17. x4 R
4x3 R. ,
R : 12x2 > 0 x 6= 0, 12 02 = 0.
.
()
.
. f : A R
A.
f f f (x)
f 0 ()(x ) + f () x f (x) f 0 ()(x ) + f ()
x , , f (x) f 0 ()(x ) + f () x
f (x) f 0 ()(x ) + f () x
.
,
f .
, f f 0 () = .
, (, f ()) f .
, , (, f ()) f
, , f (, f ()) , ,
,
,
.
5.14. I, f : I R, I f 0 () R.
a, b I a < < b f (a, ] [, b) , ,
(a, ] [, b), f .
,
.
182
. f (a, ] [, b).
()
()
5.11, f (x)f
f 0 () x (a, ). , f (x)f
f 0 () x
x
x
0
(, b). f (x) f ()(x ) + f () x (a, ) f (x) f 0 ()(x ) + f ()
x (, b).

5.14 .
5.15. I, f : I R, I f 0 () R.
f 00 (x) 0 f 00 (x) 0
f 00 (x) 0 f 00 (x) 0 ,
f .
, .
. .
5.5.18. 5.5.11 5.5.13, n N ,
0 xn .
.
. f : A R A. l
f (, f ()) l
l. , y = x + l,
f () = + f (x) x + x A. , , f (x) > x +
x A, x 6= , .
, l f
(, f ()) l
l. , y = x+ l, f () = + f (x) x+
x A. , , f (x) < x + x A, x 6= ,
.
f () = + l y = x + f () ,
, y = (x)+f (). l
f (, f ()) y = (x)+f () f (x) (x)+f ()
x A.
, l f (, f ())
y = (x ) + f () f (x) (x ) + f () x A.
, .
5.16. I, f : I R I.
[] f () I, y = (x ) + f ()
() f (, f ())
f+0 (), I, f0 () , I,
f0 () f+0 (), I.
[] f () I, y = (x ) + f ()
() f (, f ())
f+0 () , I, f0 (), I,
f+0 () f0 (), I.
[] f I I,
, , f (, f ())
y = f 0 ()(x ) + f (), f
(, f ()).
183
. [] f I. 5.11, f+0 ()
I f0 ()
I.
y = (x)+f ()
f (, f ()). I, f (x)
()
(x ) + f () x I, x > , f (x)f
x
x
()
, , f+0 () = limx+ f (x)f
.
x
, I, f (x) (x ) + f ()
()
x I, x < , f (x)f
x ,
x
()
, f0 () = limx f (x)f
.
x
. I f0 ()
()
f+0 (). 5.11, f+0 () f (x)f
x I, x >
x
f0 () x I, x < . f (x) f () (x )
x I, x 6= .
y = (x ) + f ()
f (, f ()).
f I,
.
I f+0 (). 5.11,
()
x I, x > . y = (x ) + f ()
f+0 () f (x)f
x
f (, f ()). f
I,
.
I.
[] .
[] f I I,
f0 () = f+0 () = f 0 ().
y = (x ) + f () , ,
f (, f ()) = f 0 ().
f (x)f ()
x
5.5.19. f (x) = |x| . f0 (0) = 1 f+0 (0) = 1.

f (0, 0)
y = x, 1 1. , f 0 (2) = 1,
f (2, 2) y = (x 2) + 2 = x.
, f 0 (3) = 1, f
(3, 3) y = (x + 3) + 3 = x.
5.5.20. x2 R. , ,
y = 2(x)+ 2 x2
(, 2 ). , . , x2 > 2(x)+ 2
x 6= . .
5.5.21. ex R. , ex
(0, e0 ) = (0, 1)
y = x + 1. , . , ex > x + 1
x 6= 0.
5.17
.
5.17. I f : I R.
[] f () I I ()
184
f (, f ()).
[] f () I I ()
f (, f ()).
. [] f () I, 5.16
I ()
f (, f ()).
, I
f (, f ()). x1 , x2 I, x1 < x2 (x1 , x2 ).
I,
f (, f ()) y = (x ) + f () .
f (x1 ) (x1 ) + f () f (x2 ) (x2 ) + f ().
()
(x1 )
1
f (xx22)f
, , f () xx22x
f (x1 ) + xx
f (x2 ).
f ()f
x1
1
2 x1
f I. ,
, f I.
[] .
.
, , .
, , .
5.5.22. n N, n 2, xn [0, +),
((1 t)x1 + tx2 )n < (1 t)x1 n + tx2 n
0 x1 < x2 , 0 < t < 1.
2 n
, t = 21 , ( x1 +x
2 ) <
x1 n +x2 n
2
0 x1 < x2 .
5.5.23. n N, n 2, x1/n [0, +).
(1 t)x1 1/n + tx2 1/n < ((1 t)x1 + tx2 )1/n

1/n
0 x1 < x2 , 0 < t < 1.
1/n
2
2 1/n
, t = 21 , x1 +x
< ( x1 +x
0 x1 < x2 .
2
2 )

. , ,
x1 = x2 .
5.5.24. ex R.
e(1t)x1 +tx2 < (1 t)ex1 + tex2
, t =
1
2
x1 +x2
2
x1 < x2 , 0 < t < 1.

<
ex1 +ex2
2
x1 < x2 .
.
{
xk ,
5.5.1. f (x) =
xk ,
x 0
k N. n N, f (n) .
x 0
5.5.2. n-
5.5.3.
dn log x
dxn ( x )
3
x+2
, x+1 , x , 1 ,
x2 1 (x1)2 x2 1 x2 +1
(1)n n! (
log x
xn+1
185
1
k=1 k
sin(5x) sin(7x) n.
n.
5.5.4.
d n ex
dxn ( x )
5.5.5.
dn tan x
dxn
(1)n n!ex
xn+1
n
k=0
(1)k k
k! x
n.
= Pn (tan x) n, Pn n + 1.
2
2
x3
1
1
, x2 (x 1)2 , x2x+1 , x1 + x1
+ x2
, ex , e1/x , e1/x ,
(x+1)2
ex sin x. ,
5.5.6.
e1/x e1/x
, 1 ,
e1/x +e1/x log x
sin x + cos x
, .
{
x|x| + x2 sin(1/x), x 6= 0
5.5.7. 0 f (x) =
0,
x = 0
5.5.8. n N, I, f : I R. f (n) (x) = 0 x I

f n 1.
5.5.9. n N, n 2, I f : I R f (n1) I
f (n) I. f n + 1 I,
f (n) I.
5.5.10. f : [a, b] R [a, b] (a, b).
f (a) = f (b) = 0 f (c) > 0 c (a, b), (a, b)
f 00 () < 0.
5.5.11. f : (a, b) R f (x)f 00 (x) 0 x (a, b).
(a, b) f (x)f 0 (x) = 0, f
.
5.5.12. f : [1, 1] R [1, 1], (1, 1)
f (1) = f (0) = 0, f (1) = 1, f 0 (0) = 0. (1, 1) f (3) () = 3.
5.5.13. f : [a, b] R [a, b] (a, b).
(a, f (a)) (b, f (b))
f , (a, b)
f 00 () = 0.
5.5.14. I f : I R I.
f (x) 0 x I f (x) = 0 x I,
I f 000 () = 0.
5.5.15. 5.3.11[]. a < b n N,
P (x) = (x a)n (x b)n . P (n) n,
n (a, b).
5.5.16. 25 I, J f : I J f 1 : J I, I = f () J.
f f 0 () 6= 0, f 1
(f 1 )00 () = f 00 ()/(f 0 ())3 .
, f n f 0 () 6= 0, f 1
n .
5.5.17. [] P (x) = a0 +a1 (x)+ +an (x)n .
P (k) () = k!ak k Z 0 k n P (k) () = 0 k Z k n + 1.
[] y0 , y1 , . . . , yn . P (x) n
P (k) () = yk k Z 0 k n. ;
0
[] P (x) = P ()+ P 1!() (x)+ + P

P (x) n , x.26
25
26
.
5.7.
186
(n) ()
n!
(x)n
5.5.18. 27 [] n g : (a, ] R h : [, b) R
(k)
g (k) ()
{ = h () k Z, 0 k n. f : (a, b) R
g(x), a < x
f (x) =
n (a, b) f (k) () =
h(x), x < b
g (k) () = h(k) () k Z, 0 k n.
[] n f : [a, b] R. 5.5.17,
P (x), x a
P (x) Q(x) g(x) = f (x), a x b
Q(x), b x
n R.
[] b < c n f : (a,
b] R g : [c, d) R. B
f (x), a < x b
P (x) h(x) = P (x), b x c n
g(x), c x < d
(a, d). P (x);
5.5.19. [] x1 , . . . , xn
yn . k =
y1 , . . . ,xx
1, . . . , n n 1 Qk (x) = 1mn,m6=k xk xmm , m
1 n k.
Qk (x) ;
Q(x) = y1 Q1 (x)+ +yn Qn (x) n1
: Q(x1 ) = y1 , . . . , Q(xn ) = yn .
[] x1 , . . . , xn I f : I R.
Q1 (x), . . . , Qn (x) [], 28
Q(x) = f (x1 )Q1 (x) + + f (xn )Qn (x).
f (n1) I f (n) I,
(n)
x I I f (x) Q(x) = f n!() (x x1 ) (x xn ).
5.5.20. Leibniz,
( )
(f g)(n) = nk=0 nk f (k) g (nk)
n N.
5.5.21. f (x) = e1/x .

f (n) (x) = x2n Pn (x)e1/x x > 0, Pn (x)
n1. : P1 (x) = 1, P2 (x) = 12x, P3 (x) = 16x+6x2 .
f (n) (x) = x2n Pn (x)e1/x
Pn+1 (x) = x2 Pn 0 (x) + (1 2nx)Pn (x) x > 0.
x2 f 0 (x) = f (x) x > 0 , n
Leibniz 5.5.20, Pn+2 (x) = (12(n+1)x)Pn+1 (x)n(n+1)x2 Pn (x)
x > 0.
xn1 Pn (x) (1)n1 n!.
x2 Pn 00 (x) (2nx 2x 1)Pn 0 (x) + n(n 1)Pn (x) = 0 x > 0.
5.5.22. 29 f (x) = ex .
2
f (n) (x) = (1)n Hn (x)ex x, Hn (x)
2
27
. 5.1.4.
Q(x) Lagrange f x1 , . . . , xn .
29
Hn (x) Hermite n (x) =
2
(2n n! )1/2 Hn (x)ex /2 Hermite. Hermite
Fourier. 12.4.14.
28
187
n. : H1 (x) = 2x, H2 (x) = 4x2 2, H3 (x) = 8x3 12x.

Hn+1 (x) = Hn 0 (x) + 2xHn (x) x.
f 0 (x) = 2xf (x) x. n
Leibniz 5.5.20 Hn+2 (x) = 2xHn+1 (x) 2(n + 1)Hn (x)
x.
Hn+1 0 (x) = 2(n + 1)Hn (x) x.
xn Hn (x) 2n .
Hn 00 (x) 2xHn 0 (x) + 2nHn (x) = 0 x.
5.5.23. f : (a, b) R (a, b) a < < b. f 0 (x) f 0 ()
x (a, b) f 0 (x) f 0 () x (a, b), f .
5.5.24. f f
.
, f ,
.
5.5.25. 30 , 0, I f, g : I R I. f + g :
I R max{f, g} : I R I.
I, J f : I J I g : J R J. g
J, g f : I R I.
I F , f : I R
I. x I F (x) = sup{f (x) | f F}. F (x) R
x I, F : I R I.
;
5.5.26. 31 I f : I R.
f I I
x I \ {}.
f I
a0 a, b0 b , , a 6= b a0 6= b0 .
f (b0 )f (a0 )
b0 a0
f (b)f (a)
ba
f (x)f ()
x
a, a0 , b, b0 I,
5.5.27. a, b R a < b f : (a, b) R (a, b).

. (i) f (a, b), (ii) f
(a, b), (iii) c (a, b) f (a, c]
[c, b), (iv) c (a, b) f (a, c] [c, b)
(v) c, d (a, b) c d f (a, c],
[c, d] [d, b).
5.5.28. a, b R a < b f : (a, b) R (a, b).
limxb f (x), limxa+ f (x).
, , b R f b, f (a, b]
limxb f (x) f (b).
, , a R f a, f [a, b)
limxa+ f (x) f (a).
5.5.29. f I x1 , x2 I x1 < x2 .
x0 x1
0
f (x0 ) = xx22 x
x1 f (x1 ) + x2 x1 f (x2 ) x0 (x1 , x2 ),
x
1
f (x1 ) + xxx
f (x2 ) x (x1 , x2 ).
f (x) = xx22x
1
2 x1
30
.
:
, .
31
188
5.5.30. f : (a, b) R (a, b). x1 , x2 (a, b) x1 < x2

(x1 )
(x1 , x2 ) f (xx22)f
= f 0 (), f
x1
(a, b). ;
5.5.31. f : (0, b) R (0, b). limx0 f (x) = 0, f (x)
x
f (x)
(0, b). limx0 f (x) < 0, x (0, b).
5.5.32. 32 f : I R I x1 , x2 I x1 < x2
t (0, 1) f ((1 t)x1 + tx2 ) (1 t)f (x1 ) + tf (x2 ), f
I.
: f : I R I
(x2 )
2
x1 , x2 I x1 < x2 f ( x1 +x
) f (x1 )+f
, f I.
2
2
{
1, x 0
f (x) =
f
0, x > 0
R. f R;
2
f : R R f ( x1 +x
2 )
x1 , x2 R x1 < x2 f R ;
f (x1 )+f (x2 )

2
5.5.33. [] , f R, R.
[] I f : I R I. ,
I f , f I.
5.5.34. a < 0 a > 1.
((1 t)x1 + tx2 )a < (1 t)x1 a + tx2 a 0 < x1 < x2 0 < t < 1.
xa > a a1 (x ) + a x, > 0 x 6= .
0 < a < 1.
5.5.35. a > 0.
a(1t)x1 +tx2 < (1 t)ax1 + tax2 x1 < x2 0 < t < 1.
ax > a log a (x ) + a x 6= .
)
(
5.5.36. log (1 t)x1 + tx2 > (1 t) log x1 + t log x2 0 < x1 < x2
0 < t < 1.
log x < 1 (x ) + log x, > 0 x 6= .
5.5.37. ((1 t)x1 + tx2 ) log((1 t)x1 + tx2 ) < (1 t)x1 log x1 + tx2 log x2
0 < x1 < x2 0 < t < 1.
5.5.38. Young 5.4.21 : log x (0, +) x1/p
[0, +) p > 1.
5.5.39. f : I R I. x1 , . . . , xn I w1 , . . . , wn > 0
w1 + + wn = 1, Jensen,33
f (x1 w1 + + xn wn ) f (x1 )w1 + + f (xn )wn .
, n = 2, Jensen
.
, f I, Jensen
32
.
.
. 6.4.18.
33
189
x1 = . . . = xn .
f () I;
a1 , . . . , an > 0. x1/q [0, +)
q
p
q
p
q > 1 x1 = ab11 p , . . . , xn = abnn p w1 = aA1p , . . . , wn = aAnp , A =
(a1 p + + an p )1/p , Hlder 5.4.22[].
.
- 5.4.20
log x (0, +). .
5.4.23 log x
(0, +).
n
0 < a1 , . . . , an < a = a1 ++a
, sin a1 sin an (sin a)n .
n
n
0 < a1 , . . . , an < a = a1 ++a
, sina1a1 sinanan ( sina a )n .
n
n
a1 , . . . , an > 0 a = a1 ++a
, ana a1 a1 an an .
n
.
5.5.40. f : I R I, f 0
I.34
5.5.41. f : I R I,
f .
5.5.42. (x, y), (x0 , y 0 ) (x00 , y 00 ) xy-
. R
0
2
0
2 1/2
00 x)2 +(y 00 y)2 )1/2 ((x0 x00 )2 +(y 0 y 00 )2 )1/2
((x x) +(y y) )2|(x((x
.
0 x)(y 00 y)(x00 x)(y 0 y)|
xy- x = x(t) y = y(t), t I. t I h > 0
(x(t), y(t)), (x(t + h), y(t + h)), (x(t h), y(t h))
Rt,h .
Rt = limh0+ Rt,h , ,
(x(t), y(t)).
, Rt =
((x0 (t))2 +(y 0 (t))2 )3/2

|x00 (t)y 0 (t)x0 (t)y 00 (t)| .
Rt , (x(t), y(t))
.
(x(t), y(t)). ;

(x x0 )2 + (y y0 )2 = r2 . ;
;

yy0 2
0 2
( xx
a ) + ( b ) = 1. ; ;
f : I R (x, f (x)),
x I, |f 001(x)| (1 + (f 0 (x))2 )3/2 .

y = x2 y = x1 .
; ;
34
5.3.23[].
190
5.6 .

00
.
l Hopitl.
l Hopitl 00 .
L HOPITL. f, g : (, b) R (, b),
g(x), g 0 (x) 6= 0 x (, b) limx+ f (x) = limx+ g(x) = 0.
0 (x)
(x)
limx+ fg0 (x)
, limx+ fg(x)
:
limx+
f 0 (x)
g 0 (x)
limx+
f (x)
g(x)
= .
:
x , x , x + x .
. f , g , f () =
g() = 0. limx+ f (x) = limx+ g(x) = 0, f, g , , [, b).
R
0 (x)
= .
limx+ fg0 (x)
> 0. T > 0
f 0 (x)

0 <
g (x)
(5.11)
x (, b) < x < + . Cauchy

x (, b) (, x)
f (x)
g(x)
f (x)f ()
g(x)g()
f 0 ()
g 0 () .
(5.12)
, x (, b) < x < + (, b) < < + ,

(5.11)

f 0 ()
0 <
g ()
, , (5.12),
f (x)

g(x) < .

(x)
< x (, b) < x < + , limx+
fg(x)
f 0 (x)
f (x)
g(x)
= .
limx+ g0 (x) = . ,
x x .
x + x 0+.
a > 0, f, g : (a, +) R (a, +) g(x), g 0 (x) 6= 0
0 (x)
x (a, +) limx+ f (x) = limx+ g(x) = 0. limx+ fg0 (x)
(x)
. limx+ fg(x)
.
1
x t = x , F, G : (0, a1 ) R
F (t) = f ( 1t ) = f (x)
G(t) = g( 1t ) = g(x)
t (0, a1 ).
G(t) = g(x) 6= 0 G0 (t) = t12 g 0 ( 1t ) = x2 g 0 (x) 6= 0 t (0, a1 ). ,
F 0 (t)
x2 f 0 (x)
f 0 (x)
limt0+ G
0 (t) = limx+ x2 g 0 (x) = limx+ g 0 (x)
191
.
limx+
f (x)
g(x)
= limt0+
F (t)
G(t)
0
(x)
(x)
. limx+ fg(x)
= limx+ fg0 (x)
.
, x x 0.
5.6.1. limx0
log(1+x)
ex 1 .
ex 1 6= 0, d(edx1) = ex 6= 0 x (1, 0) (0, +).

(1, 0) (0, +), log(1+x)
ex 1 .
x
, limx0 log(1 + x) = limx0 (e 1) = 0.
= 1.
: limx0 1/(1+x)
ex
log(1+x)
, limx0 ex 1 = 1.
x
5.6.2. limx0
sin x
x .
x 6= 0 dx
dx = 1 6= 0 x (, 0) (0, +) limx0 sin x =
limx0 x = 0. limx0 cos1 x = 1 , ,
limx0 sinx x = 1.
, , .
sin x
cos x limx0 sinx x = 1. ,
l Hopitl . , , .
/
. , , l Hopitl,
sin x , ,
sin x. , 10 ,
, sin x.
, , . limx0 sinx x
0
limx0 sin xsin
sin x 0.
x0
0
x
limx0 sinx x = limx0 sin xsin
= d sin
x0
dx (0) = cos 0 = 1.
,
l Hopitl
( ). ,
, .
l Hopitl

limx0
ex 1
x ,
limx1
log x
x1 ,
limx1
xa 1
x1 .
.35
l Hopitl
, , .
35
5.2.2.
192
L HOPITL. f, g : (, b) R (, b)
g(x), g 0 (x) 6= 0 x (, b). , , limx+ g(x) = +
0 (x)
(x)
. limx+ fg0 (x)
, limx+ fg(x)

:
0 (x)
(x)
limx+ fg0 (x)
= limx+ fg(x)
= .
:
x , x , x + x .
0
(x)
. limx+ fg0 (x)
= R.
0
> 0. > 0
f 0 (x)

0 <
g (x)

6
(5.13)
x (, b) < x < + 0 . x0 (, b) < x0 < + 0 .

limx+ |g(x)| = +, 00 > 0
}
{
|g(x)| > max |g(x0 )|, 3 |f (x0 )|, 3||
|g(x0 )|
(5.14)
x (, b) < x < + 00 .
= min{x0 , 00 }. x (, b) < x < + < x <
x0 < + 0 < x < + 00 . Cauchy,
x (x, x0 )
f (x)f (x0 )
g(x)g(x0 )
f 0 ()
g 0 () .
(, b) < < + 0 , (5.13),

f (x)f (x0 )
f 0 ()

= 0 < .
6
g(x)g(x0 )
g ()
|f (x) f (x0 ) (g(x) g(x0 ))| < 6 |g(x) g(x0 )|,

, ,
|f (x) g(x)| < 6 (|g(x)| + |g(x0 )|) + |f (x0 )| + |||g(x0 )|.
g(x) (5.14),
f (x)
(

g(x) < 6 1 +
|g(x0 )| )
|g(x)|
|f (x0 )|
|g(x)|

0 )|
+ || |g(x
|g(x)| < 6 (1 + 1) +

3

3
= .
(x)

, , > 0 fg(x)
< x (, b)
< x < + . limx+
0 (x)
limx+ fg0 (x)
f (x)
g(x)
= .

= x x . x x 0
.
l Hopitl limx+ f (x) .

l Hopitl, .
193
5.6.3.
limx+
ax
xb
= +
a > 1 b > 0.
x
, , a > 1 b = 1. limx+ ax = +. limx+ x = + x 6= 0

ax log a
dx
= +.
dx = 1 6= 0 x x > 0. limx+
1
a
limx+ x = +.
1/b x
a > 1 b > 0. a1/b > 1, limx+ (a x ) = +. limx+

( 1/b x )b
limx+ (a x )
= +.
.36
ax a > 1 xb .
ax
xb
5.6.4.
limx+
xa
(log x)b
= +
a > 0 b > 0.
a > 0 b = 1. limx+
xa
log x
= +.
x
1
limx+ log x = + log x 6= 0 d log
dx = x 6= 0
a1
x > 1. limx+ ax1/x = limx+ axa =
+. limx+
xa
log x
= +.
a/b
x
a > 0 b > 0. ab > 0, limx+ log
x = 0. limx+
( xa/b )b
limx+ log x = +. .
xa
(log x)b
xa a > 0 (log x)b .

x
+
5.6.5. limx+ xcos
+
.
x
, limx+ x = + , x cos x x 1 x,
limx+ (x cos x) = +.

cos x
1

l Hopitl : ( x x ) x > 0,
x
= limx+ 1 cosx x = 1 0 = 1.
limx+ cosx x = 0, limx+ xcos
x
x
, , ! limx+ 1+sin
1
limx+ sin x.
, , l
Hopitl. ,
.
.
, , 00

l Hopitl. , , .
1. limx f (x) = 0 limx g(x) =
limx f (x)g(x), 0().
limx f (x)g(x) = limx
f (x)
1/g(x)
00 . limx f (x)g(x) =
g(x)
limx 1/f
(x) , . ,
f .
36
2.3.24.
194
2. limx f (x) = + limx g(x) =

limx (f (x) + g(x)), (+) + ().
( 1
)
1
limx (f (x) + g(x)) = limx g(x)
+ f (x)
f (x)g(x),
0(), .
3. limx f (x) = 0, f (x) > 0, limx g(x) = 0 limx f (x)g(x) , (0+)0 .
limx f (x)g(x) = limx eg(x) log f (x)
0().
4. limx f (x) = + limx g(x) = 0
limx f (x)g(x) , (+)0 .
limx f (x)g(x) = limx eg(x) log f (x)
0(+).
5. , limx f (x) = 1 limx g(x) =
limx f (x)g(x) , 1 .
limx f (x)g(x) = limx eg(x) log f (x) ,
()0.
5.6.6. limx0+ x log x, 0().
x
1
1
1
limx0+ log
1/x , limx0+ x = +. x 6= 0 x2 6= 0
1/x
= limx0+ x =
1/x2
1/x
log x
limx0+ 1/x = limx0+ 1/x
2 = 0.
x (0, +). , limx0+

limx0+ x log x =
0.
5.6.7. limx0+ xx .
xx = ex log x : limx0+ xx = limx0+ ex log x = 1.
(
)x
x
5.6.8. limx+ 1 + 1+x
.
2
x
)
(
)
(
)
x
x
log(1+
x
x
1+x2 lim
1+ 1+x
=e
x+ x log 1+ 1+x2 ,
2
(+)0.
x
(
) log(1+ 1+x
2)
x
x log 1 + 1+x
=
00 .
2
1/x
x1 6= 0 x12 6= 0 x (0, +)
(
)
log(1+ x 2 )
2 (x2 1)
x
1+x
limx+ (1+xx2 )(1+x+x
= limx+
= 1.
2 ) = 1. limx+ x log 1 + 1+x2
1/x
x
(
)
)
x
x
log(1+
x
1+x2 = e.
limx+ 1 + 1+x
= limx+ e
2
.
5.6.1. , limx+ (ex x),
(
)
7x
1/x2
x/4
ex/2 (log x)4
, limx0+ x15 (log x)7 , limx0 e x5 .
limx+ ex13 , limx+ (log x)
5 , limx+
x100 ex/4
x 1
x))
xa 1
(b 6= 0), limx0 abx 1
(a, b > 0, b 6= 1), limx+ log(log(log
log(log x) ,
xb 1
)
( 1
1/x
x
limx1 1x+log
, limx0 log(1+x)
x1 , limx0 e(1+x)
, limx0 (x+ex )1/x ,
, limx0 log(1+x)
x
e2x 1
1 2x
1/x
x
limx1+ log x log(x 1), limx0+ xx 1 , limx+ x(xlog x1) .
5.6.2. limx1
5.6.3. 3.3.11 l Hopitl.

195
5.6.4. limx0
limx0
limx0
1cos(1cos x)
,
x4
arcsin xsin x
tan xarctan x .
ex 1
sin x ,
limx0
x sin(sin x)(sin x)2

,
x6
5.6.5. a, b limx0
( 1cos x
x4
limx/4
1
1
sin x x
(tan x)tan(2x) ,
limx0+ sin x log x, limx0
1
1
ex 1 sin x ,
x)
limx0 sin(tan x)tan(sin
,
x7
, limx0
)
+ ax2 + b = 0.
x
5.6.6. limx+ e +e
, limx+ xx+1
ex
l Hopitl; , l Hopitl;
{
1/(log |x|), x 6= 0
5.6.7. f (x) =
4.1.12 (
0,
x = 0
) f Hlder- 0.
5.6.8. 37 f, g : (0, 1) R (0, 1) limx0+ f (x) =
limx0+ g(x) = 0, g(x), g 0 (x) 6= 0 x (0, 1)
0 (x)
(x)
limx0+ fg0 (x)
.
limx0+ fg(x)
5.6.9. f : ( , + ) R, a < < b.
f 0 (), limh0+
l Hopitl.
f (+h)f (h)
2h
= f 0 ().
f (+h)2f ()+f (h)

= f 00 ().
h2
limh0 f (+2h)2fh2(+h)+f () = f 00 ().
f 00 (), limh0+
f 00 (),

dn y
dxn
n- y = f (x).
x
5.6.10. 0 < k < 1 n N. ex (1 + 1!
+ + xn! ) k.
n
x
1 + 1! + + xn! = kex .
xn , (xn ) .38
n
5.6.11. []39 a < < b f : (a, b) R n 1

(a, b). f (n) (),
)/
(
(n1)
(n)
(1)
limx f (x) f () f 1!() (x )1 f (n1)!() (x )n1 (x )n = f n!() .
n = 1, f 0 ().
n = 2, n = 3.
.
( 1
)
(i) limx0 x1n 1x
1 x xn1 .
)
(
1
xn1 .
(ii) limx0 x1n ex 1 1!1 x (n1)!
(
)
1
1
(iii) limx0 x1n log 1x
x 12 x2 n1
xn1 .
(
)
n1
n1 .
(iv) limx0 x1n log(1 + x) x + 12 x2 + (1)
n1 x
(
(1)m 2m2 )
1
x
m 1.
(v) limx0 x2m
cos x 1 + 2!1 x2 + (2m2)!
(
)
m
(1)
1
(vi) limx0 x2m+1
sin x 1!1 x + 3!1 x3 + (2m1)!
x2m1 m 1.
(
)
m
1
2m1 m 1.
arctan x x + 13 x3 + (1)
(vii) limx0 x2m+1
2m1 x
n
[] limx
k=0 bk (x)
(x)n
= limx
0
k
k=0 bk (x)
(x)n
37
l Hopitl.
10.2.1.
39
.
38
196
R. bk = b0k
k = 0, 1, . . . , n.
[] [] , , f (n) () R. Pn (x) = nk=0

(x)
P (x) n limx f (x)P
(x)n = 0.
f (k) ()
k
k! (x )
[] f : (1, 1) R (1, 1) (
0
(
))x
2
f (0) = 1, f 0 (0) = 0, f 00 (0) = 1, limx+ f a/ x
= ea /2 .
(
( ))x
2
= ea /2 .
, limx+ cos a/ x
5.6.12. 40 5.6.11 .
a < 0, f , f (2m) () < 0.
a < < b f 2m (a, b)
f (2m+1) (). f (1) () = . . . = f (2m) () = 0 f (2m+1) () 6= 0,
f .
5.6.13. 5.2.8 5.3.11.
P .
P k N P () = = P (k1) () = 0 P (k) () 6= 0.
a < < b, f : (a, b) R f () = 0.
f k N g : (a, b) R g() 6= 0
f (x) = (x )k g(x) x (a, b). f () 6= 0,
f 0.

.
f , ,
. , f .
a < < b f : (a, b) R . f () = 0.
f 1 f
f 0 () 6= 0.
k N, k 2, a < < b f : (a, b) R k 1
(a, b). f () = 0. f k
f k f () = = f (k1) () = 0 f (k) () 6= 0.
5.6.14. f, g : [0, 1) R [0, 1) 0
f 0 (0)g 00 (0) 6= f 00 (0)g 0 (0). Cauchy,
x (0, 1) (0, x) (f (x) f (0))g 0 () = (g(x) g(0)f 0 (). = (x)
1
x, limx0 (x)
x = 2.
5.6.15. f (a, +) limx+ (f (x) + f 0 (x)) = .
limx+ f (x) = limx+ f 0 (x) = 0.
5.6.16. 41 limx0+ xm e1/x = 0 m N.
{
e1/x , x > 0
h(x) =
h 0,
x 0
{
P2n (1/x)e1/x , x > 0
R , n, h(n) (x) =
P2n
0,
x 0
2n. , h(n) (0) = 0 n.
40
.
, , , 7.2.16,
.
41
197
{
g(x) =
e2/(1x ) ,
0,
2
R.
1 < x < 1
g
|x| 1
5.7 Taylor, .
5.1. n Z, n 0, f : [, c] R, n [, c]
f (n) [, c] (, c). , , p > 0. ,
x (, c] (, x)
f (x) =
n
k=0
f (k) ()
k! (x
f (n+1) ()
(x
n!p
)k +
)p (x )np+1 .
c < , [c, ].
. F : [, x] R
F (t) = f (x)
n
k=0
f (k) (t)
k! (x
t)k
(5.15)
t [, x]. F [, x] (, x) , ,
F (x) = 0.
F 0 (t) = f
(n+1) (t)
n!
(x t)n
(5.16)
t (, x).
h : [, x] R
h(t) = (x )p F (t) F ()(x t)p
t [, x]. h [, x] (, x) h() = h(x) = 0.
Rolle, (, x) h0 () = 0.
(x )p F 0 () = pF ()(x )p1 ,
(5.17)

f (x)
n
k=0
f (k) ()
k! (x
()(x)
)k = F () = Fp(x)
p1 =
f (n+1) ()
(x
n!p
)p (x )np+1 .
(5.15) t = , (5.17)
(5.16) t = .
. f n ,
Pn, (x) =
n
k=0
f (k) ()
k! (x
)k
Taylor n f .
5.1 Taylor f
f (x) = Pn, (x) + Rn, (x, ),
(n+1)
Rn, (x, ) = f n!p () (x )p (x )np+1 Schlmlich n

p > 0. p = n + 1 p = 1,
Rn, (x, ) =
f (n+1) ()
(n+1)! (x
)n+1
Rn, (x, ) =
f (n+1) ()
(x
n!
)n (x ).
Lagrange n Cauchy n.
198
Taylor 7.4.
n f (x)
Pn, (x) Taylor n .
Taylor Rn, (x, ) , ,
f (x) Pn, (x).
5.7.1. P n. P R , , 5.1 , x.
P (n+1) () = 0 , Rn, (x, ) = 0,
n
P (x) = Pn, (x) =
k=0
P (k) ()
k! (x
)k
, x. P n Taylor n P .
5.7.2. 4 + 105 = 4.00001 < 1017 .
x = 4 + 105 = 4 4 .
f (x) = x [4, 4 + 105 ]

f (k) (x) = 12 ( 12 1) ( 12 k + 1)x 2 k .
1
= 4 : f (k) (4) = 12 ( 12 1) ( 12 k + 1)4 2 k , ,

1
f 0 (4) =
1
4
f (k) (4) = (1)k1 13(2k3)

23k1
k 2.
, |f (n+1) (x)| (4, 4+105 ).

|f (n+1) (x)| = | 12 ( 21 1) ( 12 n)x 2 n1 |
1
13(2n1) 1 n
4 2
2n+1
13(2n1)
.
23n+2
, Lagrange
|Rn,4 (4 + 105 , )|
n = 2,
13(2n1)
105(n+1) .
23n+2 (n+1)!
|R2,4 (4 + 105 , )| < 1017
, , Taylor

4 + 105 2 1 105 +
4
1
5 2
64 (10 )
< 1017 .
1
2 + 14 105 64
(105 )2 = 2.0000025000015625
4 + 105 < 1017 .

2.0000025000015625 4 + 105 .
.
5.7.1. Taylor
1
x
1x , e ,
1
log 1x
,
1
x2 +1
0.
5.7.2. 5.7.2, Taylor Lagrange
5
f (x) = x
[, x] = [4, 4 + 10 ]. n N
4 + 105 ;
5.7.3. Taylor Lagrange sin(1o )
sin(31o ) .
199
5.7.4. f : [a, b] R [a, b] (a, b),

f (a) = f (b) = 0 |f 00 (x)| M x (a, b).
2 +(xb)2
|f 0 (x)| M (xa)
x (a, b).
2(ba)
5.7.5. f : [a, b] R [a, b] (a, b).
2
00
f 0 (a) = f 0 (b) = 0, (a, b) |f (b) f (a)| (ba)
4 |f ()|.
5.7.6. f : [a, b] R [a, b] 0 < m f 0 (x)
0 f 00 (x) M x [a, b]. , f (a) < 0 < f (b), (a, b)
f () = 0. .
Newton f (x) = 0.
(xn ) x1 (, b], x1 = b,
n)
xn+1 = xn ff0(x
(xn ) n.
(xn ) xn .
00
()
n (, xn ) xn+1 = 2ff 0 (x
(xn )2 .
n)
)2n1
(M
n 0 xn 2m
.
M 2m (x1 )
2 2 = 0
2 [1, 2]. x1 = 2
x2 , x3 , x4 .
2. n
xn 2 ;
5.7.7. Taylor Lagrange
f (n+1) ()
(n+1)! (x
)n+1 , ,
x. = (x), , f (n+2) ()
1
6= 0, limx+ (x)
x = n+2 .
5.7.8. [] f : (a, +) R (a, +). , u0 =
sup{|f (x)| | x > a}, u1 = sup{|f 0 (x)| | x > a}, u2 = sup{|f 00 (x)| | x > a}, u1 2 4u0 u2 .
[] f : R R R. , u0 = sup{|f (x)| | x R},
u1 = sup{|f 0 (x)| | x R}, u2 = sup{|f 00 (x)| | x R}, u1 2 2u0 u2 .
[] f : (0, +) R. f 00 (0, +) limx+ f (x) = 0,
limx+ f 0 (x) = 0.
[] f : (0, +) R (0, +). limx+ xf (x) =
limx+ xf 00 (x) = 0, limx+ xf 0 (x) = 0.
[] f : (a, b) R (a, b). (b x)2 f 00 (x)
(a, b) limxb f (x) = 0, limxb (b x)f 0 (x) = 0.
5.7.9. 42 n Z, n 0, f, g : [, c] R, n [, c] f (n) ,
g (n) [, c] (, c). x (, c]
(, x)
(
)
(
)
(k)
(k)
f (x) nk=0 f k!() (x )k g (n+1) () = g(x) nk=0 g k!() (x )k f (n+1) ().
c < ;
5.8 , .
.
. f, g : A R R A f (x) 6= 0
(x)
= 0, f
g(x) 6= 0 . limx fg(x)
42
Cauchy: = a, c = x = b n = 0.
200
g g
f .
f (x)

, - f , g, limx g(x) = 0

limx fg(x)
(x) = +.
(x)
u < + , f ,
, l, u 0 < l fg(x)
g .
(x)
, l
= limx fg(x)
0 < l < ( , l = 2 ) u > ( , u = 2)
(x)
 0, a > 1, xb +
b
ax , limx+ axx = 0.
5.8.2. c > 0, b > 0, (log x)c +
c
xb , limx+ (logxbx) = 0.
5.8.3. an , bn 6= 0, a0 + a1 x + + an xn
b0 + b1 x + + bn xn

n
1 x++an x
an
+, limx+ ab00+a
+b1 x++bn xn = bn > 0.
5.8.4. an , bm 6= 0 n < m. a0 + a1 x + + an xn
+a1 x++an xn
+ b0 + b1 x + + bm xm . , limx+ ba00+b
m = 0.
1 x++bm x
5.8.5. a > 1, b > 0, a1/x 0
1/x
b
xb , limx0+ a xb = limt+ at t = 0.
5.8.6. 1 cos x x2 0, limx0
1
2 > 0.
5.8.7. sin x x 0, limx0
x
ex 1 x 0, limx0 e x1 = 1 > 0.
x
log x x 1 1, limx1 log
x1 = 1 > 0.
sin x
x
1cos x
x2
= 1 > 0.
5.8.8. c > 0, b > 0, f (x) = (log x1 )c

c
c
0 xb , limx0+ (log(1/x))
= limt+ (logtbt) = 0.
xb
5.8.9. limx+ 2x+xx sin x = limx+ (2 + sin x) . ,
2x + x sin x x +. , 1 2x+xx sin x 3
x (0, +).
, , limx+ : , +.
5.8.3 n
+.
n , , n
+. 5.8.4,
+ :
. , n xn .
, , n
n
xn +.
a0 +a1 x++an xn
b0 +b1 x++bm xm ,
an , bm 6= 0 n >

a
n > 0.
m, nm +, limx+ xR(x)
nm = b
m
5.8.10. R(x) =
201
xb
b > 0
xb +. :
. f b > 0 +
xb +.
, ,
b
limx+ xxb21 = limx+ xb21b1 = 0
0 < b1 < b2 .
, , +
b
+ +. , f
+ x b
f
(x)
b > 0, u, l > 0 l xb u , , |f (x)| lx
+. limx+ lxb = +, limx+ |f (x)| = +.
. a > 1, ax +.
+ ax a > 1.
a,
( )x
x
limx+ aa12 x = limx+ aa12 = 0
1 < a1 < a2 .
. c > 0, (log x)c +.
+ (log x)c
c > 0.
c,
limx+
(log x)c1
(log x)c2
= limx+
1
(log x)c2 c1
=0
0 < c1 < c2 .
, + + +.
.
5.8.1 5.8.2 , +,
.
A , , N +. ,
. , (an ), a > 1,
a
(
) , (n ), a > 0,
c
(log n) , c > 0, .
+, N
+ , ,
n +.
5.8.11. ,
.
.
5.8.12. (1 cos n1 ) ( n12 ).
(
)
5.8.13. log(1 + n1 ) ( n1 ).
202
. .
. f, g : A R R A. g(x) 6= 0
. limx
f (x)
g(x)
= 0,
(
)
f (x) = g(x)
: f g .
M 0 |f (x)| M |g(x)| ,
(
)
f (x) = g(x)
: f g .
(
)
5.8.14. f g , f (x) = g(x)
. , ,
0
(
) f (x) 6=
( x ) .
c
b
b
, ((log)x) = x x = a(
) + a > 1 b, c > 0.
, xb1 = xb2 + xb2 = xb1 0 0 < b1 < b2 .
5.8.15.
( f) g
, f (x) = g(x) .
, sin x = (x) 1 cos x = (x2 ) 0.
5.8.16. f : A R A A. f
f 0 ()
f (x) f () f 0 ()(x ) = (x )
, limx
limx
f (x)f ()
x
f (x)f ()f 0 ()(x)

x
= 0
= f 0 ().
. f, g : A R R A. g(x) 6= 0
. limx
f (x)
g(x)
= 1,
f (x) g(x)
f g .
(x)
(x)
limx fg(x)
= 1 fg(x)
6= 0 , ,
f (x) 6= 0 . , f (x) g(x) , f (x), g(x) 6= 0
. , limx fg(x)
(x) = 1, g(x) f (x) .
.
5.8.17. sin x x 1 cos x 21 x2 0.

5.8.18. ex 1 x 0, limx0
ex 1
x
5.8.19. log x x 1 1, limx1
= 1.
log x
x1
1
5.8.20. tan x x(/2)
2 , limx 2
limt0 t cot t = limt0 sint t cos t = 1.
= 1.
tan x
1/(x(/2))
= limt0 t tan(t + 2 ) =
:
(
)
c 6= 0. f (x) g(x) = cg(x)
f (x) g(x).
(
)
: f (x) g(x) = cg(x) limx f (x)g(x)
= 0
cg(x)
( f (x)
)
f (x)g(x)
(x)
limx g(x) = 0 limx g(x) 1 = 0 limx fg(x)
= 1
f (x) g(x) .
:
203
5.8.21. sin x x = (x) cos x 1 + 12 x2 = (x2 ) 0.

5.8.22. ex 1 x = (x) 0.
5.8.23. log(1 + x) x = (x) 0.
( 1 )
1
5.8.24. tan x x(/2)
= x(/2)
2 .
5.18. [] g1 , . . . , gn g , g1 +
+ gn g .
[] f = g + g1 + + gn g1 , . . . , gn g ,
f (x) g(x) .
g1 (x)++gn (x)
n (x)
1 (x)
= limx gg(x)
+ + limx gg(x)
g(x)
(
)
n (x)
limx 1 + g1 (x)++g
= 1 + 0 = 1.
g(x)
. [] limx
[] limx
f (x)
g(x)
= 0 + + 0 = 0.
. f = g + g1 + + gn g1 , . . . , gn g ,
g .
.
, f = g + g1 + + gn g
limx g(x), limx f (x) . , ,
(x)
g(x) = 1 limx g(x).
f (x) g(x) , limx f (x) = limx fg(x)
: g + g1 + + gn h + h1 + + hm g, h
g(x)+g1 (x)++gn (x)
g(x)
, , , h(x)+h
h(x)
, ,
1 (x)++hm (x)
limx
g(x)
h(x) ,
limx
g(x)+g1 (x)++gn (x)

h(x)+h1 (x)++hm (x)
5.8.25. .
xk = (xn ) + k < n, a0 + a1 x + + an xn ,
an 6= 0, an xn +, a0 + a1 x + + an xn an xn +
, , limx+ (a0 + a1 x + + an xn ) = limx+ an xn .
+a1 x++an xn
a0 +a1 x++an xn
an x n
an x n
, ba00+b
m b xm +, limx+ b +b x++b xm = limx+ b xm .
m
m
m
1 x++bm x
0
1
x
5.8.26. xe2x x2 + 3ex x2 e 2 2e2x + log x x2 ex

x
2x x2 +3ex x2 e 2
2x
+. xe2e2x
xe
= x2 +,
2
x
+log xx e
2e2x
x
limx+
xe2x x2 +3ex x2 e 2
2e2x +log xx2 ex
= limx+
x
2
= +.
, , A N +.
.
x
ax
5.8.1. a > 1. ax , aa , aa +.
log x, log(log x), log(log(log x)) +.
5.8.2. x, log(ex + x log x), e(1+(1/x)) log x +.
x,
x2 +x3 log x
sin x+x2
0.
e x e
x/5 + x3 ex/6 x, e3 log(2+log x) .
5.8.3. x xe
x +sin x , e
+ , .
3 x
5 x/2
204
5.8.4. +
+ xb b < 0. ,
+ + ax a (0, 1) (log x)c c < 0, .

+ 0 +.
+
.

.
+a1 x++an xn
ba00+b
m , an , bm 6= 0 n < m, 1 x++bm x
+.
( 1/x 1 )
2
1
ex +2ex , log(x+log
+ x2 .
x) , log e
+ , .
5.8.5. f (x) (a + bx + cx2 + dx3 ) = (x3 ) 0. f (x) (a +
bx + cx2 ) = (x2 ), f (x) (a + bx) = (x) f (x) a = (1) 0.
a, b, c, d exx1 (a + bx + cx2 + dx3 ) = (x3 ) 0.
5.8.6. 5.6.11[]. a < < b f :
(a, b) R n 1 (a, b). f (n) () ,

(
f (x) f () +
f (1) ()
1! (x
)1 + +
f (n) ()
n! (x
)
(
)
)n = (x )n
:
1
(1 + x + + xn ) = (xn ) 0.
(i) 1x
(
)
1 n
(ii) ex 1 + 1!1 x + + n!
x = (xn ) 0.
(
)
1
(iii) log 1x
x + 12 x2 + + n1 xn = (xn ) 0.
(
)
n1
(iv) log(1 + x) x 12 x2 + + (1)n xn = (xn ) 0.
(
)
m
2m = (x2m ) 0 m 0.
(v) cos x 1 2!1 x2 + + (1)
(2m)! x
(
)
m1
2m1 = (x2m1 ) 0 m 1.
(vi) sin x 1!1 x 3!1 x3 + + (1)
(2m1)! x
(
)
m1
2m1 = (x2m1 ) 0 m 1.
(vii) arctan x x 13 x3 + + (1)
2m1 x
x2
2
5.8.7. e2x log x x5 ex , x log x log
x + x x log(log x), x log x
x2 + 3x sin x +;
1
1
x2 + x
3x , 1 + 2x x x, (sin1x)2 + x3 x
0;
x
x
5.8.8. , , f : [1, +) (0, +) , a > 0
f (x) = (eax ) xa = (f (x)) +.
(
)
(
)
5.8.9. f (x)
( = o) g(x) (
) , f (x) =
( g(x)
) ( .
)
: g(x) = g(x) . : g(x) = g(x) .
(
)
(
)
(
)
, f1 (x) = g(x)
f
(x)
=
g(x)
f
(x)
+
f
(x)
=
g(x)
.
2
1
2
(
)
(
)
(
)
+
.)
( )
(
):
(
) g(x)
(
) (g(x) )= g(x)
(
(
) ( :
)
(g(x) + g(x)
=
g(x)
,
g
(x)
g
(x)
=
g
(x)g
(x)
g
(x)
g2 (x) =
1
2
1
2
1
)
g1 (x)g2 (x) .
205
206
Riemann.
6.1 Darboux.
. [a, b]
[a, b] a, b. [a, b] , ,
= {x0 , x1 , . . . , xn1 , xn },
n N
a = x0 < x1 < . . . < xn1 < xn = b.
n + 1 [a, b] x0 , . . . , xn -.
xk k- -. [a, b] n [x0 , x1 ], . . . , [xn1 , xn ],
-. [xk1 , xk ] k- -.
[a, b] = {a = x0 , x1 = b}.
-, [x0 , x1 ] = [a, b]. [a, b]. ,
[a, b]. , x1 (a, b) {a = x0 , x1 , x2 = b} . ,
, .
n + 1 [a, b] n . ; -
n ba, ba
n . , -
ba
x0 = a, x1 = a + ba
,
x
=
a
+
2
:
k = 0, . . . , n
2
n
n
k- -
xk = a + k ba
n .
, [xk1 , xk ]
ba
xk xk1 = (a + k ba
n ) (a + (k 1) n ) =
ba
n
n- - xn = a + n ba
n = b.
, n 2, n + 1 [a, b]
23
. , {0, 34 , 97 , 13
15 , 24 , 1} 6
1 2 3 4
[0, 1] {0, 5 , 5 , 5 , 5 , 1} 6
[0, 1].
. 0 , 00 [a, b]. 00 0
0 00 , , 0 - 00 - , , 00
0 .
6.1.1. 00 = {0, 18 , 72 , 37 , 12 , 35 , 34 , 78 , 1}
0 = {0, 72 , 37 , 34 , 1} [0, 1].
207
6.1.2. 0 = {0, 18 , 37 , 12 , 53 , 87 , 1}, 00 = {0, 27 , 73 , 43 , 1} [0, 1]

.
. 0 , 00 [a, b]. = 0 00 [a, b]
0 , 00 . , 0 00 ,
0 00 .
6.1.3. 6.1.1 0 , 00 00 ,
6.1.2 0 , 00 = {0, 18 , 27 , 37 , 21 , 35 , 34 , 87 , 1}.
6.1 0 , 00 [a, b] ,
[a, b] 0 00 ,
.
6.1. 0 , 00 [a, b]. [a, b]
0 00 0 00 .
. 000 [a, b] 0 00 . ,
0 000 00 000 . 0 00 000 , 000 0 00 .
. f : [a, b] R = {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b}
[a, b]. - [xk1 , xk ]

lk = inf{f (x) | xk1 x xk },
uk = sup{f (x) | xk1 x xk }.
Darboux f [a, b]
(f ; a, b; ) = nk=1 lk (xk xk1 ) = l1 (x1 x0 ) + + ln (xn xn1 )

Darboux f [a, b]
(f ; a, b; ) = nk=1 uk (xk xk1 ) = u1 (x1 x0 ) + + un (xn xn1 ).

.
6.1.4. f : [a, b] R = {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b}
[a, b]. [xk1 , xk ] f f (xk1 ) f (xk ).
lk = f (xk1 ) uk = f (xk ) , ,
(f ; a, b; ) = nk=1 f (xk1 )(xk xk1 ), (f ; a, b; ) = nk=1 f (xk )(xk xk1 ).

f , lk = f (xk ) uk = f (xk1 ) , ,
(f ; a, b; ) = nk=1 f (xk )(xk xk1 ), (f ; a, b; ) = nk=1 f (xk1 )(xk xk1 ).

6.1.5. f : [a, b] R = {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b}
[a, b]. , - , [xk1 , xk ]
k k f (k ) f (x) f (k ) x [xk1 , xk ]. lk = f (k )
uk = f (k ),
(f ; a, b; ) = nk=1 f (k )(xk xk1 ), (f ; a, b; ) = nk=1 f (k )(xk xk1 ).

, , .
1. f : [c, d] R. {f (x) | c x d}
, l = inf{f (x) | c x d} u = sup{f (x) | c x d}, l u.
, [c0 , d0 ] [c, d] l0 = inf{f (x) | c0 x d0 } u0 = sup{f (x) | c0 x d0 }.
208
x [c0 , d0 ] x [c, d], l f (x) u. l u , ,

{f (x) | c0 x d0 }, l l0 u0 u.
:
, infimum ( )
supremum ( ).
2. (f ; a, b; ) = nk=1 lk (xk xk1 ) (f ; a, b; ) = nk=1 uk (xk

xk1 )
(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) = nk=1 (uk lk )(xk xk1 ).

lk uk k = 1, . . . , n, , -. ,
, -
.
3. l = inf{f (x) | c x d} u = sup{f (x) | c x d},
, f (s) f (t) w s, t [c, d].
s [c, d] : f (s) w f (t) t [c, d]. s [c, d]
f (s) w {f (x) | c x d} , , f (s) w l
, , f (s) w + l. , w + l {f (x) | c x d},
u w + l. u l w.
. > 0. x0 [c, d]
f (x0 ) > u 2 x00 [c, d] f (x00 ) < l + 2 . u l < f (x0 ) f (x00 ) w.
u l w < > 0, u l w 0 , , u l w.
, , :
, supremum infimum
.
6.2. f : [a, b] R [a, b]. u l
supremum infimum f [a, b],
l(b a) (f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) u(b a).
. = {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b}. k = 1, . . . , n [xk1 , xk ] [a, b],
1
l lk uk u
, ,
l(xk xk1 ) lk (xk xk1 ) uk (xk xk1 ) u(xk xk1 ).

n
n
n
n
k=1 l(xk xk1 )
k=1 lk (xk xk1 )
k=1 uk (xk xk1 )
k=1 u(xk xk1 ).
n

l
k=1 (xk xk1 ) = l(b a)
n
u k=1 (xk xk1 ) = u(b a). (f ; a, b; )
(f ; a, b; ).
6.3 . ,
, Darboux ( )
Darboux ( ).
209
6.3. f : [a, b] R 0 , 00 [a, b]. 00

0 ,
(f ; a, b; 0 ) (f ; a, b; 00 ) (f ; a, b; 00 ) (f ; a, b; 0 ).
. 0 = {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b}. 00 0 - . , 0 - [xk1 , xk ] 00 -,
xk1 xk . , , 0 - [xk1 , xk ] 00 -
00k
[xk1 , xk ]. ( 00 xk1 xk [xk1 , xk ]
00k . 00k [xk1 , xk ].)
, 00 000 , . . . , 00n , 00k [xk1 , xk ] 0 . ,
00 = nk=1 00k .
00k - 00 -
[xk1 , xk ]. , , (f ; xk1 , xk ; 00k )
(f ; a, b; 00 ) 00 -
[xk1 , xk ]. ,
(f ; a, b; 00 ) = nk=1 (f ; xk1 , xk ; 00k )

(6.1)
(f ; a, b; 00 ) = nk=1 (f ; xk1 , xk ; 00k ).

6.2 [xk1 , xk ],
lk (xk xk1 ) (f ; xk1 , xk ; 00k ) (f ; xk1 , xk ; 00k ) uk (xk xk1 )
(6.2)
k = 1, . . . , n.
k = 1, . . . , n (6.1) .
(6.2) (f ; a, b; 0 )
(f ; a, b; 0 ), . (6.2) ,
(6.1), (f ; a, b; 00 ) (f ; a, b; 00 ).
6.4 . Darboux
Darboux, Darboux
.
6.4. f : [a, b] R.
(f ; a, b; 0 ) (f ; a, b; 00 )
0 , 00 [a, b].
. = 0 00 .
0 00 , 6.3
(f ; a, b; 0 ) (f ; a, b; ),
(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; 00 ).
, 6.2 ( )
(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ).
(f ; a, b; 0 ) (f ; a, b; 00 ).
, Darboux
, .
210
.
6.1.1. f : [a, b] R.
[a, b] (f ; a, b; ) = (f ; a, b; ), f
[a, b].
0 , 00 [a, b] (f ; a, b; 0 ) = (f ; a, b; 00 ),
f [a, b].
6.1.2. f : [a, b] R. , f [a, b],
[a, b] (f ; a, b; ) = + , f
[a, b], [a, b] (f ; a, b; ) = .
6.1.3. f : [c, d] R l = inf{f (x) | c x d} u = sup{f (x) | c x d}.
(f ; c, d) = u l.1
0 (f ; c, d) + (f ; c, d) < + f
[c, d].
(f ; c, d) = sup{f (s) f (t) | s, t [c, d]} = sup{|f (s) f (t)| | s, t [c, d]}.
[c0 , d0 ] [c, d], (f ; c0 , d0 ) (f ; c, d).
6.2 . Darboux.
. f : [a, b] R. f [a, b]
b
a
f = sup{(f ; a, b; ) | [a, b]}
(6.3)
f [a, b]
b
af
= inf{(f ; a, b; ) | [a, b]}.
(6.4)
6.1. f : [a, b] R u l supremum infimum f

[a, b].
b
b
l(b a) f a f u(b a).
a
. 6.2 (f ; a, b; ) u(b a) b
[a, b]. , (6.4), a f (f ; a, b; ) ,
b
a f u(b a).
, 6.2 l(b a) (f ; a, b; ) [a, b] ,
b
b
, (6.3) (f ; a, b; ) f , l(b a) f .
a
a
, 0 00 [a, b].
6.4 (f ; a, b; 0 ) (f ; a, b; 00 ).
(f ; a, b; 0 ) {(f ; a, b; ) | [a, b]},
b
, (6.4), (f ; a, b; 0 ) a f .
b
a f {(f ; a, b; ) | [a, b]} , b
b
, (6.3), f a f .
a
. f : [a, b] R. f , ,
Riemann [a, b]
f=
af .
f [a, b],
(f ; c, d) f [c, d].
3.6.2 4.1.16.
211
, , Riemann
b
f [a, b] a f . , f [a, b],
a
af
b
a
f=
f=
a f.
Riemann Darboux.
6.5 Riemann
Riemann.
b b
b
a f , f a f
a
f . ,
b
a
f (x) dx,
a f (x) dx.
f (x) dx,
, , b
b
b
, a f (t) dt, f (t) dt a f (t) dt, .
a
6.2.1. c [a, b].

= {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b} [a, b]. [xk1 , xk ]
, c, lk = uk = c , ,
(c; a, b; ) = nk=1 c(xk xk1 ) = c(ba), (c; a, b; ) = nk=1 c(xk xk1 ) = c(ba).
{
} {
}
(c; a, b; )| [a, b] , (c; a, b; )| [a, b]
, c(b a). supremum
c(b a) infimum , , c(b a). ,
b
a
c dx = c(b a),
a c dx
= c(b a)
, , c [a, b]
b
a
c dx = c(b a).
6.2.2. f : [a, b] R
{
1, x [a, b] Q
f (x) =
0, x [a, b] \ Q
Dirichlet [a, b].
= {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b} [a, b]. [xk1 , xk ]
, {f (x) | xk1 x xk } {0, 1}.
lk = 0 uk = 1.
(f ; a, b; ) = nk=1 0(xk xk1 ) = 0, (f ; a, b; ) = nk=1 1(xk xk1 ) = b a.

{
}
(f ; a, b; )
|
[a,
b]

{0}, supremum
{
}
0, (f ; a, b; ) | [a, b] {b a},
infimum b a. ,
b
a
f (x) dx = 0,
a f (x) dx
= b a > 0.
b
b
f (x) dx < a f (x) dx, f [a, b]
a
b
a f (x) dx.
212
, (6.3) (6.4) 6.1, f :

[a, b] R 0 00 [a, b]
b
(f ; a, b; 0 )
f (x) dx
a f (x) dx
(f ; a, b; 00 )
, f [a, b],
(f ; a, b; 0 )
b
a
f (x) dx (f ; a, b; 00 ).
.
.
. f : [a, b] R. f [a, b] > 0 [a, b] (f ; a, b; )
(f ; a, b; ) < .
. f [a, b]. > 0. , (6.3)
(6.4), 0 00 [a, b]
b
a
f (x) dx

2
< (f ; a, b; 0 ),
(f ; a, b; 00 ) <
a f (x) dx
+ 2 .
(6.5)
= 0 00 , (6.5) 6.3
f (x) dx
+ 2 .
(6.6)
f , (6.6)
b
b

(f ; a, b; ) < a f (x) dx + 2 .
a f (x) dx 2 < (f ; a, b; ),
(6.7)

2
< (f ; a, b; ),
(f ; a, b; ) <
a f (x) dx
(6.7)
(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) <
(b
a
f (x) dx +

2
(b
a
f (x) dx

2
= .
, > 0. [a, b]
(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) < .
(6.3) (6.4)
b
a f (x) dx
a f (x) dx (f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; )
b
a
b
a
f (x) dx,
f (x) dx (f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) < .
> 0,
b
a f (x) dx
b
a
f (x) dx 0
, 0,
f [a, b].
a f (x) dx =
b
a
f (x) dx.
. .
213
0, x [a, b], x 6=
1, x =
> 0. [a, b], , .
: = a.
x1 (a, b) x1 a < = {a = x0 , x1 , x2 = b}. u1 = 1, l1 = 0
u2 = 0, l2 = 0. , (f ; a, b; ) = u1 (x1 x0 ) + u2 (x2 x1 ) = x1 x0 <
(f ; a, b; ) = l1 (x1 x0 ) + l2 (x2 x1 ) = 0.
: = b.
x1 (a, b) b x1 < = {a = x0 , x1 , x2 = b}. u1 = 0, l1 = 0
u2 = 1, l2 = 0. , (f ; a, b; ) = u1 (x1 x0 ) + u2 (x2 x1 ) = x2 x1 <
(f ; a, b; ) = l1 (x1 x0 ) + l2 (x2 x1 ) = 0.
: a < < b.
x1 (a, ), x2 (, b) x2 x1 < = {a = x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 = b}.
u1 = 0, l1 = 0 u2 = 1, l2 = 0 u3 = 0, l3 = 0. , (f ; a, b; ) =
u1 (x1 x0 ) + u2 (x2 x1 ) + u3 (x3 x2 ) = x2 x1 < (f ; a, b; ) = l1 (x1 x0 ) +
l2 (x2 x1 ) + l3 (x3 x2 ) = 0.
, [a, b] (f ; a, b; ) = 0 (f ; a, b; ) <
, , (f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) < . f [a, b].
b
, , 0 = (f ; a, b; ) a f (x) dx (f ; a, b; ) < . ,
b
b
> 0 0 a f (x) dx < , , a f (x) dx = 0.
6.2.3. [a, b] f (x) =
, , 6.2
6.15 .
.
6.2. f : [a, b] R. f [a, b]
(n ) [a, b] (f ; a, b; n ) (f ; a, b; n ) 0.
,
b
b
(f ; a, b; n ) a f (x) dx,
(f ; a, b; n ) a f (x) dx.
. f [a, b]. , n n [a, b]
0 (f ; a, b; n ) (f ; a, b; n ) < n1 .
(n ) [a, b] (f ; a, b; n ) (f ; a, b; n ) 0.
, (n ) [a, b]
(f ; a, b; n ) (f ; a, b; n ) 0.
(6.8)
> 0. (f ; a, b; n ) (f ; a, b; n ) < ,
, f [a, b].
,
b
(f ; a, b; n ) a f (x) dx (f ; a, b; n )
b
b
(6.8) (f ; a, b; n ) a f (x) dx (f ; a, b; n ) a f (x) dx.
. 6.5
, . , ,
.
214
6.2.4. x [a, b].

n n = {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b} [a, b] n . ,
xk = a + k ba
n
k = 0, . . . , n.
nk=1 k = n(n+1)
n .
2
, .
, x , [xk1 , xk ] lk = xk1 uk = xk .
)
n (
ba
(x; a, b; n ) = nk=1 xk1 (xk xk1 ) = ba
k=1 a + (k 1) n
n
(
) ba (
)
2
2
ba n1
ba n(n1)
= ba
.
b a
k=1 k = n na + n
n na + n
2
2
,
(x; a, b; n ) =
=
k=1 xk (xk xk1 ) =

(
)
ba n
ba
k=1 k
n na + n
ba n
ba
k=1 a + k n
n
(
)
ba n(n+1)
= ba
n na + n
2
b2 a2
2
, (x; a, b; n ) (x; a, b; n ) 0, x [a, b]

b
a
x dx =
b2 a2
2 .
6.2.5. 0 < a 0, xp , [xk1 , xk ] lk = xk1 p uk = xk p .
( k
)
(xp ; a, b; n ) = nk=1 xk1 p (xk xk1 ) = nk=1 xk1 p+1 xxk1

1
= nk=1 (an k1 )p+1 (n 1) = ap+1 (n 1) nk=1 (n p+1 )k1

)
1
= ap+1 (n 1) (nn p+1)11 = ap+1 (n 1) (nn p+1
1
p+1 n
n p+1
1
=
= ap+1 (n 1) (b/a)
n p+1 1
p+1
n 1
(bp+1
n p+1 1
ap+1 )
bp+1 ap+1
,
p+1
n 1 limx1 x x11 = dxdx (1) = (p + 1) 1p = p + 1.

,
n 1
nk=1 xk1 p (xk xk1 ) = np+1
(bp+1 ap+1 ),
1
p+1
(xp ; a, b; n ) =
=
=
p+1
n
p
p
k=1 (n xk1 ) (xk
k=1 xk (xk xk1 ) =
n p nk=1 xk1 p (xk xk1 )

n 1
n p np+1
(bp+1 ap+1 )
1
xk1 )
bp+1 ap+1
.
p+1
p < 0 p 6= 1, xp (xp ; a, b; n ) (xp ; a, b; n )

. .
, (xp ; a, b; n ) (xp ; a, b; n ) 0, xp [a, b]
b
a
xp dx =
bp+1 ap+1
p+1
p 6= 1 0 < a < b.
215
p > 0, xp [0, b] (, [a, b] a = 0)
n = n n n = {0 = x0 , x1 , . . . , xn+1 = b},
xk = nb n k1
k = 1, . . . , n, n + 1.
xp [0, b]
b p
bp+1
p > 0 0 < b.
0 x dx = p+1
, p = 1, .
p Z, xp x < 0,
b p
bp+1 ap+1
a < b < 0.
p+1
a x dx =
7.2.
6.2.6. p = 1 .
0 < a < b x1 [a, b].
, n n = n b/a
n = {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b},
xk = an k
1
x
k = 0, . . . , n.
, [xk1 , xk ] lk =
( x1 ; a, b; n ) =
n 1 limx1
,
( x1 ; a, b; n ) =
1
k=1 xk (xk
log x
x1
xk1 ) =
d log x
dx (1)
1
k=1 xk1 (xk
1
1
1
xk
n(n 1)
n
uk =
=
1
xk1 .
1 n 1
n log n
log ab log ab ,
= 1.
xk1 ) = n(n 1) =
n 1
log n
log ab log ab .
, ( x1 ; a, b; n ) ( x1 ; a, b; n ) 0, x1 [a, b]
b 1
b
0 < a < b.
a x dx = log a
6.2.7. > 0, 6= 1 x [a, b].
n n = {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b} [a, b] n . ,
xk = a + k ba
n
k = 0, . . . , n.
> 1, x , [xk1 , xk ] lk = xk1 uk = xk .
n
a
(k1)(ba)/n
(x ; a, b; n ) = nk=1 xk1 (xk xk1 ) = ba
k=1
n
=
ba a ba 1
n (ba)/n 1
(ba)/n
= (b a ) (ba)/n
b a
log ,
1
d
0
ba
n 0 limx0 x = dx (0) = log = log .
,
n
k(ba)/n
a
(x ; a, b; n ) = nk=1 xk (xk xk1 ) = ba
k=1
n
x
ba a (ba)/n ba 1
n
(ba)n 1
(ba)/n
= (b a )(ba)/n (ba)/n
b a
log .
0 < < 1, x
(x ; a, b; n ) (x ; a, b; n ) .
.
, (x ; a, b; n ) (x ; a, b; n ) 0, x [a, b]
b x
b a
> 0, 6= 1 0 < a < b.
a dx = log
216
Riemann.
E(A) A
. , , , ,
. :
(i) E(A) 0 A .
(ii)
- .
(iii) A1 A2 E(A1 ) E(A2 )
, A1 A2
E(A1 A2 ) = E(A1 ) + E(A2 ).
(iv) A1 , A2 E(A1 ) E(A2 ) A1 A2 , E(A1 ) E(A2 ).
f : [a, b] R f (x) 0 x
[a, b]. = {(x, f (x)) | x [a, b]} ,
, x-. , ,
A = {(x, y) | x [a, b], y [0, f (x)]},
(a, 0), (b, 0) (
[a, b] x-), . (a, 0), (a, f (a)),
. (b, 0), (b, f (b)) .
, , , f [a, b] A
E(A)
b
E(A) = a f (x) dx.
> 0. = {x0 , x1 , . . . , xn1 , xn } [a, b]
(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) < .
(f ; a, b; ) = nk=1 uk (xk xk1 ) (f ; a, b; ) = nk=1 lk (xk xk1 ),

uk lk supremum infimum f [xk1 , xk ].
, k = 1, . . . , n Bk
[xk1 , xk ] x- lk . (ii),
Bk
E(Bk ) = lk (xk xk1 ).
, k = 1, . . . , n Ck
[xk1 , xk ] x- uk . Ck
E(Ck ) = uk (xk xk1 ).
, B = B1 Bn C = C1 Cn , ,
(iii),
E(B) = nk=1 E(Bk ) = nk=1 lk (xk xk1 ) = (f ; a, b; ),
E(C) = nk=1 E(Ck ) = nk=1 uk (xk xk1 ) = (f ; a, b; ).

, k = 1, . . . , n, lk f (x) uk x [xk1 , xk ],
A B C. , B A C.
, (iv),
(f ; a, b; ) = E(B) E(A) E(C) = (f ; a, b; ).

b
(f ; a, b; ) a f (x) dx (f ; a, b; )
217
b

f (x) dx E(A) (f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) < .
a
, | a f (x) dx E(A)| < , > 0,

b
b
| a f (x) dx E(A)| = 0, E(A) = a f (x) dx.
.
6.2.1. (i), (ii) (iv) 0;
6.2.2. 0 a < b, x2 x3 [a, b]
b 2
b
4
4
b3 a3
a x3 dx = b a
3
4 , n [a, b] n
a x dx =
2
2
. nk=1 k 2 = n(n+1)(2n+1)
nk=1 k 3 = n (n+1)
,
6
4
. 6.2.4.
{
x, x [0, 1] Q
6.2.3. f : [0, 1] R f (x) =
0, x [0, 1] \ Q
1
1
f (x) dx = 0 0 f (x) dx = 12 .
0
6.2.4. f : [a, b] R (n 0 ) (n 00 ) [a, b]

(f ; a, b; n 0 ) (f ; a, b; n 00 ) 0. f [a, b]
b
b
(f ; a, b; n 0 ) a f (x) dx (f ; a, b; n 00 ) a f (x) dx.
6.2.5. f : [a, b] R [a, b] f (r) = 0
b
r [a, b]. a f (x) dx = 0. f (x) = 0
x [a, b].
6.2.6. f, g, h : [a, b] R f (x) g(x) h(x) x [a, b].
b
b
f h [a, b] a f (x) dx = a h(x) dx, g
b
b
b
[a, b] a g(x) dx = a f (x) dx = a h(x) dx.
6.2.7. f : [a, b] R. f [c, b] c
b
b
a < c < b, f [a, b] a f (x) dx = limca+ c f (x) dx.
f [a, c]
c a < c < b.
p > 0. 6.2.5,
b p
b p
bp+1
bp+1 ap+1
0
<
a
<
b.
,
x
dx
=
x
dx
=
p+1
p+1 .
a
0
b
6.2.8. f : [a, b] R [a, b]. a f (x) dx > 0,
( ) [c, d] [a, b] f (x) > 0 x [c, d].
b
, , f f (x) dx > 0.
a
6.3 .
.
6.1. f : [a, b] R [a, b]. f [a, b].
. > 0. 4.2, > 0
|f (x0 ) f (x00 )| <

ba
x0 , x00 [a, b] |x0 x00 | < .

218
(6.9)
= {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b} [a, b] < , ,
xk xk1 <
k = 1, . . . , n.
6.1.5. f [xk1 , xk ] k , k
[xk1 , xk ] f (k ) f (x) f (k ) x [xk1 , xk ]. lk = f (k ) uk = f (k ).
, |k k | xk xk1 < , (6.9)
uk lk = f (k ) f (k ) <

ba
, ,
(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) =
k=1 (uk
lk )(xk xk1 ) <

k=1 ba (xk
xk1 ) = .
> 0 [a, b] (f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) < .

f [a, b].
6.3.1. P (x)
P (x)

R(x) = Q(x)
Q(x).
6.3.2. p > 0, xp [a, b] [0, +) , p < 0,
xp [a, b] (0, +).
6.3.3. ex [a, b].
6.3.4. log x [a, b] (0, +).
6.2. f : [a, b] R [a, b]. f [a, b].
. f [a, b]. > 0 = f (b)f (a)+1 .
= {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b} [a, b] < ,
xk xk1 <
k = 1, . . . , n.
f , lk = f (xk1 ) uk = f (xk ) ( 6.1.4).
(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) = nk=1 (uk lk )(xk xk1 ) nk=1 (uk lk )
= nk=1 (f (xk ) f (xk1 )) = (f (b) f (a)) < .

> 0 [a, b] (f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) < .
f [a, b].
f .
6.3.5. [x] ,
.
.
6.3.1. x3 x, 1/(x3 x),
sin x, tan x ;
219
x3 x, log(x3 x),
6.3.2. [] f : [a, b] R [a, b].

f [f (a), f (b)] f 1 : [f (a), f (b)] [a, b]
[f (a), f (b)].
b
f (b) 1
(y) dy = bf (b) af (a).
a f (x) dx + f (a) f
0 a 0
f (a) = b.
xp1 p > 1
Young 5.4.21 ( 5.5.38).
6.4 .
6.3. f, g : [a, b] R [a, b]. T f + g : [a, b] R
[a, b]
b
b
b
a (f (x) + g(x)) dx = a f (x) dx + a g(x) dx.
. f , g , M 0 M 00 |f (x)| M 0
|g(x)| M 00 x [a, b]. |f (x) + g(x)| |f (x)| + |g(x)| M 0 + M 00
x [a, b] , , f + g .
f + g .
> 0. , 0 , 00
[a, b]
(f ; a, b; 0 ) (f ; a, b; 0 ) < 2 ,
(g; a, b; 00 ) (g; a, b; 00 ) < 2 .
(6.10)
= 0 00 = {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b}, (6.10)
6.3
(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) < 2 ,
(g; a, b; ) (g; a, b; ) < 2 .
(6.11)
uk 0 lk 0 supremum infimum f [xk1 , xk ] uk 00 lk 00

g uk lk f + g.
x [xk1 , xk ] lk 0 f (x) uk 0 lk 00 g(x) uk 00 , , lk 0 + lk 00
f (x) + g(x) uk 0 + uk 00 .
lk 0 + lk 00 lk uk uk 0 + uk 00 ,
(f + g; a, b; ) =
n
nk=1
uk (xk xk1 )
k=1 uk
0 (x
k
xk1 ) +
k=1 uk
00 (x
k
xk1 )
(6.12)
xk1 )
(6.13)
= (f ; a, b; ) + (g; a, b; )
, ,
(f + g; a, b; ) =
n
nk=1
lk (xk xk1 )
k=1 lk
0 (x
k
xk1 ) +
k=1 lk
= (f ; a, b; ) + (g; a, b; ).
220
00 (x
k
(6.12) (6.13) (6.11),

(f + g; a, b; ) (f + g; a, b; ) <

2

2
= .
> 0 [a, b] (f +g; a, b; )(f +g; a, b; ) < ,

f + g [a, b].
,
(f ; a, b; )
(g; a, b; )
(f + g; a, b; )
b
a
f (x) dx (f ; a, b; )
g(x) dx (g; a, b; )
a (f (x)
+ g(x)) dx (f + g; a, b; ).
(6.14)
(6.15)
(6.12), (6.13), (6.15)

b
(f ; a, b; ) + (g; a, b; ) a (f (x) + g(x)) dx (f ; a, b; ) + (g; a, b; ).
(6.14) (6.11),
(f (x) + g(x)) dx b f (x) dx b g(x) dx < + = .

2
2
a
a
a
b
b
b
> 0, a (f (x) + g(x)) dx = a f (x) dx + a g(x) dx.
6.4. f : [a, b] R [a, b]. f : [a, b] R
[a, b]
b
b
a f (x) dx = a f (x) dx.
. f , M |f (x)| M x [a, b].
|f (x)| ||M x [a, b], f .
= 0, 0f 0, [a, b]
b
a
0f (x) dx =
b
a
0 dx = 0 = 0
b
a
f (x) dx.
6= 0. > 0. = {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b} [a, b]
(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) <

|| .
(6.16)
uk 0 lk 0 supremum infimum f [xk1 , xk ] uk lk

f .
> 0. x [xk1 , xk ] f (x) uk 0 , f (x) uk 0 , ,
uk uk 0 . , x [xk1 , xk ] f (x) uk , f (x) 1 uk , ,
uk 0 1 uk . uk = uk 0 , , lk = lk 0 . ,
(f ; a, b; ) =
(f ; a, b; ) =
n
uk 0 (xk xk1 ) = (f ; a, b; )
k=1 uk (xk xk1 ) =
nk=1 0
n
k=1 lk (xk xk1 ) = (f ; a, b; ).
k=1 lk (xk xk1 ) =
(6.17) (6.16),
(
)
(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) = (f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) < = .
(6.17)
(6.18)
< 0. x [xk1 , xk ] f (x) uk 0 , uk 0 f (x) , ,

uk 0 lk . , x [xk1 , xk ] lk f (x), f (x) 1 lk , ,
uk 0 1 lk . lk = uk 0 , , uk = lk 0 . ,
(f ; a, b; ) = nk=1 uk (xk xk1 ) = nk=1 lk 0 (xk xk1 ) = (f ; a, b; ),

221
(f ; a, b; ) =
k=1 lk (xk
xk1 ) =
k=1 uk
0 (x
k
xk1 ) = (f ; a, b; ).
(6.16) ( || = ),
(
)

(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) = (f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) <
= .
(6.19)
, (6.18) (6.19) > 0

[a, b]
(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) < ,
f [a, b].
,
b
(f ; a, b; ) a f (x) dx (f ; a, b; )
b
(f ; a, b; ) a f (x) dx (f ; a, b; ).
(6.20)
(6.21)
> 0, (6.20) (6.21)

(6.17) (6.16),
b

(
)
f (x) dx b f (x) dx (f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) < .

a
a
b
b
> 0, a f (x) dx = a f (x) dx.
b
b
a f (x) dx = a f (x) dx < 0.
6.3 6.4
b
b
b
a (f (x) + g(x)) dx = a f (x) dx + a g(x) dx.
:
b
b n
n
k=1 k a fk (x) dx,
k=1 k fk (x) dx =
a
f1 , . . . , fn [a, b].
6.2.3
, , 6.5.
6.4.1. f : [a, b] R, [a, b]
b
. f [a, b] a f (x) dx = 0.
, 1 , . . . , m [a, b] f x [a, b] \
{1 , . . . , m } f (j ) = cj 6= 0 j = 1, . . . , m. f
{
0, x [a, b] x 6= j j = 1, . . . , m
f (x) =
cj , x = j j = 1, . . . , m
{
0, x [a, b], x 6= j
j = 1, . . . , m fj (x) =
1, x = j
x [a, b] x 6= j j = 1, . . . , m, f (x) = 0 fj (x) = 0
j = 1, . . . , m.
m
m
j=1 cj fj (x) =
j=1 cj 0 = 0 = f (x).
x {1 , . . . , m }, x = j0 j0 = 1, . . . , m, f (x) = cj0 fj0 (x) = 1
fj (x) = 0 j = 1, . . . , m j 6= j0 .
m
j=1 cj fj (x) = cj0 = f (x).
m
j=1 cj fj (x) = f (x) x [a, b] , , f = m

j=1 cj fj .
b
fj [a, b] a fj (x) dx = 0, f
[a, b]
b
b
m
m
j=1 cj a fj (x) dx =
j=1 cj 0 = 0.
a f (x) dx =
222
6.5. f, g : [a, b] R [a, b]

. f [a, b], g
b
b
[a, b] a g(x) dx = a f (x) dx.
. h = g f : [a, b] R [a, b]

. 6.4.1, h b
[a, b] a h(x) dx = 0. g = f + h f [a, b], g
[a, b]
b
b
b
b
b
a g(x) dx = a (f (x) + h(x)) dx = a f (x) dx + a h(x) dx = a f (x) dx.
6.5 :
,
.
6.6. f, g : [a, b] R [a, b]. f g [a, b].
. f , g , M 0 , M 00 |f (x)| M 0
|g(x)| M 00 x [a, b]. |f (x)g(x)| = |f (x)||g(x)| M 0 M 00
x [a, b], f g [a, b].
> 0. 0 , 00 [a, b]
(f ; a, b; 0 ) (f ; a, b; 0 ) <
(g; a, b; 00 ) (g; a, b; 00 ) <

M 0 +M 00 +1 ,

M 0 +M 00 +1 .
= 0 00 = {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b},
(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) <

M 0 +M 00 +1 ,
(g; a, b; ) (g; a, b; ) <

M 0 +M 00 +1 .
(6.22)
uk 0 lk 0 supremum infimum f [xk1 , xk ] uk 00 lk 00

g uk lk f g.
s, t [xk1 , xk ] lk 0 uk 0 f (s)f (t) uk 0 lk 0 , , |f (s)f (t)|
uk 0 lk 0 . , s, t [xk1 , xk ] |g(s) g(t)| uk 00 lk 00 .
s, t [xk1 , xk ]
|f (s)g(s)f (t)g(t)| |f (s)f (t)||g(s)|+|f (t)||g(s)g(t)| M 00 (uk 0 lk 0 )+M 0 (uk 00 lk 00 ).
3 6.2,
uk lk M 00 (uk 0 lk 0 ) + M 0 (uk 00 lk 00 ).
, (6.22),
(f g; a, b; ) (f g; a, b; ) = nk=1 (uk lk )(xk xk1 )
M 00 nk=1 (uk 0 lk 0 )(xk xk1 )
+ M 0 nk=1 (uk 00 lk 00 )(xk xk1 )

(
)
= M 00 (f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; )
(
)
+ M 0 (g; a, b; ) (g; a, b; )
0

M 00 M 0 +M
00 +1 + M M 0 +M 00 +1 < .
> 0 [a, b] (f g; a, b; ) (f g; a, b; ) < ,

f g [a, b].
223
, ,

b
b
b
. , a f (x)g(x) dx = a f (x) dx a g(x) dx
.
b
b
b
b
6.4.2. a 1 1 dx = a 1 dx = b a a 1 dx a 1 dx = (b a)(b a) =
(b a)2 . b a = (b a)2 !
6.7. f : [a, b] R [a, b]. m > 0
|f (x)| m x [a, b], 1/f : [a, b] R [a, b].
1
1 x [a, b], 1/f .
. f (x)
m
> 0. = {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b} [a, b]
(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) < m2 .
(6.23)
uk 0 lk 0 supremum infimum f [xk1 , xk ] uk lk 1/f .

s, t [xk1 , xk ] lk 0 uk 0 f (s)f (t) uk 0 lk 0 , |f (s)f (t)| uk 0 lk 0 .
|f (s)f (t)|
1
0
0
1
f (t)
= |f (s)||f (t)| ukml2 k , ,
s, t [xk1 , xk ] f (s)
uk lk
uk 0 lk 0
.
m2
(6.23),
(
)
(
)
1/f ; a, b; 1/f ; a, b; = nk=1 (uk lk )(xk xk1 )
m12 nk=1 (uk 0 lk 0 )(xk xk1 )

(
)
= m12 (f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) < .
(
)
(
)
> 0 [a, b] 1/f ; a, b; 1/f ; a, b; < ,
1/f [a, b].
,
/(
) . ,
b
b
a (1/f (x)) dx = 1
f
(x)
dx
.
a
b
b
1
1
6.4.3. a 11 dx = a 1 dx = b a b 1 = ba
. b a = ba
a
1 dx
6.8. a < c < b f : [a, b] R [a, c] [c, b].

f [a, b]
b
a
f (x) dx =
c
a
f (x) dx +
b
c
f (x) dx.
. f [a, c] [c, b], M 0 M 00

|f (x)| M 0 x [a, c] |f (x)| M 00 x [c, b]. M =
max{M 0 , M 00 }, |f (x)| M x [a, b] , , f
[a, b].
> 0. 0 = {a = x0 0 , . . . , xn 0 = c} [a, c] 00 = {c =
x0 00 , . . . , xm 00 = b} [c, b]
(f ; a, c; 0 ) (f ; a, c; 0 ) < 2 ,
(f ; c, b; 00 ) (f ; c, b; 00 ) < 2 .
224
(6.24)
= {a = x0 0 , . . . , xn1 0 , xn 0 = c = x0 00 , . . . , xm 00 = b} [a, b]

(f ; a, b; ) = (f ; a, c; 0 ) + (f ; c, b; 00 )
(f ; a, b; ) = (f ; a, c; 0 ) + (f ; c, b; 00 ).
(6.25)
(6.25) (6.24),
(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) <

2

2
= .
(6.26)
> 0 [a, b] (f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) < ,

f [a, b].
,
c
(f ; a, c; 0 ) a f (x) dx (f ; a, c; 0 )
(6.27)
b
(f ; c, b; 00 ) c f (x) dx (f ; c, b; 00 )
b
(6.28)
(f ; a, b; ) a f (x) dx (f ; a, b; ).
(6.27) (6.25),
c
b
(f ; a, b; ) a f (x) dx + c f (x) dx (f ; a, b; ).
(6.28)
b

f (x) dx c f (x) dx b f (x) dx (f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) < .

a
a
c
b

c
b
b
, a f (x) dx a f (x) dx c f (x) dx < > 0, a f (x) dx =
c
b
a f (x) dx + c f (x) dx.
6.9. a c < d b f : [a, b] R [a, b]. f
[c, d].
. f [a, b], [c, d].
> 0. 0 [a, b] (f ; a, b; 0 ) (f ; a, b; 0 ) < .
00 = 0 {c, d}, 0 , ,
(f ; a, b; 00 ) (f ; a, b; 00 ) < .
(6.29)
00 - [c, d] (
c, d ), [c, d]. Darboux
(f ; c, d; ) (f ; c, d; ) (f ; c, d; 00 ) (f ; c, d; 00 )
00 -
-. , (f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; )
(f ; a, b; 00 ) (f ; a, b; 00 )
00 - -. 2
6.2 (6.29),
(f ; c, d; ) (f ; c, d; ) (f ; a, b; 00 ) (f ; a, b; 00 ) < .
> 0 [c, d] (f ; c, d; ) (f ; c, d; ) < ,
, f [c, d].
. f : [a, b] R [a, b] 0 , . . . , m a = 0 < < m = b c1 , . . . , cm f (x) = ck
x (k1 , k ) k = 1, . . . , m. , f
(0 , 1 ), . . . , (m1 , m ). f 0 , . . . , m
.
225
6.4.4. f : [a, b] R [a, b],

.
[k1 , k ] f ck :
k
k1 , k . ck [k1 , k ] k1
ck dx =
k
ck (k k1 ). f [k1 , k ] k1 f (x) dx = ck (k k1 ).
f [a, b]
b
a
f (x) dx =
m k
k=1 k1
f (x) dx =
k=1 ck (k
k1 ).
, , ,
.
.
. f : [a, b] R [a, b] -
0 , . . . , m a = 0 < < m = b, f
(0 , 1 ), . . . , (m1 , m ) limxk + f (x) R
k = 0, . . . , m 1 limxk f (x) R k = 1, . . . , m.
6.10. f : [a, b] R [a, b] [a, b].

. f : [a, b] R
[a, b], .
k1 < x < k
f (x),
k = 1, . . . , m gk (x) = limxk f (x),
x = k
limxk1 + f (x), x = k1
gk [k1 , k ] f [k1 , k ]:
k1 , k . gk [k1 , k ], f
[k1 , k ]. f [a, b].
. f : [a, b] R [a, b] 0 , . . . , m a = 0 < < m = b f
(0 , 1 ), . . . , (m1 , m ).
6.11. f : [a, b] R [a, b] [a, b].

. f : [a, b] R [a, b], .
f , limxk f (x), limxk1 + f (x) .
, gk 6.10. gk [k1 , k ] , , [k1 , k ]. f
gk [k1 , k ]: k1 , k . f
[k1 , k ] , , [a, b].
, ,
.
6.5. f : [a, b] R [a, b] f (x) 0
x [a, b].
b
[] a f (x) dx 0.
b
[] a f (x) dx = 0, f . , f
[a, b], f 0 [a, b].
226
. [] 0 {f (x) | a x b}. l =
inf{f (x) | a x b}, l 0. 6.1,
b
b
f (x) dx l(b a) 0.
a f (x) dx =
b
[] a f (x) dx = 0 [a, b] f (
) f () > 0.
0 < < f (). f (x) ,
[c, d] [a, b] d c > 0 [c, d] f (x)
d
x [c, d]. , f (x) 0 x [c, d], c (f (x) ) dx 0.
d
d
c f (x) dx c dx 0 , ,
d
c f (x) dx (d c) > 0.
.
c
a < c < d < b. f (x) 0 x [a, c], a f (x) dx 0.
b
, d f (x) dx 0.
b
c
d
b
d
a f (x) dx = a f (x) dx + c f (x) dx + d f (x) dx 0 + c f (x) dx + 0 > 0.
c
a < c < d = b. , a f (x) dx 0 , ,
b
c
d
d
a f (x) dx = a f (x) dx + c f (x) dx 0 + c f (x) dx > 0.
b
a = c < d < b. , d f (x) dx 0 , ,
b
d
b
d
a f (x) dx = c f (x) dx + d f (x) dx c f (x) dx + 0 > 0.
b
d
, c = a d = b, a f (x) dx = c f (x) dx > 0.
b
, a f (x) dx > 0 .
:

.
6.12. f : [a, b] R [a, b].
b
[] f (x) u x [a, b], a f (x) dx u(b a).
b
, , a f (x) dx = u(b a), f (x) = u x f .
b
[] f (x) l x [a, b], a f (x) dx l(b a).
b
, , a f (x) dx = l(b a), f (x) = l x f .
b

[] |f (x)| M x [a, b], a f (x) dx M (b a).
b

, , a f (x) dx = M (b a), f (x) = M x
f f (x) = M x f .
. [] 6.5 u f (x).
[] , f (x) l.
[] [], [] M f (x) M x [a, b],
b
M (b a) a f (x) dx M (b a),
b

a f (x) dx M (b a).
b

b
b
a f (x) dx = M (b a), a f (x) dx = M (b a) a f (x) dx = M (b a).
, , f (x) = M x f
f (x) = M x f .
227
6.4.5. f : [1, 4] R f (x) =
4 x
2
2
3 2
.
,
dx
(4
1)
=
4
4
4 .
1 x2 +2
x
x2 +2
2
( 2)2 +2
6.13. f, g : [a, b] R [a, b] f (x) g(x)

x [a, b].
b
b
[] a f (x) dx a g(x) dx.
b
b
[] a f (x) dx = a g(x) dx, f (x) = g(x) x
f, g. , f , g [a, b], f , g [a, b].
. 6.5 g f .
6.4.6. f : [0, 1] R f (x) = log(1 + x). f
[0, 1], [0, 1].
,

1 ,
1 x log 2
1
log(1 + x) x x [0, 1]. 0 x log 2 dx 0 log(1 + x) dx 0 xdx.
1
log 2
1
2
0 log(1 + x) dx 2 .
6.14. f : [a, b] R [a, b]. |f |
[a, b]
b

f (x) dx b |f (x)| dx.
a
a
b
b
a f (x) dx = a |f (x)| dx, f (x) 0 x f
f (x) 0 x f .
. f [a, b], M |f (x)| M
x [a, b]. , , |f | [a, b].
> 0. = {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b} [a, b]
(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) < .
(6.30)
uk 0 lk 0 supremum infimum f [xk1 , xk ] uk lk |f |. s, t [xk1 , xk ] lk 0 uk 0 f (s)f (t) uk 0 lk 0 ,

|f (s) f (t)| uk 0 lk 0 . s, t [xk1 , xk ] ||f (s)| |f (t)||
|f (s) f (t)| uk 0 lk 0 . 3 6.2,
uk lk uk 0 lk 0 .
, (6.30),
(|f |; a, b; ) (|f |; a, b; ) = nk=1 (uk lk )(xk xk1 ) nk=1 (uk 0 lk 0 )(xk xk1 )
= (f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) < .
> 0 [a, b] (|f |; a, b; ) (|f |; a, b; ) < .
|f | [a, b].
, |f (x)| f (x) |f (x)| x [a, b],
b
a
|f (x)| dx =
a (|f (x)|) dx
b
a
f (x) dx
b
a
|f (x)| dx.
b
b
a f (x) dx a |f (x)| dx.
b

b
b
b
b
a f (x) dx = a |f (x)| dx, a f (x) dx = a |f (x)| dx a f (x) dx =
b
a |f (x)| dx. , , f (x) = |f (x)| , , f (x) 0
x f f (x) = |f (x)| , , f (x) 0
x f .
228
6.4.7. x > 0.
x
t
0 1+t
1 t 0, 0 0
t
1+t
dt
, 0
t t 0, 0
{
{ x2 }
x t
x2 /2, 0 < x 2
0 0 1+t dt min x, 2 =
x,
x 2
t
1+t
01 dt = x.
x t
0 1+t
dt
x
0
t dt =
x2
2 .
. f :
[a, b] R [a, b], g : [a, b] R [a, b] g(x) 0
x [a, b]. [a, b]
b
b
a f (x)g(x) dx = f () a g(x) dx.
. h : [a, b] R
b
b
h(t) = f (t) a g(x) dx a f (x)g(x) dx
t [a, b]. , h [a, b]. f ,
, [a, b] f () f (x) f () , ,
f ()g(x) f (x)g(x) f ()g(x)
x [a, b].
b
b
b
b
b
f () a g(x) dx = a f ()g(x) dx a f (x)g(x) dx a f ()g(x) dx = f () a g(x) dx.
b
h() 0 h(), [a, b] h() = 0 , , a f (x)g(x) dx =
b
f () a g(x) dx.
b
1
. f : [a, b] R [a, b]. ba
a f (x) dx
f [a, b]
b
1
E(f ; a, b) = ba
a f (x) dx.
b
1
E(f ; a, b) = ba
a f (x) dx .
6.12 6.1 f [a, b] [l, u], u l supremum
infimum f [a, b]. , g = 1,
f [a, b] [a, b].
{
1, 1 x < 0
6.4.8. f (x) =
[1, 1]
1,
0 x 1
1
1
1(1)
1 f (x) dx = 0, [1, 1] 0.
b
b
f [a, b] , a f (x) dx = (b a) = a dx.
, f [a, b]
[a, b] f .
7/2
5
4
6.4.1. 2 ([x] + x2 ) dx, 1 (2 3x + 4x2 ) dx, 2 (3x 2x ) dx,
3 2
2
2 + 3ex ) dx.
1 (x x + x
1
+
3x,
1
<
x
<
2
1 x < 0
3x,
f (x) = 0,
g(x) = 2x,
x = 1
0 x 2
2,
x = 2
x + 2, 2 < x 5
2
5
1 f (x) dx, 1 g(x) dx.
229
6.4.2. 2 f : [a, b] R [a, b] f (x) 0

x [a, b].
d
b
0 c f (x) dx a f (x) dx [c, d] [a, b].
, [c1 , d1 ], . . . , [cn , dn ] ( )
d
d
b
[a, b], c11 f (x) dx + + cnn f (x) dx a f (x) dx.
6.4.3. f, g : [a, b] R [a, b]. max{f, g}, min{f, g} :
b
b
[a, b] R [a, b] a max{f (x), g(x)} dx+ a min{f (x), g(x)} dx =
b
b
f
(x)
dx
+
a
a g(x) dx.
/4
/4
6.4.4. 0 (sin x)n+1 dx 0 (sin x)n dx 0 (tan x)n+1 dx 0 (tan x)n dx
n N, .
2x
6.4.5. , xe2x x et dt xex
2
x > 0 3e2 1/2 xex dx 32 e1 .
x
4x
x
6.4.6. 0 1x+x
2 3 x [0, 1] 0 1x+x2
x [1, +).
x t
2x2
0 0 1t+t
2 dt 3 x [0, 1].
x t
4
2
0 0 1t+t
2 dt 3 + 3 log x x [1, +).
6.4.7. limx+
x+x
x
t
1+t2
dt, limx0+
1+x
t
1x 1+t2
dt, limx0+
1
2x
4
3x
1+x
t
1x 1+t2
dt.
b
b
6.4.8. f, g : [a, b] R [a, b]. a f (x) dx = a g(x) dx,
[a, b] f () = g(). , (a, b) f () = g().
6.4.9. a > 0 f : [ln a, ln(a + 1)] R [ln a, ln(a + 1)].
ln(a+1) x
[ln a, ln(a + 1)] ln a
e f (x) dx = f ().
6.4.10. 3 x [x] 12 .
k+1
k+(1/2)
k Z. k (x [x] 12 ) dx = 0, k
(x [x] 12 ) dx = 18
k+1
1
1
k+(1/2) (x [x] 2 ) dx = 8 .
b
18 a (x [x] 12 ) dx 18 a, b a < b.
n+1
6.4.11. 4 [] p > 0, np n xp dx (n + 1)p n N.
np
(n+1)p+1 np+1
p+1
(n + 1)p n N.
p+1
(xn ), xn = nk=1 k p np+1 n, .
n+1 1
1
1
[] 0 1, (n+1)
p n
xp dx np n N.

1
(n+1)p
2
. , ,
f (x) 0 x [a, b].
3
, 7.3.20,
, Stirling.
4
7.3.20 8.2 12.2.
230
1
log n
1
(n+1)p
1
k=1 k
1
n1p n N.
(n+1)p1
(xn ), xn = nk=1 k1p n, .

n+1 1
1
1
[] n+1
n
x dx n n N.
1
1
n+1
log n+1
n n n N.
(xn ), xn = nk=1 k1 log n n,

.5
1
1
p1 np1
1.
[] log m+1
n
p N, 6
1
n+1
1
k=n k
1
n+2
+ +
1
n
+ log m
n n, m N n m.
1
pn1
1
pn
log p.
+ 13 + (1)n1 n1 n.
[] (yn ), yn = 1 12
2.5 (yn ) . xn = nk=1 k1 log n n,
y2n = x2n xn + log 2 n , , y2n log 2. 7
1
1
2
1
3
+ (1)n1 n1 log 2.
6.4.12. f : [a, b] R |f (x0 ) f (x00 )| M |x0 x00 | x0 , x00 [a, b].8

d

2
c f (x) dx f (d)(d c) M (dc)
[c, d] [a, b].
2

b
M (ba)2
n
ba
9 a f (x) dx ba
n , ,
k=1 f (a + k n )
n
2n
b
ba n
ba
k=1 f (a + k n ) a f (x) dx.
n
x
6.4.13. 10 f : [a, b] R [a, b]. : limx+ f (t) dt = 0
[a, b) limx x f (t) dt = 0 (a, b].

6.4.14. 11 [] f : [a, b] R [a, b] g : [a + c, b + c] R
g(x) = f (x c) x [a + c, b + c]. g
b+c
b
[a + c, b + c] a+c g(x) dx = a f (x) dx , ,
b+c
b
a+c f (x c) dx = a f (x) dx.
[] f : R R > 0, f (x + ) = f (x) x.
f [, + ].
f [a, b] a, b a < b.
b
b+
a+
b+
a f (x) dx = a+ f (x) dx a f (x) dx = b f (x) dx a, b
a < b.
[] f : [a, b] R [a, b] > 0 g : [a, b] R
g(x) = f ( x ) x [a, b]. g [a, b]
b
b
a g(x) dx = a f (x) dx , ,
b ( x )
b
f
dx
=
> 0.
a
a f (x) dx
5
Euler . 2.4.6
7.3.20[].
6
6.5.1.
7
10.2.
8
4.6.3, f Lipschitz- [a, b].
9
6.5.1 6.15 f
[a, b]. , f ,
.
10
7.2
.
11
: [] [].
231
, < 0, :
a ( x )
b
b f dx = a f (x) dx
< 0.
[] f : [b, b] R [0, b].

f (x) = f (x) x [b, b], f [b, b]
b
b
b f (x) dx = 2 0 f (x) dx.
f (x) = f (x) x [b, b], f [b, b]
b
b f (x) dx = 0.
b
6.4.15. 12 [] f : [a, b] R [a, b]. a f (x)g(x) dx = 0
g : [a, b] R [a, b], f
. , f [a, b], f (x) = 0 x [a, b].
b
[] f : [a, b] R [a, b]. a f (x)g(x) dx = 0
g : [a, b] R [a, b] g(a) = g(b) = 0, f
. , f [a, b], f (x) = 0
x [a, b].
6.4.16. 13 f, g : [a, b] R [a, b].
[]
)
(b
b
b
b
1 b
2 a
a (f (s) f (t))(g(s) g(t)) ds dt = (b a) a f (x)g(x) dx a f (x) dx a g(x) dx.
[] f, g [a, b],
b
b
b
a f (x) dx a g(x) dx (b a) a f (x)g(x) dx, E(f ; a, b)E(g; a, b) E(f g; a, b).
b
b
[] f g [a, b], a f (x) dx a g(x) dx
b
(b a) a f (x)g(x) dx, E(f ; a, b)E(g; a, b) E(f g; a, b).
6.4.17. 14 f, g : [a, b] [0, +) [a, b] p, q > 1
[] Hlder :
b
a
f (x)g(x) dx
(b
a (f (x))
) (b
p dx 1/p
q
a (g(x))
1
p
1
q
= 1.
)1/q
dx
.
s, t 0 0
s(f (x))p = t(g(x))q x [a, b].
21 + 12 = 1, Schwarz, Buniakowsky,
b
a
f (x)g(x) dx
(b
a (f (x))
) (b
)1/2
2 dx 1/2
2
,
a (g(x)) dx
Hlder.
[] Minkowski :
(b
a (f (x)
)1/p
)1/p ( b
)1/p ( b
.
+ a (g(x))p dx
+ g(x))p dx
a (f (x))p dx
s, t 0 0
sf (x) = tg(x) x [a, b].
12
. .
.
14
5.4.22.
6.4.26 6.5.5.
13
232
6.4.18. []15 f : [a, b] [c, d] [a, b] g : [c, d]( R

)
[c, d]. Jensen : g E(f ; a, b) E(g f ; a, b)
, ,
( 1 b
)
b
1
g ba
a f (x) dx ba a g(f (x)) dx.
g , , [a, b],
f [a, b].
g () () ;
f : [a, b] R [a, b]. :
( 1 b
)n
b
1
n
(i) n N , ba
ba
a f (x) dx
a (f (x)) dx.
)
( 1 b
b
1
ba
(ii) > 1 f (x) 0 x [a, b], ba
a f (x) dx
a (f (x)) dx.
( 1 b
)
b
1
(iii) 0 < < 1 f (x) 0 x [a, b], ba

ba
a f (x) dx
a (f (x)) dx.
( 1 b
)
b
1
(iv) < 0 f (x) > 0 x [a, b], ba a f (x) dx ba

a (f (x)) dx.
b
b f (x)
1
1
(v) e ba a f (x) dx ba
dx.
a e
( 1 b
)
b
1
(vi) f (x) > 0 x [a, b], log ba
a f (x) dx ba a log(f (x)) dx. ,
b
b
1
1
e ba a log(f (x)) dx ba
a f (x) dx,
- .16
f
[a, b].
b
[] f : [a, b] R w : [a, b] (0, +) [a, b] a w(x) dx = 1.
b
Ew (f ; a, b) = a f (x)w(x) dx.17
b
1
E(f ; a, b) = ba
a f (x) dx w;
Jensen.18 f : [a, b] [c, d]
[a, b] g : [c, d] R [c, d]. , , w : [a, b] (0, +)
(
)
b
[a, b] a w(x) dx = 1. g Ew (f ; a, b) Ew (g f ; a, b) ,
,
(b
) b
g a f (x)w(x) dx a g(f (x))w(x) dx.
g , , [c, d],
f [a, b].
g () () ;
[] w .
b
[]19 f, w : [a, b] (0, +) [a, b] a w(x) dx = 1.
)1/p
(b
, p, R \ {0}.
a (f (x))p w(x) dx

b
)1/p
(b
= e a log f (x) w(x) dx .
limp0 a (f (x))p w(x) dx
p0 < 0 < p00 ,
b
)1/p00
) 0
(b
(b
p00
p0 w(x) dx 1/p e a log f (x) w(x) dx
.
(f
(x))
a (f (x)) w(x) dx
a
15
Jensen 5.5.39.
6.4.26 6.5.5.
5.4.20[]. e ba a log(f (x)) dx f [a, b].

b
17
Ew (f ; a, b) = a f (x)w(x) dx f w [a, b].
, w .
18
6.4.26 6.5.5.
19
5.4.23.
16
233
6.4.19. f : [a, b] R [a, b] f (x) 0 x [a, b].

(b
)1/n
A u = max{f (x) | a x b} a (f (x))n dx
u.
x
6.4.20. 20 f : [a, b] R [a, b] |f (x)| a |f (t)| dt
x [a, b]. f 0 [a, b].
6.4.21.
f : [0, 1] R [0, 1] 0,
1
n ) dx f (0).
f
(x
0
b
b
6.4.22. [] f, g : [a, b] R [a, b]. f (x) dx + g(x) dx
a
a
b
b
b
b
(f (x) + g(x)) dx a (f (x) + g(x)) dx a f (x) dx + a g(x) dx.
a
[] f : [a, b] R [a, b]. :

b
b
b
b
(i) > 0, a f (x) dx = a f (x) dx f (x) dx = f (x) dx.
a
a
b
b
b
b
(ii) < 0, a f (x) dx = f (x) dx f (x) dx = a f (x) dx.
a
[] a < c < b f : [a, b] R [a, b].

b
c
b
c
b
f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx.
a f (x) dx + c f (x) dx
a
a f (x) dx
[] f, g : [a, b] R [a, b] f (x) g(x)

b
b
b
b
x [a, b]. a f (x) dx a g(x) dx f (x) dx g(x) dx.
a
6.4.23. f : [a, b] R 0 , . . . , m a = 0 < < m = b

f (k1 , k ) k = 1, . . . , m. f
[a, b]. : k .
{
(1)[1/x] , 0 < x 1
6.4.24. f : [0, 1] R, f (x) =
f
0,
x = 0
1
[0, 1] 0 f (x) dx.
6.4.25. 21 [] f : [a, b] R [a, b]
> 0 g, h : [a, b] R
b
b
g(x) f (x) h(x) x [a, b] a h(x) dx a g(x) dx < .
[] f : [a, b] R . > 0
g, h : [a, b] R [a, b] g(x) f (x) h(x) x [a, b]
b
b
a h(x) dx a g(x) dx < .
[] f : [a, b] R [a, b] > 0
g, h : [a, b] R [a, b] g(x) f (x) h(x)
b
b
x [a, b] a h(x) dx a g(x) dx < .
6.4.26. 22 [] f : [a, b] [c, d] [a, b] g : [c, d] R
[c, d]. g f : [a, b] R [a, b].
[] [], , f : [a, b] R [a, b],
f 2 : [a, b] R [a, b]. , f g = 14 (f + g)2 41 (f g)2
6.3 6.4, 6.6.
[] , {n, An [a, b] Am An = m, n m 6= n.
1/n, x An n
f (x) =
f 0,
x [a, b] x
/ An n
b
[a, b] a f (x) dx = 0.
20
5.4.28.
.
22
.
21
234
n1 } n. A [0, 1] n
[] An = { 2k1
n
2n | 1 k 2
Am An = m, n m 6= n.
c, d [0, 1] c < d
+
x +
n=1 An c < x < d. , n=1 An [0, 1].
[] .
f : [0, 1] [0, 1]
{ [] An []. 1, 0 < x 1
g : [0, 1] R g(x) =
f , g ,
0, x = 0
g f : [0, 1] R [0, 1].
[] 6.4.17
f , g , , [a, b].
6.4.18 f, w
, , [a, b].
6.4.27. f : [a, b] R |f 0 (x)| M x [a, b].

b

2
f (x) dx f ( a+b )(b a) (ba) M .
2
4
x
+x
k1
k
xk = a + k ba
k = f (k ) k = 1, . . . , n,
n k = 0, . . . , n k =
2

b
2
f (x) dx (1 + + n ) ba 1 (ba) M .
23
|f 00 (x)|
6.4.28. f : [a, b] R
b

f (x) dx f (a)+f (b) (b a)
2
24
M x [a, b].
(ba)3 M
.
12
xk = a + k ba
n yk = f (xk ) k = 0, . . . , n,
b

)
(
f (x) dx y0 + y1 + + yn1 + yn ba 1
2
2
n
12
a
(ba)3 M
.
n2
6.4.29. f : [a, b] R |f 00 (x)| M x [a, b].

b

3
f (x) dx f ( a+b )(b a) (ba) M .
2
24
x
+x
k1
k
xk = a + k ba
k = f (k ) k = 1, . . . , n,
n k = 0, . . . , n k =
2

b
3
f (x) dx (1 + + n ) ba 1 (ba)2 M .
25
24
6.4.30. []
(
) ba P 3 a, b
b
)
+
P
(b)
a < b, a P (x) dx = P (a) + 4P ( a+b
2
6 .
[] f : [a, b] R |f (4) (x)| M x [a, b].
b

5
f (x) dx (f (a) + 4f ( a+b ) + f (b)) ba (ba) M .
a
2880
x
+x
k1
k
xk = a + k ba
k = f (k )
n yk = f (xk ) k = 0, . . . , n k =
2
k = 1, . . . , n,
b

(
)
5
f (x) dx y0 + yn + 2(y1 + + yn1 ) + 4(1 + + n ) ba 1 (ba)4 M .
6n
2880
a
n
26
6.5 . Riemann.
. [a, b] = {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b} [a, b].
= {1 , . . . , n } k [xk1 , xk ] k = 1, . . . , n. . k -.
23
.
.
25
.
26
Simpson .
24
235

[a, b].
. f : [a, b] R = {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b} [a, b].
= {1 , . . . , n } .
(f ; a, b; , ) = nk=1 f (k )(xk xk1 ) = f (1 )(x1 x0 ) + + f (n )(xn xn1 )
Riemann f
.
6.6. f : [a, b] R [a, b]. :
[] (f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; , ) (f ; a, b; )
.
{
}
[] (f ; a, b; ) = sup (f ; a, b; , ) | .
{
}
[] (f ; a, b; ) = inf (f ; a, b; , ) | .
. [] = {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b} [a, b]
= {1 , . . . , n } .
lk uk infimum supremum f [xk1 , xk ]. lk f (k ) uk ,
n
n
n
k=1 lk (xk xk1 )
k=1 f (k )(xk xk1 )
k=1 uk (xk xk1 ).
, (f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; , ) (f ; a, b; ).
[], []
{
}
W = (f ; a, b; , ) | .
[] [] (f ; a, b; ) W .
> 0. uk supremum f [xk1 , xk ], k [xk1 , xk ]

f (k ) > uk ba
. = {1 , . . . , n }
:

(f ; a, b; , ) = nk=1 f (k )(xk xk1 ) > nk=1 (uk ba
)(xk xk1 )
n
n

= k=1 uk (xk xk1 ) k=1 ba (xk xk1 ) = (f ; a, b; ) .
> 0 W > (f ; a, b; ) , ,
(f ; a, b; ) W .
[] [] (f ; a, b; ) W .
> 0. lk infimum f [xk1 , xk ], k [xk1 , xk ]

f (k ) < lk + ba
. = {1 , . . . , n }
( []) :

(f ; a, b; , ) = nk=1 f (k )(xk xk1 ) < nk=1 (lk + ba
)(xk xk1 )
n
n

(xk xk1 ) = (f ; a, b; ) + .
= k=1 lk (xk xk1 ) + k=1 ba
> 0 W < (f ; a, b; ) + . ,
(f ; a, b; ) W .
. = {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b} [a, b].
-,
w() = max{xk xk1 | 1 k n}.

236
. 6.3 , , !
6.3. f : [a, b] R.
[] I . > 0 > 0
[a, b] w() <

(f ; a, b; , ) I < . f [a, b] b f (x) dx = I.

a
[] , f [a, b]. > 0 > 0
[a, b] w() 0. , > 0
[a, b] w() <

(f ; a, b; , ) I < 4 .
w() < ,

I 4 < (f ; a, b; , ) 0 [a, b] (f ; a, b; )
(f ; a, b; ) < , f [a, b].
, (6.31)
b
(f ; a, b; ) a f (x) dx (f ; a, b; )
b

f (x) dx I < .
4
a
b
> 0, a f (x) dx = I.
[] f [a, b], M |f (x)| M x [a, b].
> 0. , 0 [a, b]
(f ; a, b; 0 ) (f ; a, b; 0 ) < 2 .
(6.32)
n0 2 0 -.
=

4n0 (M +1) .
(6.33)
= {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b} [a, b]
w() <
(6.34)
lk uk infimum supremum f [xk1 , xk ].

k = 1, . . . , n . A
k [xk1 , xk ] 0 -
. B k,
237
k [xk1 , xk ] 0 -
. (, , 0 - [xk1 , xk ].)

(f ; a, b; )(f ; a, b; ) = kA (uk lk )(xk xk1 )+ kB (uk lk )(xk xk1 ). (6.35)

A n0 . ,
k A M lk uk M , , uk lk 2M . , (6.33)
(6.34), k A
(uk lk )(xk xk1 ) 2M w() 2M <

2n0 .
kA (uk
lk )(xk xk1 ) <

kA 2n0
n0 2n 0 = 2 .
(6.36)
0 = 0 , k B, -
[xk1 , xk ] 0 -. , 2 6.2
0 0 (6.32),
0
0
kB (uk lk )(xk xk1 ) (f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; )
(6.37)
(f ; a, b; 0 ) (f ; a, b; 0 ) < 2 .
, , (6.35), (6.36) (6.37)
(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) <

2

2
=
(6.38)
[a, b] w() < .

, ,
6.6[],
(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; , ) (f ; a, b; ).
(6.39)
(6.39)
b
(f ; a, b; ) a f (x) dx (f ; a, b; )
(6.38),

(f ; a, b; , ) b f (x) dx <
a
w() < .
Riemann Riemann.
. f : [a, b] R. f , ,
Riemann [a, b] I : > 0

> 0 [a, b]
w() <

(f ; a, b; , ) I < .
f [a, b], I , ,
Riemann f [a, b]
b
a f (x) dx = I.
6.3
Darboux Riemann . ,
,
.
238
6.15. f : [a, b] R [a, b]. (n ) [a, b] w(n ) 0. n

n n .
b
(f ; a, b; n , n ) a f (x) dx.
. > 0. > 0 [a, b] w() <

(f ; a, b; , ) b f (x) dx < .
a
w(n ) 0, w(n ) < , ,

(f ; a, b; n , n ) b f (x) dx < .
a
(f ; a, b; n , n )
b
a
f (x) dx.

6.15 .
f [a, b], Riemann f
0.
:
b
limw()0 (f ; a, b; , ) = a f (x) dx.
6.15, f : [a, b] R
,
(n ) [a, b] w(n ) 0 , n , n . (f ; a, b; n , n ) , , b
, (f ; a, b; n , n ) a f (x) dx.
n n (f ; a, b; n , n ).
6.2
. , ,
6.1, . , ,
(n ) . ,
n n
Riemann (f ; a, b; n , n ). ,
. 6.2 ,
n , n . (f ; a, b; n , n ) Darboux
(f ; a, b; n ) (f ; a, b; n , n ) Darboux
(f ; a, b; n ). 6.2
Darboux. , ,
limn+ (f ; a, b; n , n ),
b
a f (x) dx.
6.5.1. cos x sin x
b , ,
b
[a, b]. a cos x dx a sin x dx.

sin 2q
k=1 cos(kq)
(n+1)q
= sin nq
,
2 cos
2
sin 2q
k=1 sin(kq)
(n+1)q
= sin nq
.
2 sin
2
(6.40)
sin 2q cos(kq) = 12 sin(kq + 2q ) 21 sin(kq 2q )

k = 1, . . . , n.
239
sin 2q sin(kq) = 12 cos(kq + 2q ) + 12 cos(kq 2q ).

n n = {x0 = a, . . . , xn = b}
xk = a + k ba
n
k = 0, . . . , n.
, n = {1 , . . . , n }
k = xk
k = 0, . . . , n.
n , , w(n ) = ba
n , w(n ) 0.
n
ba
(cos x; a, b; n , n ) = nk=1 cos k (xk xk1 ) = ba
k=1 cos(a + k n ).
n
q =
ba
n
(6.40)
q
sin 2q
n
k=1 cos(kq) q sin a
k=1 sin(kq)
(n+1)q
nq
q
cos a sin 2 cos 2 sin q sin a sin nq
2
2
q
sin 2q
sin nq
2 cos(a +
(cos x; a, b; n , n ) = q cos a
(n+1)q
)
2
ba
n
ba
2n
sin
sin (n+1)q
2
sin ba
2 cos(a +
(n+1)(ba)
)
2n
b+a
2 sin ba
2 cos 2 = sin b sin a.
b
b
a cos x dx = sin b sin a. a sin x dx = cos a cos b.
,
b
b
a cos x dx = sin b sin a,
a sin x dx = cos a cos b.
, 6.15, 6.2,
. 7 , . ,
, Riemann
, .
, ,
Riemann
. , , .
,
.
b
1
E(f ; a, b) = ba
a f (x) dx
.
y1 , . . . , yn , yk
k , ,

1 y1 ++n yn
1 ++n
1
1 ++n
y1 + +
n
1 ++n
y n = w1 y 1 + + wn y n ,
k
yk ,
wk = 1 ++
n
yk y1 , . . . , yn . , ,
y1 , . . . , yn
y1 , . . . , yn .
, f : [a, b] R [a, b].
= {x0 = a, x1 , . . . , xn1 , xn = b} [a, b] = {1 , . . . , n }
. f (1 ), . . . , f (n ). w() , - [xk1 , xk ] ,
240
x [xk1 , xk ] k ,
f (k ) f (x) x [xk1 , xk ] , ,
f (1 ), . . . , f (n ) . , ,
[xk1 , xk ] [xl1 , xl ], f (k ) f (l ). ,
, f (x)
x x
f (k ) wk = k bak1
[xk1 , xk ] b a. ,
f ,

xn xn1
x1 x0
ba f (1 ) + +
ba f (n )
f (1 ), . . . , f (n ) w() . , ,
,
1
ba (f ; a, b; ; ).
b
1
, , ba
a f (x) dx w() .
.
6.5.1. f : [a, b] R [a, b]. 27
)
(
b
ba n
ba
a f (x) dx.
k=1 f a + k n
n
, ,
)
(
b
ba n1
ba
a f (x) dx,
k=0 f a + k n
n
ba
n
k=1 f
)
b
a f (x) dx.
a + (k 12 ) ba
n

.
28 :
1
p
1
(i) nk=1 nkp+1 0 xp dx = p+1
p > 0.
pn
p 1
1
(ii) k=n+1 k 1 x dx = log p p N, p 2.29
1 1
n
(iii) nk=1 n2 +k
2 0 1+x2 dx.
2(2 21)
(iv) nk=1 nn+k
x
dx
=
.
3
1
n
n
1
1
(v) k=1 n21+k2 0 1+x
dx.
2
1
n 1 2
(vi) k=1 n2 n (k 1)2 0 1 x2 dx.
6.5.2. f : [a, b] R [a, b] (n ) [a, b] w(n ) 0.
b
b
(f ; a, b; n ) a f (x) dx,
(f ; a, b; n ) a f (x) dx.
6.5.3. 30 f : [a, b] R [a, b]
> 0 > 0 1 , 2 [a, b] w(1 ) < ,
w(2 ) < 1 , 2 1 , 2 , ,
|(f ; a, b; 1 ; 1 ) (f ; a, b; 2 ; 2 )| < .
27
6.4.12.
Riemann . , , . o Riemann , .
. . 7.3.6.
29
6.4.11.
30
Cauchy Riemann.
28
241
6.5.4. f : [a, b] R. > 0

{
}
(f ; a, b; ) = sup (f ; a, b; ) | [a, b] w() <
{
}
(f ; a, b; ) = inf (f ; a, b; ) | [a, b] w() < .
b
0 < 1 < 2 , a f (x) dx (f ; a, b; 1 ) (f ; a, b; 2 ).
b
0 < 1 < 2 , (f ; a, b; 2 ) (f ; a, b; 1 ) f (x) dx.
a
b
b
lim0+ (f ; a, b; ) = a f (x) dx lim0+ (f ; a, b; ) = f (x) dx.
a
)
(
lim0+ (f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) = 0 f
[a, b].
6.5.5. Hlder, Minkowski Jensen , 6.4.17 6.4.18, [a, b] ( g
Jensen ) ( 6.4.26[]), , 5.4.22, 5.4.23
5.5.39.
6.5.6. xy- x = x(t) y = y(t),
t [a, b] x, y : [a, b] R
[a, b]. = {t0 = a, t1 , . . . , tn1 , tn = b}
[a, b] xy-
(xk , yk ) = (x(tk ), y(tk )) k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1, n.
, ,
( ) = nk=1 (xk xk1 )2 + (yk yk1 )2 .

,
{
}
() = sup ( ) | [a, b] .
1 x = x1 (t) y = y1 (t) [a, b]
2 x = x2 (t) y = y2 (t) [b, c] x1 (b) =
x2 (b), y1 (b) = y2 (b), x = x(t) y = y(t)
[a, c],
{
{
x1 (t), t [a, b]
y1 (t), t [a, b]
x(t) =
y(t) =
x2 (t), t [b, c]
y2 (t), t [b, c]
1 2 1 + 2 .
,
(1 + 2 ) = (1 ) + (2 ).
f : [a, b] R [a, b]. xy-
y = f (x), x [a, b] (,
x = t y = f (t) [a, b]). f : [a, b] R
[a, b],
b
() = a 1 + (f 0 (x))2 dx.
, , x = x(t) y = y(t)
[a, b] [a, b],
b
() = a (x0 (t))2 + (y 0 (t))2 dt.31
31
7.3.30.
242
.
7.1 , .
.
. I f : I R. F : I R
F 0 (x) = f (x)
x I,
F f I.
1
7.1.1. p+1
xp+1 xp (i) (, +),
p N, (ii) (, 0) (0, +), p Z p 2, (iii) [0, +), p R \ Z
p > 0 (iv) (0, +), p R \ Z p < 0.
p = 1 p = 0.
x 1 R.
log |x| x1 (, 0) (0, +).
7.1.2. > 0, 6= 1,
x x R.
{
0, x 6= 0
7.1.3. f (x) =
R.
1, x = 0
, F : R R F 0 (x) = f (x) x.
F 0 (x) = 0 x (, 0) F (, 0],
c1 F (x) = c1 x (, 0]. , F 0 (x) = 0
x (0, +) F [0, +), c2
F (x) = c2 x [0, +). c1 = F (0) = c2 , c = c1 = c2 ,
F (x) = c x. , F 0 (x) = 0 x
, F 0 (0) = f (0) = 1.
f . F ,
, Darboux 5.3.23[], f = F 0
. , , : , f (0) = 1, f (1) = 0
(0, 1) f () = 21 .
1
log
7.1. I f, F1 , F2 : I R. F2 F1
I F1 , F2 f I,
f I. , F1 , F2 f I, F2 F1
I.
. F2 (x) F1 (x) = c F1 0 (x) = f (x) x I.
F2 0 (x) = (F1 + c)0 (x) = f (x) + 0 = f (x)
243
x I.
, F1 0 (x) = f (x) F2 0 (x) = f (x) x I.
h = F2 F1 : I R
h0 (x) = F1 0 (x) F2 0 (x) = f (x) f (x) = 0
x I. h I.
7.1 .
F f I. f
I F + c, c ,
.
, f I, f
I :
.
2
7.1.4. x R x2 + c,
c .
, 7.1.1 7.1.2
, c .
. g 0
- , g
. , 5.4.2,
5.7. , , 7.1
.
7.1.5. log |x| + c, c , x1 (, 0) (0, +)
(, 0){ (0, +). x1 (, 0) (0, +) log |x| + c1 , x < 0
F (x) =
c1 c2
log |x| + c2 , x > 0
(, 0) (0, +), , .
.
. a < b f : [a, b] R [a, b],
b
a
f (x) dx. :
a
b
f (x) dx =
b
a
f (x) dx.
, f a, , ,
[a, a] = {a} :
a
a f (x) dx = 0.

. ,
b
a f (x) dx a, b f
[a, b], a < b, [b, a], b < a, , , a, a = b.

b
c
b
a f (x) dx = a f (x) dx + c f (x) dx,
a < c < b, a, b, c,
f
244
. ,
.
a
c
a
,
b
<
c
<
a,
f
(x)
dx
=
f
(x)
dx
b
c
b f (x) dx
a
c
a
, , b f (x) dx = b f (x) dx + c f(x) dx
c .
c
, a = b < c, 0 = a f (x) dx a f (x) dx , ,
. .
. f
[a, b], a < b, [b, a], b < a, |f (x)| M x
,
b

f (x) dx M |b a|.
a
, a < b, |b a| = b a, . b < a,

b
f (x) dx = a f (x) dx = a f (x) dx M (a b) = M |b a|. , a = b,
b
b
a
b

a f (x) dx M |b a| 0 = 0.
. I f : I R I. a
xI, x I
x a f (t) dt.
x. , c,
F : I R
x
F (x) = a f (t) dt + c
x I.
f I a
.
7.2. I f : I R
I. f I I.
x
. a I, c F (x) = a f (t) dt + c x I.
I I. b I b > . f [, b]
[, b], M |f (x)| M x [, b]. ,
x [, b]
x

) (
) x
|F (x) F ()| = ( a f (t) dt + c a f (t) dt + c = f (t) dt M (x ). (7.1)
[, x] [, b], |f (t)| M t [, x].
(7.1) limx+ (F (x) F ()) = 0, limx+ F (x) = F ().
I I. . b I b < . f [b, ] [b, ],
M |f (x)| M x [b, ]. x [b, ]

x
)
) (
|F (x) F ()| = ( a f (t) dt + c a f (t) dt + c = x f (t) dt M ( x). (7.2)
[x, ] [b, ], |f (t)| M t [x, ].
(7.2) limx (F (x) F ()) = 0, limx F (x) = F ().
F I.
a I a0 I
, :
x
x
x
a0
F (x) = a f (t) dt + c = a0 f (t) dt + a f (t) dt + c = a0 f (t) dt + c0 ,
a0
c0 = a f (t) dt + c. , a a0
, , c c0 .
a
x
a f (t) dt .
245
7.1.6.
x R, a = 0
x
2
2
2
0 t dt = x2 02 = x2 . 2
x x2 + c, c .
a , a = 4,
2
2
2
x
x
4 t dt 4 t dt = x2 42 = x2 8
c = 8.
7.1 7.3.
7.3. I f, F1 , F2 : I R. f
I. F2 F1 I
F1 , F2 f I,
f I. , F1 , F2 f I, F2 F1
I.
x
. F2 (x) F1 (x) = c x I F1 (x) = a1 f (t) dt + c1
x I, a1 I.
x
x
F2 (x) = F1 (x) + c = a1 f (t) dt + (c1 + c) = a2 f (t) dt + c2
x I, a2 = a1, c2 = c1 + c.
x
x
, F1 (x) = a1 f (t) dt + c1 F2 (x) = a2 f (t) dt + c2 x I,
a1 , a2 I.
x
x
a
F2 (x) F1 (x) = a2 f (t) dt + c2 a1 f (t) dt c1 = a21 f (t) dt + c2 c1
x I, F2 F1 I.
.
F f I. f I F + c, c
, .
, f I, f
I :
. a I, , ,
x
f I a f (t) dt + c, c .
x
. ,
f (t) dt f (x) dx f I. ,
x
x
x
f (t) dt = a f (t) dt + c
f (x) dx = a f (t) dt + c
x I
x
x
:
f (t) dt f (x) dx a f (t) dt + c, c . !
x
x:
f (t) dt
x
f (x) dx.
f
(t)
dt,

x
x
:
f (u) du,
f (s) ds .
x
x
x
2
7.1.7. t dt = 0 t dt+c = x2 +c , , x dx = 0 t dt+c =
x
x2
t dt x dx x R,
2 + c. :
2
x2 + c, c .
246
7.1.4 7.1.7
x R .
.
.
:
)
(
f (x) + g(x) dx = f (x) dx + g(x) dx.

x

x . , F (x) = a f (t) dt
G(x) = a g(t) dt. ,
f (x) dx = F (x) + c1 ,
g(x) dx = G(x) + c2 ,
c1 , c2 .
f (x) dx + g(x) dx = F (x) + c1 + G(x) + c2

= F (x) + G(x) + (c1 + c2 )
x
= a (f (t) + g(t)) dt + (c1 + c2 ).
(7.3)
c1 , c2 , c1 + c2
x .
, c1 + c2 . , a (f (t) + g(t)) dt
f + g,
x
(f (x) + g(x)) dx = a (f (t) + g(t)) dt + (c1 + c2 ).
(7.4)
(7.3) (7.4) f (x) dx + g(x) dx = (f (x) + g(x)) dx.

:
f (x) dx = f (x) dx
6= 0.
x
, , F (x) = a f (t) dt,
f (x) dx = F (x) + c,
c .
x
f (x) dx = F (x) + c = a f (t) dt + c.
(7.5)
c , ( 6= 0) c
x
. , c . , a f (t) dt
f ,
x
f (x) dx = a f (t) dt + c.
(7.6)
(7.5) (7.6) f (x) dx = f (x) dx.
, f (x) dx, g(x) dx

. ,
f (x) dx 6= 0 .
2
3
7.1.8. (x + x2 ) dx = x dx + x2 dx = x2 + x3 + c
2
3
(x + x2 ) dx = x dx + x2 dx = x2 + c1 + x3 + c2 .
247
2
7.1.9. 7x dx = 7 x dx = 7 x2 + c
2
7x dx = 7 x dx = 7 x2 + 7c.
2
7.1.10. (x + g(x)) dx = x dx + g(x) dx = x2 + g(x) dx
x2
(x + g(x)) dx = x dx + g(x) dx
=
+
c
+
g(x) dx
2
c g(x) dx
.
7.1.11. ! x dx x dx = c = 0. x dx
2
2
x dx = (x x) dx = 0 dx = c , , x dx x dx = x2 + c1 x2 c2 =
c1 c2 = c.
! 0 f (x) dx 6= 0f (x) dx. : 0 f (x) dx = 0

7.1.12.
0f (x) dx = 0 dx = c.
.
7.1.1. 2x+3x2 R. 2x+3x2
R 1 2. ;
, I f : I R I. a I
. f I a;
7.1.2. F (x) F 0 (x2 ) = x1 x (0, +)
F (1) = 1. (0, +) (, 0) (0, +);
F (x) F 0 (log x) = 1 x (0, 1] F 0 (log x) = x
x [1, +) F (1) = 1.
{
{
0, x 0
2x sin(1/x) cos(1/x), x 6= 0
7.1.3.
1, x > 0
0,
x = 0
0
R R.
7.1.4. 1x R.
1 x R 2 1. ;
, I f : I R I. a I . f I
a;
7.1.5.
f (x) dx = g(x) dx + x2 3. f (x) dx
g(x) dx ;
7.1.6. f : [a, b] R [a, b]. [a, b]
b
a f (x) dx = f (x) dx.
7.1.7. f (x) = x[x] 21 . 6.4.10.
f R 1.
x
F (x) = 0 f (t) dt R
1 [0, 1). F R [x].
x
1
G(x) = 0 (F (t) + 12
) dt
R 1 [0, 1).
f ; F f ;
f f
F . ;
248
7.1.8. f : R R > 0 [0, ]. 6.4.14[], f .

x
0 (f (t) ) dt
. ;
7.1.7.
7.1.9. f : R R
f .
f ,
;
7.2 .
. : .
.
. I
f : I R
x I. a I
F (x) = a f (t) dt x I. f x I,
F x F 0 (x) = f (x). ,
x
d
f x.
dx a f (t) dt = f (x)
, f I, F I F 0 (x) = f (x)
x I.
. > 0. f x, > 0 |f (t)
f (x)| < 2 t I |t x| < .
, , y I 0 < |y x| < . t [x, y] t [y, x]
|t x| < ,
|f (t) f (x)| <

2
t x y.
y

(f (t) f (x)) dt |y x| < |y x|.
2
x
F (y)F (x)

f (x) =
yx
=
=
=
1
|yx|
1
|yx|
1
|yx|
1
|yx|

F (y) F (x) (y x)f (x)
y

f (t) dt x f (t) dt f (x)(y x)

a
a
y

f (t) dt f (x)(y x) = 1 y f (t) dt y f (x) dt

x
x
x
|yx|
y

(f (t) f (x)) dt < .
x
> 0 > 0 y I 0 < |y x| <

F (y)F (x)

< . limyx F (y)F (x) = f (x), F 0 (x) = f (x).
f
(x)
yx
yx
, , f
I, , ,
I , , f I.
.
249
7.4. I f : I R I.
f I I . ,
f I f I.
x
. , F (x) = a f (t) dt
f I I.
7.3, F f I, f I F + c, c
I.
, 7.1, F f I, f I () F +c, c
I.
7.5 .
7.5. I f : I R I F : I R
f I.
[] f I F + c, c
I.
f (x) dx = F (x) + c
x I.
[] f [a, b] I F
[a, b].
b
a, b I.
a f (x) dx = F (b) F (a)
. [] f I F + c, c
I, , 7.4,
f I I.
x
[]
,
a f (t) dt
x
f I. a f (t) dt F (x) I.
x
a
a f (t) dt F (x) = a f (t) dt F (a) = F (a)
x I , ,
b
a
f (t) dt F (b) = F (a).
7.6. 1 I F : I R I F 0 : I R
I. ,
b 0
a, b I.
a F (x) dx = F (b) F (a)
. 7.5[] f = F 0 , F , , f I.
, ,
dF
d
f (x) dx = f (x),
dx
dx dx = F (x) + c.
f : .
f = dF
dx , F
f , : ( f )
.
1
7.6 7.2.19.
250
.

7.5.
7.2.1. R a, b R :
b
1 dx = x + c,
a 1 dx = b a.
7.2.2. p 6= 1,
p
p+1
x dx = xp+1 + c,
b
a
xp dx =
bp+1 ap+1
.
p+1
(i) R, p N, (ii) (, 0) (0, +), p Z

p 2, (iii) [0, +), p R \ Z p > 0, (iv) (0, +), p R \ Z
p < 0. a, b ( )
. , p Z p 2,
a, b < 0 a, b > 0, a < 0 0 :
1
b 1
b
dx
=
log
|x|
+
c,
x
a x dx = log |b| log |a| = log a .
, a, b ,
|b|
= log | ab | = log ab .
log |a|
b
a
> 0 , , log |b| log |a| =
7.2.4. > 0 6= 1, R
a, b R :
b x
x
b a
x
dx = log
+ c,
a dx = log .
7.2.5. R
a, b R :
cos x dx = sin x + c,
sin x dx = cos x + c,
b
b
a cos x dx = sin b sin a,
a sin x dx = cos a cos b.
7.2.6. ( 2 + k, 2 + k) k Z
a, b ( 2 + k, 2 + k) k Z :
1
(cos x)2
dx = tan x + c,
1
a (cos x)2
dx = tan b tan a.
7.2.7. (k, + k) k Z
a, b (k, + k) k Z :
1
(sin x)2
dx = cot x + c,
1
a (sin x)2
dx = cot a cot b.
7.2.8. (1, 1) a, b (1, 1) :
1
1x2
dx = arcsin x + c,
b
a
1
1x2
dx = arcsin b arcsin a.
7.2.9. R a, b R :
1
b 1
dx = arctan x + c,
a 1+x2 dx = arctan b arctan a.
1+x2
251
.
, f , g [a, b].
[a, b]
b
b
f (t)g(t) dt = f () a g(t) dt.
x
x
F (x) = a f (t)g(t) dt G(x) = a g(t) dt
b
b
a f (t)g(t) dt = f () a g(t) dt
a
g()

b
a
f (t)g(t) dt = f ()g()
b
a
g(t) dt
G0 ()(F (b) F (a)) = F 0 ()(G(b) G(a)).
Cauchy.
.
7.2.1. f (x) dx = F (x) + c F 0 (x) = f (x) f

. :
(i) cos(ax) dx = a1 sin(ax) + c sin(ax) dx = a1 cos(ax) + c R.
(ii) log x dx = x log x x + c (0, +).

1
(iii) x log
x dx = log(log x) + c (1, +).
1
(iv) x log x log(log
x) dx = log(log(log x)) + c (e, +).
(
n x
2
n)
(v) x e dx = n!ex ex 1 x x2! xn! + c R.
(
2
n)
(vi) xn ex dx = (1)n1 n!ex ex 1 + x x2! + + (1)n1 xn! + c R.
x
7.2.2. f : R R R a a f (t) dt = sin x 23
x. ;
x
R 0 f (t) dt = ex x;
x f : R R
0 f (t) dt = ex 1. ;
7.2.3. I f : I R I. f (x) 6= 0
b 0 (x)
(b)
x I, a ff (x)
dx = log ff (a)
a, b I.
f (x) 6= 0 x I f I.
7.2.4. f : I R I a, b I.
x
a f (t) dt I, f 0 I.
x
b
a f (t) dt = x f (t) dt x I, f 0 I.
x
7.2.5. f : (0, +) R f (x) = 1 + x1 1 f (t) dt
x > 0.
x
f : (0, +) R f (x) = 1 x 1 f (t) dt
x > 0.
7.2.6. I f : I R g(x)
I. , g, h : A I F : A R F (x) = h(x) f (t) dt
x A.
g, h x A, F x.
g, h x A f g(x), h(x),
252
F x F 0 (x) = g 0 (x)f (g(x)) h0 (x)f (h(x)).

x 2 et
2+x 1+t
x2 x t2 2t
x
t
dt,
1
dt,
dt,
dt t
2
t
x
2x
e +2t
x+ x t1
t
.
x2
2
f : [0, +) R [0, +) 0 f (t) dt = 1 2x
x R.
x
2 x
2
7.2.7. limx+ ex 0 et dt, limx+ x1 0 etx (2t + 1) dt.
x t2
1
a > 0 b, c, d limx0+ ex bcxdx

dt = 1.
2 0
a+t
x
7.2.8. a 6= b, limx x1 0 sin(at) sin(bt) dt = 0.
a = b ;
7.2.9. [] 6.5[] .
b
[] f : [a, b] R [a, b]. a (f (t))2 dt = 0, f
.
x00
[] f : [a, b] R [a, b]. x0 f (t) dt 0 x0 , x00 [a, b]
x0 < x00 , f (x) 0 x f .
7.2.10. f : [0, +)
x R [0, +) f (x) 6= 0
x > 0 (f (x))2 = 2 0 f (t) dt x 0.
f (x) > 0 x > 0.
f (0, +).
f (x) = x x 0.
7.2.11. f : [0, a] R f 0 : [0, a] R [0, a] f (0) = 0.
{
(f (x))2 /x, 0 < x a
g : [0, a] R g(x) =

0,
x = 0
[0, a].
x
g(x) 0 (f 0 (t))2 dt.
x
(f (x))2 x 0 (f 0 (t))2 dt x [0, a].
a
(f (a))2 = a 0 (f 0 (t))2 dt, f (x)
x (0, a].
a
(f (a))2 = a 0 (f 0 (t))2 dt f 0 (0) = 2, f (x) = 2x x [0, a].
7.2.12. 2 I f : I R
x I. a I F (x) = a f (t) dt x I.
limyx+ f (y) R, F+0 (x) = limyx+ f (y). , f
x, F x F+0 (x) = f (x).
limyx f (y) R, F0 (x) = limyx f (y). , f
x, F x
F0 (x) = f (x).
7.2.13. p, r : I R I. y(x)

y 0 + p(x)y = r(x)
(7.7)
I y 0 (x) + p(x)y(x) = r(x) x I.
x
p(t) dt
x0 I (x) = e x0

y(x) =
1
(x)
x I, (7.7) I
(x
x0
)
(t)r(t) dt + c
.
2
253
x I
7.2.14. 5.3.19. p, q : I R I.
y(x)
y 00 + p(x)y 0 + q(x)y = 0
(7.8)
I y 00 (x) + p(x)y 0 (x) + q(x)y(x) = 0 x I.

. x0 I
y0 , y0 0 y(x) y 00 + p(x)y 0 + q(x)y = 0 I y(x0 ) = y0
y 0 (x0 ) = y0 0 .
y1 (x) y2 (x) (7.8) I.
[] y(x) = 1 y1 (x) + 2 y2 (x) (7.8)
I. , (7.8) I .
[] 7.2.13 W (y1 , y2 )(x)
y 0 + p(x)y = 0 I.
[] (i) W (y1 , y2 )(x) = 0 x I (ii) W (y1 , y2 )(x) 6=
0 x I. (i)
I. (ii)
I, y1 (x) y2 (x)
I . 5.3.19, (ii),
.
[] (ii) []. y(x) (7.8) I
x0 I.
1 y1 (x0 ) + 2 y2 (x0 ) = y(x0 )
1 y1 0 (x0 ) + 2 y2 0 (x0 ) = y 0 (x0 )
1 2 . , W (y, 1 y1 + 2 y2 ) = 0
x I y(x) = 1 y1 (x) + 2 y2 (x) x I. (7.8) I
1 y1 (x) + 2 y2 (x) .
y1 (x) y2 (x) (7.8) I. , ,
, . ,
2.
[] y 00 + ky 0 + ly = 0, p(x) = k q(x) = l
.
t2 + kt + l = 0 () , 1 2 , y1 (x) = e1 x
y2 (x) = e2 x (7.8) R W (y1 , y2 )(x) 6= 0 x.
t2 + kt + l = 0 , , y1 (x) = ex y2 (x) = xex
(7.8) R W (y1 , y2 )(x) 6= 0 x.
t2 + kt + l = 0 , + i i > 0,
y1 (x) = ex cos(x) y2 (x) = ex sin(x) (7.8) R
W (y1 , y2 )(x) 6= 0 x.
, y 00 + ky 0 + ly = 0 R ;
p, q, r : I R I. -
y 00 + p(x)y 0 + q(x)y = r(x)
I ys (x) (7.9) I.
[] y(x) (7.9) I
y(x) = yh (x) + ys (x)
yh (x) (7.8) I.
254
x I,
(7.9)
[] y1 (x) y2 (x) (7.8) I W (y1 , y2 )(x) 6= 0

x I. , [], y(x) (7.9) I
y(x) = 1 y1 (x) + 2 y2 (x) + ys (x)
x I.
[] [], ys : I R
ys (x) = 1 (x)y1 (x) + 2 (x)y2 (x)
x I,
1 (x), 2 (x) I. , 1 (x), 2 (x)

y1 (x)1 0 (x) + y2 (x)2 0 (x) = 0
y1 0 (x)1 0 (x) + y2 0 (x)2 0 (x) = r(x)
x I,
ys (x) = 1 (x)y1 (x) + 2 (x)y2 (x) (7.9) I. ,

x
x r(t)y1 (t)
2 (t)
1 (x) = x0 Wr(t)y
dt,
(x)
=
x I,
2
x0 W (y1 ,y2 )(t) dt
(y1 ,y2 )(t)
x0 I, .
, , (7.9) I, y1 (x) y2 (x) ;
[] , [], y 00 +
ky 0 + ly = r(x).
7.2.15. [] :
2
(i) 0 sin(kx) dx = 0 k Z.
2
(ii) 0 cos(kx) dx = 0 k Z, k 6= 0.
2
(iii) 0 sin(nx) cos(mx) dx = 0 n, m Z.
2
(iv) 0 sin(nx) sin(mx) dx = 0 n, m Z, n 6= m.
2
(v) 0 cos(nx) cos(mx) dx = 0 n, m Z, n 6= m.
2
2
(vi) 0 (sin(nx))2 dx = 0 (cos(nx))2 dx = n Z, n 6= 0.
[]3 f (x) = a0 + 2 nk=1 (ak cos(kx) + bk sin(kx)) x,

2
2
1
1
ak = 2
bk = 2
0 f (x) cos(kx) dx k 0,
0 f (x) sin(kx) dx k 1.
n
f (x) = a0 + 2 k=1 (ak cos(kx) + bk sin(kx)) g(x) = c0 + 2 nk=1 (ck cos(kx) +

dk sin(kx)) x,
2
n
1
k=1 (ak ck + bk dk ).
2 0 f (x)g(x) dx = a0 c0 + 2
, 4
)
2
n (
1
k=1 (ak ck bk dk ) cos(kx) + (ak dk + bk ck ) sin(kx) .
2 0 f (x t)g(t) dt = a0 c0 + 2
7.2.16. 5.6.16.
x
f : R R f (x) = 1 g(t) dt x. f
R, 0 (, 1], 1 [1, +)
[1, 1].
4x
> 0 : R R (x) = f (3 + 4x
)f (3 ) x.
, R, 0 (, ]
[, +), 1 [ 2 , 2 ] [, 2 ] [ 2 , ].
7.2.17. 5 (Pn ) : P0 (x) = 1
f (x) = a0 + 2 n
k=1 (ak cos(kx) + bk sin(kx)) . an , bn 0, n .
2.
4
f, g : R R 2 [0, 2],
,
2
1
f
(x
t)g(t) dt, x, f (x) g(x) (f g)(x).

2 0
, .
5
Pn (x) Bernoulli.
3
255
1
x, Pn 0 (x) = nPn1 (x) x n, 0 Pn (x) dx = 0 n.
Pn (x) n = 1, 2, 3, 4.
Pn (x) n xn .
Pn (0) = Pn (1) n 2.
Pn (x + 1) Pn (x) = nxn1 x n.
m+1
n+1 (0)
n
m
Pn (x) dx = Pn+1 (m+1)P

k=1 k = 0
n+1
m
m 3 m2 (m+1)2
m(m+1)
m(m+1)(2m+1)
m
2
k=1 k =
, k=1 k =
k=1 k =
.
2
6
4
n
Pn (1 x) = (1) Pn (x) x n.
P2n+1 (0) = 0 P2n1 ( 21 ) = 0 n.
x
1
n1 f (t) dt
7.2.18. f : [a, b] R [a, b]. fn (x) = (n1)!
a (x t)
x [a, b] n.
f1 0 (x) = f (x) fn+1 0 (x) = fn (x) x [a, b] n.
fn (n) (x) = f (x) x [a, b] n.
x
fn+1 (x) = a fn (t) dt x [a, b] n.
6 f [a, b]
(n + 1)- (f (b), f1 (b), . . . , fn (b)).
7 f [a, b]
(
)
b
b
(n + 1)- f (a), a f (t) dt, . . . , a (t a)n1 f (t) dt .
7.2.19. 8 I F : I R I F 0 : I R
b 0 I.
a F (x) dx = F (b) F (a) a, b I.
7.2.20. , f I, x I
f0 (x) f+0 (x), f0 (x) f+0 (x).
f I, .
[] I f : I R I. g : I R
x I g(x) f+0 (x) f0 (x). g
b
I a g(x) dx = f (b) f (a)
a, b I.
b
b
, a f0 (x) dx = f (b) f (a) a f+0 (x) dx = f (b) f (a) a, b I.
[] I f : I R I. f I,
b
7.2.19 [], a f 0 (x) dx = f (b) f (a)
a, b I.
[]9 I f : I R. f I
, , I.
6
Fekete.
Fejer.
8
7.6. , :
. ,
.
9
.
7
256
7.3 .
.
7.7. I, J. : I J 0 : I R
I f : J R J.
x
(x)
b
(b)
0
f ((t))0 (t) dt =
f (s) ds,
(7.10)
a f ((x)) (x) dx = (a) f (y) dy,
x I a, b I.
. (f )0 I.
F : J R f J.
y
f (s) ds = F (y) + c
y J, c .
(x)
f (s) ds = F ((x)) + c
(7.11)
x I, c I.
,
(F )0 (x) = F 0 ((x))0 (x) = f ((x))0 (x)
x I, F : I R f ((x))0 (x) I.
x
f ((t))0 (t) dt = F ((x)) + c
(7.12)
x I, c I.
x
(x)
(7.11) (7.12)
f ((t))0 (t) dt =
f (s) ds x I.
(7.10) (7.11) (7.12) x
(x)
(a) f (s) ds a f ((t))0 (t) dt I. 0 x = a,
I.
x
(x)
0
a f ((t)) (t) dt = (a) f (s) ds
x I x = b (7.10).
(7.10)

f ((x))0 (x) dx = f (y) dy
y=(x)
(7.13)
, , (7.13) . f ((x))0 (x) dx

f ((x))0 (x), , ,
x I. f (y) dy f (y),
y J. (7.13) y
(x).
(7.13) (7.10),
x y = (x)
dy
0 (x) dx dy. dx
= 0 (x)
0
dy = (x) dx x y.
7.3.1. n N, (sin x)n cos x dx.

x y = sin x

( n+1
)
x)n+1
(sin x)n cos x dx = y n dy y=sin x = yn+1 + c y=sin x = (sinn+1
+ c.
257

7.3.2. x22x+1 dx x
y = x2 + 1,

2x
dx = y1 dy y=x2 +1 = (log |y| + c)y=x2 +1 = log(x2 + 1) + c.
x2 +1
b 1
7.3.3. a x log
x dx
x y = log x
log b
b 1
log b 1

dx
=
dy
=
log
log a .
a x log x
log a y
a, b log x,
a, b, y1 , (, 0) (0, +). log x
log a, log b. log a, log b > 0 , , a, b > 1,
log a, log b < 0 , , 0 < a, b < 1. , log a, log b ,
b 1
log b
a x log x dx = log log a .
.
7.8. 10 I f, g : I R f 0 , g 0 : I R
I.
x 0
x
f (t)g(t) dt,
f (t)g 0 (t) dt = f (x)g(x)
b
b 0
0
a f (x)g (x) dx = f (b)g(b) f (a)g(a) a f (x)g(x) dx,
x I a, b I.
. F : I R f 0 g I.
x 0
f (t)g(t) dt = F (x) c
x I, c . G = f g F : I R.

G0 (x) = f 0 (x)g(x) + f (x)g 0 (x) F 0 (x) = f (x)g 0 (x)
x I, G f g 0 I.
x
x 0
f (t)g 0 (t) dt = G(x) + c = f (x)g(x) F (x) + c = f (x)g(x)
f (t)g(t) dt
x I.
,
x
x 0
0
a f (t)g (t) dt f (x)g(x) f (a)g(a) a f (t)g(t) dt I. 0 x = a,
I.
x
0 (t) dt = f (x)g(x) f (a)g(a) x f 0 (t)g(t) dt

f
(t)g
a
a
x I x = b .
7.8
f (x)g 0 (x) dx = f (x)g(x) f 0 (x)g(x) dx.

f 0 g 0 , , 7.3.25.
7.3.26.
10
258
7.3.4. x > 0
dx
1
x
log x dx = dx
log x dx = x log x x d log
dx dx = x log x x x dx
= x log x 1 dx = x log x x + c.
7.3.5.
2 x
2 dex
2 0e0 2
xe
dx
=
x
dx
=
2e
dx
0
0
0
dx x
dx e dx
= 2e2
2
0
ex dx
= 2e2 (e2 e0 ) = e2 + 1.
7.3.6.
d cos x
0 x sin x dx = 0 x dx dx = cos + 0 cos 0 + 0
= + 0 cos x dx = + (sin sin 0) = .
dx
dx
cos x dx
7.3.7. a 6= 0,
ax
e sin(bx) dx = a1 eax sin(bx) ab eax cos(bx) dx.

,
ax
2
e sin(bx) dx = a1 eax sin(bx) ab2 eax cos(bx) ab 2 eax sin(bx) dx.
1+
b2
a2
eax sin(bx) dx =
1 ax
e
a2
)
a sin(bx) b cos(bx) + c,
c , ,
)
( a
ax
b
e sin(bx) dx = eax a2 +b
2 sin(bx) a2 +b2 cos(bx) + c.

a = 0, b 6= 0,
sin(bx) dx = 1b cos(bx) + c. a2 + b2 6= 0,
a, b .
,
)
( a
ax
b
e cos(bx) dx = eax a2 +b
2 cos(bx) + a2 +b2 sin(bx) + c.
R(x) =
R(x) dx =
am xm +am1 xm1 ++a1 x+a0

bn xn +bn1 xn1 ++b1 x+b0
am xm +am1 xm1 ++a1 x+a0

dx,
.
. m < n , . m n,
P (x), Q(x) Q(x) < n

am xm + + a0 = P (x)(bn xn + + b0 ) + Q(x)
x.
R(x) = P (x) +
Q(x)
.
P (x) dx , m < n.
259
. . - -
. , , .
bn xn + bn1 xn1 + + b1 x + b0
bn xn + + b0 = bn (x ) (x ) ((x )2 + 2 ) ((x )2 + 2 ) ,
, . . . , , , . . . , + + + 2 + + 2 = n
, . . . , > 0.
, x , . . . , x
, . . . , , . . . , . ,
(x )2 + 2 , . . . , (x )2 + 2
i, . . . , i , . . . , .
.
, . . . , : , . . . ,
.
. :
)
( 1
)
( A1
A
+ + x
+ + (x)
+ + (x)
R(x) = x
( 1 (x)+N1
( 1 (x)+1
M (x)+N )
E (x)+ )
+ M(x)
+ + E(x)
+ + ((x)
2 + 2
2 + 2 )
2 + 2 + + ((x)2 + 2 ) .
x
1 ( )
. . (x )2 + 2 1 ( i)
. .
A1 , A2 , . . . , E , , ,
. ,
, bn xn + + b1 x + b0 . , n
n A1 , A2 , . . . , E , .
. , ,
:
x
1
1
dx,
dx,
dx
k N.
k
2
2
k
(x)
((x) + )
((x)2 + 2 )k
.
1
(i) (x)
k dx, (, ) (, +),

1
1

y = x (x)
.
dy
k dx =
k
y=x
y
(
)
1
1
1
(x)k dx = (k1)yk1 + c y=x = (k1)(x)k1 + c k 2.

1
= log |x | + c k = 1.
,
dx = (log |y| + c)
x
y=x
(ii)
{
1
(x)k
dx =
1
k 2
(k1)(x)
k1 + c,
log |x | + c,
x
((x)2+ 2 )k
k = 1
dx y = (x )2 + 2

x
dx = 21 y1k dy y=(x)2 + 2 .
((x)2 + 2 )k
260
(
)
x
1
1

, ((x)
2(k1)y
2 + 2 )k dx =
k1 + c y=(x)2 + 2 = 2(k1)((x)2 + 2 )k1 + c
k 2.

x
1
1
2
2

(x)
2 + 2 dx = ( 2 log |y| + c) y=(x)2 + 2 = 2 log((x ) + ) + c k = 1.
{
1
2(k1)((x)
k 2
2 + 2 )k1 + c,
x
dx
=
((x)2 + 2 )k
1
2
2
k = 1
2 log((x ) + ) + c,
(iii) , ((x)12 + 2 )k dx y = x
,

1
1
1
((x)2 + 2 )k dx = 2k1 (y2 +1)k dy y=(x)/ .

1
k N.
Ik = (y2 +1)
k dy
.
, k = 1,
I1 = y21+1 dy = arctan y + c.
k > 1, , ,
Ik =
2
y 2 +1
1
dy (y2y+1)k dy = (y2 +1)
k1 dy
(y 2 +1)k
y
y
1
1
1
1
dy = 2k2
2(k1) (y 2 +1)k1 2(k1)
(y 2 +1)k1
(y 2 +1)k1
1
(y 2 +1)k
= Ik1 +
dy =
y
y (y2 +1)
k dy
2k3
2k2 Ik1 .
y
1
Ik = 2k2
+ 2k3
2k2 Ik1 , (y 2 +1)k1
Ik Ik1 , , I1 . , k 2 :
Ik =
y
1
2k2 (y 2 +1)k1
2k3
2k2 Ik1
y
1
2k2 (y 2 +1)k1
y
2k3
(2k2)(2k4) (y 2 +1)k2
y
1
2k2 (y 2 +1)k1
y
2k3
(2k2)(2k4) (y 2 +1)k2
+ +
(2k3)(2k5)1
(2k2)(2k4)2
(2k3)(2k5)
(2k2)(2k4) Ik2
(2k3)(2k5)3 y
(2k2)(2k4)2 y 2 +1
arctan y + c.
A2
A1
+ (x)
x
2 + +
R(x)
A1 log |x |
R(x) dx,

M1
2
log((x )2 + 2 )
A2
x
M1 (x)
(x)2 + 2
M2
2((x)2 + 2 )
A
(x)
A
(k1)(x)1
M2 (x)
((x)2 + 2 )2
+ +
M (x)
((x)2 + 2 )
M
2(1)((x)2 + 2 )1
N1
N2
, , (x)
2 + 2 + ((x)2 + 2 )2 + + ((x)2 + 2 )
N0 (x)
N20 (x)
N10 arctan x
+ (x)2 + 2 + + ((x)2 + 2 )1 ,
N10 , . . . , N0 N1 , . . . , N .
7.3.8. (, 3) (3, +)
2
x3 dx = 2 log |x 3| + c.
261
7.3.9. (, 2) (2, +)
5
5
dx = 2(x+2)
2 + c.
(x+2)3
7.3.10. (, +)

1
1
1

dx
=
dy
=
2
2
3
(x+1) +9
y +1
y=(x+1)/3
7.3.11. (, +)

x2
dx = 1 1 dy
2
2
(x2) +4
y=(x2)2 +4
1
2
1
3
arctan x+1
3 + c.
log((x 2)2 + 4) + c.
7.3.12. (, +)

1
x2
dx = 21 y14 dy y=(x2)2 +4 = 6((x2)
2 +4)3 + c.
((x2)2 +4)4
7.3.13.

x3
2x2
+ 2
x2
x3 2x2 +2
x2 3x+2
dx.
3x + 2
x3 2x2 + 2 = (x2 3x + 2)(x + 1) + x.
x
x
dx = (x + 1) dx + x2 3x+2
dx = 21 x2 + x + x2 3x+2
dx.
x
x
x2 3x+2
dx x2 3x+2
.
x2 3x + 2 1 2, x2 3x + 2 = (x 1)(x 2).
x3 2x2 +2
x2 3x+2
x
x2 3x+2
a
x1
b
x2 ,
a, b .
(x 1)(x 2) x = a(x 2) + b(x 1) , ,
x = (a + b)x + (2a b).

a + b = 1 2a b = 0.
a = 1, b = 2.
x
x2 3x+2
x2 3x+2
, ,
dx =
x3 2x2 +2
x2 3x+2
1
x1
dx + 2
1
+
= x1
1
x2
2
x2 .
dx = log |x 1| + 2 log |x 2| + c
dx = 21 x2 + x log |x 1| + 2 log |x 2| + c
(, 1), (1, 2) (2, +).
2x2 +1
7.3.14. x3 +x
2 x1 dx.
x3 + x2 x 1 :
x3 + x2 x 1 = x2 (x + 1) (x + 1) = (x2 1)(x + 1) = (x 1)(x + 1)2 .
262
, x3 + x2 x 1 1 1.
2x2 +1
x3 +x2 x1
a
x1
b
x+1
c
,
(x+1)2
a, b, c. . (x 1)(x + 1)2
. x
a = 43 , b = 54 , c = 32 .
2x2 +1
1
1
1
= 43 x1
+ 54 x+1
23 (x+1)
2.
x3 +x2 x1
2x2 +1
x3 +x2 x1
dx =
log |x 1| + 54 log |x + 1| +
3
4
3 1
2 x+1
+c
(, 1), (1, 1) (1, +).
7.3.15. x4 x2x2x+2 dx.

:
x4 x2 2x + 2 = (x 1)2 (x2 + 2x + 2) = (x 1)2 ((x + 1)2 + 1).
, x4 x2 2x + 2 1 .
x
x4 x2 2x+2
a
x1
b
(x1)2
c(x+1)+d
.
(x+1)2 +1
1
1
1
25 , b = 5 , c = 25 , d =
7
1
x+1
1
25 (x+1)2 +1 25 (x+1)2 +1 .
, a =
x
x4 x2 2x+2
x4 x2 2x+2
dx =
1
25
1 1
25 x1
log |x 1|
1 1
5 x1
(, 1) (1, +).
7.3.16.
,
x7 +6x6 x
x5 x4 +2x3 2x2 +x1
x7 +6x6 x
x5 x4 +2x3 2x2 +x1
1
1
5 (x1)2
1
50
log((x + 1)2 + 1)
x7 +6x6 x
x5 x4 +2x3 2x2 +x1
= x2 + 7x + 5 +
7
25
7
25
.
arctan(x + 1) + c
dx.
7x4 +3x3 +4x2 +x+5

.
x5 x4 +2x3 2x2 +x1
dx = 31 x3 + 72 x2 + 5x +
7x4 +3x3 +4x2 +x+5

x5 x4 +2x3 2x2 +x1
dx.
:
x5 x4 + 2x3 2x2 + x 1 = (x2 + 1)2 (x 1).
x5 x4 + 2x3 2x2 + x 1 1 ,
7x4 +3x3 +4x2 +x+5
x5 x4 +2x3 2x2 +x1
a
x1
bx+c
x2 +1
dx+e
.
(x2 +1)2
11
a = 23 , b = 17
2 , c = 2 , d = 4 e = 2 , ,
7x4 +3x3 +4x2 +x+5
11
2
2
dx = 32 log |x 1| 17
4 log(x + 1) 2 arctan x x2 +1 + 2
x5 x4 +2x3 2x2 +x1
1
(x2 +1)2
x2 +1
x2
1
1
x
dx
=
dx
dx
=
dx
x (x2 +1)
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2 dx
(x +1)
(x +1)
(x +1)
x +1
1
x
x
1
1
= arctan x + 2(x2 +1) 2 x2 +1 dx = 2 arctan x + 2(x2 +1) + c.
:
x7 +6x6 x
x5 x4 +2x3 2x2 +x1
dx = 31 x3 + 27 x2 + 5x +
92 arctan x + c
(, 1) (1, +).
263
x2
x2 +1
+ 32 log |x 1|
17
4
log(x2 + 1)
dx.
.
,
f (x) dx = r(cos x, sin x) dx,

(x)
r(s, t) s, t. , f (x) = r(cos x, sin x) = ff21 (x)
f1 (x), f2 (x) nj=1 aj (cos x)kj (sin x)lj ,

aj R kj , lj Z, kj , lj 0 j = 1, . . . , n.
7.3.17.
sin x+(cos x)3 (sin x)2 cos x

sin x+(cos x)2
dx
x) (sin x) cos x
f (x) = sin x+(cos
= ff12 (x)
(x) , f1 (x) =
sin x+(cos x)2
3
2
2
(cos x) cos x(sin x) + sin x, f2 (x) = (cos x) + sin x
3
2 +t
.
r(s, t) = s st
s2 +t
3
f1 f2 R, f
f2 0 , ,
f , f . f
2.
.
1. H f (, +).
. , f . , ,
f + k2 k Z.
, f 2, f , (, ) 2.
, f (, ), (, ),
(, ),
(, ). f (, )
u = tan x2

x = 2 arctan u.
u = tan x2 (, )
(, +). x = 2 arctan u
(, +) (, ). , x
(, ), u (, +) .
,
cos x =
1(tan(x/2))2
1+(tan(x/2))2
1u2
,
1+u2
sin x =
2 tan(x/2)
1+(tan(x/2))2
2u
,
1+u2
f (x) = r(cos x, sin x) (, )

(
)
2
2u
R(u) = r 1u
,
2
2
1+u 1+u
(, +). u.
x) (sin x) cos x
7.3.18. f (x) = sin x+(cos
(, ) sin x+(cos x)2
, u = tan x2 ,
3
R(u) =
2
2
2u
+( 1u2 )3 ( 2u 2 )2 1u2
1+u2
1+u
1+u
1+u
2
2u
+( 1u2 )2
1+u2
1+u
(, +).
264
1+2u+u2 +4u3 u4 +2u5 u6

1+2uu2 +4u3 u4 +2u5 +u6

f (x) = R(u) = R(tan x2 ),
R(u) = f (x) = f (2 arctan u)
, , f (x) R(u)
. , f (x) x (, ), R(u)
u (, +) . , f (x)
x (, ), R(u) u (, +) . f (x) (, )
R(u) (, +), . R(u) , , (, +), f (x)
(, ). R(u) u1 , . . . , un , u1 < < un ,
(, u1 ), (u1 , u2 ), . . . , (un1 , un ), (un , +), f (x)
x1 , . . . , xn , < x1 < < xn <
(, x1 ), (x1 , x2 ), . . . , (xn1 , xn ), (xn , ). xi ui ui = tan x2i xi = 2 arctan ui .
, r(sin x, cos x) dx = f (x)dx

(, ),

2

r(sin x, cos x)dx = f (x)dx = R(u) 1+u
(7.14)
2 du u=tan(x/2) .
f (x) = r(cos x, sin x) (, )
u
R.
, ,
2
(7.15)
R(u) 1+u
2 du = G(u) + c,
G(u) u, 2
R(u) 1+u
2 , R. ,

F (x) = G(tan x2 ),
(7.14) (7.15)
r(cos x, sin x) dx = f (x) dx = G(tan x2 ) + c = F (x) + c

(, ). , F (x) f (x) (, ).
, f (x) 2, F (x) = G(tan x2 ) , ,
F 0 (x) 2. ,
x
F (x + 2) = G(tan x+2
2 ) = G(tan 2 ) = F (x).
, F (x) f (x) (, ), f (x)

( + k2, + k2) k Z. ,
f (x) dx = F (x) + c (a, b) (, ) f (x) . , , F 0 (x) = f (x) . (a + k2, b + k2) ( + k2, + k2),
x (a + k2, b + k2) x k2 (a, b) , ,
F 0 (x) = F 0 (x k2) = f (x k2) = f (x).
f (x) dx = F (x) + c (a + k2,

b + k2).
, , r(cos x, sin x) dx
( + k2, + k2) f (x) = r(cos x, sin x)
. , , G(u).
265

7.3.19. sin1 x dx.
1 sin1 x
. (, ).
u = tan x2 sin1 x (, )
2
1+u2
1
1+u
2u (, +). 2u u = 0 (, +) sin x
x = 0 (, ). , (, 0) (0, )

1
1+u2 2
1

dx
=
du
=
2
sin x
2u 1+u
u du u=tan(x/2)
u=tan(x/2)

= (log |u| + c)|u=tan(x/2) = log tan x2 + c.
,

G(u) = log |u|,
F (x) = log tan x2 .

1
1
tan x 2,
log
sin x
2
sin x dx =

log tan x2 + c ( + k2, k2) (k2, + k2) ( + k2, + k2) k Z.
, :

1
x

(k, + k) k Z.
sin x dx = log tan 2 + c
. , , , f
x0 , 6= . f x0 +2 x0 +k2
k Z.

z = x x0
x- x0 + k2 z- + k2.

f (z) = f (z + x0 + ) = f (x).
f (x) x- x0 + k2, f (z)
z- + k2. ,

f (x) dx = f (z + x0 + ) dz z=xx0 = f (z) dz z=xx0 ,
f (z) dz,
.
7.3.20. (cos1x)2 dx. .

(cos1x)2 2 ( ).
z = x ( 2 ) = x
1
(sin z)2
1
(sin z)2
1
(cos x)2
dx =
1
(sin z)2
1
(cos(z+(/2)))2

dz z=x(/2) .
(, ).
u = tan z2
(1+u2 )2
1
(cos x)2
1
(sin z)2
(, ) -
(1+u2 )2
4u2 (, +). 4u2 0 (, +) (sin1z)2

0 (, ). , (, 0) (0, ),

1
2 )2
2
2
dz = (1+u
duu=tan(z/2) = 1+u
duu=tan(z/2)
(sin z)2
4u2 1+u2
2u2
(
)
1
= 2u
+ u2 u=tan(z/2) + c = 21 cot z2 + 12 tan z2 + c = cot z + c
266
z (, 0) (0, ), x = z + 2 ( 2 , 2 ) ( 2 , 3
2 ).

1
dx = (sin1z)2 dz z=x(/2) = cot(x 2 ) + c = tan x + c.
(cos x)2

1
(cos x)2
tan x 2,
( 2 + k2, 2 + k2) ( 2
( 2 + k2, 3
2 + k2) k Z.
, :
1
dx = tan x + c
(cos x)2
+ k2,
3
2
1
(cos x)2
dx = tan x+c
+ k2)
( 2 + k, 2 + k) k Z.
2. f (, +).
, , f (, +). f (x) dx
(, +),
f (x) dx = F (x) + c
x,
F
F 0 (x) = f (x)
x.
, , F .
1, , , (, )
u = tan x2 x = 2 arctan u.
( 1u2 2u )
f (x) = r(cos x, sin x) (, ) R(u) = r 1+u

2 , 1+u2
2
R. , R(u) 1+u2 du = G(u)+c, G(u)
2
x
R(u) 1+u
2 . G(tan 2 )
x (, ),
f (x) dx = G(tan x2 ) + c
G(tan x2 ) f (, ). F ,
f (, +), c
x (, ).
F (x) = G(tan x2 ) + c
, , F c f (, +), F
x (, ).
F (x) = G(tan x2 )
(7.16)
, F . F
(, +) F 0 (x) = f (x) x. , (7.16) F
(, ), G . F
.
F () = limx+ F (x) = limx+ G(tan x2 ),
F () = limx F (x) = limx G(tan x2 ).

A = limx+ G(tan x2 ) = F (),
B = limx G(tan x2 ) = F (),
F () F (), .
267
G(tan x2 ) (, +) + k2
k Z. , 2. ,
k Z, + k2 A
B. , k Z, G(tan x2 ) + k2,
A . , ,
{
G(tan x2 ), x 6= + k2 k Z
F (x) =
(7.17)
A,
x = + k2 k Z
F (, +), 2,
( + k2, + k2) k Z A + k2
k Z. F
B.
: F F
(, +) , (7.16) (7.17),
x [, ).
F (x) = F (x)
(7.18)
f ,
F 0 (x + 2) F 0 (x) = f (x + 2) f (x) = 0
x,
F (x + 2) F (x) (, +).
F (x + 2) F (x) = F () F () = B A =
x,
= B A,
]
[
x.
h(x) = F (x) x+
2
(7.19)
(7.20)
(7.20) h (7.19)
[
]
[ x+
]
[ x+ ]
h(x + 2) = F (x + 2) (x+2)+
=
F
(x)
+
= h(x)
+
1
=
F
(x)
2
2
2

] x , , h 2. , x [, )
[ x+
= 0, (7.18) (7.20)
2
x [, ).
h(x) = F (x) = F (x)
h F 2 [, ). ,
[ x+ ] (, +). , (7.20) F (x) = F (x) 2 x,
F (, +). ,
[
]
f (x) dx = F (x) + c = F (x) + x+

+c
x.
2
1
7.3.21. 2+sin
x dx.
1
2+sin
x R. (, )
u = tan x2 ,

1
1
x (, ).
duu=tan(x/2)
2+sin x dx =
u2 +u+1
1
u2 +u+1
du =
1
(u+(1/2))2 +( 3/2)2
du =
268
2
3
arctan 2u+1
+c
3
u.
, G(u)
G(u) =
2
3
arctan 2u+1
3
, ,
G(tan x2 ) =
2
3
arctan
2
3
tan x2 +
, ,
( 2
1
2
tan x +
2+sin x dx = 3 arctan
2
3
1
3
1
3
x (, ).
x (, ).
+c
1
2+sin
x (, +),
2
x
.
A = limx+ G(tan 2 ) = 3 B = limx G(tan x2 ) = 3 = B A =
3
,
{
F (x) =
2 arctan
3
3 ,
2
3
tan x2 +
1
3
x 6= + k2 k Z
x = + k2 k Z
:
1
2+sin x dx = F (x) + c = F (x) +
2 x+
3 2
+c
x.
.
,
)
)
(
(
r x, 1 x2 dx,
r x, x2 1 dx,
)
(
r x, x2 + 1 dx.
r(s, t) s, t.
(i) [1, 1]
x = sin t t [ 2 , 2 ]. 1 x2 = cos t
r(sin t, cos t) cos t dt, , ,
u = tan 2t . x u
u = 1+x1x2 . , ,

u = 1+x1x2 .
[1, 1] , ,
[1, 1].
x=
,
2u
.
1+u2
1 x2 =
1u2
1+u2
, ,
r(x,
( 2u 1u2 ) 2(1u2 )

1 x2 ) dx = r 1+u
2 , 1+u2 (1+u2 )2 dy u=x/(1+ 1x2 ) .

u [1, 1].
, r(x, 1 x2 ) x [1, 1]. , ,
.
269
7.3.22.
1
x+ 1x2
dx.

[1, 1/ 2) (1/ 2, 1] [1, 1],
x + 1 x2 6= 0 x 6= 1/ 2.
u=
[1, 1
1
x+ 1x2
x
1+ 1x2
2) (1 2, 1], ,
dx = 2
1u2
(1+2uu2 )(1+u2 )

duu=x/(1+1x2 ) .
1u2
(1+2uu2 )(1+u2 )
du =
1
2
|
+ arctan u + c
log |1+2uu
1+u2
2
u (, 1 2), (1 2, 1 + 2) (1 + 2, +).
1
dx = 12 log |x + 1 x2 | + arctan 1+x1x2 + c
x+ 1x2
x [1, 1
2) (1 2, 1].
(ii) [1, +) (, 1].

[1, +) x = sin1 t t
1
cos t cos t
t
(0, 2 ]. x2 1 = cos
sin t r( sin t , sin t ) (sin t)2 dt,
, , u = tan 2t .
x u u = x + x2 1,
t. ,
,
u = x + x2 1.
[1, +). limx+ (x + x2 1) =

+ [1, +).
2
x = u 2u+1
, ,
x2 1 =
u2 1
2u .
) 2
( 2
2

r(x, x2 1) dx = r u 2u+1 , u 2u1 u2u1

2 du u=x+ x2 1
u [1, +).
(, 1],

2
u = x x2 1 ,
x = u 2u+1
u (, 1]. .
, (, 1] [1, +), r(x, x2 1).
7.3.23. x+1x2 1 dx [1, +).
, x + x2 1 6= 0 [1, +).
x [1, +)

1
1
dx = ( 2u
2u1 3 ) duu=x+x2 1 .
x+ x2 1
270
, u (, 0) (0, +)
1
( 2u 2u1 3 ) du =
, x [1, +),
x+ x2 1
dx =
1
2
log(x +
1
2
log |u| +
x2 1) +
1
4u2
+ c,
1
4(x+ x2 1)2
+ c.
(iii)
R 1 x =
cot
t
(0,
).
x2 + 1 = sin t
t
1
1
r( cos
sin t , sin t ) (sin t)2 dt, , , u = tan 2t . ,
u = x + x2 + 1,
. u = x + x2 + 1
2
2
. limx
(x+ x + 1) = 0 limx+ (x+ x + 1) = +,
2
u = x + x + 1 (0, +).
2
x = u 2u1 .
,
x2 + 1 =
u2 +1
2u .
) 2
( 2
2

r(x, x2 + 1) dx = r u 2u1 , u 2u+1 u2u+1

2 du u=x+ x2 +1
u (0, +).
7.3.24. xx12 +1 dx (, 0) (0, +).
x , u = x+ x2 + 1
, , (0, 1) (1, +).

1
dx = 2 u211 duu=x+x2 +1
x x2 +1
2 u211 du (0, 1) (1, +)

log |u 1| log(u + 1) + c.
, x (, 0) (0, +),
1
x x2 +1
dx = log 1+|x|
+ c.
x2 +1
,
)
(
r x, x2 + x + dx,
, , 6= 0 r(s, t) s, t. ,

(
x2 + x + = (x +
a =
b =
42
,
42
2
2 )
42 )
42
(
)
= (x + a)2 + b
)
)
(
( (
r x, x2 + x + dx = r x, (x + a)2 + b ) dx
.
271
1. > 0 b > 0.
u =
1 (x
b
+ a)
b r b u a, b u2 + 1 du = r (u, u2 + 1) du,
r (s, t) s, t.
2. > 0 b < 0.
u = 1b (x + a)
b r b u a, b u2 1 du = r (u, u2 1) du,
r (s, t) s, t.
3. < 0 b < 0.
u = 1b (x + a)

(
)
b r b u a, b 1 u2 du = r (u, 1 u2 ) du,
r (s, t) s, t.
< 0 b > 0
x2 + x + . , b 0,
.
.
r(x, x2 + x + ) dx, 6= 0,
r(x, (x)) dx, (x)

( ) x. Abel .

4
(x) = x + x3 + x2 + x + ,
, 6= 0, ,
.11
.
, , , .
n x . , ,

2
x
4
, , x + 3 x +1+
.
x1
.
. P0 (x) + P1 (x)y + + Pn (x)y n = 0
y, n 1 P0 (x), P1 (x), . . . , Pn (x) Pn (x)

. , , I (
), I,
P0 (x) + P1 (x)(x) + + Pn (x)(x)n = 0 x I.
I.
7.3.25. P (x) R.
, P (x) P (x) + 1y = 0, P (x),
1 .
7.3.26.
P (x)
Q(x) ,
P (x), Q(x) ,
P (x)
. Q(x)

P (x) + Q(x)y = 0, P (x), Q(x) .
11
7.3.30.
272
P (x)
7.3.27. n Q(x)
, n N P (x), Q(x) ,
.
P (x) + Q(x)y n = 0,
P (x), Q(x)
.
, x2 + x + (x) = x4 + x3 + x2 + x + .
. , , ,

.
.
1
7.3.1. x cos(x2 ) dx, (cos x)2 sin x dx, tan x dx, 1+e
x dx,
sin x

x
ex
3
1
1
1
dx, x x 1 dx, x+1 dx, 1+e2x dx, 4x2 dx, (x+1)2 +2 dx, x(x4 +16) dx,
x
arctan x
1
x2
arcsin x
x5
dx,
(sin x)3 dx, (1+x)
dx,
dx,
(sin x)4 dx, 1x
2 +4)4 dx,
3 dx,
6
(x
(sin
x)
x
1x2
1
1
dx, 1+cos x dx.
2+(cos x)2
2
7.3.2.
(x + 3x) sin xdx,
3 x2
x+1
2
4
x e dx, e
dx, x (log x) dx, arcsin x dx, arctan x dx, log(x + 1 + x2 ) dx,
x)
2
(sin x)4 dx, (cosxx)2 dx, (x2x+1)2 dx, arctan(e
dx, (sin x)3 sin(5x) dx.
ex
x+2
3x2 +1
7.3.3. x25x+3
dx,
dx,
dx,
2
+2x1
x3 1
x2 +1
1 x 4x+4
2x2 +5x1
1
1
8x3 +7
dx, (x1)3 dx, x4 1 dx, (x2 4x+4)(x2 x+1) dx, x4 +1 dx, x4 +2x3 2x1 dx,
3
2
x +xx4 2x
1
1
dx, (x1)2 (x+2)
dx, x61+1 dx, x4 +x1 2 +1 dx.
3 (x2 +1)2 dx,
x4 +5x2 +4
x5 +1
7.3.4. sin x, cos x :
(sin x)2
1
x
dx, 1+sinsinx+cos
2+cos x dx,
x dx.
1+(sin x)2
1
1 x2 dx, x2 x2
dx,
dx, x1+1 x+1 dx.

(x+1) 1+2xx2
7.3.5.
1
x2 +x+1
dx,
1
(sin x)4
x2 3x+2
7.3.6. 6.5.1,
n
n 1 2
1
n (k 1)2 4 .
k=1 n2 +k2 log( 2 + 1),
k=1 n2
dx,
dx,
1
1+2 sin x
dx,
x
x2 +x+1
dx,
4,
n
k=1 n2 +k2
7.3.7. [] f (sin x) [0, 2 ], f (cos x)

/2
/2
[0, 2 ] 0 f (sin x) dx = 0 f (cos x) dx.
/2
, 0 (sin x)2 dx.
[] f (sin x, cos x) [0, 2 ], f (cos x, sin x)
/2
/2
[0, 2 ] 0 f (sin x, cos x) dx = 0 f (cos x, sin x) dx.
/2 sin x
, 0 sin x+cos
x dx.
2 +2bx+c
7.3.8. a, b, c, A, B, C (Axax2 +2Bx+C)
2 dx x.
7.3.9. [] In (x) = xn ex dx n Z, n 0.
In+1 (x) = xn+1 ex (n + 1)In (x), In (x) 7.2.1.
n
n
[]
[],
x
sin
x
dx,
x cos x dx,
m
n
1
x
x (log x)n dx, (tan x)n dx, xn a2 x2 dx, (a+b cos
dx,
dx.
n
x)
ax2 +bx+c
273
7.3.10. Jn (x) = (cos x)n dx In (x) = (sin x)n dx n Z, n 0.

x)n+1
Jn+2 (x) = sin x(cos
+ n+1
n+2
n+2 Jn (x) In+2 (x) =
x)
cos x(sin
n+2
n+1
n+1
n+2 In (x)
Jn (x), In (x).
/2
7.3.11. 12 In = 0 (sin x)n dx n Z, n 0.
In+2 = n+1
n+2 In .
I0 =
2n(2n2)42
(2n+1)(2n1)53
I1 = 1. I2n =
(2n1)(2n3)31
2n(2n2)42 2
I2n+1 =
n 1.
2
(246(2n))
I2n
2 = (35(2n1))
n 1 (n + 1)In In+1 = 2
2 (2n+1) I
2n+1
n 0.
I2n
1
I2n+1 I2n I2n1 = 2n+1
2n I2n+1 1 I2n+1 1 + 2n n 1
, ,
I2n
I2n+1
1.
Wallis,
( 246(2n2)(2n) )2
1
2n+1 135(2n3)(2n1)

(2n) n
n
4n
(2n)! n
(n!)2 4n
2 .
1 .
2
2
7.3.12. n N , xn ex dx = Pn1 (x)ex + c, Pn1 (x)
n 1.
2
2
2
n N , xn ex dx = Pn1 (x)ex + ex dx, Pn1 (x)
n 1.
1
7.3.13. 0 xm1 (1 x)n1 dx = (m1)!(n1)!
(m+n1)! m, n N 13
.
2)(n1)(n3)(1 2)
7.3.14. m,n = (m1)(m3)(1
m, n N, m, n 2. (m+n)(m+n2)(1 2)
/2
Am,n = 0 (cos x)m (sin x)n dx m, n Z, m, n 0.
, Am,n = 2 m,n , m, n 2
, Am,n = m,n , m, n 2 .
7.3.15. f [0, ] f 00 [0, ],

)
(
n1 f ()
0 f (x) + n12 f 00 (x) sin(nx) dx = f (0)+(1)
n N.
n
7.3.16. : 14 f :
[a, b] R [a, b] g : [a, b] R
[a, b], [a, b]
b
b
a f (x)g(x) dx = f (a) a g(x) dx + f (b) g(x) dx.
[a, b]
b

4
m > 0 0 (x) m x [a, b]. a sin((x)) dx m
.
b

2
2
sin(x ) dx a, b 0 < a < b.
a
7.3.17. a < b Qn (x) = (x a)n (x b)n n.15

1
(n) (x) n.
P0 (x) = 1 Pn (x) = n!(ba)
n Qn
12
7.3.20 Stirling.
12.5.8.
14
7.3.27.
15
5.5.15.
13
274
Pn (x) n.
b
a P (x)Pn (x) dx = 0 P (x) < n.
b
b
ba
a Pn (x)Pm (x) dx = 0, m 6= n, a (Pn (x))2 dx = 2n+1
.
P (x) n c0 , . . . , cn P (x) =
n
c
P
k=0 k k (x) x , , c0 , . . . , cn ck =
2k+1 b
ba a P (x)Pk (x) dx.
b
P (x) n : a Q(x)P (x) dx = 0
Q(x) < n. c P (x) = cPn (x) x.
b
7.3.18. f [a, b] f (a) = f (b) = 0 a (f (x))2 dx = 1.
b
a xf (x)f 0 (x) dx = 21 16
b
b
x2 (f (x))2 dx a (f 0 (x))2 dx > 14 .
n
n
7.3.19. 1 log x dx nk=2 log k 2 log x dx + log n n 2.

a
17
n!
n
1e .
7.3.20. 18 [] m, n Z m n am , . . . , an . [x]
A : [m, n] R A(x) = k=m ak x [m, n].
A. A ;
f : [m, n] R [m, n]. x [m, n]
[x]
k=m ak f (k)
= A(x)f (x)
m A(t)f
0 (t) dt.
[] [] m = 1, ak = 1 k f (x) = x1p ,
n
1
nk=1 k1p = np1
+ p 1 x[x]
p+1 dx n p.
n 1
[] xn = k=1 kp n, , [], (xn ) , p > 1, +, p 1.
n
1p
p
dx, n
[] [], nk=1 k1p = n1p 1p
p 1 x[x]
xp+1
p 6= 1.
1p
xn = nk=1 k1p n1p n 0 < p < 1, (xn )
.
n
[] [], nk=1 k1 = log n + 1 1 x[x]

dx n.
x2
xn = nk=1 k1 log n n, (xn ) .19

[] m, n Z m n f : [m, n] R [m, n].
[], Euler,20
n
k=m f (k)
m f (x) dx +
mf
0 (x)(x
[x] 21 ) dx +
f (m)+f (n)
.
2
[] m, n Z m n f : [m, n] R [m, n].

x
(x) = m (t [t] 21 ) dt x [m, n]. , [],
n
k=m f (k)
m f (x) dx
mf
16
00 (x)(x) dx
f (m)+f (n)
.
2
Heisenberg.
2.4.4.
18
.
6.4.11 , , 8.2 12.2.
19
Euler 2.4.6 6.4.11[].
20
.
17
275
x
[] (x) = 1 (t [t] 12 ) dt x [1, +). [] m = 1
n
f (x) = log x, log(n!) = (n + 21 ) log n n + 1 + 1 (x)
dx n.
x2
[] 6.4.10 (x) [],[].
xn = en nn!
n+(1/2) n, , [], (xn )
.21

7.3.11,
xn 2
x2n
246(2n2)(2n)
2 1/2
135(2n3)(2n1) ( n )
2
xxn2n 2.
n , Wallis
, Stirling,22
n!
2 en nn+(1/2)
1.
1 n
7.3.21. [] n N Pn (x) = n!
x (1 x)n .
0 Pn (x) 2n1n! x [0, 1].
, k, Pn (k) (0) Pn (k) (1) .

[] , = ml m, l N.
Qn (x) = l2n nk=0 (1)k Pn (2k) (x) 2n2k .

Qn (0) Qn (1) .
( 0
)
d
Qn (x) sin(x) Qn (x) cos(x) x.
2 m2n Pn (x) sin(x) = dx
1
Qn (1) + Qn (0) = m2n 0 Pn (x) sin(x) dx.
, n , 0 < Qn (0) + Qn (1) < 1
. .
7.3.22. 23 [] f : [a, b] R [a, b].
b
b
lim a f (x) cos(x) dx = 0,
lim a f (x) sin(x) dx = 0.
[] [] f : [a, b] R [a, b].
[] 6.4.25 []
f : [a, b] R [a, b].
7.3.23. [] f : [a, b] R [a, b] f 0 [a, b].
M 0
b

b

f (x) cos(x) dx M min{1, 1/||},
f (x) sin(x) dx M min{1, 1/||}.
a
a
f 0 [a, b].24
, , f (a) = f (b) = 0,
b
b
lim a f (x) cos(x) dx = 0,
lim a f (x) sin(x) dx = 0.
, f 0 [a, b].
[] f : [a, b] R m [a, b] f (m)
[a, b]. M 0
b

b

f (x) cos(x) dx M min{1, 1/||m },
f (x) sin(x) dx M min{1, 1/||m }.
a
a
21
.

5.8, Stirling n!
2en nn+(1/2) + , , n! 2 en nn+(1/2) +.

23
Riemann - Lebesgue.
1 it
1 it
eit = cos t i sin t cos t = 21 eit + 12 eit sin t = 2i
e 2i
e
Euler,
b
[] lim a f (x)eix dx = 0.
24
7.3.25.
22
276
, , f (k) (a) = f (k) (b) = 0 k = 0, 1, . . . , m 1,

b
b
lim m a f (x) cos(x) dx = 0,
lim m a f (x) sin(x) dx = 0.
7.3.24. [] f : [a, a] R [a, a] 0 : R R
(x) 0
x,
lim+ (x) dx = 1.
a
lim0+ 1 a ( x )f (x) dx = f (0).
[]25 f : [a, b] R [a, b] (a, b) : R R
(x) 0
x,
lim+ (x) dx = 1.
b
lim0+ 1 a ( x
)f (x) dx = f ().
[] [], f ,
b
b |x|/
1
lim0+ 1 a (x)2 +2 f (x) dx = f ()
lim0+ 2
f (x) dx = f ()
a e
2
2
b
lim0+ 1 a e(x) / f (x) dx = f ()
2
lim+ ex dx = ,
12.4.1.
[]26 f : [a, b] R [a, b] (a, b)
f (+) = limx+ f (x) f () = limx f (x). : R R
(x) 0 x,
0
lim+ 0 (x) dx = a+ lim+ (x) dx = a , a + a+ = 1.

b
lim0+ 1 a ( x
)f (x) dx = a f () + a+ f (+).
7.3.25. 27 I f, g : I R I f 0 , g 0 : I R
I.
b
b 0
0
a, b I.
a f (x)g (x) dx = f (b)g(b) f (a)g(a) a f (x)g(x) dx
7.3.26. 28 I v, w : I R
I f, g : I R v, w, , I.

b
a, b I.
a (v(x)g(x) + f (x)w(x)) dx = f (b)g(b) f (a)g(a)
7.3.27. []29 a1 , . . . , an , b1 , . . . , bn R b1 bn 0. sk = a1 + + ak
k = 1, . . . , n,
b1 min{sk | 1 k n} b1 a1 + + bn an b1 max{sk | 1 k n}.
[]30 f : [a, b] R [a, b] g : [a, b] R [a, b].
[a, b]
b
b
a f (x)g(x) dx = f (a) a g(x) dx + f (b) g(x) dx.
25
[].
[].
27
7.8 .
28
7.8 7.3.25.
29
. Diriclet Abel
.
30
7.3.16
.
26
277
7.3.28. g 4.5.9, 4.5.10 4.5.11

.
7.3.29. ex , log x, xa a
.
7.3.30. 6.5.6 .
y = ax2 .
y = cosh x.
x2 + y 2 = 1.
2
xa2 + yb2 = 1 .
y = xa .
7.4 Taylor, .
Taylor.
5.1. Taylor .
7.1. n Z, n 0, f : [, c] R n + 1
[, c] f (n+1) [, c]. , x (, c]
(k)
1 x (n+1)
f (x) = nk=0 f k!() (x )k + n!
(t)(x t)n dt.
f
c < , [c, ].
. g : [, x] R
1 (k)
g(t) = nk=0 k!
f (t)(x t)k
t [, x].
g 0 (t) =
1 (n+1)
(t)(x
n! f
t)n
t [, x], g 0 [, x].
1 x (n+1)
(t)(x t)n dt = g 0 (t) dt = g(x) g() = f (x) nk=0
n! f
f (x) =
n
k=0
f (k) ()
k! (x
)k +
1
n!
1 (k)
()(x
k! f
)k .
f (n+1) (t)(x t)n dt.
. 7.1 Taylor f -

f (x) = Pn, (x) + Rn, (x),
Pn, Taylor n f
1 x (n+1)
(t)(x t)n dt
Rn, (x) = n!
f
n.
7.4.1. P n, P (n+1) (t) = 0
(k)
t, P (x) = Pn, (x) = nk=0 P k!() (x )k
, x.
.
7.4.1. , f (n+1) [, c], 7.1
5.1.
278
.
8.1 .
. (xn ).
n=1 xn
x1 + x2 + + xn + .
, , +
n=1 xn
( ) .
s1 = x1 , s2 = x1 + x2 , s3 = x1 + x2 + x3 , ,
sn = x1 + + xn
n.
sn n- +
n=1 xn (sn )
.
(sn ) , sn s R, +
n=1 xn
s
+
x1 + x2 + + xn + = s.
n=1 xn = s
, s R, s , s = + s = ,
+ , .
(sn ) , +
n=1 xn
.
xn n- +
n=1 xn .
, +
n=1 xn ,
, . , ,
. : +
n=1 xn xn
. , ,
. , ,
.
+
+
: +
n=1 xn ,
k=1 xk ,
j=1 xj .
8.1.1. +
n=1 1 1+1+1+ +1+ .
s1 = 1, s2 = 1 + 1 = 2, s3 = 1 + 1 + 1 = 3 , , sn = 1 + + 1 = n
n. sn = n +, +
+
n=1 1 = +.
279

8.1.2. +
n=1 0 0 + 0 + 0 + + 0 + .
. s1 = 0, s2 = 0 + 0 = 0,
s3 = 0 + 0 + 0 = 0 , , sn = 0 + + 0 = 0 n. sn = 0 0,
0
+
n=1 0 = 0.
n1 1 + a + a2 + +
8.1.3. a +
n=1 a
n1
a
+ . s1 = 1, s2 = 1 + a, s3 = 1 + a + a2 ,
, sn = 1 + a + + an1 n.
a0 1. a 6= 0, a = 0,
00 . , , a0 = 1
a,
a = 0, a0 ,

. ,
n
a0 + a1 x + + aN xN N
n=0 an x ,
x0 = 1 x, x = 0.
2.3.20 ,
(1 + a + + an1 ), , , . ,
:
= +,
a 1
+ n1
= 1/(1 a), 1 < a < 1
n=1 a
, a 1
+
n=1 (1)n1 1 + (1) + 1 + (1) + 1 + (1) + .
.
1
1
1
1
8.1.4. +
n=1 np 1 + 2p + 3p + + np +
sn = 1 + 21p + + n1p n.
1
p = 1 +
n=1 n , .
1
sn = 1 + 2 + + n1 n 2.4.41
sn +.
+ 1
n=1 n = +.
1
1
, p = 2 +
n=1 n2 sn = 1 + 22 +
+ n12 n. 2.4.5 2.6.1 (sn ) ,
. ,
+ 1

n=1 n2 .
+ 1
n=1 np .2
1
1
1
1
8.1.5. +
n=1 n! sn = 1! + 2! + + n! n.
2.4.2 2.4.3 sn e 1,
e 1 , ,
1
1 + +
n=1 n! = e.
(1)n1
8.1.6. +
sn = 1 12 + 31 14 + +
n=1
n
(1)n1
n
n. 2.5.73 (sn ) .
. ,
+ (1)n1

.
n=1
n
1
2.5.4 2.6.2. .
, 6.4.11 7.3.20.
3
2.6.3. , 6.4.11 .
10.2.
2
280
8.1.
n=1 xn
, xn 0.
.
sn = x1 + + xn .
+
x
n=1 n = s R, sn s. xn = sn sn1 n n 2,
xn s s = 0.
n
n
8.1.7. +
n=1 n+1 n+1 1 6= 0.
1
1
8.1.8. +
n=1 n . , n 0.
8.1.
, +
n=1 xn xn 0. , .
, .
8.2.
(xn ) (yn )
+
. +
x
n=1 n
n=1 yn ,
, .
. k0 , m0 xk0 +l = ym0 +l l.
sn = x1 + + xn tn = y1 + + yn .
l
sk0 +l sk0 = xk0 +1 + + xk0 +l = ym0 +1 + + ym0 +l = tm0 +l tm0 .
(sn sk0 ) (tn tm0 ) .
+
n=1 xn = s R.
sn s, sn sk0 ssk0 . tn tm0 ssk0 , , tn ssk0 +tm0 .
+
n=1 yn = s sk0 + tm0 .
sR
s = +
s = ,
, ,
s sk0 + tm0 R
s sk0 + tm0 = +
s sk0 + tm0 = .
8.1.9. m Z.
+
xm + xm+1 + + xm+n1 +
n=m xn
: t1 = xm , t2 = xm + xm+1 , ,
tn = xm + + xm+n1
n.
+
8.2 +
n
n=1 xn ,
n=m x
+
+
x
x
n=m n
n=1 n , , . ,
.
m 2,
sn = x1 + + xn ,
281

tn = xm + +xm+n1 = (x1 + +xm+n1 )(x1 + +xm1 ) = sm+n1 (x1 + +xm1 )
n.
n=1 xn
= s R,
sn s, tn s (x1 + + xm1 ) , ,
+
n=m xn = s (x1 + + xm1 ).
n=1 xn
= x1 + + xm1 +
n=m xn
m 2.
(8.1)
m 0,
tn = xm + + xm+n1 = (xm + + x0 ) + (x1 + + xm+n1 ) = (xm + + x0 ) + sm+n1
n 2 m.
n=1 xn
= s R,
sn s, tn xm + + x0 + s , ,
+
n=m xn = xm + + x0 + s.
n=m xn
= xm + + x0 +
n=1 xn
m 0.
(8.2)
(8.1) (8.2), , m, k Z m < k,

+
+
m < k.
(8.3)
n=m xn = xm + + xk1 +
n=k xn

. , +
n=m xn . k = n m + 1 ,
n m, m + 1, m + 2, . . . , k 1, 2, 3, . . . .
+
+
k=1 xk+m1 .
n=m xn =
, xm + xm+1 + xm+2 + .
+
8.3. +
n=1 xn rn =
m=n xm n.
rn 0.
. sn = x1 + + xn . +
n=1 xn = s R,
sn s. (8.1), (8.3),
s = sn1 + rn
n, rn = s sn1 s s = 0.
+
+
+
8.4. +
n
n=1 xn
n=1
n=1 xn +
n=1 yn
y+
, n=1 (xn + yn )
+
+
+
n=1 yn .
n=1 xn +
n=1 (xn + yn ) =
282

+
. +
n=1 xn = s R
n=1 yn = t R.
sn = x1 + + xn tn = y1 +
+ yn .
+
n=1 (xn + yn )
un = (x1 + y1 ) + + (xn + yn ) = (x1 + + xn ) + (y1 + + yn ) = sn + tn .
,
un = sn + tn s + t.
+
n=1 (xn + yn ) = s + t = n=1 xn + +

n=1 yn .
+
+
8.5.
+ n=1 xn n=1 xn
, n=1 xn
+
+
n=1 xn =
n=1 xn .
. +
n=1 xn = s R.
sn = x1 + + xn .
+
n=1 xn
+
wn = x1 + + xn = (x1 + + xn ) = sn .
, ,
wn = sn s
+
n=1 xn = s =
n=1 xn .
:
+
+
+
n=1 yn .
n=1 xn +
n=1 (xn + yn ) =
.
8.6. xn yn n.
+
+
+
[] +
yn .
n=1 xn
n=1 yn ,
n=1 xn
+
+n=1
, ,
n0 xn0 < y
n0
+ n=1 xn n=1 yn ,
+
+
+
x
<
y
.
,
x
=
n=1 n
n=1 n
n=1 n
n=1 yn ,
xn = yn n.
+
[] +
n=1 xn = +,
n=1 yn = +.
+
+
[] n=1 yn = , n=1 xn = .
+
. [] +
n=1 xn = s R
n=1 yn = t R.
sn = x1 + + xn tn = y1 + + yn . sn s
tn t
sn = x1 + + xn y1 + + yn = tn
n, s t.
, , xn0 < yn0 s, t R. n n0
tn sn = (yn xn ) + + (y1 x1 ) yn0 xn0 ,
- yn0 xn0
. t s yn0 xn0 > 0.
[] , sn tn n. , sn +, tn +.
[] [].
283
.
)
+ + ( 1
1 +
n
1
8.1.1. +
,
n=1 ( 2 ),
n=1 (1) ,
n=1 n,
n=1
n
n+1
+ 2 +
+
n1
n1
2
n, n=1 (1)
n ( ).
n=1 n ,
n=1 (1)
+ n n +
n
1
n
8.1.2. +
n, +
n=1 2n+1 ,
n=1 ( n+1 ) ,
n=1
n=1 n sin n ,
+
1
n=1 n log(1 + n ).
2 n+2
8.1.3. , +
,
n=1 ( 3 )
+ 4 n3 +
+
+
+ 2
+ 2n1 +3n+1 6n/2
2 n
n4
n
, n=1 (1)
, n=3 ( 3 ) , n=4 (3) , n=1 3n1 , n=1
n=1 ( 3 )
6n
( ).
+
+ 1x2n
x
x2n
8.1.4. x +
n=1 (1+x)n1 ,
n=1 (1+x2 )n1 ,
n=1 1+x2n ;
8.1.5. 4 +
n=1 (bn bn+1 ) , , limn+ bn
limn+ bn .
limn+ bn :
+
n=1 (bn bn+1 ) = b1 limn+ bn .
+
+
n +
1
1
1
+
n=1 (2n1)(2n+1) ,
n=1 log n+1 ,
n=1 n(n+1) ,
n=1 n(n+1)(n+2) ,
+ n+1 n +
2n+1
, n=1 (1)n1 n(n+1)

.
n=1
n2 +n
1
1
8.1.6. , , +
n=1 xn , x2k1 = k x2k = k
k.
+
8.1.7. x 6= y.
+
k=1 (a2k + xa2k1 )
k=1 (a2k + ya2k1 ) ,
+
n=1 an .
{
+ x2n1
x/(1 x), |x| < 1
8.1.8. n=1 1x2n =
1/(1 x), |x| > 1
+ 2n1
1
.
x > 1 n=1 2n1 = x1
x
+1
{
1
n 6= k
2
2,
8.1.9. k N xn = n k
+
n=1 xn .
0,
n = k
8.1.10. :
s. ,
,
12 . , ( ) , 48
. ,
.
8.1.11.
v. , d,
vd . , , :
, ,
. , , . . ,
4
n=1 (bn
bn+1 ) .
284
, ( )
, .

.
8.1.12. . , ,
.
8.2 - .
8.1 2.1.
2.1 (
), 8.1
- (
). , , 8.1
2.1.
8.1. xn 0 n, +
n=1 xn
+
0 +. , 0 n=1 xn +.
, sn = x1 + +xn . ,
(sn ) , +, (sn ) .
.
sn+1 = x1 + + xn + xn+1 = sn + xn+1 sn
n. (sn )
, , +.
+
sn s R {+}. n=1 xn = s.

sn = x1 + + xn 0
n, s 0.
(sn ) , s R, , (sn ) ,
s = +.
+
n=1 xn -
+
0 +. , n=1 xn -

+
x
=
+.
+
x
<
+
n
n
n=1
n=1
+
8.7. []
0 n=1 xn +
n=1 yn .
+ 0 xn yn n.+
, , n=1 yn , n=1 xn .
[] xn 0 yn > 0 n ( xynn ) ,
+
, . +
n=1 yn ,
n=1 xn .
+
+
. [] 8.1, n=1 xn n=1 yn ,
8.6
+
0 +
(8.4)
n=1 xn
n=1 yn .
+
+
+
n=1 yn ,
n=1 yn < +. (8.4) n=1 xn < +
, , +
x
n=1 n .
xn
[] ( yn ) , u xynn u , ,
+
xn uyn
n. n=1 yn ,

, (8.5) [], +
n=1 xn .
285
(8.5)
+
n=1 uyn

8.7[]
, , : +
n=1 xn
+
+, n=1 yn +.
8.7[] . xn , yn > 0
n xynn , , 0 < < +,
+
+
n=1 xn
n=1 yn :
+. , xynn ,
+
, +
.
n=1 yn ,
n=1 x
n+
yn
1
1
n=1 xn ,
xn
+
n=1 yn .
xn , yn > 0 n xynn 0, ,
+
8.7[], +
n=1 yn ,
n=1 xn . ,
, .
2
+ 1
+ 1
8.2.1. 1/n
n=1 n2 < +
n=1 n = +.
1/n 0,
, xn , yn > 0 n xynn +, +
n=1 xn
+
yn
, n=1 yn . xn 0
8.7[].
8.7. ,

.

.
.
2n +3
8.2.2. +
n=1 3n1 +n .
n
2 +3
3n1
2n 3n1 ,
+n
.
2n +3
2n
1+32n
= 3n1
3n1 +n
1+n3n+1
n,
1+32n
1+n3n+1
1 , ,
2 +3
2
( 3n1
)/( 3n1
) 1.
+n
+ 2 n1
2n
+
.
n=1 3n1 = 2
n=1 ( 3 )
, .
2n3 +3n+5
8.2.3. +
n=1 n4 +5n2 +n+7 .
,
.
2n3 +3n+5
n4 +5n2 +n+7
1+(3/2)n2 +(5/2)n3
1+5n2 +n3 +7n4
2n3 +3n+5
n4 +5n2 +n+7
2n3 n4 ,
2n3 1+(3/2)n2 +(5/2)n3

,
n4 1+5n2 +n3 +7n4
1 , ,
+3n+5
( n42n
)/( 2n
) 1.
+5n2 +n+7
n4
1 > 0
2n3
n=1 n4
=2
1
n=1 n
= +,
286
2n3 +3n+5
n=1 n4 +5n2 +n+7
= +.
8.2.4.

1
n=1 sin n .
sin x
x
= 1.
1
+
n=1 n .
limx0
sin(1/n)
1/n
1,
1
= +, +
n=1 sin n = +.
n3
8.2.5. +
n=1 2n .
a 1 < a < 2. (an )
3
n
(n3 ) 2n , ann 0 a2n = ( a2 )n 0.
( n3 )/( an ) n3
2n
2n = an 0.
+ an + a n
, n=1 2n = n=1 ( 2 ) ,
+ n3
n=1 2n .
8.2.6. xn 0 n, x1 + +xm +
n=1 xn
m.
: +
n=1 xn = s R. sn = x1 + + xn
, sn s. (sn ) , sm s m.
: +
n=1 an ,
{
xn , 1 n m
an =
0,
n m + 1
1 > 0
1
n=1 n
0 an xn n,
+
n=1 an
,
+
n=1 an
= a1 + + am +
n=m+1 an
n=1 xn .
= x1 + + xm +
n=m+1 0
= x1 + + xm .
.
8.8. e .
.
e=1+
1
n=1 n!
(8.6)
8.1.5.
( ) e Q , , e = kl , l, k N.
(8.6)
+
k!
1
(k 1)! l = k! e = k! + k!
n=k+1 n! .
1! + + k! + k!
(k 1)! l, k!,
k!
1! ,
. . . , k!
k! ,
+
k!
1
= +
A = k! n=k+1 n!
n=k+1 n!
. ,
+
1
0 < A = +
n=k+1 (k+1)n <
n=k+1
1
(k+1)nk
.
287
1
n=1 (k+1)n
1
1
k+1 1(1/(k+1))
1
k
- .
.
. 5 (xn ) xn 0
n. f : [1, +)
t R [1, +) f (n) = xn
n. limt+ 1 f (u) du, 0 +
t
(i) +
n=1 xn < + limt+ 1 f (u) du < +,
t
+
xn = + limt+ 1 f (u) du = +.
(ii) n=1
,
n+1
n
f (u) du x1 + + xn x1 + 1 f (u) du
n
1
t
t
limt+ 1 f (u) du +
n=1 xn x1 + limt+ 1 f (u) du.
. +
n=1 xn - , , +.
+
n=1 xn = s,
0 s +.
sn = x1 + + xn ,
sn s.
(8.7)
f ,
[1, +),
t
F (t) = 1 f (u) du
t [1, +).
t 1 n t. f , f (t) f (n) = xn 0.
f (t) 0
t 1.
, 1 t0 < t00 , , (8.8),

F (t00 ) =
t00
1
f (u) du =
t0
1
t00
t0
f (u) du +
(8.8)
f (u) du 0 , ,
t00
t0
f (u) du
t0
1
f (u) du = F (t0 ).
F [1, +),
t
l = limt+ F (t) = limt+ 1 f (u) du
+. (8.8) F (t) =
t 1, l 0.
0 l +.
(8.9)
t
1
f (u) du 0
k N
f (k + 1) f (u) f (k)
f (k + 1) =
5
k+1
k
f (k + 1) du
k+1
k
k u k + 1,
f (u) du
k+1
k
f (k) du = f (k)
, 6.4.11 7.3.20.
288
, f (k) = xk f (k + 1) = xk+1 ,
xk+1
k+1
k
f (u) du xk .
(8.10)
(8.10) k = 1, . . . , n 1
(8.10) k = 1, . . . , n
n
n+1
x2 + + xn 1 f (u) du
f (u) du x1 + + xn ,
1
. sn = x1 + x2 + + xn ,
n+1
n
f (u) du sn x1 + 1 f (u) du.
1
, (8.7) (8.9)
l s x1 + l.
(i), (ii) .
1
8.2.7. +
n=1 np .
.6
1
+
n=1 np - , -
+.
+
1
p 0, n1p 1 n, +
n=1 np
n=1 1 = +.
1
p > 0. ( np ) .
u1p , [1, +) , ,
1
+
n=1 np .
,
t 1
t 1
t1p 1
p 6= 1
1 up du = 1p
1 u du = log t.
,
t
limt+ 1 u1p
{
1/(p 1) < +,
du =
+,
p > 1
0 1
n=1 np
= +, p 1
1
, , +
n=1 n +
+ 1
n=1 n2 .
,
+ 1
1
1
p > 1,
n=1 np 1 + p1
p1
log(n + 1) 1 +
(n+1)1p 1
1
2p
+ +
+ +
1
n
1
np
1+
1 + log n
n,
n1p 1
1p
n 0 p < 1.
1
, 8.1, p 0 < p 1, +
n=1 np
+
n=1 xn xn 0.
1p
1+
1
2
6.4.11 7.3.20.
289
8.2.8.
n+1
2n2 +3
+
n=1
1
n3/2
n+1
n=1 2n2 +3 ,
1 1+n1/2
,
n3/2 2+3n2
( n+1 )/(
2n2 +3
1
n3/2
12 .
n+1
n=1 2n2 +3
1
8.2.9. +
n=1 log(1 + n ).
+ 1
+, ,
n=1
n
log(1+(1/ n))
1/ n
limx0
+.
log(1+x)
x
1,
= 1,
n=1 log(1
1 )
n
CAUCHY. (xn )
xn 0 n.
+ k
2 x2k < +,
(i) +
n=1 xn < +
k=0
+
+ k
(ii) n=1 xn = + k=0 2 x2k = +.
+ k
. +
n=1 xn
k=0 2 x2k , -
.
+
+ k
n=1 xn = s,
k=0 2 x2k = t.
sn = x1 + + xn tk = x1 + 2x2 + 4x4 + + 2k1 x2k1
.
sn s,
tk t
(8.11)
, ,
sn s,
tk t
(8.12)
n k.
n N. k0 Z, k0 0 2k0 n < 2k0 +1 . (xn )
(8.12),
sn = x1 + + xn
= x1 + (x2 + x3 ) + (x4 + x5 + x6 + x7 ) +
+ (x2k0 1 + + x2k0 1 ) + (x2k0 + + xn )
x1 + 2x2 + 4x4 + + 2k0 1 x2k0 1 + 2k0 x2k0 = tk0 +1 t.
n sn t, (8.11), s t.
, (xn ) (8.12),
tk = x1 + 2x2 + 4x4 + + 2k1 x2k1
2x1 + 2x2 + 2(x3 + x4 ) + + 2(x2k2 +1 + + x2k1 )
= 2(x1 + x2 + + x2k1 ) = 2s2k1 2s.
k N tk 2s, (8.11), t 2s.
s t 2s, s t +.
290

1
8.2.10. +
p.
+ 1
+ n=1 n
, p 0, n=1 np n=1 1 = +.
p > 0, ( n1p ) - .

+ k 1
+ 1 k
k=0 2 (2k )p =
k=0 ( 2p1 ) .
1
1
, , 2p1
< 1,
2p1
1
+, 2p1 1.
1
+
n=1 np , p > 1, +, p 1.
p- .
p N, p 2. 2.4 x [0, 1)
(xn ) p- x . xn
0, 1, . . . p1 (xn ) p1 ,

sn =
x1
p
x2
p2
+ +
xn
pn ,
tn =
x1
p
x2
p2
+ +
xn
pn
1
pn
n,
sn x < tn
sn x,
n,
tn x.
sn
+ xn
n=1 pn .
, sn x , ,
+ xn
n=1 pn = x.
. , x, (xn )
p- xn 0, 1, . . . p 1 (xn )
p 1.
8.9. p N, p 2.
xn
[] p- (xn ). +
n=1 pn
[0, 1).
xn
[] x [0, 1) p- (xn ) +
n=1 pn = x.
. []
xn
n=1 pn
- , .
x=
xn
n=1 pn .
0 xn p 1 n , ,
xn < p 1 n, 8.6[]
+ p1
xn
0 x = +
n=1 pn <
n=1 pn = 1.
, :
+ p1
p1 + 1 n1
1
= p1
n=1 ( p )
n=1 pn = p
p 1(1/p) = 1.
[] 0 x <
1. , 2.4, p-
xn
(xn ) +
n=1 pn = x. .
291
2.4 (xn ) x1 = [px]

xn+1 = [pn+1 x pn x1 pxn ]
n.
, p- (yn )
+ yn
n=1 pn = x.
(8.13)
px = y1 +
yn
n=2 pn1 .
(8.13)
(8.14)
0 yn p 1 n 2 , ,
yn < p 1 n 2, 8.6[]
+ p1
yn
(8.15)
0 +
n=2 pn1 = 1.
n=2 pn1 <
(8.14) (8.15)
y1 px < y1 + 1
, y1 , y1 = [px].
, m N. (8.13)
+
yn
x = m+1
n=1 pn +
n=m+2
yn
pn
, pm+1 ,
pm+1 x = pm y1 + + pym + ym+1 +
, ,
pm+1 x pm y1 pym = ym+1 +
yn
n=m+2 pnm1
yn
n=m+2 pnm1 .
(8.16)
, 0 yn p 1 n m + 2
yn < p 1 n m + 2, 8.6[]
+
p1
yn
(8.17)
0 +
n=m+2 pnm1 = 1.
n=m+2 pnm1 <
(8.16) (8.17)
ym+1 pm+1 x pm y1 pym < ym+1 + 1
, ym+1 ,
ym+1 = [pm+1 x pm y1 pym ].
, , m n,

yn
: p- (yn ) +
=
x
n
n=1 p
y1 = [px]
yn+1 = [pn+1 x pn y1 pyn ]
n.
(xn ).
, , (xn ) (yn ), : y1 = x1 = [px] ,
() ,
, , n- n.
p- (xn
) 2.4
xn
p- (xn ) +
n=1 pn = x.
292
. (xn ) p- x [0, 1),
xn
n=1 pn
p- x
h0, x1 x2 x3 . . . ip ,
x = h0, x1 x2 x3 . . . ip .
p = 10 , , x = 0, x1 x2 x3 . . .
x = h0, x1 x2 x3 . . . i10 .
8.9
[0, 1) p- , ,
[0, 1) p- h0, x1 x2 x3 . . . ip .
. p- h0, x1 x2 x3 . . . ip m0 , k0
xn+k0 = xn n m0 .
xm0 xm0 +1 . . . xm0 +k0 1 p-
. , p-
h0, x1 . . . xm0 1 xm0 . . . xm0 +k0 1 xm0 . . . xm0 +k0 1 xm0 . . . xm0 +k0 1 . . . ip .
h0, x1 . . . xm0 1 xm0 . . . xm0 +k0 1 ip .
8.10 p = 10, ,
- , !
, [0, 1), p-
. .7
8.10. p N, p 2 x [0, 1). x
p- .
. x = h0, x1 . . . xm0 1 xm0 . . . xm0 +k0 1 ip .
( xm
xm0 +k0 1 )(
xm0 1
0
x = xp1 + + pm
1 + pk10 +
+ pm
0 + + pm0 +k0 1
0 1
( xm0
xm0 +k0 1 )
xm0 1
1
= xp1 + + pm
+ pm
0 + + pm0 +k0 1 1(1/pk0 )
0 1
=
x1 pm0 2 ++xm0 1
pm0 1
1
p2k0
xm0 pk0 1 ++xm0 +k0 1

,
pm0 1 (pk0 1)
x .
, x [0, 1) , x = ab , a, b Z, 0 a < b.
p = p1 n1 pr nr , p1 , . . . , pr p n1 , . . . , nr
N. , b = p1 l1 pr lr b0 , l1 , . . . , lr Z, l1 , . . . , lr 0 ( pj
b, lj 0) b0 N
p.
m0 N (m0 1)nj lj j = 1, . . . , r.
vj = (m0 1)nj lj , vj Z, vj 0.
x=
a
b
a
p1 l1 pr lr b0
ap1 v1 pr vr
(p1 n1 pr nr )m0 1 b0
a0
,
pm0 1 b0
a0 Z, a0 0.
, p, p2 , p3 , . . . b0 . ,
0, . . . , b0 1, ,
b0 . , t, s N, t < s
7
8.2.30.
293
pt = qt b0 + z ps = qs b0 + z, qt , qs Z z {0, . . . , b0 1}.
pt (pst 1) = ps pt = (qs qt )b0 , b0 pt (pst 1). b0 , p
, b0 pst 1, b00 N b0 b00 = pst 1.
k0 = s t N b0 b00 = pk0 1 , ,
x=
a0 b00
pm0 1 b0 b00
a00
,
pm0 1 (pk0 1)
a00 = a0 b00 Z 0 a00 < pm0 1 (pk0 1). 0 x < 1.

, a00 pk0 1,
a00 = w(pk0 1) + u,
w Z, 0 w < pm0 1 u {0, . . . , pk0 2}.
, p- ( 8.2.30) w, u
w = x1 pm0 2 + + xm0 1 ,
u = xm0 pk0 1 + + xm0 +k0 1
xm0 , . . . , xm0 +k0 1 p 1,

u = (p 1)pk0 1 + + (p 1)p + (p 1) = pk0 1.
x=
=
=
x1 pm0 2 ++xm0 1
w(pk0 1)+u
u
= pmw0 1 + pm0 1 (p
k0 1) =
pm0 1
pm0 1 (pk0 1)
)
(
x
x
x
m0 1
m0
m0 +k0 1
x1
1
p + + pm0 1 + pm0 + + pm0 +k0 1 1 k1
x1
p
+ +
xm0 1
pm0 1
( xm
pm0
+ +
xm0 +k0 1 )(
1
pm0 +k0 1
xm0 pk0 1 ++xm0 +k0 1

pm0 1 (pk0 1)
p 0
1
pk0
1
p2k0
= hx1 . . . xm0 1 xm0 . . . xm0 +k0 1 ip .

x p- .
.
8.2.1.
1
n=1 n(n+1)
8.1.5
1
1. , +
n=1 n2 .
n2 +3n+1
8.2.2. , +
n=1 n4 n2 +4 ,
+ n n+2n+1 + 1 +
+
1
1
2
, n=1 n
, +
n n,
n=1
n=1
n=1 log(1 + n2 ),
n=1 ( 1 + n n),
2n2 +1
n(n+1)(n+2)
(
)
+ n+1n + 1
+
1 +
2n+1
1/n 1),
, n=1 n sin n1 , +
n=1
n=1 (e
n=1 n(1 cos n ),
n=1 1 n log 2n1 .
n
)
(
a 1 1
8.2.3. a +
n=1 n
n
n+1
+ a
n=1 n ( n + 1 2 n + n 1) .
1
a, b a > b > 0, +
n=2 na nb
+ 1
n=1 an bn .
an
a, b, c > 0 +
n=1 bn +cn .
8.2.4.
135(2n1)
n=1 258(3n1)
+ n +
1
1
8.2.5. +
n=1 n2 +1 ,
n=1 n2 +1 ,
n=1 (n+1)( n+1) ,
+
n
+ e
+
+
+
1
1
1
n ,
1
, +
n=1
n=1 ne
n=1 1+e2n ,
n=2 n(log n)2 ,
n=2 n log n ,
n=3 n log n log(log n) ,
n(n+1)
+
1
n=3 n log n(log(log n))2 . .
+ . , .
294

+
1
1
8.2.6. +
n=2 n(log n)p ,
n=3 n log n(log(log n))p , p > 1,
+, p 1.
1
8.2.7. +
n=2 na (log n)b a = 1, b > 1 a > 1
+ .
1
a > 0. +
n=1 an nb a = 1, b > 1 a > 1
+ .
1
a > 0. +
n=2 an (log n)b a > 1
+ .
8.2.8. , pk p 3, 2k 2.
8.2.9. p > 1.
+ 1
1
1
1
(p1)k
p1
n=k np kp + (p1)kp1 k.
1
1
k p1 +
n=k np p1 ( k +).
1
limp1+ (p 1) +
n=k np = 1 k.
+ x
x
8.2.10. x > 0. 2 arctan x1 n=1
1+x
2 +
n2 +x2
+ x
limx+ n=1 n2 +x2 = 2 .
arctan x1 .
limx+ +
n=1 fn (x) =
+
lim
f
(x)
;
x+ n
n=1
8.2.11.
xn >0 n a 1. +
n=1 xn ,
a
+ xn
a,
+
x
.
a
n
n=1
n=1 1+xn
8.2.12. xn 0 n.
+ xn
x
,
+
n
n=1 n .
n=1
+
n=1 xn , +
n=1 xn xn+1 . , , (xn ) ,
.
n=1 xn + +
n=1 xn xn+1
.
8.2.13. 8 [] xn , yn > 0 n xxn+1
yn+1
yn .
n
+
+
n=1 yn , n=1 xn .
[] xn > 0 n.
0 < a < 1 xxn+1

a, +
xn .
n
+ n=1
xn+1
a > 1 xn a, n=1 xn .
[] xn > 0 n.
1 a
a > 1 xxn+1
(1 n+1
) , +
xn .
n
n=1
xn+1
+
1 a
a 1 xn (1 n+1 ) , n=1 xn .
8.2.14. [] (xn ) xn 0 n. +
n=1 xn < +,
nxn 0.
1
+
n=1 np = + 0 p 1.
[] 2.4.13. (xn ) xn+1
xn 0. +
n=1 n(xn 2xn+1 + xn+2 ) = x1 .
xn +xn+2
2
8.2.15.
n. (xnk ) (xn ),
xn
0+
+
x
n
k
k=1
n=1 xn .
8
8.3.28.
295
8.2.16. xn
yn zn n.
+
n=1 yn .
n=1 xn
n=1 zn ,
8.2.17. m1 , m2 , m3 , . . .

1
3 . +
n=1 mn .
8.2.18. xn > 0 n +
n=1 xn .
+
rn = k=n xk n.
rn+1
xn
1
m+1
p 1, rxm+1
p + + r p r
p m, n m < n
p1 r
n
m+1
m+1
+ xn
n=1 rn p .
1
(rn 1p rn+1 1p ) n
0 0 n +
n=1 xn .
sn = nk=1 xk n.
xn
+
n=1 1+xn .
xn
sm
1
m+1
p 1, sxm+1
p + + s p s p1 s p m, n m < n
n
n
n
xn
+
n=1 sn p .
( 1
)
1
1
p > 1, sxnnp p1
n 2
sn p1
sn1 p1
+ xn
n=1 sn p .
8.2.20. [] xn > 0 n
+
n=1 xn .
(yn ) yn + +
x
y
n=1 n n .
[] xn > 0 n
+
n=1 xn .
+
(yn ) yn 0 n=1 xn yn .
[] (yn )
n +.
n )
y+
(x
+
xn > 0 n n=1 xn n=1 xn yn
.
[] (yn )
yn 0. (xn )
+
xn > 0 n +
n=1 xn
n=1 xn yn
.
8.2.21. 9 an , bn 0 n p, q > 1 p1 + 1q = 1.
+ q
p
[] +
n=1 an < +
n=1 bn < +, Hlder ,
( + p )1/p ( + q )1/q
+
.
n=1 an bn
n=1 an
n=1 bn
s, t 0 0
san p = tbn q
n.
+
+
2
n=1 an < + n=1 bn 2 < +, 12 + 12 = 1,
Cauchy,
( + 2 )1/2 ( + 2 )1/2
+
,
n=1 bn
n=1 an
n=1 an bn
Hlder.
+ p
p
[] +
n=1 an < +
n=1 bn < +, Minkowski
,
)
( + p )1/p ( + p )1/p
( +
p 1/p
.
+
n=1 bn
n=1 an
n=1 (an + bn )
s, t 0 0
san = tbn n.
9
5.4.22 . 8.3.23.
296

8.2.22. f : [1, +) [0, +) [1, +) +
n=1 f (n) = +
t
limt+ 1 f (u) du .
f : [1, +) [0, +) [1, +) +

n=1 f (n) < +
t
limt+ 1 f (u) du = +.
8.2.23. 8.1 -
- .
8.1.12, , , - -
.
8.2.24. ,
2 1.
7 31
16 , 32 .
8.2.25. p N, p 2 x, y [0, 1). n n- p-

x, y , |x y| < p1n .
8.2.26. p N, p 2 x [0, 1). sn n- p- x,
p- x sn , pn (x sn );
8.2.27. p N, p 2 x, y [0, 1).
x + y < 1, x + y
x, y n- p- < p2n .
xy <
2
pn
1
.
p2n
8.2.28. p N, p 2 p- k ( 0 k
p1). [0, 1) n- p-
k pn1 [a, b).
; ;
8.2.29. p N, p 2 x [0, 1). p- x 0
x = m
n , m Z, n N, 0 m < n, gcd(m, n) = 1
n p.
8.2.30. p N, p 2. x N n0 Z, n0 0
x0 , x1 , . . . , xn0 Z 0 x0 , x1 , . . . , xn0 p 1 x = xn0 pn0 + + x1 p + x0 .10
2, 16, 354, 10385 p = 10, 2, 3, 16.
8.2.31. h0, 34239239239239 . . . i10 , h0, 101101101101101 . . . i2
h0, 01201120112011201 . . . i3 . .
13
, 150
.
.
8.2.32. 11 (pn ) N pn 2 n.
(an ) Z
0 an pn 1 n
an
an = pn 1. +
n=1 p1 pn
[0, 1).
x [0, 1) (an ) Z
0
+
n
an pn 1 n, an = pn 1 x = n=1 p1ap
.
n
(an ).
xn0 pn0 + + x1 p + x0 p- x hxn0 . . . x1 x0 ip .
x0 , x1 , . . . , xn0 p- x.
11
p- .
10
297
8.3 .
+
CAUCHY.
n=1 xn > 0

n

n0
k=m+1 xk = |xm+1 + + xn | < m, n n > m n0 .
.
sn = x1 + + xn .
+
n=1 xn (sn ) , ,
(sn ) Cauchy. (sn ) Cauchy
> 0 n0
|sn sm | <
n, m n > m n0 .
|xm+1 + + xn | = |(x1 + + xn ) (x1 + + xm )| = |sn sm |
n, m n > m.
Cauchy : +
n=1 xn

limm,n+ nk=m+1 xk = 0.
1
8.3.1. 12 +
n=1 n .
1
1
+
n=1 n . ( = 2 ) n0
1
| m+1
+ + n1 | <
1
2
m, n n > m n0 . , n = 2m,
1
| m+1
+ +
1
2m |
<
1
2
m n0 . ,
1
| m+1
+ +
1
2m |
1
m+1
+ +
1
2m
1
2m
+ +
1
2m
2mm
2m
1
2

.
+
n=1 n1 , , - , +.
+
. n=1 xn ( - )
+
+
n=1 |xn | , ,
n=1 |xn | < +.
|x|+x
2
x =
x x - x.
. x x+ =
|x|x
2
. x+ -
, 3+ = 3 3 = 0, (3)+ = 0 (3) = 3 0+ = 0
0 = 0.
:
x+ + x = |x|,
x+ x = x,
0 x+ |x|, 0 x |x|.
(8.18)
. +
n=1 xn ,
+ +

n=1 |xn |.
n=1 xn
12

2.4.4, 2.5.4 2.6.2.
298

. +
n=1 |xn | > 0.
Cauchy, n0 |xm+1 | + + |xn | < ,
,
|xm+1 + + xn | |xm+1 | + + |xn | <
m, n n > m n0 .
, Cauchy, +
n=1 xn .
, |xn | xn |xn | n,
+
+
+
n=1 |xn |
n=1 xn
n=1 |xn |

+

, , +
n=1 xn
n=1 |xn |.
. +
n=1 |xn | .

8.7[] (8.18) xn
+
+
+
x
n
n=1
n=1 xn .
+
xn = xn xn n, +
n=1 xn
+ + +
+
+
+
n=1 xn .
n=1 xn
n=1 xn =
n=1 (xn xn ) =
,
+ + + + + + +

+

n=1 xn =
n=1 xn
n=1 xn
n=1 xn
n=1 xn
+ + + +
= n=1 xn + n=1 xn = n=1 (xn + + xn ) = +
n=1 |xn |,
|xn | = xn + + xn n.
+

+
n=1 |xn | |x1 + x2 | |x1 | + |x2 |,
n=1 xn
|x1 + x2 + x3 | |x1 | + |x2 | + |x3 | ,
.
(1)n1
8.3.2. +
.
2
n=1
+ (1)n1 n+ 1
, n=1
= n=1 n2 .
n2
8.3.3. .
(1)n1
(1)n1

=
, +
, +
n=1
n=1
n
n
+ 1
n=1 n = +.
+
8.11.
[]
|x
|
yn ,

n
n
n=1

+
+ xn + yn .
x
,
,
.
,
n
n=1
n=1
n=1
(
)
[] yn > 0 n |xynn | , ,
+
. +
n=1 yn ,
n=1 xn ,
, .
+
. []
+
n=1 yn ,
+ +
+n=1 |xn | ,
+

n=1 xn
n=1 xn
n=1 |xn |
n=1 yn .
[] 8.7 .

8.7 , +
n=1 |xn | +
n=1 xn . ,
+
x
.
n=1 n
(2)n
8.3.4. +
n=1 3n +2n
(2)n
n n =
3 +2
2n
3n +2n
1
= ( 32 )n 1+(2/3)
n,
299

, .
2 n
n=1 ( 3 )
2 n
| 3(2)
n +2n |/( 3 ) 1.
(2)n
n=1 3n +2n
, -
, , - : , ,
, . ,
( ),
. , 13
.
D ALEMBERT. xn 6= 0 n.

< 1, + xn .
(i) lim xxn+1
n=1
n
xn+1
+

(ii) lim xn > 1, n=1 xn .

(iii) lim xn+1 1 lim xn+1 , + xn .

xn
n=1
xn

< a < 1.
. (i) a lim xxn+1
n
xn+1
a n n0 . n n0 + 1
n0
xn

xn +1
n xn1
0 |xn | aa a|xn | = ann0 |xn | =
|xn | = xxn1
0
0
0
xn2 xn
0
|xn0 |
an0
an = can ,
+
|x |
n
c = ann00 . 0 a < 1, +
n=n0 +1 a ,
n=n0 +1 |xn |
+
. n=1 |xn | .

1 n n0 . ,
(ii) n0 xxn+1
n
|xn | |xn1 | |xn0 | > 0
n n0 + 1. xn 0 , , +
n=1 xn .
1/(n+1)2
1/(n+1)
+ 1
+ 1
(iii) n=1 n n=1 n2 1/n 1 1/n2 1. H
.
CAUCHY. (i) lim n |xn | < 1, +

n=1 xn
.
(ii) lim n |xn | > 1, +

n=1 xn .
n
(iii) lim |xn | = 1, +
n=1 xn .
. (i)
a lim n |xn | < a < 1.
n0 n |xn | a , ,
|xn | an
n n0 . 0 a < 1, +
an , +
n=n
n=n0 |xn |
0
+
. n=1 |xn | .
(ii) n |xn | 1 , ,
|xn | 1
n. xn 0, +
.
n=1 xn
+ 1
+ 1
n
n
(iii) n=1 n n=1 n2 |1/n| 1 |1/n2 | 1.
.
13
, Dirichlet, Abel .
300

,
limn+ xxn+1
limn+ n |xn |.
n
n=1 xn ,
, ( (iii) ) lim = lim = lim.
an
8.3.5. +
n=1 n .
. a = 0, , , . a 6= 0,
an+1 /(n+1)

= |a| n |a|.
n+1
an /n
, 0 < |a| < 1, , |a| > 1, .
.
n
|an /n| = |a|/ n n |a|.
, |a| < 1, , |a| > 1, .
|a| = 1, ,
a = 1
.
1
a = 1, +
n=1 n , .
(1)n
a = 1, +
n=1
n , ( ).
+ an
, n=1 n 1 a < 1
1 < a < 1.
an
8.3.6. +
n=1 n2 .
. a = 0, , , . a 6= 0,
an+1 /(n+1)2

= |a| n2 2 |a|.
an /n2
(n+1)
, 0 < |a| < 1, , |a| > 1 .
.
n
|an /n2 | = |a|/( n n)2 |a|.
, |a| < 1, , |a| > 1, .
|a| = 1,
.
1
a = 1, +
n=1 n2 , .
(1)n
a = 1, +
, , , .
n=1
n2
+ an
n=1 n2 |a| 1 |a| > 1.
an
8.3.7. +
n=0 n! .
a = 0, . a 6= 0,
an+1 /(n+1)!

= |a| 0 < 1.
n+1
an /n!
a.
.
n
|an /n!| = |a|/ n n!
14
14
n
n! +.
2.4.4. .
301
n ,
n/2 .
n! = 1 n2 ( n2 + 1) n ( n2 + 1) n ( n2 + 1)n/2 ( n+1
2 )
n ,
n+1
n! = 1 n1
2
2 n
n+1
2
(n+1)/2 ( n+1 )n/2 .

n ( n+1
2 )
2
n
1/2 n, n n! +. ,
n! ( n+1
)
2
|an /n!| 0 < 1,
an
+
.
+ ann=0 n!
n=0 n! 8.5.2 ,
, 10. a = 1
e.

+ , ,
n=1 xn xn 6= 0 n.
. ,
, 15
. , , ,
.
.
.
n=1 xn
.
8.3.8. , 8.3.3,
. , .
+
n=1
(1)n1
n
.
- .
.
,
() :
. 8.1 ,
, 0. , 0
1
. , +
n=1 n2
+ 1
n=1 n 0, .
2
. : 1/n
1/n 0. ,

.
8.7. ,
, .
-
: - .
15
8.3.25.
302
. , , 0 ,
, . ,
(1)n1
1
+
. , +
n=1 n .
n=1
n
. , , .

.
.
( )
, ,
. , :
,
, ,
.
-
,
. , 8.7 8.10 ,
.
- (, , - ). , , :
Dirichlet Abel , , .
ABEL. (an ), (bn ) sn = a1 + +an
. n, m n > m
n
n
k=m+1 sk (bk bk+1 ) + sn bn+1 sm bm+1 .
k=m+1 ak bk =
.
n
k=m+1 ak bk
=
=
=
=
n
n
k=m+1 (sk sk1 )bk =
k=m+1 sk bk
k=m+1 sk1 bk
n
n1
sk bk k=m sk bk+1
k=m+1
n
n
k=m+1 sk bk
k=m+1 sk bk+1 + sn bn+1 sm bm+1
n
k=m+1 sk (bk bk+1 ) + sn bn+1 sm bm+1 .

Abel

n
k=m+1 ak bk nk=m+1 sk (bk bk+1 ) + sn bn+1 sm bm+1 . ak
sk bk
bk bk+1 . sn bn+1 sm bm+1 .
DIRICHLET. (an ), (bn ) sn = a1 + + an
+ . (bn ) , bn 0 (sn ) ,
n=1 an bn .
. M |sn | M n. , (bn )
0, bn 0 n.
> 0. n0 bn 2M+1 n n0 .
303
Abel, n, m n > m n0
n
n

k=m+1 ak bk =
k=m+1 sk (bk bk+1 ) + sn bn+1 sm bm+1
n
k=m+1 |sk |(bk bk+1 ) + |sn |bn+1 + |sm |bm+1
M nk=m+1 (bk bk+1 ) + M bn+1 + M bm+1

= M (bm+1 bn+1 ) + M bn+1 + M bm+1 = 2M bm+1
Cauchy
n=1 an bn
2M
2M +1
< .
ABEL. (an ), (bn ) sn = a1 + + a

n +
.
(b
)
n
n=1 an ,
+
n=1 an bn .
. (bn ) , bn
b.
Dirichlet, +
n=1 an (bn b) .
, an bn = an (bn b) + an b n,
+
+
+
+
+
n=1 an bn =
n=1 an (bn b) +
n=1 an b =
n=1 an (bn b) + b
n=1 an ,
+
n=1 an bn .

. (bn )
n1 b = b b + b b + .
bn 0, +
(1)
n
1
2
3
4
n=1
{
0, n
. nk=1 (1)k1 =
, Dirichlet,
1, n
n1 b .
+
n
n=1 (1)
(1)n1
, 0 < p 1.
8.3.9. +
n=1
np
.
(1)n1
(1)n1
+
= 1 12 + 31 14 + +
=
n=1
n=1
n
n
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
+ . .
.
+ n! + 3n + n!
3
8.3.1. : +
n=1 n ,
n=1 n! ,
n=1 nn ,
3n ,
+ 3n n! + en (n+1)! + 258(3n1) + (n!)2 + n=1
4n (n!)2 + 10n n!(3n)!
, n=1 159(4n3) , n=1 (2n)! , n=1 (2n)! , n=1 (4n)! .
n=1 nn ,
n=1
nn
+ n+1 n + n1 2n
3
8.3.2. : +
( 2n1 ) , n=1 ( n+1 ) ,
n=1 n ,
+ 3 n + 2n +
+ n=1
+ n n n2
+
n
n2
n
n
n
n=1 n 2 ,
n=1 nn ,
n=1 ( n 1) ,
n=1 ( n n+1)n ,
n=1 e ( n+1 ) .
n=1 ( n n+1)n ,
8.3.3. 12 + 13 + 212 + 312 + 213 + 313 + 214 + 314 +
1
+ 212 + 215 + 214 + 217 + 216 + , .
23
1
2
+1+
(1)n + (1)n
8.3.4. +
n=2 n log n ,
n=2 n(log n)2 ,
+ (1)n(n1)/2 + (1)n(n1)/2 +
n1 (1 cos 1 ).
, n=1
, n=1 (1)n1 sin n1 , +
n=1
n=1 (1)
2n
n
n
8.3.5.
.
(1)n1
n=1 3n+(1)n n ,
(1)n1
n=1 3n+6(1)n n
(
) +
n1 e (1 + 1 )n ,
n1 (
n
8.3.6. +
n 1), +
n=1 (1)
n=1
n=1 (1)
n
.
304
(1)n1
nnn

1
8.3.7. +
n=1 1+xn |x| > 1.
+
+
8.3.8. [] +
n=1 |xn | < +,
n=1 xn cos(nx),
n=1 xn sin(nx) .
[] 0 r < 1,
1r2
2r sin x
n
n
1 + 2 +
2 +
n=1 r cos(nx) = 12r cos x+r2 ,
n=1 r sin(nx) = 12r cos x+r2 .
+
[] (xn )
x
0,
n
n=1 xn cos(nx) x 6=
+
m2 m Z n=1 xn sin(nx) x.
+
sin(nx) + log n
1
1 sin(nx)
+
n=1 n log n ,
n=1 n sin(nx),
n=1 (1 + 2 + + n ) n
x.
n+1 1
1
8.3.9. 12 + 14 + + 2n
1
2x dx = log n + 1 n. ,
1
1 + x ex , 21 34 65 2n1
2n n+1 n.
n1 135(2n1) .16
+
n=1 (1)
246(2n)
n 1
1
1 + 31 + + 2n1
1 + 1 2x1
dx = 1 + log 2n 1 n. ,
1
1 + x ex , 135(2n1)
246(2n) e 2n1 n.
n1 135(2n1) .
+
n=1 (1)
246(2n)
)2 +
)3
(
(
+
, n=1 (1)n1 135(2n1)

n=1 (1)n1 135(2n1)
246(2n)
246(2n)
;
+
8.3.10.
+ n=1 an (bn ) ,
n=1 an bn .
n1 b
8.3.11. (bn ) bn 0. s = +
n
n=1 (1)
n1
n
sn = b1 b2 + + (1)
bn . 0 (1) (s sn ) bn+1 n.
+ an
an
0
8.3.12. 17 [] +
n=1 np .
n=1 np0 , p > p,
, p0 > p + 1.
an
[] +
. p1 , p2 p1 p0
n=1 np0
an
p2 p2 p1 1 +
n=1 np , p < p1 , ,
p1 p2 .
u1 ++un .
8.3.13. un u > 0 |x| < 1. +
n=1 x
8.3.14. 18 (bn ) bn l. sn = nk=1 (1)k1 bk

n, lim sn lim sn = |l|.

< 1.
8.3.15. m N m 2. xn 6= 0 n lim xn+m
x
n
+
n=1 xn .19
+
8.3.16. yn > 0 n +
n=1 xn
n=1 yn
. lim xynn 0 lim xynn .
16
, 10.2, , Newton,
1 12 .
17
an
. +
n=1 np
p. Dirichlet
. 10.1.25. , 10.1.26
, - Riemann.
18
.
19
m = 1 .
305
8.3.17.
(bn ) bn > 0 n, bn 0
+
n1 b .
(1)
n
n=1
+
8.3.18. n=1 an
(bn ) bn 0,
bn 0 n +
n=1 an bn .
+ 2
8.3.19. +
n=1 xn
n=1 xn .
8.3.20. (an ) . , p an+p = an
n. , , (bn ) bn 0.
a1 + + ap = 0, +
n=1 an bn .
+
a1 + + ap 6= 0, n=1 an bn +
n=1 bn .
p
q
p
q
p
q
1 2 + 3 4 + 5 6 + p = q.
p1 2q + 3r + p4 5q + 6r + p + r = q.
8.3.21. (xn ) yn = n(xn xn+1 ) n.
+
nxn a a 6= 0, +
n=1 xn
n=1 yn .
+
+
+
n=1 xn n=1 yn , nxn 0 +
n=1 xn =
n=1 yn .
+ 1
+
1
n=1 n2 = 2 n=1 n(n+1)2 .
8.3.22. +
n=1 xn > 0 n0
|xn1 + + xnk | < k () n1 , . . . , nk
n1 , . . . , n k n0 .
8.3.23. 20 p, q > 1 p1 + 1q = 1.
+
+
q
[] n=1
|an |p < + +
n=1 |bn | < +,
n=1 an bn Hlder ,
+
( +
)1/p ( +
)1/q

an bn
|an |p
|bn |q
.
n=1
n=1
n=1
s, t 0 0
s|an |p = t|bn |q
an bn 0 n an bn 0 n.
+
n
2 < +, 1 + 1 = 1,
n=1 |an |2 < + +
|b
|
n=1 n
2
2
Cauchy,
+
( +
) ( +
)
2 1/2
2 1/2 ,

a
b
n
n
n=1
n=1 |an |
n=1 |bn |
Hlder.
+
p
[] n=1
|an |p < + +
n=1 |bn | < +, Minkowski
,
)
)
( +
)
( +
( +
p 1/p .
p 1/p +
p 1/p
n=1 |bn |
n=1 |an |
n=1 |an + bn |
s, t 0 0
s|an | = t|bn | n an bn 0 n an bn 0 n.
8.3.24. wn > 0 n +
n=1 wn = 1. g : I R
I an I n +
n=1 an wn ,
Jensen ,
) +
( +
g
n=1 an wn
n=1 g(an )wn .
g I, .
, , g () I,
a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . .
20
8.2.21.
306
8.3.25. 2.7.13, , , .
+
8.3.26. 21
f
:
N
N.
n=1 xn
+
n=1 yn : y1 = x1 + + xf (1) yn = xf (n1)+1 + + xf (n)
n 2.
+
, +
n=1 xn ,
n=1 yn .
, f : N N f (k) = 2k
+
n1 .
n=1 (1)

M f (k+1)f
+ (k) M k xn 0.
+
, n=1 yn , n=1 xn .
, , y10 = |x1 | + + |xf (1) | yn0 = |xf (n1)+1 | + + |xf (n) | n 2.
+
, yn0 0 +
n=1 yn ,
n=1 xn .
8.3.27. 22 [] (bn ) +
n=1 |bn bn+1 | < +.
[] (an ), (bn ) sn = a1 + + an .
+
+
n=1 |bn bn+1 | < +, bn 0 (sn ) ,
n=1 an bn
.
+
+
+
n=1 |bn bn+1 | < +
n=1 an ,
n=1 an bn .
[]
(bn )
+
n=1 |bn bn+1 | < +.

8.3.28. 23 [] yn > 0 xn 6= 0 n xxn+1
n
+
+
yn+1
n=1 yn ,
n=1 xn .
yn .

(
)
24
1 + 0.
[] xn 6= 0 n n xxn+1
n
n
+
, < 1.
n=1 xn , ( > 1,
)
xn+1

= 1 n log n xn 1 + n1 + n log
n 0.
+
n=1 xn , > 1, , < 1.
nn
+
n=1 en n! .
25
8.3.29.
n, m limm+ xn,m= xn n.
+ |xn,m | yn
+
n=1 yn < +, m +
n=1 xn ,
n=1 xn,m ,
, , ,
+
+
limm+ +
n=1 xn,m =
n=1 xn =
n=1 limm+ xn,m .
8.4 .
. x : N N R. , (m, n) -
x x(m, n). x
, , xm,n x(m, n).
xm,n = x(m, n).

. +
n=1 yn
+
+
n
n
n=1
n=1
+
y
.
n
n=1
22
(bn ) +
n=1 |bn bn+1 | < +. []
Dedekind DuBois-Reymond. Dedekind
Dirichlet DuBois-Reymond
Abel.
23
8.2.13.
24
Gauss. d Alembert .
25
.
21
307
x
(xm,n )
(xm,n )+
m,n=1 .
. , .
. ,
. ,
, .
.
m,n=1 xm,n
(m,n)NN xm,n .
.
,
, , m N ,
+
sm = +
x
,
,
,
n=1 m,n
m=1 sm ,
)
+ ( +
m=1
n=1 xm,n .
a + ,
a + , ,
.
.
+
, , n N ,
t
=
n
m=1 xm,n
+
, , , , n=1 tn ,
)
+ ( +
n=1
m=1 xm,n .
a + ,
a + , ,
.

.
, , k N uk = kl=1 xkl+1,l , ,
, , +
k=1 uk ,
)
+ ( k
k=1
l=1 xkl+1,l .
a + ,
a + , ,
.
, , ,
. x1,1 , x1,2 , x1,3 , . . .
. x2,1 , x2,2 , x2,3 , . . . ,
x3,1 , x3,2 , x3,3 , . . . .
x1,1
. xm,n m-
n- .
. , :
) N ( M
)
M ( N
m=1
n=1 xm,n =
n=1
m=1 xm,n

. , , .
308
m n = 1
1,
8.4.1. xm,n = 1, m n = 1
0,
m n 6= 1
1
(
) 0.
1
+ .
+
+
, +
x
=
1
x
=
0
2,
x
n=1 1,n
n=1 m,n
m=1 (
n=1 m,n )= 1.
+
+
+
+
, m=1 xm,1 = 1 m=1 xm,n = 0 n 2, n=1
m=1 xm,n = 1.
)
k
+ ( k
, l=1 xkl+1,l = 0 k, k=1
l=1 xkl+1,l = 0.
, .
- , xm,n 0
m, n.
, m, sm = +
n=1 xm,n 0 +.
,
sm m. , ,
+
m=1 sm 0 +.

m0 sm0 = +.
+
m=1 sm ,
,
[0, +]. , , k m0 s1 + + sk = +

sm0 . , +,
+
+.)
m=1 sm
(
+
+
+
0 +.
s
,
x
m=1 m
m=1
n=1 m,n
)
+ ( +
n=1
m=1 xm,n ,
0 +.
.
k
)
(
+
k
k
x
x
,
,
0,
k=1
l=1 kl+1,l
l=1 kl+1,l
0 +.
, , .
8.2.
8.2. xm,n 0 m, n.
)
) + ( k
) + ( +
+ ( +
k=1
l=1 xkl+1,l .
n=1
m=1 xm,n =
m=1
n=1 xm,n =
, - ,
0 +.
. m
+
+
s1 + + sm = +
n=1 x1,n + +
n=1 xm,n =
n=1 (x1,n + + xm,n )
)
+ ( +
n=1
m=1 xm,n .
)
(
+
+
n=1
m=1 xm,n s1 +
+ sm m,
) +
)
+ ( +
+ ( +
m=1
n=1 xm,n =
m=1 sm
n=1
m=1 xm,n .

) + ( +
)
+ ( +
n=1
m=1 xm,n
m=1
n=1 xm,n
)
) + ( +
( +
+
m=1 xm,n .
n=1 xm,n =
n=1
m=1
,
{
xm,nm+1 , m n
ym,n =
0,
m > n
309
ym,n 0 m, n,
+
m,n=1 ym,n . ,
) + ( +
)
+ ( +
(8.19)
m=1
n=1 ym,n =
n=1
m=1 ym,n .
, , (8.19)
) + ( +
)
+ ( +
m=1
n=1 ym,n =
m=1
n=1 xm,n
(8.19)
+ ( +
n=1
m=1 ym,n
)
+ ( +
m=1
n=1 xm,n =
( k
)
= +
k=1
l=1 xkl+1,l .
)
+ ( k
k=1
l=1 xkl+1,l .
m,n=1 xm,n

) + ( +
) + ( k
)
+ ( +
m=1
n=1 |xm,n | =
n=1
m=1 |xm,n | =
k=1
l=1 |xkl+1,l | < +.
+
xm,n m,n=1
( +
)
+
, m=1
|xm,n | ,
n=1
)
)
+ ( +
+ ( k
n=1
m=1 |xm,n |
k=1
l=1 |xkl+1,l | ( +),
, 8.2, .
8.3. +
m,n=1 xm,n ,
)
) + ( k
) + ( +
+ ( +
k=1
l=1 xkl+1,l
n=1
m=1 xm,n =
m=1
n=1 xm,n =
.
( +
)
. +
|xm,n | < + , , m
m=1
n=1
+
+
+
n=1 |xm,n | < +, n=1 xm,n sm = n=1 xm,n
+
. , n +
m=1 xm,n
m=1 xm,n tn =
.

, m |sm | = +
xm,n +
|xm,n | , , +
m=1 |sm |
n=1
n=1
)
+ ( +
+
m=1
n=1 |xm,n | < +.
m=1 sm
)
( +
+
s = m=1 sm = +
m=1
n=1 xm,n
.
, n +
n=1 tn
)
+ ( +
t = +
n=1 tn =
n=1
m=1 xm,n
.

s = t.
)
)
(
+
+ ( +
> 0. +
m=1
n=1 |xm,n | < +
n=1
m=1 |xm,n | < +, m0 , n0 , ,
)
( +
)
( +
+
+
(8.20)
n=1 |xm,n | < 4 ,
m=m0 +1
m=1 |xm,n | < 4 .
n=n0 +1

) + ( +
) m0 ( n0
)
0 ( n0
s m
m=1
n=1 xm,n =
m=1
n=1 xm,n
m=1
n=1 xm,n
) +
)
( +
0 ( +
= m
m=1
n=1 xm,n +
m=m0 +1
n=1 xm,n
)
0 ( n0
m
m=1
n=1 xm,n
)
) +
( +
n0
0 ( +
= m
n=1 xm,n
n=1 xm,n
n=1 xm,n +
m=m0 +1
m=1
)
) +
( +
0 ( +
= m
n=1 xm,n
n=n0 +1 xm,n +
m=m0 +1
m=1
)
) +
( +
( m0
= +
n=1 xm,n ,
m=1 xm,n +
m=m0 +1
n=n0 +1
310
(8.20)

)
(
)
( m0
) +
( +
s m0 n0 xm,n +
n=1 |xm,n |
m=1
n=1
n=n0 +1
m=1 |xm,n | +
m=m0 +1
( +
) +
( +
)
+
m=1 |xm,n | +
n=1 |xm,n | (8.21)
n=n0 +1
m=m0 +1
<

4

4

2

(
)
t n0 m0 xm,n < .
n=1
m=1
2

m0 ( n0
m=1
n=1 xm,n
n0 ( m0
n=1
m=1 xm,n
(8.22)
)
(8.21), (8.22) (8.23)

)
)
0 ( n0
n0 ( m0

<
|s t| s m
m=1
n=1 xm,n + t
n=1
m=1 xm,n
(8.23)

2

2
= .
|s t| < > 0, s = t.
{
xm,nm+1 , m n
, 8.2, ym,n =
0,
m > n
)
+ ( +
, m=1
n=1 |ym,n | =
)
+ ( +
|x | < +.
m=1
n=1
m,n
+
m,n=1 ym,n . ,
)
) + ( +
+ ( +
n=1
m=1 ym,n .
m=1
n=1 ym,n =
8.2,
)
) + ( +
+ ( +
m=1
n=1 xm,n
m=1
n=1 ym,n =
)
) + ( k
k=1
l=1 xkl+1,l .
m=1 ym,n =
)
+ ( k
k=1
l=1 xkl+1,l .
+ ( +
+ ( +
m=1
n=1 xm,n
n=1
8.4.1. 0 xm,n ym,n m, n. +

m,n=1 ym,n (, ,
,
+
m,n=1 xm,n . sx
+
m,n=1 xm,n sy
+
ym,n , sx sy .
m,n=1
1
8.4.2. +
m,n=1 (m+n)! .
1
8.4.3. +
m,n=1 mp nq p, q > 1.
1
8.4.4. +
m,n=1 (m+n)p p > 2.
8.4.5. +
m,n=1 xm,n ,
m n
1
m+1 n
1
xm,n = m+1 ( m+1 ) m+2 ( m+2 ) m, n.
+ xk
8.4.6. k=1

1+x2k
+ xk
+ (1)k1 x2k1
x (1, 1).
k=1 1+x2k =
k=1
1x2k1
+ nxn
xn
8.4.7. n=1 1xn = +
n=1 (1xn )2 x (1, 1).
+
+
n
m
8.4.8.
n x g(x) =
m=1 bm x x (R, R).
+f (x) =n n=1
a+
m
n=1 an g(x ) = m=1 bm f (x ) x (R1 , R1 ), R1 = min{R, 1}.
311
8.5 Cauchy .
+
n=0 bn .
+
k=0 ck : c0 = a0 b0 , c1 = a1 b0 + a0 b1 , c2 = a2 b0 + a1 b1 + a0 b2 , ,
.
ck =
l=0 akl bl
m=0 am
= ak b0 + ak1 b1 + + a1 bk1 + a0 bk
k=0 ck
o Cauchy
+ ( k
m=0 am
l=0 akl bl
k=0
k 0.
n=0 bn .

m ,
+
10. m x .
m=0
a+
m
n
m=0 am x +
n=0 bn x
,
k ,
x, +
c
x
k=0 k
cn .
+
+
26
+8.4. m=0 am n=0 bn ,

Cauchy k=0 ck
+
+
+
n=0 bn .
m=0 am
k=0 ck =
. +
m,n=0 xm,n , xm,n = am bn m, n 0.

) +
( +
) +
+ ( +
+
m=0
n=0 |xm,n | =
m=0 |am |
n=0 |bn | =
m=0 |am |
n=0 |bn | < +.
8.3
)
) + ( +
+ ( k
m=0
n=0 xm,n .
k=0
l=0 xkl,l =
k=0 ck
+ ( k
k=0
l=0 akl bl
m=0 am
n=0 bn .
, 8.2 +
m,n=0 |xm,n | , :
+ ( k
) +
+
+ k
+

k=0 |ck | =
k=0
l=0 akl bl
k=0
l=0 |akl ||bl | =
m=0 |am |
n=0 |bn |
< +,

k=0 ck
n
8.5.1. Cauchy +
n=0 a .
1 1 = 1
ak 1 + ak1 a + + aak1 + 1ak = (k + 1)ak
n
k
k.
Cauchy +
+
n=0 a
k=0 (k + 1)a .
+ n
+
k
|a| < 1, n=0 a , , k=0 (k + 1)a

+ m + n
+
1
k
|a| < 1.
n=0 a = (1a)2
m=0 a
k=0 (k + 1)a =
+
26

8.5.4 , ,

k=0 ck =
+
+
+
+
a
b
,
,
a
,
m
n
m
m=0
n=0
m=0
n=0 bn
, , .
, , , Cauchy .
10.2.21.
312

+
am
8.5.2. +
m=0 m!
n=0
a, b.
1 1 = 1 , Newton,
ak
k! 1
ak1 b1
(k1)! 1!
+ +
a1 bk1
1! (k1)!
+ 1 bk! =
bn
n!
(a+b)k
k!
+ bn
+
am
k. Cauchy +
m=0 m!
n=0 n!
k=0
+ (a+b)k
+ am + bn
= m=0 m!
k=0
n=0 n! .
k!
(a+b)k
k! ,
.
8.5.3. 10.
.
+
(k+1)(k+2) k
a
2
a (1, 1).
+ (1)n
1
8.5.2. 1 + +
n=0 n!(x+n) x 6= 0, 1, 2, . . . ,
k=1 x(x+1)(x+k) = e
5.2.14.
xn
8.5.3. x f (x) = +
n=0 n! . 8.5.2 a, b
f (a + b) = f (a)f (b). , f (0) = 1 f (1) = e.
f : R R 0.
4.2.12[], f (x) = ex x,
+
xn
x
n=0 n! = e x. 10.
+
+
8.5.4. Mertens:
a
m
m=0
n=0 bn +

, Cauchy k=0 ck

+
+
+
c
=
a
k=0 k
m=0 m
n=0 bn .
+ (1)n1
n=1 n . Cauchy
.
(1)n1
+
. Cauchy
n=1 n
+
2
k=1 (1)k1 zk , zk = k+1
(1 + 12 + + k1 ) k,
.
(1)n1
1
+
+
n=1
m=0 4m ,
n
Mertens, Cauchy .
8.5.1.
k=0
1
(1a)3
8.6 .
. -- : N N. -
(1), (2), (3), . . . , ,

.
, (xn ). x0n = x(n) (x0n ) +
0
(xn ). , +
n=1 xn .
n=1 xn
s0n = nk=1 x0k ,

+ 0
n, +
n=1 xn ,
n=1 xn
sn s0n . sn x1 , x2 , . . . , xn
s0n x(1) , x(2) , . . . , x(n) . , (, ,
+ 0
) limn+ sn = limn+ s0n , , +

n=1 xn .
n=1 xn =

.
sn =
k=1 xk
313

(1)n1
8.6.1. +
= 1 12 + 13 41 + .
n=1
n
1
, 1 + 31 12 + 15 + 17 14 + 19 + 11
16 + .
,
.
sn ,
(
) (
)
( 1
)
1
1
+ 4n1
2n
s3n = 1 + 13 21 + 15 + 17 14 + + 4n3
.
s3(n+1) s3n =
1
4n+1
1
4n+3
1
2n+2
, , (s3n ) . ,
(
)
( 1
1
s3n = 1 + 13 21 15 17 2n2
4n3
>0
1
4n1
1
2n
<1+
1
3
= 43 ,
. (s3n ) , , s. ,
s3n+1 = s3n +
1
4n+1
s + 0 = s s3n+2 = s3n +
1
4n+1
1
4n+3
s + 0 + 0 = s.
sn s , ,
1
5
1
7
(
s3n 1 +
1
3
1
2
1+
n 2, s
, ,
1
3
5
6
1
2
1
4
+
(1
1
9
1
11
1
4
1
6
1
7
1
3
1
4
+ = s.
5
6
13
140
13
140 .
t=1
1
2
. tn ,
)
( 1
(
1
1
t2n1 = 1 21 + 2n2
+ 2n1
= 1 12 + 13 41 51 2n2
1
2
n. t
1
3
1
2n1
5
6
5
6
, , t < s.

8.5. +
.

n=1 xn
+
+ 0
+
+ 0
n=1 xn
n=1 xn , ,
n=1 xn =
n=1 xn .
. : N N -- . , x0n = x(n) n.
{
xn = x(m) = x0m , n = (m)
xm,n =
0,
n 6= (m)
m, n. +
m,n=1 xm,n , ,
)
+ ( +
n=1
m=1 |xm,n |
8.3
+ ( +
m=1
n=1 xm,n
n=1 |xn |
< +.
+ ( +
n=1
m=1 xm,n
+ 0
m=1
xm = +
n=1 xn .
: S = +
n=1 |xn |, 0 S < +.
314

+
n
+
n=1 xn
n=1 xn = s. sn =
k=1 xk ,
sn s.
nk=1 |x0k | S n, |x01 |, . . . , |x0n |,

|x
|, . . . , |x(n) |, |x1 |, |x2 |, . . . ( ).
+ (1)
0
n=1 |xn | .
n
0
0 =
0
s
n
k=1 xk sn s,
+ 0
.
n=1 xn = s,
> 0. +
n=1 |xn | sn s, n0
+

|sn s| < 2
n n0 .
(8.24)
n=n0 +1 |xn | < 2
n1 (1), . . . , (n1 ) 1, 2, . . . , n0 .
n1 n0 . n n1 ( n0 ), s0n sn
x1 , . . . , xn0 , sn s0n . , n n1 , (8.24)

|s0n sn | +
n=n0 +1 |xn | < 2 .
(8.24) n n1
|s0n s| |s0n sn | + |sn s| <

2

2
= .
s0n s.
8.6.1
. Riemann .
. Riemann
6.3!
RIEMANN.
+
n=1 xn .
0 , s0 = x0 + + x0
x
a, b R a b +
n
n
1
n=1 n
,
lim s0n = a,
lim s0n = b.
+
+
. +
n=1 xn
n=1 |xn | = +. s =
n=1 xn .
sn = x1 + + xn Sn = |x1 | + + |xn |.
xn y1 0, y2 0,
y3 0 . , xn z1
< 0, z2 < 0, z3 < 0
.

+
+
n=1 yn = +,
n=1 zn = .
tn = y1 + + yn un = z1 + + zn .
k|
n
sn +S
= nk=1 xk +|x
-
2
2
sn +Sn
n
x1 , . . . , xn , , 2 tn . sn +S
s+
2
2 = +, tn +.
+
n=1 yn = +.
k|
n
, sn S
= k=1 xk |x
x1 , . . . , xn ,
2
2
+
sn Sn
sn Sn
2 un . 2 s
n=1 zn = .
2 = , un .
(an ), (bn )
an a,
bn b
315
. an = a, a R, an = n, a = , an = n, a = +.

+ b. an bn .
1. n=1 yn = +, n1 y1 + + yn1 > b1 n1
, y1 + + yn1 1 b1 . ,
+
b1 < y1 + + yn1 b1 + yn1 .
n=1 zn = , n1 z1 + + zn1 < a1 (y1 + + yn1 )

n1 , z1 + + zn1 1 a1 (y1 + + yn1 ).
,
a1 + zn1 y1 + + yn1 + z1 + + zn1 < a1 .
+
2. n=n1 +1 yn = +, n2 > n1 yn1 +1 + + yn2 > b2 (y1 +
+ yn1 + z1 + + zn1 ) n2 ,
yn1 +1 + + yn2 1 b2 (y1 + + yn1 + z1 + + zn1 ). ,
b2 < y1 + + yn1 + z1 + + zn1 + yn1 +1 + + yn2 b2 + yn2 .
+
n=n1 +1 zn = , n2 > n1 zn1 +1 + +zn2 < a1 (y1 + +yn1 +
z1 + + zn1 + yn1 +1 + + yn2 ) n2 ,
zn1 +1 + + zn2 1 a1 (y1 + + yn1 + z1 + + zn1 + yn1 +1 + + yn2 ).
,
a2 + zn2 y1 + + yn1 + z1 + + zn1 + yn1 +1 + + yn2 + zn1 +1 + + zn2 < a2 .
, y1 , . . . , yn1 , z1 , . . . , zn1 , yn1 +1 , . . . , yn2 ,
zn1 +1 , . . . , zn2 , . . . , ,
xn . , , s0n .
, b1 < s0n1 b1 + yn1 , a1 + zn1
s0n1 +n1 < a1 , b2 < s0n1 +n1 +n2 b2 + yn2 , a2 + zn2 s0n1 +n1 +n2 +n2 < a2 , ,
(8.25)
ak + znk s0n1 +n1 ++nk +nk < ak .
bk < s0n1 +n1 ++nk bk + ynk ,
+
n=1 xn , xn 0 , , (yn ) (zn )
(xn ), ynk 0 znk 0. (8.25)
s0n1 +n1 ++nk b
s0n1 +n1 ++nk +nk a,

, ,
lim s0n a,
b lim s0n .
(8.26)
n n1 k n1 + n1 + + nk n <
n1 + n1 + + nk + nk n1 + n1 + + nk + nk n < n1 + n1 + + nk + nk + nk+1 .
,
s0n1 +n1 ++nk +nk s0n s0n1 +n1 ++nk

s0n1 +n1 ++nk +nk s0n s0n1 +n1 ++nk +nk +nk+1 ,
(8.25) , ,
ak + znk s0n bk + ynk
ak + znk s0n bk+1 + ynk+1 .
a = limk+ (ak + znk ) lim s0n ,
lim s0n limk+ (bk + ynk ) = b.
(8.26) (8.27) lim s0n = a lim s0n = b.

316
(8.27)
.
8.6.1. 1 +
1
+ 2115 + 2114 + 2113 + 2112 + 2111 + .
27
1
2
1
23
1
22
1
26
1
25
1
24
1
210
1
29
1
28
8.6.2. 1 12 + 13 14 + 15 61 + .
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1 21 + 13 14 + 15 + 17 16 + 19 + 11
+ 13
+ 15
18 + 17
+ 19
+ 21
+ 23
+ 25
+ 27
+ 29
+ 31
10
+ .
+.
8.6.3. +
n=1 xn .
s
(n ) n = 1 n +
n=1 n xn = s.
(1)n1
8.6.4. 0 < p < +. +

n=1
n
:
(i)
,
(ii) n kn ln
( kn + ln = n), klnn p.

1
2
log(4p).
8.6.5. 27 fk : N N k.
k fk 0
0
-, fk (N) fk0 (N) = k, k k 6= k +
k=1 fk (N) = N.
+
n=1 xn :
(i) k +
m=1 xfk (m) .
+
(ii) sk = m=1 xfk (m) , +
k=1 sk .
+
+
(iii) s = n=1 xn , k=1 sk = s. ,
) +
+ ( +
k=1
m=1 xfk (m) =
n=1 xn .
27
317
318
.
9.1 .
f : A R fn : A R n. fn
(fn ).
. (fn ) f A
..
fn f
..
limn+ fn = f
x A (fn (x)) f (x),

..
x A fn (x) f (x). , fn f A x A > 0
n0 |fn (x) f (x)| n n0 .
, , (fn ) f ,
A, (fn )
f A, x A , x,
fn (x) f (x) ( n +). (fn )
f . f (fn )
f A. . x A
, x, (fn (x)) . ,
f (x) = limn+ fn (x). x A x A
f (x), f : A R. ,
f fn (x) f (x) x A , ,
(fn ) f A.
,
.
: f fn n
n.
9.1.1. f, fn : A R fn (x) = f (x) + n1 x A.
..
fn (x) = f (x) + n1 f (x) x A. fn f A.
9.1.2. fn : [0, ) R fn (x) =
fn (0) = 0 0. x > 0, fn (x) =
0.
x
1+nx
x
1+nx
x 0.
..
0. fn 0 [0, ), 0
{
1/(nx), 1/n < x 1

nx,
0 x 1/n
1
, fn (0) = 0 0. 0 < x 1, n < x,
..
1
fn (x) = nx
, , fn (x) 0. fn 0 [0, 1].
9.1.3. fn : [0, 1] R fn (x) =
319
9.1.4. fn : (0, 1] R fn (x) =

..
1
1+nx
x (0, 1].
x (0, 1] fn (x) 0. , fn 0 (0, 1].

9.1.5. fn : R R fn (x) =
..
fn (x) 0 x. fn 0 R.
x
n
x.
9.1.6. fn : (1, +) R fn (x) =
x
x+n
..
x > 1.
fn (x) 0 x > 1. fn 0 (1, +).

9.1.7. fn : [0, +) R fn (x) =
..
n
x+n2
x 0.
fn (x) 0 x 0 , , fn 0 [0, +).

9.1.8. fn : [0, 1] R fn (x) = xn x [0, 1].
..
n
fn (1) = 1 1 , 0 x < 1, fn (x)
{ = x 0. fn f [0, 1],
0, 0 x < 1
f : [0, 1] R f (x) =
1, x = 1
{
1/(nx2 ), 1/n < x 1
9.1.9. fn : [0, 1] R fn (x) =
n2 x,
0 x 1/n
1
fn (0) = 0 0. , 0 < x 1, n < x,
..
fn (x) = nx1 2 , , fn (x) 0. fn 0 [0, 1].
{
1/x, 1/n < x 1
9.1.10. fn : [0, 1] R fn (x) =
n2 x, 0 x 1/n
fn (0) = 0 0. 0 < x 1, n1 < x, fn (x) = x1
..
1
, ,
{fn (x) x . fn f [0, 1], f : [0, 1] R
1/x, 0 < x 1
f (x) =
0,
x = 0
9.1.11. fn : [0, 2] R fn (x) = sin(nx)
x [0, 2].
n
..
1
x [0, 2] |fn (x)| n n, fn (x) 0. fn 0 [0, 2].
9.1.12. fn : [0, 2] R fn (x) = cos(nx) x [0, 2].
fn () = (1)n , (fn ()) . (fn ) [0, 2].
..
..
9.1. , fn f gn g A. :
..
[] fn + gn f + g A.
..
[] fn gn f g A.
[] g(x), gn (x) 6= 0 x A n,
fn .. f
gn g
A.
. [] x A fn (x) f (x) gn (x) g(x), fn (x) + gn (x)

..
f (x) + g(x). fn + gn f + g A.
[], [] .
.
..
E 1: fn f A fn A. f
;
: .
9.1.8, fn 1 f 1.
320
..
E 2: fn f [a, b] fn [a, b].

b
b
f [a, b] , , a fn (x) dx a f (x) dx ;
: .
1
1
1
9.1.9 0 fn (x) dx = 23 n1 32 . , 0 f (x) dx = 0 0 = 0.
, 9.1.10 fn , , [0, 1]
f [0, 1] [0, 1].
..
E 3: fn f A n fn A.
..
f A , , fn 0 f 0 A ;
: .
..
9.1.2, fn 0 [0, +). H 0 .
1
0
0
fn 0 (x) = (1+nx)
2 x [0, +), fn (0) = 1 1 , x > 0, fn (x) 0.
{
0, x > 0
..
, fn 0 g [0, +), g : [0, +) R g(x) =
1, x = 0
..
fn 0 00 = 0 [0, +).
9.1.8, fn 1 f .
9.1.11 fn 0 (x) = cos(nx) x [0, 2] ,
9.1.12, (fn0 ) [0, 2].
,
.
, , .
.
2
nx
n x
9.1.1. fn (x) = 1+n
2 x2 gn (x) = 1+n2 x2 x. (fn ), (gn ) f , g R. f , g.
9.1.2. fn (x) = nx [ nx ] x 6= 0. (fn ) f

R \ {0}. f .
..
9.1.3. fn (x) = nx [ nx ] x > 0. fn 0 (0, +).

{
min{nx, 1},
x 0
9.1.4. fn (x) =
n. (fn )
max{nx, 1}, x 0
f R. f .
{
1, x [a, b] Q
9.1.5. 1 f : [a, b] R f (x) =
0, x [a, b] \ Q
. [a, b]Q = {rn{
| n N} [a, b]Q
1, x {r1 , . . . , rn }
n fn : [a, b] R fn (x) =
0, x [a, b] \ {r1 , . . . , rn }
..
fn f [a, b]. fn [a, b] ;
9.2 .
. f, g : A R. f , g A,
kf gkA ,
kf gkA = sup{|f (x) g(x)| | x A}.

1
6.2.2.
321
{|f (x) g(x)| | x A} -. ,

kf gkA , , , kf gkA = +. ,
kf gkA 0 |f (x) g(x)| 0 x A.
0 kf gkA +.
9.2.1. f, g : [0, 1] R f (x) = x g(x) = x2 x [0, 1].
|f (x) g(x)| = |x x2 | = x x2 x [0, 1]
x x2 [0, 1] 41 . kf gk[0,1] = sup{x x2 | x [0, 1]} = 41 .
9.2.2. f, g : R R f (x) =
|f (x) g(x)| =
,
limx
x2
1+x2
x2
1+x2
x2
1+x2
x2
1+x2
x.
2
x
< 1 x, 1 { 1+x
2 | x R}.
= 1, , u < 1,
u < 1
kf gkR =
g(x) = 0 x,
x2
sup{ 1+x
2
x2
{ 1+x
2
x2
1+x2
> u .
| x R}.
| x R} = 1.
9.2.3. f, g : R R f (x) = x g(x) = 1 x

|f (x) g(x)| = |x 1| x.
limx |x 1| = +, , u, |x 1| > u .
u {|x 1| | x R}.
kf gkR = sup{|x 1| | x R} = +.

.
1: xn x , ,
|xn x| < |xn x| .
, xn x. , > 0 n0 |xn x| <
n n0 . > 0 n0 |xn x| n n0 .
, > 0 n0 |xn x| n n0 .
> 0 n0 |xn x| 2 n n0 .
> 0 n0 |xn x| < n n0 , , xn x.
2: sup B u b u b B.2
, sup B u. u B, b u
b B. , b u b B. u
B , sup B B, sup B u.
f : A R
0 : A R,
kf kA = sup{|f (x)| | x A}.
9.2. f, g : A R R. :
[] kf kA = 0 f A.
[] kf + gkA kf kA + kgkA .
[] kf kA = ||kf kA .
[] kf gkA kf kA kgkA .
. [] f = 0 A, |f (x)| = 0 x A, kf kA = 0.
, kf kA = 0. |f (x)| 0 , , f (x) = 0 x A.
2
1.2.11.
322
[] x A
|f (x) + g(x)| |f (x)| + |g(x)| kf kA + kgkA .
kf + gkA kf kA + kgkA .
[] = 0, , [], kf kA = ||kf kA 0. ,
, 6= 0.
x A
|f (x)| = |||f (x)| ||kf kA .
kf kA ||kf kA .
, x A
|f (x)| =
1
|| |f (x)|
1
|| kf kA .
1
kf kA ||
kf kA , , ||kf kA kf kA .
kf kA ||kf kA ||kf kA kf kA kf kA = ||kf kA .
[] x A
|f (x)g(x)| = |f (x)||g(x)| kf kA kgkA .

kf gkA kf kA kgkA .
9.2 kf gkA = 0 f, g A. ,
kf gkA kf hkA + kh gkA ,
kf gkA = ||kf gkA
f, g, h : A R, R.
. fn : A R n f : A R. (fn ) f
fn f
lim fn = f
n+
kfn f kA 0. , fn f A > 0 n0
sup{|fn (x) f (x)| | x A} = kfn f kA n n0 .
sup{|fn (x) f (x)| | x A} |fn (x)
f (x)| x A, : fn f A
> 0 n0 |fn (x) f (x)| x A n n0 .

. (i) fn f A > 0 n0 ,
, |fn (x) f (x)| x A n n0 .
..
(ii) fn f A > 0 x A n0 ,
x, |fn (x) f (x)| n n0 .
n0 > 0 x A : > 0 , , n0 x A. ,
, > 0, x A n0 .
9.2.4. 9.1.4, fn (x) =
..
1
1+nx
x (0, 1]
fn 0 (0, 1]. fn 0 (0, 1].
( ) fn 0 (0, 1]. 0 < < 1.

323
1
1
n0 1+nx
= | 1+nx
0| x (0, 1] n n0 .
1
1
1+n0 x x (0, 1] , , 1 = limx0+ 1+n0 x ,
.
, kfn 0k(0,1] = kfn k(0,1] .
1
1
x (0, 1] | 1+nx
| = 1+nx
< 1 , , 1
1
1
1
{| 1+nx | | x (0, 1]}. limx0+ 1+nx = 1, u < 1 1+nx
>u
1
0. u < 1 {| 1+nx | | x (0, 1]}.
1
kfn k(0,1] = sup{| 1+nx
| | x (0, 1]} = 1 , , kfn k(0,1] 0.
kf gkA |f (x) g(x)| x A

g(x) f (x) g(x)+ x A
f g g + , ,
g
2. fn f A > 0 fn
n 2
f .
..
9.2.5. 9.1.4, fn 0 (0, 1].

fn , , > 0, 0 < < 1, 2
0. fn 0 (0, 1].
.
9.1.1. kfn f kA =
9.1.2. kfn k[0,+) =
1
n
1
n
n. fn f A.
n. fn 0 [0, +).
9.1.3. kfn k[0,1] = 1 n. fn 6 0 [0, 1].
9.1.4. kfn k(0,1] = 1 n. fn 6 0 (0, 1].
9.1.5. kfn kR = + n. fn 6 0 R.
9.1.6. kfn k(1,+) = 1 n. fn 6 0 (1, +).

9.1.7. kfn k[0,+) =
1
n
n. fn 0 [0, +).
9.1.8. kfn f k[0,1] = 1 n. fn 6 f [0, 1].
9.1.9. kfn k[0,1] = n n. fn

6 0 [0, 1].
9.1.10. kfn k[0,1] = n n. fn

6 0 [0, 1].
9.1.11. kfn k[0,2] =
1
n
n. fn 0 [0, 2].
9.1.12. 9.3, (fn ) R.
..
9.3. fn f A, fn f A. ,
.
. x A |fn (x) f (x)| kfn f kA n. x A
fn (x) f (x).
9.3, , , (fn ) A.
324
..
f fn f A. , x A
(fn (x)). , , x A ,
, (fn (x)), f (x)
f A. fn f A,
kfn f kA n.
. fn : A R n. (fn ) A M kfn kA M n , ,
M |fn (x)| M x A n.
9.4. , fn f gn g A.
[] B A, fn f B.
[] fn + gn f + g A.
[] (fn ), (gn ) A, fn gn f g A.
( )
[] (fn ), g1n A, fgnn fg A.

. []
kfn f kB = sup{|fn (x) f (x)| | x B} sup{|fn (x) f (x)| | x A} = kfn f kA
, , kfn f kB 0.
[] 9.2, n
k(fn + gn ) (f + g)kA ||kfn f kA + ||kgn gkA .
k(fn + gn ) (f + g)kA 0.
[] M kfn kA , kgn kA M n. |fn (x)|, |gn (x)| M
x A n. 9.3 fn (x) f (x) gn (x) g(x)
, , |f (x)|, |g(x)| M x A. kf kA , kgkA M .
, n fn gn f g = (fn f )(gn g) + f (gn g) + g(fn f ) ,
9.2,
kfn gn f gkA kfn f kA kgn gkA + kf kA kgn gkA + kgkA kfn f kA
kfn f kA kgn gkA + M kgn gkA + M kfn f kA .
, , kfn gn f gkA 0.

[] []. . M gn1(x) M
n x A. , , gn (x) 6= 0 n x A ,
1
, fgnn : A R. , |gn (x)| M
> 0
1
n x A gn (x) g(x) x A, |g(x)| M
>0
f
x A. g : A R.
CAUCHY. (fn ) A
> 0 n0 kfn fm kA n, m n0 .
. fn f A. > 0. n0
kfn f kA

2
n n0 .
, ( )
kfm f kA

2
m n0 .
325
,
kfn fm kA kfn f kA + kfm f kA

2

2
=
n, m n0 .
, > 0 n0 kfn fm kA
n, m n0 .
x A. > 0 n0
|fn (x) fm (x)| kfn fm kA
n, m n0 .
(fn (x)) Cauchy , ,

.
f (x) = limn+ fn (x) x A, f : A R
..
: fn f A.
> 0 n0
|fn (x) fm (x)|
x A n, m n0 .
(9.1)
limm+ (9.1), > 0 n0
|fn (x) f (x)|

x A n n0 .
> 0 n0
kfn f kA
n n0 .
fn f A.

9.1 .
9.1. fn f A A. fn , f
. , fn A, f A.
. > 0. n0 kfn f kA < 3 n n0 ,
, kfn0 f kA < 3 . fn0 , > 0
|fn0 (x) fn0 ()| < 3 x A |x | < . x A |x | <
|f (x) f ()| |f (x) fn0 (x)| + |fn0 (x) fn0 ()| + |fn0 () f ()|
kfn0 f kA + |fn0 (x) fn0 ()| + kfn0 f kA <

3

3

3
= .
f .
9.2.6. 9.1.8, kfn f k[0,1] ,
fn f [0, 1], fn 1 f
1.
9.2. fn f [a, b]. fn [a, b], f

[a, b]
b
b
a fn (x) dx a f (x) dx.
326
. > 0.

0 = 1+2(ba)
> 0, n0 kfn f k[a,b] 0 n n0
, ,
kfn0 f k[a,b] 0 .
(9.2)
fn0 [a, b], = {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b}
[a, b]
(fn0 ; a, b; ) (fn0 ; a, b; ) < 0 .
(9.3)
uk lk supremum infimum f [xk1 , xk ] uk 0 lk 0 fn0 .
x [xk1 , xk ] , (9.2),
f (x) |f (x) fn0 (x)| + fn0 (x) kfn0 f k[a,b] + uk 0 0 + uk 0 ,
uk 0 + uk 0 . ,
f (x) |f (x) fn0 (x)| + fn0 (x) kfn0 f k[a,b] + lk 0 0 + lk 0
, , lk 0 + lk 0 .
uk lk uk 0 lk 0 + 20 .
(9.4)
(9.3) (9.4)
(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) =
n
k=1
n
(uk lk )(xk xk1 )
k=1 (uk
lk 0 )(xk xk1 ) +
= (fn0 ; a, b; ) (fn0 ; a, b; )
0
k=1 2 (xk
+ 20 (b a)
xk1 )
< (1 + 2(b a))0 = .

f [a, b].
n
b

fn (x) dx b f (x) dx = b (fn (x) f (x)) dx

a
a
a
b
a |fn (x) f (x)| dx kfn f k[a,b] (b a)
b

b
, , a fn (x) dx a f (x) dx 0.
9.2
b
b
limn+ a fn (x) dx = a limn+ fn (x) dx.
b
limn+ a [a, b].
, 9.2, f [a, b]. , fn [a, b], ,
9.1, f [a, b]. f
[a, b].
,
b 9.2 (
a f (x) dx)
b
b
a fn (x) dx a f (x) dx.
1
1
9.2.7. 9.1.9 0 fn (x) dx 32 0 f (x) dx = 0. ,
kfn f k[0,1] , fn f [0, 1].

327
9.1.11 9.1.12,
. , fn f A fn 0 f 0 A. ,
, .
9.3. I g : I R fn : I R
fn 0 I. fn 0 g I (fn ()) I,
(fn ) f I
I, f I f 0 (x) = g(x) x I.
.
fn () l R.
(9.5)
fn 0 I fn 0 g I, g I. g
I,
x
f (x) = g(t) dt + l
x I.
(9.6)
,
fn (x) =
fn 0 (t) dt + fn ()
x I n.
(9.7)
fn 0 g I , , [, x] [x, ],
x 0
x
x I.
fn (t) dt g(t) dt
(9.8)
..
(9.5) (9.8) fn (x) f (x) x I. fn f I.

(9.6) g I, f 0 (x) = g(x) x I.
, (fn ) f [a, b] I.
(9.6) (9.7) n x [a, b]
|fn (x) f (x)| |(fn (x) f (x)) (fn (a) f (a))| + |fn (a) f (a)|
x
x
= | a fn 0 (t) dt a g(t) dt| + |fn (a) f (a)|
x
a |fn 0 (t) g(t)| dt + |fn (a) f (a)|
kfn 0 gk[a,x] (x a) + |fn (a) f (a)|
kfn 0 gkI (b a) + |fn (a) f (a)|.

n
kfn f k[a,b] kfn 0 gkI (b a) + |fn (a) f (a)|.
kfn f k[a,b] 0, (fn ) f [a, b].
9.3 , , :
(
)0
d
d
limn+ fn 0 = limn+ fn
limn+ dx
fn (x) = dx
limn+ fn (x).
, , . 9.4
9.3 9.4 fn 0 I. , 9.3
fn 0 I.
9.4 ,
.
328
9.4. I g : I R fn : I R
I. fn 0 g I (fn ()) I, (fn )

f I I, f
I f 0 (x) = g(x) x I.
. x I. > 0. Cauchy ( ),
n0
kfn 0 fm 0 kI
|fn () fm ()|

2|x|+1 ,
n, m n0 .

2
(9.9)
, Lagrange, n, m n0
x,
|fn (x) fm (x)| |(fn (x) fm (x)) (fn () fm ())| + |fn () fm ()|
= |fn 0 () fm 0 ()||x | + |fn () fm ()|
kfn 0 fm 0 kI |x | + |fn () fm ()|

2|x|+1 |x
| +

2
< ,
(9.9). (fn (x)) Cauchy

, , .
, x I f (x) = limn+ fn (x) f : I R
..
fn f I.
x I. f 0 (x) = g(x).
> 0. n0
kfn 0 gkI

4
n n0 .
(9.10)
kfn 0 fn0 0 kI kfn 0 gkI + kfn0 0 gkI

4

4

2
n n0 .
(9.11)
, > 0
fn (y)fn (x)

0
0
fn0 0 (x)
yx
y I 0 < |y x| < .
(9.12)
fn (y)fn (x)
(f (y)fn (y))(fn (x)fn (x)) fn (y)fn (x)

0
0
0

+ 0
g(x) n
fn0 0 (x)
yx
yx
yx
(9.13)

4
+ |fn0 0 (x) g(x)|
n y I, y 6= x.
, (9.10)
|fn0 0 (x) g(x)| kfn0 0 gkI 4 .
(9.14)
, Lagrange, y I, y 6= x
x, y
(fn (y)fn (y))(fn (x)fn (x))
0
0

= |fn 0 () fn 0 ()| kfn 0 fn 0 kI
0
0
yx
, , (9.11),
(fn (y)fn (y))(fn (x)fn (x))
0
0

yx

2
n n0 y I, y 6= x.
(9.15)
(9.13), (9.12), (9.14) (9.15),

fn (y)fn (x)

g(x) 2 + 4 + 4 =
n n0 y I 0 < |y x| < .
yx
329
n +,
f (y)f (x)

g(x)
y I 0 < |y x| < 0 .
yx
(x)
limyx f (y)f
= g(x) , , f 0 (x) = g(x).
yx
, (fn ) f [a, b] I.
n x [a, b] x, a
|fn (x) f (x)| |(fn (x) f (x)) (fn (a) f (a))| + |fn (a) f (a)|
= |fn 0 () f 0 ()||x a| + |fn (a) f (a)|
kfn 0 gkI (b a) + |fn (a) f (a)|.
n
kfn f k[a,b] kfn 0 gkI (b a) + |fn (a) f (a)|.
, kfn f k[a,b] 0, (fn ) f [a, b].
9.3 9.4 (fn 0 )
(fn ). , (fn )
.
.
9.2.1. fn : [0, +) R fn (x) = xenx x 0. (fn )
f [0, +). f ;
.
9.2.2. fn : [0, 1] R fn (x) = xn (1 xn ) x [0, 1]. (fn )
0 , , [0, 1].
.
1
9.2.3. fn : [0, +) R fn (x) = 1+nx
x 0. (fn ) f , , [0, +). f ;
, a > 0, fn f [a, +). .

fn : [0, +) R fn (x) = enx x 0.
fn : [0, +) R fn (x) = nxenx x 0.
n
x
9.2.4. fn : [0, +) R fn (x) = 1+x
n x 0. (fn )
f , , [0, +). f ;
(0, 1] (fn ) f [0, 1 ],
[1 + , +) [1 , 1 + ]. .
9.2.5. fn : (0, +) R fn (x) = sinnxnx x > 0. (fn ) 0 , , (0, +).

a > 0 (fn ) 0 [a, +).
.
9.2.6. f, g, fn , gn : (0, +) R fn (x) =
1
x
+ n1 , gn (x) =
1
n,
f (x) =
1
x
g(x) = 0 x > 0. fn f , gn g fn gn
6 f g (0, +).
.
{
0,
x < 1/(n + 1) 1/n < x
9.2.7. fn : R R fn (x) =
. 2
(sin(/x)) , 1/(n + 1) x 1/n
(fn ) f R f R.
f ; fn f R; .
330
9.2.8. fn : [0, 1] R fn (x) = np x(1 x2 )n x [0, 1].

(fn ) f
[0, 1]. p ;
1
1
p 0 fn (x) dx 0 f (x) dx ; .
nx
fn : [0, 1] R fn (x) = 1+n
2 xp x [0, 1].
x
9.2.9. fn : R R fn (x) = 1+nx
2 x. (fn )
f R. f R fn 0 (x) f 0 (x),
x 6= 0, fn 0 (0) 6 f 0 (0). .
1 n2 x2
x.
ne
0
0, fn 0
9.2.10. fn : R R fn (x) =
..
fn 0
(, a], [a, +)
fn 0 0 R. , a >
[a, a]. .
9.2.11. fn : [1, 1] R fn (x) = |x| n |x| x [1, 1].

(fn ) f [1, 1]. f ; fn
0 f 0.
.
9.2.12. fn : [0, 2] R fn (x) = n 1 + xn x [0, 2]. (fn )

f [0, 2]. f ; fn 1 f 1. .
9.2.13. A = B C fn f B C. fn f A.
9.2.14. fn f A g : A R A, fn g f g
A. 9.4[];
9.2.15. fn : A [a, b] fn f A. f : A [a, b]. , ,
g : [a, b] R [a, b], g fn g f A.
9.2.16. fn f A fn A, (fn ) A.
9.2.17. fn f A. fn A, f
A.
9.2.18. f : R R fn : R R fn (x) = f (x + n1 ) x. ,
f R, fn f R.
9.2.19. f : R R R f 0 R.
(
)
gn (x) = n f (x + n1 ) f (x) x, gn f 0 R.
9.2.20. fn f A, (xn ) A, A xn . f
, fn (xn ) f ().
9.2.21. 3 [] fn f A, A yn = limx fn (x).

(yn ) limx f (x) = limn+ yn . ,
limx limn+ fn (x) = limn+ limx fn (x).
[] A A fn : A R
fn f A \ {}. (fn ()) , f () =

limn+ fn (), f : A R .
3
. , , limn+ limx .
331
9.2.22. g : [0, 1] R [0, 1] fn (x) = xn g(x) x [0, 1].
fn 0 [0, 1] g(1) = 0.
9.2.23. Pn f R. Pn , f
. Pn f ;
Pn f A, A
- R;
Weierstrass 9.3,
9.3.
..
9.2.24. fn : [a, b] R fn f [a, b].

fn [a, b], f [a, b].
, , f [a, b], fn f [a, b].

9.2.25. Dini: fn : [a, b] R [a, b]
..
f : [a, b] R [a, b]. fn f [a, b] fn+1 (x) fn (x)
x [a, b] n, fn f [a, b].
9.3 Weierstrass.
( )
9.1. [] nk=0 nk xk (1 x)nk = 1.

( )
[] nk=0 k nk xk (1 x)nk = nx.

( )
[] nk=0 k 2 nk xk (1 x)nk = (n2 n)x2 + nx.

( )
. nk=0 nk tk snk = (t + s)n .

[] t = x s = 1 x.
[] t,
t t = x s = 1 x.
[] t, t
t = x s = 1 x.
.
WEIERSTRASS. f : [a, b] R [a, b]. > 0
P (x) |P (x) f (x)| x [a, b] , ,
kP f k[a,b] .
. 4 [0, 1].
f : [0, 1] R [0, 1]. > 0. f [0, 1],
> 0
|f (x0 ) f (x00 )| <

2
x0 , x00 [0, 1] |x0 x00 | < .
(9.16)
, f [0, 1], M
|f (x)| M
x [0, 1].
(9.17)

n max{ 14 , ( M )2 }
4
(9.18)
Weierstrass. S. Bernstein.
9.3.4.
332

P (x) =
( )
n
k=0 k
f ( nk )xk (1 x)nk .
|P (x) f (x)| x [0, 1].

x [0, 1]. 9.1,
( )
( )
f (x) = f (x) 1 = f (x) nk=0 nk xk (1 x)nk = nk=0 nk f (x)xk (1 x)nk ,
P (x) f (x) =
( )(
n
k=0 k
)
f ( nk ) f (x) xk (1 x)nk .
(9.19)
0, 1, . . . , n . A
1
k = 0, 1, . . . , n : |x nk | <
4 n . B
k = 0, 1, . . . , n, : |x nk |
4 n.

k A, (9.18) |x nk | < , (9.16), f ( nk ) f (x) < 2 .
, 9.1 ( )
k
(n) k
(n ) k
nk
nk

kA k f ( n ) f (x) x (1 x)
kA k x (1 x)
2
(9.20)
( )
2 nk=0 nk xk (1 x)nk = 2 .
k B, (9.17) k B
k

f ( ) f (x) f ( k ) + |f (x)| 2M 2M n( k x)2 ,
n
n
n
, 9.1 ( ) (9.18) (
)
k
(n) k
( )
k
2 n k
nk 2M n
nk

kB k f ( n ) f (x) x (1 x)
kB ( n x) k x (1 x)
(
)
2M n nk=0 ( nk x)2 nk xk (1 x)nk

(9.21)
=
2M x(1x)
2 n
2 .
, (9.19), (9.20) (9.21),

( )
|P (x) f (x)| nk=0 nk f ( nk ) f (x)xk (1 x)nk

( )
= kA nk f ( nk ) f (x)xk (1 x)nk

( )
+ kB nk f ( nk ) f (x)xk (1 x)nk

2

2
= .
|P (x) f (x)| x [0, 1].

, , [a, b].
f : [a, b] R [a, b]. : [0, 1] [a, b] (t) = (ba)t+a
: [a, b] [0, 1] (x) = xa
ba . ,
g = f : [0, 1] R g(t) = f ((b a)t + a). g, ,
[0, 1].
Q(t) |Q(t) g(t)| t [0, 1].
, P = Q : [a, b] R P (x) = Q( xa
ba ). Q(t)
, P (x) , , Q.
g = f f = g . , |P (x) f (x)| = |Q((x)) g((x))|
x [a, b].
9.3.1. f : [0, 1] R f (x) = x.

Weierstrass,
P (x) | x P (x)| 104 x [0, 1].

| x0 x00 | 21 104
x0 , x00 [0, 1] |x0 x00 | 41 108 .
333
| x0 x00 | |x0 x00 |. ,
0 x1
x [0, 1].
, (9.18),
n max{44 1032 , 108 } = 44 1032 .

P (x) =
44 1032 (44 1032 )

k=0
k
44 1032
xk (1 x)4
4 1032 k
44 1032 , , !
Weierstrass n Pn (x)
kPn f k[a,b] n1 . (Pn ) Pn f [a, b].
, (Pn ) Pn f [a, b] , ,
kPn f k[a,b] 0. > 0 n kPn f k[a,b] .
Weierstrass :
f : [a, b] R [a, b], (Pn )
Pn f [a, b].
.

1
9.3.1. P (x) P (x) |x| 100
x [100, 100].
1
P (x) P (0) = 0 |P (x) sin x| 100

x [100, 100].
b
9.3.2. f : [a, b] R [a, b] : a xn f (x) dx = 0 n Z,
n 0. f = 0.
9.3.3. [] f : [1, +) R [1, +) limx+ f (x)
. > 0 P (x) |P ( x1 )f (x)|
x 1.
[] f : [0, +) R [0, +) limx+ f (x) .
> 0 P (x) |P (ex ) f (x)|
x 0.
[] f : R R R limx f (x) .
1
> 0 P (x) |P ( 1+e
x ) f (x)| x.
9.3.4. 5 , n Z, n 0, Wn : R R :
(
)
W0 (x) = 0,
Wn (x) = Wn1 (x) + 21 x2 (Wn1 (x))2
x n. n Wn (x) 2n
Wn (x) |x| [1, 1].

{
0,
a x
[a, b] (x) =
, x , x b
, (Tn ) Tn [a, b].

g : [a, b] R 0 , . . . , m
a = 0 < < m = b g
5
Weierstrass.
334
(0 , 1 ), . . . , (m1 , m ).
g : [a, b] R [a, b]
g [k1 , k ] g(x) = k (x k1 ) + g(k1 ). , 1 = 1
k = k k1 k = 2, . . . , m.
g(x) = g(a) + 1 0 (x) + + m m1 (x) x [a, b].
(Qn ) Qn g [a, b].

f : [a, b] R [a, b] > 0. g : [a, b] R
[a, b] |g(x) f (x)| x [a, b].
Weierstrass.
335
336
10
.
10.1 . .
. fn : A R n. , s1 = f1 : A R, s2 = f1 + f2 : A R , , sn = f1 + f2 + + fn : A R
n. , sn (x) = f1 (x) + + fn (x) x A n.
..
s : A R sn s A, +
n=1 fn
s A
n=1 fn
..
= s A.
A sn s A, +
n=1 fn s A
+
n=1 fn = s A.
sn n- +
n=1 fn . s
,
,

+
n=1 fn A.
,
+
..
.. +
: s = f1 + f2 + s =
k=0 fk s =
n=m fn .
+ ..
k=1 fk = s A
x A sn (x) s(x)
x A +
n=1 fn (x) s(x).
,
+
n=1 fn
..
= s A
10.1.
k=1 fk
n=1 fn (x)
= s A,
k=1 fk
= s(x) x A.
..
= s A.
. sn = f1 + + fn
9.3.
n
10.1.1. +
n=0 x .
+ n
1
n=0 x = 1x
x (1, 1). (1, 1)
1
n .. 1
s : (1, 1) R s(x) = 1x
. , +
n=0 x = 1x (1, 1).
(1, 1).
n
x (1, 1) n sn (x) = 1 + x + x2 + + xn1 = 1x
1x ,
|x|
|x|
. limx1 1x
= +, ksn sk(1,1) = +.
|sn (x) s(x)| = 1x
+ n
1
(1, 1).
n=0 x 1x
n
337
10.2. , +
n=1 fn = s A
n=1 gn = t A.
+
n=1 (fn + gn ) = s + t A. .
. sn = f1 + + fn tn = g1 + + gn
9.1 ( ) 9.4 ( ).
CAUCHY. +
n=1 fn A
> 0 n0 |fm+1 (x) + + fn (x)| x A
n > m n0 .
. sn = f1 + + fn Cauchy
9.2.
.
WEIERSTRASS. fn : A R kfn kA
Mn n ,
, |fn (x)| Mn
x A n. +
n=1 Mn ,
+
f
A.
n=1 n
. > 0. n0 Mm+1 + + Mn <
n > m n0 .
|fm+1 (x) + + fn (x)| |fm+1 (x)| + + |fn (x)| Mm+1 + + Mn <
x A n > m n0 . , Cauchy, +
n=1 fn
A.
+ . x A. |fn (x)| Mn n,
n=1 fn (x)
, , .
s(x) = +
n=1 fn (x). x A, s : A R
..
, , +
n=1 fn = s A.
, sn = f1 + + fn

+
+

|sn (x) s(x)| = +
k=n+1 Mk
k=n+1 fn (x)
k=n+1 |fk (x)|
x A.
ksn skA
k=n+1 Mk
n. 8.3 ksn skA 0, +

n=1 fn = s A.
xn
xn
2 12
10.1.2. +
.
2
n=1
n
n
n
+
1
x [1, 1] n n=1 n2 ,
+ xn
n=1 n2 [1, 1].

sin(nx)
12
10.1.3. +
. sin(nx)
2
2
n=1
n
n
n
+ 1
x n n=1 n2 ,
+ sin(nx)
R.
n=1 n2
[] 10.1 Dirichlet []
Abel. ,
, Abel.
338
10.1. fn , gn : A R sn = f1 + + fn .
[] (gn (x))
x A, gn 0 (sn )
+
A. n=1 fn gn A.
[] (g
n (x)) x A, (gn )
+
A +
f
A.
n
n=1
n=1 fn gn
A.
. [] M |sn (x)| M x A n. ,
x A (gn (x)) 0, gn (x) 0
x A n.
> 0. n0 gn (x) 2M+1 x A n n0 .
Abel 8.3, x A
n, m n > m n0
n
n

k=m+1 fk (x)gk (x) =
k=m+1 sk (x)(gk (x) gk+1 (x))

+ sn (x)gn+1 (x) sm (x)gm+1 (x)
nk=m+1 |sk (x)|(gk (x) gk+1 (x))

+ |sn (x)|gn+1 (x) + |sm (x)|gm+1 (x)
n
k=m+1 M (gk (x) gk+1 (x)) + M gn+1 (x) + M gm+1 (x)
2M
= 2M gm+1 (x) 2M
+1 < .
+
Cauchy, n=1 fn gn
A.
[] s : A R +
n=1 fn = s A , , sn s A.
M |gn (x)| M x A n.
> 0. n0 |sn (x) s(x)| 4M+1 x A
n n0 . , x A n, m n > m n0
n
n

k=m+1 fk (x)gk (x) =
k=m+1 sk (x)(gk (x) gk+1 (x))

+ sn (x)gn+1 (x) sm (x)gm+1 (x)

= nk=m+1 (sk (x) s(x))(gk (x) gk+1 (x))

+ (sn (x) s(x))gn+1 (x) (sm (x) s(x))gm+1 (x)
nk=m+1 |sk (x) s(x)|(gk (x) gk+1 (x))
+ |sn (x) s(x)||gn+1 (x)| + |sm (x) s(x)||gm+1 (x)|

n
k=m+1 4M+1 (gk (x) gk+1 (x))
+
=

4M +1 M

4M +1 (gm+1 (x)
Cauchy,
A.

4M +1 M
gn+1 (x)) +
n=1 fn gn
2
4M +1 M
4
4M +1 M
< .
(1)n1
10.1.4. +
(0, +).
n=1
nx
fn (x) = (1)n1 gn (x) = n1x x > 0.
fn . , , sn = f1 + + fn .
x > 0, (sn (x)) , sn (x)
( 1=
) 1+
n1
(1) + + (1)
= 1 0 n. , (gn (x)) = nx
gn (x) = n1x 0. , Dirichlet ,
(1)n1
(1)n1
x > 0 +
. , +
,
n=1
n=1
nx
nx
, , s, (0, +) :
+ (1)n1 ..
= s(x) (0, +).
n=1
nx
339
a > 0 s [a, +).

(sn ) [a, +),
sn (x) = 1 + (1) + + (1)n1 = 1 0 x (a
) n. ,
1
, x [a, +) (gn (x)) = nx . ,
gn 0 [a, +), kgn k[a,+) = sup{| n1x | | x [a, +)} = n1a 0.

+ (1)n1
n=1
[a, +).
nx
,
s , s
(0, +) , , [a, +).
a > 0 :
+
n=1
(1)n1
=
nx
s(x) [a, +).
10.2. +
n=1 fn = s A A. fn ,
s . , fn A, s A.
. 9.1 sn = f1 + + fn .
s [a, b]. fn [a, b],

10.3. +
n=1 fn =
b
b
s [a, b] +
n=1 a fn (x) dx = a s(x) dx.
. 9.2 sn = f1 + + fn .
b
b
+
n=1 a fn (x) dx = a s(x) dx
n=1 fn = s ,
:
b +
+ b
n=1 a fn (x) dx = a
n=1 fn (x) dx.
10.4. I t : I R fn : I R
0
+
fn 0 I. +
n=1 fn = t I
n=1 fn ()
I, +
f

n
n=1
s I I, s
I s0 (x) = t(x) x I.
. 9.3 sn = f1 + + fn .
10.4
( + )0 + 0
+
d +
n=1 fn
n=1 fn (x) =
n=1
n=1 fn =
dx
d
dx fn (x)
.
, 9.4.
10.5. I t : I R fn : I R
0
+
I. +
n=1 fn ()
n=1 fn = t I
+
I, n=1 fn s I
I, s I
s0 (x) = t(x) x I.
. 9.4 sn = f1 + + fn .
enx .
10.1.5. +
+ nx + n=1
, x 0, n=1 e
n=1 1 = +,
340
x 0. , x > 0
nx s(x) (0, +) :
ex . +
n=1 e
+
n=1 e
nx ..
=
s(x) (0, +).
na < +.
a > 0, sup{|enx
| | x [a, +)} = ena +
n=1 e
+ nx
Weirstrass, n=1 e
s [a, +) :
+
a > 0 :
n=1 e
nx =
s(x)
[a, +).
s(x) (0, +). , n enx

[a, +), , , s(x)
[a, +). , , a > 0. , (0, +),
a 0 < a < , s(x) [a, +),
.
nx . (
, +
n=1 ne
, ) x > 0,
t(x) (0, +) :
n=1 ne
nx ..
=
t(x) (0, +).
na < +.
, a > 0, sup{| nenx |
| x [a, +)} = nena +
n=1 ne
+
nx
t(x)
, Weierstrass, n=1 ne
[a, +) :
nx =
a > 0 :
+
t(x) [a, +).
n=1 ne
10.4 s(x) [a, +)
[a, +) t(x). s(x)
(0, +). , (0, +), a 0 <
a < , s(x) [a, +),
, , s0 () = t(). s0 (x) = t(x) x (0,
+). 2 nx
+
.
n=1 n e
t(x) (0, +), s(x)
(0, +). , s(x)
(0, +).
,
s(x) =
1
ex 1
x (0, +).
.
x sin(n2 x)
10.1.1. +
.
n=1
n2
s(x) R.
, a > 0, s(x) [a, a].
s(x) R.
x
10.1.2. +
n=1 (nx+1)2 .
s(x) [0, +).
, a > 0, s(x) [a, +).
s(x) (0, +).
s(x) 0 limx+ s(x) = 0.
341
10.1.3. p > 0
x
n=1 np (1+nx2 ) .
s(x) R.
, a > 0, s(x)
(, a] [a, +).
s(x) R \ {0}.
limx s(x) = 0.
p > 12 . A s(x) R s(x)
0.
m N. , p > m+1
2 , s(x) m 0.
1
0 0, s(x) [a, a].
s(x) R.
n1 x2 +n .
10.1.6. +
n=1 (1)
n2
x.
s(x) R. s(x);
, a > 0, s(x) [a, a].
10.1.7.
+
n=1
(1)n1
sin(1 + nx ).
s(x) R.
, a > 0, s(x) [a, a].
s(x) R.
( x2n1 xn )
10.1.8. +
n=1 2n1 2n
[0, 1].
1
10.1.9. +
n=1 1+n2 x . , , x = 0.
s(x) (0, +).
a > 0, s(x) [a, +).
s(x) (0, +). s(x)
(0, +).
limx0+ s(x) = +, s(x) (0, +).
limx+ s(x) = 0.
s(x) (0, +).
xa
10.1.10. +
n=1 1+n2 x2 .
[0, 1] a > 1.
[0, +) 1 < a 2.
342

1 nx
10.1.11. +
.
n=1 n2 e
s(x) [0, +).
s(x) [0, +) (0, +).
s(x) [0, +).
s0 (0) = +.
(1)n1
10.1.12. +
n=1 n+x .
x [0, +).
s(x) [0, +).
s(x) [0, +).
limx0+ s(x) = log 2 limx+ s(x) = 0.
s(x) [0, +).
n1 log(1 + x ).
10.1.13. +
n=1 (1)
n
t(x) [0, +).
, a > 0, t(x) [0, a].
t(x) [0, +).
t(x) s(x) 10.1.12;
0 x 1/(2n + 1) 1/(2n 1) x 1
0,
1
10.1.14. [] fn (x) = (4n + 2)x 2, 1/(2n + 1) x 1/(2n)
2 (4n 2)x, 1/(2n) x 1/(2n 1)

n. Mn = kfn k[0,1] n
+
+
n=1 fn [0, 1]
n=1 Mn .
(1x)xn
log(n+1)
x [0, 1] n. Mn = kfn k[0,1]

+
n=1 fn [0, 1]
+
n=1 Mn .
1
10.1.15. (xn ) +
n=1 xn ,
+ 1
xn +. n=1 xxn .
s(x) A = R \
{xn | n N}.
, a, s(x) A (, a].
n limxxn s(x) = limxxn + s(x) = +. , limx s(x) = 0.
s(x) (, x1 ) (xn , xn+1 ).
, s(x) .
+
10.1.16. +
n=1 xn sin(nx).
n=1 xn cos(nx)
+
[] n=1 |xn | < +. c(x) s(x) R. c(x) s(x) R
2.
cos(nx)
sin(nx)
+
+
p > 1
p
n=1
n=1 np
n
+ n
+ n
n=1 r cos(nx) n=1 r sin(nx) 0 r < 1.
[] (xn ) , xn 0, xn 0 n, +
n=1 xn =
+.
[] fn (x) =
Weierstrass.
343

+
n=1 xn cos(nx)
c(x) (m2, (m + 1)2) m Z +
n=1 xn sin(nx) 2
s(x) R.
+
, (0, ], +
n=1 xn cos(nx)
n=1 xn sin(nx)
c(x) s(x) [m2 + , (m + 1)2 ] m Z. c(x)
s(x) (m2, (m + 1)2) m Z.
+
n=1 xn sin(nx) R nxn 0.
, [],
1
( n1 ) ( n log
n ).
+ rn
rn
[] 0 r < 1. +
n=1 n cos(nx)
n=1 n sin(nx) R.
8.3.8[],
+ rn
+ rn
1
1
r sin x
n=1 n sin(nx) = arctan 1r cos x .
n=1 n cos(nx) = 2 log 12r cos x+r2 ,
+ rn
rn
[] +
n=1 n sin(nx)
n=1 n cos(nx)
r [0, 1],
+ 1
x
x (m2, (m + 1)2) m Z
n=1 n cos(nx) = log(sin 2 ),
{
+ 1
( x)/2, x (m2, (m + 1)2) m Z
n=1 n sin(nx) =
0,
x = m2 m Z
.
1
n
10.1.17. +
n=1 n sin(x ).
s(x) [0, 1].
, a [0, 1), s(x) [0, a].
s(x) [0, 1).
+ sin(n2 x) sin(nx)
(1)n1
(1)n1 arctan(nx2 )
10.1.18. +
+
. n=1 n+1+cos x ,
n=1
n=1
n+x2
n+x2
R.
nx cos nx.
10.1.19. +
n=1 e
s(x) (0, +).
, a > 0, s(x) [a, +).
s(x) (0, +).
s(x) (0, +).
10.1.20. fn : A R n |fn (x) fn+1 (x)| Mn x A
n. , +
n=1 Mn < +, (fn )
A.
10.1.21. 3 []

A, +
s A yn = limx fn (x).
n=1 fn =
+
+
f
(x)
=
n=1 yn limx +
n=1 n
n=1 yn . ,
+
limx +
n=1 fn (x) =
n=1 limx fn (x).
[] A A fn : A R
+
fn = s A \ {}. +
n=1 fn () , s() =
n=1
+
f
(),
s
:
A
.
n=1 n
2
, , 8.3.8[].
, , limx +
n=1 .
9.2.21.
3
344
10.1.22. Q ={{rn | n N} Q. n fn : R R
0, x = rn
1
fn (x) =
+
n=1 1+n2 fn (x) .
1, x 6= rn
R
(a, b).
{
0, x 0
(xn )
10.1.23. I : R R, I(x) =
1, x > 0
xn 6= xm n, m n 6= m +
n=1 |cn | < +.
+
n=1 cn I(x xn ) s(x)
R.
s(x) x, x 6= xn n.
, n, s(x) xn cn xn .
s(x) cn = 21n n (i) xn = n
n (ii) xn = 1 n1 n.
nx[nx]
10.1.24. +
.
n=1
n2
A s(x) R.
s(x) 1.
A s(x).
s(x).
x x = kl , k Z, l N gcd(k, l) = 1,
1
s(x) x la2 , a = +
m=1 m2 .
1
A s(x) [0, 1] 0 s(x) dx = a2 .
+ an
an
10.1.25. 4 +
n=1 nx0 .
n=1 nx .
s(x) [x0 , +).

+ an
an
limxx0 + +
n=1 nx0 .
n=1 nx =
s(x) (x0 , +).
1
10.1.26. +
n=1 nx .
x > 1 + x 1.
: (1, +) R - Riemann
:
1
(x) = +
x (1, +).
n=1 nx
.5
, a > 1, (x) [a, +).
(x) (1, +)
(log n)m
x (1, +) m N.
(m) (x) = (1)m +
n=1
nx
limx0+ (x) = + limx+ (x) = 1.
(x) (1, +).
10.1.27. 6 Dini: fn : [a, b] R [a, b]
..
s : [a, b] R [a, b]. +
n=1 fn = s [a, b] fn (x) 0
x [a, b] n, +
n=1 fn = s [a, b].
4
8.3.12.
- 12.3.7, 12.4.2 12.5.4.
6
9.2.25.
5
345
10.1.28. 7 fn , gn : A R sn = f1 + + fn .
[] n=1 |gn gn+1 |

A, gn 0
+
A (sn ) A. n=1 fn gn
A.
[]
n=1 |gn gn+1 | A, (g1 )
+
A.
n=1 n
+
n=1 fn gn A.
10.2 .
.
n=0 an (x
)n = a0 + a1 (x ) + a2 (x )2 + + an (x )n +
a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . .
a0 () an (x )n n.
n
10.2.1. +
n=0 0(x ) 0
x 0.
+
n =
0(x
)
, +
n=0 0 = 0 x.
n=0
n
10.2.2. +
n=0 1(x )
1 1 < x < 1 , , 1 < x < + 1
1
. ,
1(x)
+
n=0 (x
)n =
.
{
R =
1/,
+,
1
1(x)
n=0 an (x
x ( 1, + 1).
)n . = lim
|an |, 0 +,
0 < +
.
= 0
, [0, ].
n
10.6. +
n=0 an (x ) R . x ( R, + R) x
/ [ R, + R].
, x = R , , R = 0,
x = .
. 0 < R + , , 0 < +. |x | < R,
lim n |an (x )n | = |x | lim n |an | = |x | < 1,
n
, , +
n=0 an (x ) .
0 R < + , , 0 < +. |x | > R,
lim n |an (x )n | = |x | lim n |an | = |x | > 1,

.
n n |1| 1, = 1 R = 1. x = 1,
+
(x
)
n=0
+
n
+
(1)n .
n=0 1
n=0
+ (x)n
n=1 n2 n |1/n2 | 1, = 1 R = 1. x = 1,
+ (1)n
1
+
n=1 n2
n=1 n2 .
7
8.4.27.
346
(x)n
+
n |1/n| 1, = 1 R = 1. x = + 1,
n=1
n
+ (1)n
1
+
n=1 n , x = 1,
n=1
n
.
n (x) n |(1)n /n| 1, = 1 R = 1.

+
n=1 (1)
n
(1)n
x = + 1, +
, x = 1,
n=1
n
+ 1
n=1 n .
n
, , +
n=0 an (x ) R [0, +] : (i) R = +,
x (, +), (ii) R = 0,
x = x 6= (iii) 0 < R < +,
x ( R, + R) x
/ [ R, + R].
(iii) :
x I, I ( R, + R)
R. , I = ( R, + R) I = ( R, + R] I = [ R, + R) I =
[R, +R], . I = (,
(i)
+)
n
I = {} (ii), +
a
(x
)
n
n=0
x I.
. x I
s(x) =
n=0 an (x
)n
, , s : I R.
s : I R s : I R , ,
s I. I
.
n
10.2.3. +
n=0 (x )
I = ( 1, + 1). s : ( 1, + 1) R
1
.
s(x) = 1(x)
, s
I . , ,
f : A R, I A, I 6= A, f (x) = s(x) x I.
1
, f : R \ { + 1} R f (x) = 1(x)

s. , s f ,
( 1, + 1) R \ { + 1}.
(x)n
10.2.4. +
I = [ 1, + 1].
n=1
n2
(x)n
10.2.5. +
I = [ 1, + 1).
n=1
n
n
+
10.2.6. n=1 (1)n (x)
I = ( 1, + 1].
n
+ n
10.2.7. n=1 n (x )n n |nn | = n +,
1
R = +
= 0 {}.
1
n
n
10.2.8. +
|1/nn | = n1 0,
n=1 nn (x )
R = + (, +).
a
+

. n=0 an (x )n an 6= 0 n. 1 = lim n+1
an
{

1/1 , 0 < 1 +

2 = lim an+1
an , 0 1 2 +, R1 =
+, 1 = 0
{
1/2 , 0 < 2 +
R2 =
+, 2 = 0
347

n
10.3. +
n=0 an (x ) an 6= 0 n, R
R1 , R2 . R2 R R1 .
. ( ) R < R2 . R2 > 0, 2 < +.
x R < |x | < R2 .

(x)n+1
= |x | 2 < 1,
lim an+1
= |x | lim an+1
an
an (x)n
n
, , +
n=0 an (x ) . .
( ) R1 < R. R1 < +, 0 < 1 .
x R1 < |x | < R.

(x)n+1
= |x | 1 > 1,
lim an+1
= |x | lim an+1
an
an (x)n
. .
10.3

: , limn+ an+1
an ,
R1 = R2 , R = R1 = R2 .
10.7 10.6.
n
10.7. +
n=0 an (x ) s
I. s
I.
. 8 a, b I, a b.
, , |a | |b |.

|x | |b |
x [a, b].
(10.1)
sn (x) = nk=0 ak (x )k . , sn (x) s(x)

x [a, b] , , sn (b) s(b).
> 0. n0
|sn (b) s(b)|
n n0 .

5
gn (x) =
( x )n
(10.2)
(10.3)
x [a, b] n.
(10.4)
(10.1)
|gn (x)| 1
Abel 8.3 (10.2), (10.3) (10.4)

8
10.1[], Abel. ,
10.1[]. , ,
10.1, 10.1 .
348
x [a, b] n, m n > m n0
n
n

k
k

k=m+1 ak (x ) =
k=m+1 ak (b ) gk (x)
n
= k=m+1 sk (b)(gk (x) gk+1 (x))

+ sn (b)gn+1 (x) sm (b)gm+1 (x)

= nk=m+1 (sk (b) s(b))(gk (x) gk+1 (x))

+ (sn (b) s(b))gn+1 (x) (sm (b) s(b))gm+1 (x)
nk=m+1 |sk (b) s(b)|(gk (x) gk+1 (x))

+ |sn (b) s(b)||gn+1 (x)| + |sm (b) s(b)||gm+1 (x)|
n
k=m+1 5 (gk (x) gk+1 (x))
+

5

5
= 5 (gm+1 (x) gn+1 (x)) +
2
5
4
5
< .
n
, Cauchy, +
n=0 an (x ) s
[a, b].
, |b | |a |, .
10.7 , I. , ,
I.
1
n
10.2.9. +
n=0 x 1x
(1, 1). , 1
1x
[a, b] 1 < a b < 1.
xn
10.2.10. +
n=1 n s
, [1, 1). , s
[a, b] 1 a b < 1.
, 10.7, s
I. 10.7 1,
(1, 1) . ,
2. [1, 1)
10.7
[1, b], 1 b < 1 [a, b], 1 < a b < 1.
10.1.
10.7 Abel , ,
( ).
, , ,
10.7, :
n
+
n=0 an (x ) s
I. s
I.
, , [a, b] I.
x1 I |a | < |x1 | |b | < |x1 |. , , r =
max{|a |, |b |},
|x | r < |x1 |
349
x [a, b].
(10.5)

n
n
x1 I, +
n=0 an (x1 ) , an (x1 ) 0 , ,
M
|an (x1 )n | M
n.
(10.6)
Weierstrass, , (10.5) (10.6),

n
( r )n
M
|an (x )n | = |an (x1 )n | xx
|x1 |
1

( r )n
n=0 M |x1 |
=M
+ (
n=0
)n
r
|x1 |
< +
r
|x1 | < 1.
+
n=0 an (x

)n [a, b] .

.
n
10.8. +
n=0 an (x ) I.
s I I.
. I. a, b I a < < b.
s [a, b] , , an (x)n
[a, b], s [a, b]. [a, b], s
. : [a, b], s
.
I I. s
[, ] , an (x )n [, ], s
[, ] , , . ,
I I, s .
s I.
n
10.9. +
n=0 an (x ) I. s
I, a, b I
)
b
+ an (
n+1 (a )n+1 .
n=0 n+1 (b )
a s(x) dx =
. a, b I, a < b, s [a, b],
10.3.
a = b b < a a < b.
10.9
)
b ( +
b
+
n dx =
n
a
(x
)
a
n
n
n=0
n=0
a
a (x ) dx.
.
+
n
n1 .
10.10. +
n=0 an (x )
n=1 nan (x )
[] , R.
[] I, I 0 , , , I 0 I.
[], [] I 0
I.
[] R > 0, s I
I 0 I 0
. ,
n1
s0 (x) = +
x I 0 .
n=1 nan (x )
350
. [] = lim n |an | 0 = lim n |nan |.

= +, , , 0 . 0 < +.
x > ,
n
, y < y < x.
|an | < y , , n n 1,
n n < xy . n |an | < y n n < xy , ,

n
|nan | = n n n |an | < xy y = x. 0 x. x > ,
0 . 0 .
0 = +, ,
, 0 . 0 0 < +.
x > 0 .
n |nan | < x , n n > 1, n |an | < x. x.

x > 0 , 0 .
0 .
n
0 0 0 = , +
n=1 nan (x )
+
n
, R.
n=0 an (x )
n1 x ,
+
n=1 nan (x )
+
n
n=1 nan (x ) . x,
, R.
[,] R = 0, , , I 0 = I = {}. R > 0.
R, I,
I 0 .
I 0 , , I. a, b
n1
I 0 I a < < b. +
n=1 nan (x )
+
n
[a, b] n=0 an (x ) s
10.4, s [a, b]
[a, b]. n1
s0 (x) = +
na
(x
)
x
[a, b]. [a, b],
n
n=1
n1 . :
s s0 () = +
n=1 nan ( )
[a, b], s
.
+
n1
I 0 I 0 .
n=1 nan (x)
+
[, ]
n=0 an (x )n
n
x = . 10.4, +
n=0 an (x )
[, ]. ,
x = , +
, I. n=0 an (x )n s
[, ]., , 10.4, s [, ]
s0 (x) = +
nan (x )n1 x [, ]. , s
n=1
+
0
s () = n=1 nan ( )n1 .
I 0 .
I, I 0 10.10
: I , I 0
, I ,
I 0 , .
n1
s0 (x) = +
n=1 nan (x )
+
d +
d
n
n
n=0 an (x ) =
n=1 an dx (x )
dx
.
.
, , .
n
10.2.11. : +
n=0 x .
(1, 1), ,
10.8, s(x) (1, 1) (1, 1).
1
, s(x) = 1x
x (1, 1).
351

(1, 1) 10.10.
n1 10.10. +
n=1 nx
, , R = 1 , , (1, 1). ,
+ n1
1
0 (x) =
=
s
2
n=1 nx
(1x)
x (1, 1).9 ,
,
m!
nm
x (1, 1) m N.
= +
n=m n(n 1) (n m + 1)x
(1x)m+1
10.9,
+ 1 n
1
n+1 =
log(1 x) = +
x (1, 1)
n=0 n+1 x
n=1 n x
, ,
log x =
+
n=1
(1)n1
(x
n
1)n
x (0, 2).
(1)n1
10.2.12. : +
(x 1)n .
n=1
n
, ,
.

1
n |(1)n1 /n| =
1, R = 11 = 1
nn
1
1 1 = 0 1 + 1 = 2. x = 0 +
n=1 n
(1)n1
. x = 2 +
.
n=1
n
(0, 2].
s(x) =
+
n=1
(1)n1
(x
n
1)n
x (0, 2]
. s(x) (0, 2].

+
n=1 n
(1)n1
(x
n
1)n1 =
n1 (x
n=1 (1)
1)n1
10.10.
R = 1
n1
(1)
(0, 2) (0, 2]. x = 2 +
n=1
, (0, 2). s(x)
(0, 2)
0
1
1
n1 (x 1)n1 =
s0 (x) = +
n=1 (1)
1(1x) = x = log x
x (0, 2), s(x) log x (0, 2).
s(x) log x = s(1) log 1 = 0 , , s(x) = log x x (0, 2).
s(x) (0, 2],
+
n=1
(1)n1
n
,
log x =
= s(2) = limx2 s(x) = limx2 log x = log 2.
+
n=1
(1)n1
(x
n
1)n
x (0, 2].
(10.7)
, ,
x = 2.
log 2 =
9
+
n=1
(1)n1
n
=1
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
5
8.5.1, Cauchy .
352
.10
(10.7) . x
x + 1,
(1)n1 n
log(1 + x) = +
x
x (1, 1]
n=1
n
, x x,
1
1 n
log 1x
= +
x [1, 1)
n=1 n x
1 n
10.2.13. : +
n=0 n! x .
1
n 1/n! =
0, R = +
n
n!
(, +).
1 n
s(x) = +
x
n=0 n! x
. s(x) R
1 n1
1 n
s0 (x) = +
= +
n=1 n n! x
n=0 n! x = s(x)
x. f (x) = ex s(x)
f 0 (x) = ex s(x) + ex s0 (x) = 0
x. ex s(x) R, ex s(x) = e0 s(0) = 1 ,
, s(x) = ex x. ,
1 n
x.
ex = +
n=0 n! x
, , 8.5.3 .
10.2.14. , +
k=0
+ (1)k1 2k1
.
k=1 (2k1)! x
(1)k 2k
(2k)! x ,
: a2k1 = 0 a2k =
(1)k
1
2k1
n
2k
0
,
,
|a
|
=
0
|a
|
=
|an | 0,
2k1
2k
2k
(2k)!
(2k)!
R = + R.
. , ,
(1)k1 2k1
(1)k 2k
c(x) = +
s(x) = +
x
k=0 (2k)! x ,
k=1 (2k1)! x
. c(x), s(x) R
(1)k 2k1
(1)k1 2k2
c0 (x) = +
= s(x),
s0 (x) = +
= c(x)
k=0 2k (2k)! x
k=1 (2k 1) (2k1)! x
x.
f (x) = (c(x) cos x)2 + (s(x) sin x)2
f 0 (x) = 2(c(x) cos x)(s(x) + sin x) + 2(s(x) sin x)(c(x) cos x) = 0

x. f (x) R, (c(x) cos x)2 + (s(x) sin x)2 =
(c(0) cos 0)2 + (s(0) sin 0)2 = 0 x. c(x) = cos x s(x) = sin x
x. ,
(1)k 2k
(1)k1 2k1
cos x = +
sin x = +
x.
k=0 (2k)! x ,
k=1 (2k1)! x
10
6.4.11.
353
10.2.15. :
+
k=1
(1)k1 2k1
.
2k1 x
k1
: a2k1 = (1)
a2k = 0. ,
2k1
1
2k1
2k
n
|a2k1 | = 2k1
1
|a2k | = 0 0. lim |an | = 1,
2k1
R = 11 = 1 1 1. x = 1
+ (1)k1
(1)k1
+
k=1 2k1 . x = 1
k=1 2k1
. [1, 1].
s(x) =
+
k=1
(1)k1 2k1
2k1 x
x [1, 1]
. s(x) [1, 1].

+
k=1 (2k
k1
2k2 =
1) (1)
2k1 x
k 2k
k=0 (1) x

, , R =
+ 10.10.
k
1. x = 1 k=0 (1) . (1, 1). s(x) (1, 1)
+
1
k 2k =
2 k
0
s0 (x) = +
k=0 (1) x
k=0 (x ) = 1+x2 = arctan x
x (1, 1). , s(x)arctan x (1, 1),
s(x) arctan x = s(0) arctan 0 = 0 x (1, 1). s(x) =
arctan x x (1, 1) , s(x) [1, 1],
s(1) = lim s(x) = lim arctan x = arctan 1,
x1
s(1) =
,
arctan x =
lim s(x) =
x1+
+
k=1
x1
lim arctan x = arctan(1).
x1+
(1)k1 2k1
2k1 x
x [1, 1].
+
k=1
(1)k1
2k1
=1
1
3
1
5
1
7
+ .
() n
()
10.2.16. : +
n=0 n x , n

( )
() (1)(n+1)
n N.
0 = 1,
n =
n!
( )
( )
n m
n ,
n, m Z, 0 n m.
( )
, - , n = 0 n + 1,

( )
( )
( ) 1 ()
1 + 1 x + 2 x2 + + 1
x
+ x = (1 + x)
Z, 0, x R,
Newton. , - , x (, +).
( ) ()
- , n+1
/ n = | n
n+1 |
1, 1. : (1, 1),
(1, 1], [1, 1), [1, 1].
(i) 1, (1, 1), (ii) 1 < <
354
0, (1, 1] (iii) 0 -
, [1, 1].
10.1.11
10.1. , > 1, c1 , c2 > 0,
, ,
c1 n
(+1)(+2)(+n)
(+1)(+2)(+n)
c2 n
n N.
. 1 + x ex ,
(+1)(+2)(+n)
(+1)(+2)(+n)
= (1 +
+1 )(1
+2 ) (1
+n )
1
e +1 + +2 ++ +n = e()( +1 + +2 ++ +n ) .
(10.8)
, , (10.8)
(+1)(+2)(+n)
(+1)(+2)(+n)
e()( +1 +
1
1 +x
dx)
= e +1 ( +n
+1 )
, + n ( + 2)n,
(+1)(+2)(+n)
(+1)(+2)(+n)
n .
e +1 ( +2
+1 )
(10.9)
, (10.8)
(+1)(+2)(+n)
(+1)(+2)(+n)
e()
n+1
1
1
+x
dx
= ( +n+1
+1 )
, + n + 1 n,
(+1)(+2)(+n)
(+1)(+2)(+n)
1
n .
(+1)
(10.9) (10.10)
(10.10)
(+1)(+2)(+n)
(+1)(+2)(+n)
c2 n ,
1

c2 e +1 ( +2
1 <
+1 )
(+1)
1 < , . c2 ,
n.
, , . ,
, c1 = c12 .
( ) n
+
n=0 n x x = 1.
()
(i) x = 1, +
n=0 n .
( )
(ia ) < 0, n = (1)n ||(||+1)(||+n1)
n n!
.
( )
1, | n | 1 n, .
1 < < 0, ||(||+1)(||+n1)

n , 10.1,
n!
||(||+1)(||+n1)
1
c2 n1|| n, ||(||+1)(||+n1)
0. ,
n!
n!
( )
||(||+1)(||+n1)
1
. , 10.1, | n | =
c1 n1||
n!
n, .
11
6.4.11 7.3.20.
, , 8.3.9,
.
355
(ib ) 0, - , m < < m + 1,

m = [] - . n m + 2, 10.1,
( )
(m+1)(n1)
1
c2 (m)
| n | = (m)(m+1)(n1)
= (m)
n!
1(m+1)
(m+2)n
1(m+1) n1+ .
.
: 1 I, > 1, I, 1.
( )
n
(ii) x = 1, +
n=0 n (1) .
( )
1
(iia ) < 0, , 10.1, n (1)n = ||(||+1)(||+n1)
c1 n1||
n!
n, .
(iib ) 0, m < < m + 1, m = [] - .
n m + 1, 10.1,
( )
(m+1)(n1)
1
= (m)
c2 (m)
| n (1)n | = (m)(m+1)(n1)
n!
1(m+1)
(m+2)n
1(m+1) n1+ ,
.
: 1 I, 0, I, < 0.
s(x) I.
s(x) I .
(1) n
+ () n1
= +
n=0
n=1 n n x
n x
10.10.
(1, 1), s(x) (1, 1)
(1) n
s0 (x) = +
n=0
n x
x (1, 1). ,
(1 + x)s0 (x) = s(x)
x (1, 1).
f (x) = (1 + x) s(x)
(1, 1)
f 0 (x) = (1 + x)1 s(x) + (1 + x) s0 (x) = 0
x (1, 1). f (x) (1, 1) , ,
(1 + x) s(x) = (1 + 0) s(0) = 1. s(x) = (1 + x) x (1, 1).
I 1. > 1, 1 I
, s(x) I,
s(1) = lim s(x) = lim (1 + x) = 2 .
x1
x1
0 - , 1 I , ,
s(1) =
lim s(x) =
x1+
:
(1 + x) =
lim (1 + x) = 0.
x1+
+ ()
n=0 n
xn
(10.11)
(i) x (1, 1), 1, (ii) x (1, 1], 1 < < 0, (iii)

x [1, 1], 0 - .
356
(10.11) Newton.
:
n1 13(2n1) xn
1 + x = 1 + +
x [1, 1].
n=1 (1)
24(2n) 2n1
1
1+x
=1+
n=1 (1)
n 13(2n1) xn
24(2n)
x (1, 1].
.
10.2.1. 5.6.10 xn +.
n
10.2.2. +
n=0 (1x)x
, [0, 1]. ;
+
2 n
n
n
+
n=0 (1 x) x ,
n=0 (1) (1 x)x
+
n
n
n=0 x (1 x ) [0, 1];
+ 2 n + 3 n
n
10.2.3. +
n=1 nx ,
n=1 n x ,
n=1 n x .
10.2.4.
( n 3n )
+
+ 1 .
+
+
n
n
n
n
. n=0 2 x , n=0 2n x , n=0 n!x , n=1 2 + n xn ,
+ 1 n + (1)n1 n + 1 n + nn
+ 1 2n
nn
n
x , n=1 nn x , n=1 (n+1)n xn , +

n=1
n=1 n x ,
n=1 n2n x ,
n=1 (n+1)n+1 x ,
n+1
2
+ 1 2n1 + 1
n
n
+ 3
+
+
a
2
1
3n
n2
n
n
, n=0 2n +3n xn , +
n=1 x
n=1 n+3 x ,
n=1 n x ,
n=0 2 n x ,
n=1 (sin n )x ,
+ nsin an n
n=1 n x .
n
10.2.5. +
n=0 an (x) (an )
1
; ( an ) ;
+
n=0 an (an ) ,
+
an (x )n 1.
n=0
+
n
n=0 an , +
n=0 an (x )
1.
10.2.6. (an ) , a0 > 0 an 0 n.
+
a xn 1.
n=0
n

x (1, 1) a0 (1 x) +
an xn < a0 .
n=0
+
n
n=0 an x 6= 0 x (1, 1).
n
10.2.7. [] R > 0 +
n=0 an (x ) s(x)
( R, + R).
(n)
nm
s(m) (x) = m! +
x ( R, + R), m Z, m 0
n=m m an (x )
m Z, m 0.
n
[] R1 > 0 +
n=0 an,1 (x) s1 (x)

(n R1 , + R1 ). , , R2 > 0
+
n=0 an,2 (x ) s2 (x)
( R2 , + R2 ). s1 (x) s2 (x)
(, +) > 0, ,
an,1 = an,2 n.
n
10.2.8. R > 0 s(x) = +
n=0 an x x (R, R).
s(x) (R, R) an = 0
n N.
s(x) (R, R) an = 0
n Z, n 0.
s(m) () = m!am
357

+ 00
0
n
0
n
10.2.9.
+
n=0 an (x ) R ,
n=0 an (x )
+
00
0
00
n
R n=0 (an + an )(x ) R.
, R0 6= R00 , R = min{R0 , R00 } , R0 = R00 , R R0 = R00 .
R0 = R00
R > R0 = R00 .
n
10.2.10. 12 R > 0 s(x) = +
n=0 an (x ) x ( R, + R).
s(x), s() = 0 , , a0 = 0.
s(x) = 0 x ( R, + R) r 0 < r R
s(x) 6= 0 x ( r, + r) x 6= . ,
s(x) ;
p n
10.2.11. p, +
n=1 n x , s(x)
,
s .
13(2n1) n + 13(2n1) n
10.2.12. +
n=1 24(2n) x ,
n=1 14(3n2) x ,
+ ( 13(2n1) )2 n + ( 13(2n1) )3 n
x , n=1 24(2n) x .
n=1
24(2n)
10.2.13. 13
1+
ab
1c x
a(a+1)b(b+1) 2
12c(c+1) x
a(a+1)(a+2)b(b+1)(b+2) 3
x
123c(c+1)(c+2)
a, b, c. 10.1.
x 1
+
k1 x2k1 x (1, 1),
10.2.14. 0 1+t
2 dt =
k=1 (1)
2k1
1
1+t
2 . , x = 1.
10.2.15.
x
0
1
1t2
dt =
135(2k1)
k=1 2k1 (k1)!(2k1)2
x2k1 x (1, 1).

arcsin x =
135(2k1)
k=1 2k1 (k1)!(2k1)2
x2k1
1 x 1.
10.2.16. Newton a = 21 x2
x,
)
(
135(2k1)
k1
arcsinh x = log x + 1 + x2 = +
x2k1
k=1 (1)
2k1 (k1)!(2k1)2
1 x 1.
+ k
n
n
10.2.17. k N. +
n=0 an (x )
n=0 n an (x )
.
n . R > 0 ,
10.2.18. +
an (x )
n=0 {
}
n
P = r 0 +
n=0 |an |r < + [0, R] [0, R).
n
10.2.19. +
n=0 an x = s(x) x (1, 1). bn = a0 + a1 +
s(x)
n
+ an n Z, n 0, +
n=0 bn x = 1x x (1, 1).
() n
Newton (1 + x) = +
n=0 n x , .
12
5.2.8, 5.3.11 5.6.13.

F (a, b, c; x).
13
358

n
10.2.20. p, q, 0, +
n=0 an x .
an+2 +pan+1 +qan = 0 n Z, n 0. x
+(a1 +pa0 )x
a01+px+qx

2
p, q.
10.2.21. 14 +

Cauchy +
m=0 am
n=0
k=0 ck
bn+
+
+
b
.
, k=0 ck = m=0 am
n=0 n
+
10.2.22. 15 n=0
an (x )n R 0 < R +
(
R, + R), | | < R.
m (Z,)m 0
+
+ ( n )
n
nm
, bm = n=m m
an ( )nm
n=m m an ( )

m
(i) +
m=0 bm (x ) R | |
(ii) x |x | < R | | :
+
+
n
m
n=0 an (x ) =
m=0 bm (x ) .
+
n
10.2.23. 16 n=0
a
n (x ) R 0 < R +
+
a0 6= 0. m=0 bm (x )m R 0 < R +

+
+
n
m
n=0 an (x ) = 1
m=0 bm (x )
x |x | < min{R, R }.
n
10.2.24. 17 , +
n=0 an x R, n0 N
an = 0 n n0 (, ).
x2n1
10.2.25. 18 1+ +
n=1 135(2n1)
s(x) y 0 xy = 1
. s(x).
x3n
+
n=0 (3n)! s(x)
y 00 +y 0 +y = ex .
s(x).
2n x (1, 1). M
10.2.26. s(x) = +
n=0 x
M
|s0 (x)| 1|x|
x (1, 1).
n
10.2.27. 19 Tauber: +
n=0 an x
1 s(x)
(1, 1). nan 0
limx1 s(x) = p, +
n=0 an = p.
n
10.2.28. +
n=0 an x 1 s(x)
(1, 1). an > 0 n N,

+
n=0 an limx1 s(x) .
14
8.4 Mertens 8.5.4.

.
16
.
17
9.2.23.
18
7.2.13 7.2.14.
19
. Tauber .
15
359
10.3 Taylor.
n
+
n=0 an (x ) ,
. .
. f : A R A. I A ,
n

, +
n=0 an (x
)
+
+
n
f (x) = n=0 an (x ) x I, n=0 an (x )n
Taylor f .
1
10.3.1. 1x
(, 1) (1, +).
+ n
(1, 1)
0
n=0 x
+ n
+ n
1
n=0 x = 1x x (1, 1). , n=0 x Taylor
1
1x 0.
Taylor f , , .20 ,
10.2.7 ( 10.10)
(n)
Taylor f a0 = f () an = f n!() n.
10.11. f : A R, A, I A ,
, f I. x I
n
f (x) = f () +
f 0 ()
1! (x
f (n) ()
n! (x
) + +
)n + Rn, (x, ) Rn, (x),
Rn, (x, ) Schlmlich n Rn, (x)

n. Schlmlich n Lagrange
Cauchy n.
x I limn+ Rn, (x, ) = 0 limn+ Rn, (x) = 0, Taylor
f (n) ()
n
f +
n=0
n! (x ) . ,
f (x) =
+
n=0
f (n) ()
n! (x
)n
x I.
. 5.1 7.1.
: limn+ Rn, (x, ) 0 x I,
(
limn+ f () +
, ,
+
n=0
f (n) ()
n! (x
f 0 ()
1! (x
) + +
f (n) ()
n! (x
)
)n = f (x)
)n = f (x) x I.
.
Taylor .
10.2,
.
, , , ,
Taylor.21
10.3.2. P (x) = a0 + a1 x + + am xm
m .
20
21
Taylor f .
10.3.7 10.3.8.
360
x n m P (n+1) (x) = 0. Lagrange

(n+1)
Rn, (x, ) = P (n+1)!() (x )n+1 = 0, limn+ Rn, (x, ) = 0. Taylor

P
+
P (n) ()
n! (x
n=0
)n = P () +
P 0 ()
1! (x
) + +
P (m) ()
m! (x
)m

P (x) = P () +
P 0 ()
1! (x
P (m) ()
m! (x
) + +
)m
x.
x . ,
0
(m)
= 0, x P (x) = P (0) + P 1!(0) x + + P m!(0) xm .
n x
10.3.3. ex R ddxen = ex
n x
n. , ddxen (0) = 1 n, Taylor ex 0
+ 1 n
n=0 n! x .
Lagrange n ex 0
Rn,0 (x, ) =
x 0,
e
n+1
(n+1)! x
[0, x] [x, 0].
|Rn,0 (x, )| =
e
n+1
(n+1)! |x|
ex
n+1
(n+1)! |x|
|Rn,0 (x; )| =
e
n+1
(n+1)! |x|
1
n+1
(n+1)! |x|
0.
, x 0,
an! 0 2.3.25.
1 n
Taylor ex 0 +
n=0 n! x
ex =
1 n
n=0 n! x
x.
n
x
10.3.4. cos x R d dxcos
= cos x
n
dn cos x
sin x n. , dxn (0) = 1 0 1 0 , , n = 4k
4k + 1 4k + 2 4k + 3 k Z, k 0. Taylor cos x
(1)k 2k
0 +
k=0 (2k)! x .
Lagrange n cos x 0
Rn,0 (x, ) =
cos n+1
(n+1)! x
sin n+1
,
(n+1)! x
|Rn,0 (x, )|
|x|n+1
(n+1)!
, Taylor cos x 0
cos x =
[0, x] [x, 0].
0.
(1)k 2k
k=0 (2k)! x
(1)k 2k
k=0 (2k)! x
x.
Taylor sin x 0:
sin x =
(1)k1 2k1
k=1 (2k1)! x
361
x.
10.3.5. log(1 + x) (1, +)

n1
n
dn log(1+x)
= (1)(1+x)(n1)!
n. d log(1+x)
(0) = (1)n1 (n 1)!
n
dxn
dxn
n , , Taylor log(1 + x) (1, 1) (1, 1]
(1)n1 (n1)! n
(1)n1 n
0 +
x = +
x . 1
n=1
n=1
n!
n
1.
Lagrange 0
Rn,0 (x, ) =
(1)n n!
xn+1
(1+)n+1 (n+1)!
0 < x 1,
(1)n
xn+1 ,
(1+)n+1 (n+1)
|Rn,0 (x, )| =
xn+1
(1+)n+1 (n+1)
[0, x] [x, 0].

1
n+1
0.
Lagrange 1 < x 0,
0.
Rn,0 (x) =
1
n!
(1)n n!
0 (1+t)n+1 (x
t)n dt = (1)n
(xt)n
0 (1+t)n+1
dt.
1 < x 0,
0
|Rn,0 (x)| = x
(tx)n
(1+t)n+1
0
dt = x
(tx)n
(1+t)n+1
dt.
n
n
( tx
1+t ) |x| t [x, 0],
|Rn,0 (x)| |x|n
1
x 1+t
1
dt = |x|n log 1+x
0.
Taylor log(1 + x) 0
log(1 + x) =
+
n=1
+
n=1
(1)n1 n
x
n
(1)n1 n
x
n
x (1, 1].
,
log x =
+
n=1
(1)n1
(x
n
1)n
x (0, 2]
.
Taylor log(1 + x) 0 , 10.11. ,
10.11.
n
1(t)
= 1 + (t) + + (t)n1 ,
1+t
t 6= 1,
1
1+t
,
x
1
0 1+t
dt =
x
0
t
= 1 t + + (1)n1 tn1 + (1)n 1+t
.
1 dt
x
0
t dt + + (1)n1
x
0
tn1 dt + (1)n
tn
0 1+t
dt
x > 1,
log(1 + x) = x 12 x2 + +
x > 1.
0 x 1,

(1)n x
0
tn
1+t
x
dt = 0
tn
1+t
(1)n1 n
x
n
dt
362
x
0
+ (1)n
tn dt =
xn+1
n+1
tn
0 1+t
1
n+1
dt
0.
(10.12)
1 < x 0,

(1)n x tn dt = 0
0 1+t
x
(1)n
tn
0 1+t
|t|n
1+t
dt
1
1+x
0
x
|t|n dt =
|x|n+1
(n+1)(1+x)
1
(n+1)(1+x)
0.
dt 0, (10.12)
(1)n1 n
x
n
x 12 x2 + +
log(1 + x)
x (1, 1].
log(1 + x) =
+
n=1
(1)n1 n
x
n
x (1, 1].
10.3.6. Taylor arctan x 0

[1, 1]. ,
arctan x =
+
n=1
(1)n1 2n1
2n1 x
+
n=1
(1)n1 2n1
2n1 x
x [1, 1].
(10.13)
arctan x x21+1
10.11.
.
2 )n
1(t
= 1 t2 + + (1)n1 t2n2 ,
1+t2
1
1+t2
2n
t
= 1 t2 + + (1)n1 t2n2 + (1)n 1+t
2
t. ,
x 1
x
x 2
n1 x t2n2 dt + (1)n x
0 1+t2 dt = 0 1 dt 0 t dt + + (1)
0
0
t2n
1+t2
dt.

arctan x = x 13 x3 + +
|x| 1,

(1)n x
0
t2n
1+t2
|x|
dt = 0
t2n
1+t2
(1)n1 2n1
2n1 x
dt
|x|
0
+ (1)n
t2n dt =
|x|2n+1
2n+1
t2n
0 1+t2
dt.
1
2n+1
0.
x 31 x3 + 15 x5 +
(1)n1 2n1
2n1 x
arctan x
(10.13).
n
10.3.7. (1 + x) d (1+x)
= ( 1) ( n + 1)(1 + x)n
dxn
n
n. , 0 d (1+x)
(0) = ( 1) ( n + 1) n.
dxn
( ) n
(1)(n+1) n
Taylor (1 + x) 0 +
x = +
n=0
n=0 n x .
n!
- , (1 + x)
, ,
(
) (
) 1
( )
1 + 1 x + + 1
x
+ x .
( )
( ) 1 ()
(1 + x) = 1 + 1 x + + 1
x
+ x ,
Z, 0
Newton , , ,
, Taylor (1 + x) 0 R.

, Taylor (1 + x)
-
+ () n
0 n=0 n x . ,
( ) n
(1 + x) = +
n=0 n x
363
(i) x (1, 1), 1, (ii) x (1, 1], 1 < < 0, (iii)

x [1, 1], 0 - .
Lagrange
( )
n1
(1+)n1 xn+1 [0, x] [x, 0].
Rn,0 (x, ) = (1)(n)(1+)
xn+1 = n+1
(n+1)!
(i) x [0, 1], x 1 1 + 2 , ,
( )
(1 + ) ( x )n+1 .
|Rn,0 (x, )| = n+1
1+
(ia ) , a > 0, 10.1, n > []
( )
|Rn,0 (x, )| c2 []+1
(n [])1 2 0.
(ib ) 1 < < 0, , 10.1,
|Rn,0 (x, )| c2 (n + 1)1 0.
(ic ) x [0, 1) 1,
( ) n+1
x
c2 (n + 1)1 xn+1 0.
|Rn,0 (x, )| n+1
(ii) x (1, 0],
x
n1 (x t)n dt,
Rn,0 (x) = (1)(n)
n!
0 (1 + t)
(1 + t)n1 (t x)n dt (1)(n) |x|n 0 (1 + t)1 dt

|Rn,0 (x)| = (1)(n)
n!
n!
x
x

( )

= (1)(n) |x|n 1(1+x) = (n + 1) |x|n 1(1+x) .

n!
n+1
(iia ) > 0 n > [],

( )
0.
|Rn,0 (x)| c2 (n + 1) []+1
(n [])1 |x|n 1(1+x)
(iib ) < 0,
1
|Rn,0 (x)| c2 (n + 1) |x|n (1+x)
0.
||
( ) n
: (1 + x) = +
n=0 n x .
x = 1 > 0. , , 10.11, .
x (1, 0] (iia )

( )
( )
(
)
(1 + x) 1 x xn = |Rn,0 (x)| c2 (n + 1) (n [])1 |x|n 1(1+x) .

1
n
[]+1
x 1+

( )
( )
(
)
0 1 (1) (1)n c2 (n + 1) (n [])1 1 0
1
n
[]+1
+ ()
n=0 n
xn = (1 + x) .
.
10.3.1. Taylor (
)
+ 1 2n1 + 1 2n + n1 n + (1)n 2n
n n
, n=1 2n x , n=1 n! x , n=0 n! x ,
+
n=1 1 (2) x ,
n=1 2n1 x
+ (n+1)2 n +
+ 1 2n + (log a)n n + 1 x1 2n1
1
2n1
, n=1 (2n)! x , n=0 n! x , n=1 2n1 ( x+1 )
,
n=1
n=1 (2n1)! x
n! x ,
n1
2n1
+ (1)n1 x1 2n1 + (2n)! n +
2
+ (1)
n
, n=1 2n (n!)2 x , n=1 (1)n 147(3n2)
x2n .
n=1 2n1 ( x+1 )
n=1
369(3n) x ,
(2n)!
364
10.3.2. Taylor sin x cos x ,

sin x = sin cos(x ) + cos sin(x ),
cos x = cos cos(x ) sin sin(x ),
.
10.3.3. Taylor 0 cosh x =
ex +ex
2
sinh x =
10.3.4. Taylor 0 tan x,
ex ex
.
2
1
cos x ,
arcsin x, arccos x.
6 + (cos x)6 ,
10.3.5. Taylor 0 sin(x3 ), (sin x)3 , sin x sin(3x), (sin x)
1+x
1
ex
1
2
2
log 1x , log(1 + x + x ), 15x+6x2 , 1x , x arctan x 2 log(1 + x ), x arcsin x + 1 x2 .
10.3.6.
(1)n1
n=1 (2n)2 1 ,
(1)n1
n=1 (2n+1)2 1 .
{
e1/x , x > 0
10.3.7. 5.6.16 h(x) =

0,
x 0
h(n) (0) n
R h(n) (0) = 0 n. +
n=0
n! x Taylor h 0;
;
{
2
e1/x , x 6= 0
h(x) =
0,
x = 0
k cos(k 2 x) R
10.3.8. f (x) = +
k=1 e
+ f (n) (0) n
n=0 n! x x = 0.
10.3.9. f : I R I. f - I I r > 0 ( r, + r) I
f (n) ()
n
f (x) = +
n=0
n! (x ) x ( r, + r). , f
- I I f Taylor .
f : I R I. f
- I I J I
J M 0, > 0 |f (n) (x)| M n!n x J
n Z, n 0.
Bernstein: f : I R
I f (n) (x) 0 x I n Z, n 0. f
- I.
f : I R I
(1)n f (n) (x) 0 x I n Z, n 0. f I.
10.3.7 - (, 0)
(0, +) - 0. 10.3.8;
(1)k1 xk
10.3.10. x 1, +
= .
k=1
k
+ (1)k1 xk
x > 1, k=1
.
k
10.3.11. - .
( ) k
+
k=0 k x = + (i) < 0 x 1 (ii) > 0, []
x < 1.
( ) k
+
k=0 k x = > 0, [] x < 1.
( ) k
+
k=0 k x (i) x > 1 (ii) x = 1 1.
365
10.4 .
.

.
3.2, ,
, .

+
k x2k
k=0 (1) (2k)! ,
k=1 (1)
k1 x2k1 ,
(2k1)!
10.2 R.
, 10.2.14, , cos x
sin x. , , cos x, sin x ,
.
. cos : R R
sin : R R
. , :
cos x =
k x2k
k=0 (1) (2k)! ,
sin x =
k=1 (1)
k1 x2k1
(2k1)!
x R.
(10.14)
10.4. cos x sin x R

d cos x
dx
= sin x,
d sin x
dx
= cos x.
. 10.10 cos x, sin x R

(10.14)
cos0 x =
sin0 x =
k=1 (1)
k=1 (1)
k 2k x2k1
(2k)!
k1 (2k
k x2k1
k=1 (1) (2k1)!
2k2
x
1) (2k1)!
=
= sin x
k x2k
k=0 (1) (2k)!
= cos x
x R.
10.5. cos x , sin x cos 0 = 1 sin 0 = 0.
. (10.14).
10.6. [] x, y
cos(x + y) = cos x cos y sin x sin y,
sin(x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y.
[] x
(sin x)2 + (cos x)2 = 1.
[] x
| sin x| 1,
| cos x| 1.
366
(10.15)
. [] 22 y,
f (x) = cos(y x) cos x sin(y x) sin x,

f 0 (x) = sin(y x) cos x cos(y x) sin x + cos(y x) sin x sin(y x) cos x = 0
x. f R,
cos(y x) cos x sin(y x) sin x = cos(y 0) cos 0 sin(y 0) sin 0 = cos y.
x, y, y y + x
(10.15). (10.15)
x.
[] y = x (10.15) 10.5.
[] [].
, , cos x, sin x , ,
.
10.7. cos x = 0.
k 22k
. cos 0 = 1. , cos 2 = +
k=0 (1) (2k)! ,
k
m=0 (1)
m 22m
(2m)!
cos 2
k +.
k 4,
k
m=0 (1)
m 22m
(2m)!
=1
22
2!
24
4!
( 26
6!
28
8!
22k2
(2k2)!
22k
(2k)!
<1
22
2!
24
4!
= 13 ,
. cos 2 13 < 0.
cos x cos 2 < 0 < cos 0, (0, 2)
cos = 0. , 4.2.10,
cos x = 0.
. cos x = 0.
10.8. [] x
(
)
cos x + 2 = sin x, cos(x + ) = cos x,
(
)
cos x + 3
2 = sin x,
cos(x + 2) = cos x.
(10.16)
, cos x sin x 2.
[] cos x [0, 2 ), ( 2 , 3
2 )
3
( 2 , 2]. , cos 0 = cos(2) = 1, cos() = 1 cos( 2 ) = cos( 3

2 ) = 0.
[] sin x (0, ) (, 2). , sin 0 =
sin = sin(2) = 0, sin( 2 ) = 1 sin( 3
2 ) = 1.
[] cos x [0, ] [1, 1]
[, 2] [1, 1].
[] sin x [0, 2 ] [0, 1],
3
[ 2 , 3
2 ] [1, 1] [ 2 , 2]
[1, 0].
22
Cauchy ,
.
367
. cos x [0, 2 ) ,
[0, 2 ) , cos 0 = 1,
cos 2 = 0
cos x > 0 x [0, 2 ).
sin0 x = cos x > 0 x [0, 2 ) sin x

[0, 2 ]. ,
sin 0 = 0
sin x > 0
x (0, 2 ].
(sin 2 )2 + (cos 2 )2 = 1 sin 2 = 1 , sin 2 > 0,

sin 2 = 1. sin x , [0, 2 ]
[sin 0, sin 2 ] = [0, 1]. , cos0 x = sin x < 0 x (0, 2 ]
cos x [0, 2 ]. cos x ,
[0, 2 ] [cos 2 , cos 0] = [0, 1].
, (10.15) cos 0 = sin 2 = 1 cos 2 = sin 0 = 0
cos x sin x , 3
2 2 (10.16).
cos x sin x [0, 2 ],
3
cos x sin x [ 2 , ], [, 3
2 ] [ 2 , 2],
[0, 2].
10.9. a, b a2 + b2 = 1 x [0, 2) cos x = a
sin x = b.
. a, b 0 a2 + b2 = 1. , 0 a, b 1.
cos x [0, 2 ] [0, 1],
x [0, 2 ] cos x = a. (sin x)2 + (cos x)2 = 1 sin x = b ,
sin x 0, sin x = b. x ( 2 , 2) cos x = a sin x = b,
x ( 2 , 2) cos x sin x .
: a 0, b < 0 a < 0, b 0 a < 0, b < 0.
.
. 4 5
. , (10.17), , ,
, , . , ,
( ),
. .
10.10.
| sin x| |x|
|x| | tan x|
|x| < 2 .
(10.17)
. f (x) = x sin x, R.
f 0 (x) = 1 cos x 0 x, f . , x sin x =
f (x) f (0) = 0 x 0 x sin x = f (x) f (0) = 0 x 0.
| sin x| |x| x.
g(x) = x cos x sin x 2 < x < 2 . g 0 (x) =
x sin x 0 x ( 2 , 2 ), g ( 2 , 2 ). x cos x
sin x = g(x) g(0) = 0 x [0, 2 ) x cos x sin x = g(x) g(0) = 0
x ( 2 , 0]. |x| | tan x| x ( 2 , 2 ).
368
cos x sin x : ,
.
. tan x cot x cos x sin x
cos x sin x. .
.

. , , ,
. , ,
. , , .
, sin x, cos x, : cos0 x = sin x, sin0 x = cos x x R cos 0 = 1, sin 0 = 0.
10.11. f1 , g1 : R R f2 , g2 : R R :
(i) f1 0 = g1 g1 0 = f1 ,
(ii) f2 0 = g2 g2 0 = f2
(iii) f1 (0) = f2 (0) g1 (0) = g2 (0).
. , f1 = f2 g1 = g2 .
.
f (x) = ((f1 (x) f2 (x))2 + (g1 (x) g2 (x))2

f 0 (x) = 2(f1 (x) f2 (x))(g1 (x) + g2 (x)) + 2(g1 (x) g2 (x))(f1 (x) f2 (x)) = 0
x. f R,
(f1 (x) f2 (x))2 + (g1 (x) g2 (x))2 = (f1 (0) f2 (0))2 + (g1 (0) g2 (0))2 = 0
x. f1 (x) = f2 (x) g1 (x) = g2 (x) x.
.

. : arctan y, , tan x, , sin x cos x.
.
.
arctan y =
1
0 1+s2
ds
y.
, arctan : R R
1
R. 1+y
2 R, arctan y R
1
1+y 2
arctan0 y =
1
1+y 2
, arctan 0 = 0 , , arctan y R. arctan y R. ,

y 1
y
1
arctan(y) = 0 1+s
2 ds = 0 1+(s)2 ds = arctan y
369
y R.
y 1
1
y 1
arctan y = 0 1+s
2 ds = 0
1
1+s2
ds +
1
1 1+s2
ds
1
0
1 ds +
1
1 s2
ds = 1 + 1
1
y
2.
arctan y R , , limy+ arctan y

.
.
= 2 limy+ arctan y.
arctan y ,
limy arctan y = limy+ arctan(y) = limy+ arctan y = 2 .
arctan y ( 2 , 2 ).
. ,
tan : ( 2 , 2 ) R
tan : ( 2 , 2 ) R ( 2 , 2 )
R.
limx 2 + tan x = ,
limx 2 tan x = +.
, k Z, k 6= 0. x ( 2 + k, 2 + k) x k ( 2 , 2 ),
tan(xk). , tan x = tan(xk).
tan x ( 2 +k, 2 +k) k Z.
x ( 2 +k, 2 +k), xk ( 2 , 2 )
tan x ( 2 , 2 ) ( 2 + k, 2 + k).
, tan x ( 2 + k, 2 + k)
R :
tan : ( 2 + k, 2 + k) R
, limx( 2 +k)+ tan x = limx( 2
+k) tan x = +.
, , tan x kZ ( 2 + k, 2 + k) , ,
R \ { 2 + k | k Z} tan x
.
,
tan x ( 2 , 2 ). x ( 2 , 2 ) y = tan x R
tan0 x =
1
arctan0 y
1
1/(1+y 2 )
= 1 + y 2 = 1 + (tan x)2 .
, ( 2 + k, 2 + k) k Z. ,
tan0 x = 1 + (tan x)2 ,
x 6=
+ k k Z.
. , cos, sin : R R :
cos x =
sin x =
(1)k
1
1+(tan x)2
0,
2 + k < x <
x =
(1)k
(1)k ,
tan x
1+(tan x)2
370
+ k k Z
+ k k Z
2 + k < x <
x =
+ k k Z
+ k k Z
, , cos x, sin x. ,
(cos x)2 + (sin x)2 = 1 x, cos x, sin x
( 2 + k, 2 + k) k Z cos0 x = sin x
sin0 x = cos x . , ,
2 + k k Z cos0 x = sin x
sin0 x = cos x , , R.
.
.
10.4.1. cos x sin x ,
.
10.4.2. (, ) 6 , 4 3 .
10.4.3. :
(i) cos y = cos x y = x + k2 y = x + k2 k Z.
(ii) sin y = sin x y = x + k2 y = x + k2 k Z.
(iii) tan y = tan x y = x + k k Z.
(iv) cot y = cot x y = x + k k Z.
10.4.4. |a cos x + b sin x| a2 + b2 x.

10.4.5. a, b 0. p > 0
q a cos x + b sin x = p cos(x q) x.
371
372
11
.
11.1 . .
11.1.1. d N, d 2. Rd = R R d
d- :
{
}
Rd = R R = (x1 , . . . , xd ) | x1 , . . . , xd R .
, R2
R3
.
d = 1, R1 = R, R1
.
x, y R,

|x y|.
x = (x1 , x2 ), y = (y1 , y2 ) R2 ,

(x1 y1 )2 + (x2 y2 )2 .
, x = (x1 , x2 , x3 ), y = (y1 , y2 , y3 ) R3 ,

(x1 y1 )2 + (x2 y2 )2 + (x3 y3 )2 .

x, y
[x, y] , .
. , . ,
0 . , .
. ,
.
, , ,

. ,
. ,
Rd .
373
. x = (x1 , . . . , xd ) Rd x Rd

kxk2 = (x1 2 + + xd 2 )1/2 .
, x = (x1 , . . . , xd ), y = (y1 , . . . , yd ) Rd
x, y Rd
hx, yi = x1 y1 + + xd yd .
CAUCHY. x, y Rd
|hx, yi| kxk2 kyk2 .
. x = (x1 , . . . , xd ) y = (y1 , . . . , yd ), t R
ktx + yk2 2 = (tx1 + y1 )2 + + (txd + yd )2
= t2 (x1 2 + + xd 2 ) + 2t(x1 y1 + + xd yd ) + (y1 2 + + yd 2 )
(11.1)
= t kxk2 + 2thx, yi + kyk2 .

2
,
t2 kxk2 2 + 2thx, yi + kyk2 2 0
(11.2)
t R, (11.2) 0.
, 4hx, yi2 4kxk2 2 kyk2 2 0 , , |hx, yi| kxk2 kyk2 .
. x, y Rd
kx + yk2 kxk2 + kyk2 .
. (11.1) t = 1
kx + yk2 2 = kxk2 2 + 2hx, yi + kyk2 2 .
Cauchy
)2
(
kx + yk2 2 kxk2 2 + 2kxk2 kyk2 + kyk2 2 = kxk2 + kyk2 .
kx + yk2 kxk2 + kyk2 .
. x, y Rd
d2 (x, y) = kx yk2
d2 (x, y) = kx yk2 d 1, 2 3 .
11.1. x, y, z Rd :
[] 0 d2 (x, y) < +.
[] d2 (x, y) = 0 x = y.
[] d2 (x, y) = d2 (y, x).
[] d2 (x, y) d2 (x, z) + d2 (z, y).
. [], [], [] .
[] kx + yk2 kxk2 + kyk2 , x
x z y z y.
374
[] 11.1 [] .
. X - . X d
X X
d:X X R
:
(i) d(x, y) 0 x, y X.
(ii) x, y X : d(x, y) = 0 x = y.
(iii) d(x, y) = d(y, x) x, y X.
(iv) d(x, y) d(x, z) + d(z, y) x, y, z X.
(X, d) X
d , , X d. , d(x, y)
(x, y) x, y.
, - X . ,
R, R2 R3 , ,
. ,
R, R2 R3 . . : -
X d : X X R. , , X
X
d X.
11.1.2. d2 : Rd Rd R d2 (x, y) = kx yk2
Rd . 11.1
d2 Rd . (Rd , d2 ) d-
. Rd Rd
.
, Rd , R, R2 , R3 ,
Rd , Rd .
Rd .
Rd , .
11.1.3. - X d : X X R
:
{
0, x = y
d (x, y) =
1, x 6= y
d . (i), (ii), (iii)
. d (x, y) = 0, d (x, y) d (x, z) + d (z, y) , d (x, z)
0 d (z, y) 0. d (x, y) = 1, x 6= y, x, y
z , , d (x, z), d (z, y) 1
( 0). d (x, y) = 1 d (x, z) + d (z, y).
d X.
11.1.4. - A B(A)
f : A R. ,
B(A) = {f | f : A R }.
375
9.2
kf gkA = sup{|f (x) g(x)| | x A}
f, g : A R. f, g B(A), f, g
A, 0 kf gkA < +. , M, N R |f (x)| M
|g(x)| N x A,
|f (x) g(x)| |f (x)| + |g(x)| M + N
x A , , kf gkA M + N < +.
dA : B(A) B(A) R

dA (f, g) = kf gkA = sup{|f (x) g(x)| | x A}.
dA B(A).
, 9.2,
kf gkA kf hkA + kh gkA
f, g, h B(A). dA B(A). dA
B(A) 1 A.
.
11.1.1. R, R2 , R3 .
11.1.2. [] x, y R d d(x, y) = (x y)2 ,
|xy|
d(x, y) = |x y|1/2 , d(x, y) = |x2 y 2 |, d(x, y) = |x 2y| d(x, y) = 1+|xy|
.
d R;
(
)1/2
[] x = (x1 , x2 ), y = (y1 , y2 ) R2 d(x, y) = (x1 y1 )2 + 4(x2 y2 )2
.
2
d R ;
[] d(x, y) = |x1 y1 | x = (x1 , x2 , x3 ), y = (y1 , y2 , y3 ) R3 . d
R3 ;
11.1.3. x = (x1 , . . . , xd ) Rd p- x Rd
{
(|x1 |p + + |xd |p )1/p , 1 p < +
kxkp =
max{|x1 |, . . . , |xd |},
p = +
2- .
1 < p, q < + p1 + 1q = 1, 2 |hx, yi| kxkp kykq x, y Rd .
p = 1, q = + p = +, q = 1.
p- .3
dp : Rd Rd R dp (x, y) = kx ykp x, y Rd .
dp Rd . dp p- dp (x, y)
p- x, y.
p- () x Rd p [1, +];
p- () x, y Rd p
[1, +];
1
11.4.
Hlder 5.4.22 5.5.39.
3
Minkowski 5.4.22.
2
376
11.1.4. C([a, b]) f : [a, b] R. ,

C([a.b]) = {f | f : [a, b] R }.
f C([a, b]) p- f C([a, b])
{(
)1/p
b
|f (x)|p dx
,
1 p < +
a
kf kp =
max{|f (x)| | x [a, b]}, p = +
kf k = kf k[a,b] .
, f, g C([a, b])
hf, gi =
b
a
f (x)g(x) dx.
1 < p, q < + p1 + 1q = 1, 4 |hf, gi| kf kp kgkq f, g

C([a, b]). p = 1, q = + p = +, q = 1.
p- .5
dp : C([a, b])C([a, b]) R dp (f, g) = kf gkp f, g C([a, b]).
dp C([a, b]). dp p-
dp (f, g) p- f, g.
11.1.5.
1 pp < +. lp x = (xn )
+
n=1 |xn | < +. ,
p
lp = {(xn ) | +
n=1 |xn | < +}.
p = +, l x = (xn ),
sup{|xn | | n N} < +. ,
l = {(xn ) | sup{|xn | | n N} < +}.
x = (xn ) lp p- x lp
{(
)1/p
+
|xn |p
, 1 p < +
n=1
kxkp =
sup{|xn | | n N}, p = +
1 < p, q < +
6
1
p
1
q
= 1 p = 1, q = + p = +, q = 1
hx, yi =
n=1 xn yn
x = (xn ) lp y = (yn ) lq . hx, yi

|hx, yi| kxkp kykq x lp y lq .
p- .7
dp : lp lp R dp (x, y) = kx ykp x, y lp .
dp lp . dp p- dp (x, y)
p- x, y.
11.1.6. (X, d) - W X. d : X X R W W . , x, y W d(x, y)
d : W W R d(x, y) d : X X R.
d : W W R W .
d : W W R W (W, d)
(X, d).
4
Hlder 6.4.17.
Minkowski 6.4.17.
6
Hlder 6.4.17.
7
Minkowski 8.3.23.
5
377
11.2 , , .
. (X, d) . x X r > 0, r- x
x r Nx (r)
Nx (r) = {y X | d(y, x) < r}.

N x (r) = {y X | d(y, x) r}.
r- .
11.2.1. R . , x R r > 0,
Nx (r) x
r, (x r, x + r). , N x (r)
[x r, x + r].
R2 x R2 r > 0
x r, x
r .
x r .
R3 x R3 r > 0
x r, x
r . x
r .
R2 R3 , ,
.
, Rd (d-) x r Nx (r).
11.2.2. - X d . d
0 1. x X Nx (r) = {x}, 0 < r 1, Nx (r) = X, r > 1.
, N x (r) = {x}, 0 < r < 1, N x (r) = X, r 1.

.
11.1. (X, d) X.
(, ,
) .
. x, y X x 6= y. d(x, y) > 0
r=
1
2
d(x, y) > 0.

Nx (r) Ny (r) = .
( ) z Nx (r) Ny (r). d(z, x) < r d(z, y) < r
, ,
2r = d(x, y) d(x, z) + d(z, y) = d(z, x) + d(z, y) < r + r = 2r,
.
A X, A X X \ A Ac .
Ac , X \ A
( ) X A.
378
. (X, d) , A X x X.
x A r > 0 Nx (r) A.
x A r > 0 Nx (r) Ac .
x A r > 0 Nx (r) A 6=
Nx (r) Ac 6= .
x A r > 0 Nx (r) A 6= .
x A r > 0 (Nx (r) \ {x}) A 6= .
, 1 - 7 .
1. A A A Ac .
2. A A , ,
X : ,
, A. X :
, A.
3. A Ac .
A Ac . A
Ac .
4. A A A Ac ,
A.
A: ( , , )
A ( , , ) Ac .
5. A A.
A A.
6. A A A
A A.
7. x A A \ {x}.
(Nx (r) \ {x}) A = Nx (r) (A \ {x}).
. (X, d) A X.
A = {x X | x A},
A = {x X | x A},
A = {x X | x A},
A0 = {x X | x A}.
A A, A A, A A A0 A.
11.2.3. R .
A (a, b), (a, b], [a, b), [a, b], A = (a, b), A = {a, b}
A = A0 = [a, b].
A [a, +) (a, +), A = (a, +), A = {a} A = A0 = [a, +).
A (, b] (, b), A = (, b), A = {b} A = A0 = (, b].
A = {a}, A = , A = {a}, A = {a} A0 = .
A = (a, b) (b, c), A = (a, b) (b, c), A = {a, b, c} A = A0 = [a, c].
A = {a} (b, c), a < b < c, A = (b, c), A = {a, b, c}, A = {a} [b, c]
A0 = [b, c].
Q ,
. , Q , ,
. Q = . , Q
, Q ,
, Q = Q0 = R. , Q Qc .
, Q, Q = R.
(Qc ) = , Qc = (Qc )0 = R (Qc ) = R.
379
11.2.4. a Rd , a 6= 0 a R.
= {x Rd | hx, ai = a}
Rd Rd . d = 1 R
, d = 2 R2 d = 3
R3 .
hx, ai = x1 a1 + + xd ad = a
.
A1 = {x Rd | hx, ai > a},
A2 = {x Rd | hx, ai < a}
Rd .
A1 = {x Rd | hx, ai a},
A2 = {x Rd | hx, ai a}
Rd .
x A1 , hx, ai > a.
= hx, ai a > 0
r=
kak2
> 0.
y Nx (r) ky xk2 < r,

|hy x, ai| ky xk2 kak2 < rkak2 =
, ,
hy, ai = hy x, ai + hx, ai > + hx, ai = a.
y Nx (r) y A1 Nx (r) A1 .
A1 A1 .
, A2 A2 . ( ,
A2 A1 a a
a a, hx, ai < a A2
hx, ai > a.) , A2 A1 .
, A1 A2 .
, x , hx, ai = a r > 0
r
a, Nx (r) A1 Nx (r) A2 .
x 2kak
2
r
a
, x + 2kak
2
(

)

r
r
x + r a x = r kak2 < r,
x
+
a,
a
= hx, ai + 2kak
ha, ai = a + 2r kak2 > a,
2kak2
2kak
2kak
2
2
2
2
r
Nx (r) A1 . , x 2kak
a Nx (r) A2 .
2
, r > 0 Nx (r) A1 6= Nx (r) A2 6= .
A1 = A1 , A1 = A1 = A1 .
, (A1 ) = A1 , (A1 ) = A1 = A1 .
A2 A2 .
, = , = = .
11.2.5. R2 : A1
, A2
. (
11.2.4) ( , ).
A A1 . A = A1 , A = A1
A = .
A = . A = , A = A = .
, A , A = .
380
11.2.6. R3
: A1 ,
A2 .
( 11.2.4), ,
.
A A1 , A = A1 , A = A1
A = .
, A = , A = , A = A = .
A , A = .
11.2.7. - X d A X.
x A, Nx (1) = {x} A. x A A.
, x Ac A. , x X
A. , x A, Nx (1) \ {x} = ,
Nx (1) \ {x} A. A X
A = A = A A0 = A = .
11.2. (X, d) A X.
[] A = (Ac ).
[] A = A \ A.
[] A = A A.
[] A = A A0 .
[] (A)c = (Ac ) .
. [] A Ac .
[] x X A, A
A. A A \ A. , x A
A, A. A \ A A .
[] x X A, A (
A) A. A A A. , x A
A, A
A, A. A A A.
[] x X A, A A ,
, A. A A A0 . ,
x A A,
A. A A0 A.
[] x X A A
Ac .
. (X, d) A X.
A .
A .
11.2.8. R : (a, b), [a, b], [a, b), (a, b],
(a, +), [a, +), (, b), (, b], (, +).
R : (a, b), (a, +), (, b),
(, +). : [a, b], [a, +), (, b], (, +).

.
[a, b), (a, b] .
. ,
.
381
11.2.9. 11.2.4 A1 A2
Rd A1 A2
Rd .
11.2.10. 11.2.5 A1 A2
A1 , A2 .
11.2.11. 11.2.6 A1 A2
A1 , A2 .
11.2.12. - X d .
11.2.7, A X .
11.3. (X, d).
[] X .
[] X .
[] r- .
[] r- .
[] X .
. [] x X r > 0 Nx (r) X. x X
X, X .
, x . ,
, x . .
[] X , , , .
X .
x X , r > 0 Nx (r) 6= ,
. x X . ,
. ,
.
[] x X r > 0. y Nx (r). s > 0
Ny (s) Nx (r).
y Nx (r), d(y, x) < r
s = r d(y, x) > 0.
w Ny (s), d(w, y) < s,
d(w, x) d(w, y) + d(y, x) < s + d(y, x) = r
, , w Nx (r). Ny (s) Nx (r).
, , y Nx (r) y Nx (r).
y Nx (r) Nx (r), Nx (r) .
[] x X r > 0 y N x (r).
> 0 z N x (r) Ny ().
d(y, x) d(y, z) + d(z, x) < + r
, > 0, d(y, x) r , , y N x (r).
N x (r) , .
[] A = {x1 , . . . , xn } X. x Ac , d(x, x1 ) > 0, . . . , d(x, xn ) > 0.

r = min{d(x, x1 ), . . . , d(x, xn )} > 0.
x1 , . . . , xn Nx (r) , , Nx (r) Ac . x Ac
A. , A
.
382
11.4. (X, d) A X.
[] A A A = .
[] A A A.
. [] A . A
.
[] A ,
A, . A
.
11.5. (X, d) A X. A
Ac .
. . A A
A Ac
A Ac A Ac
Ac Ac .
, :
A Ac .
11.6. (X, d) A X.
[] A A.
[] A A.
[] A A = A.
[] A A = A.
. [] A A.
, A .
x A r > 0. x
A, y A Nx (r). , Nx (r) ,
s > 0 Ny (s) Nx (r). , y A,
w A Ny (s) , , Nx (r).
r > 0 w A Nx (r). x
A, x A.
A A, A .
, A A.
B A B.
x A, A. r > 0 Nx (r) A 6= ,
, A B, Nx (r) B 6= . x B ,
B , x B.
x A x B, A B.
[] , A A.
, A .
x A , A. r > 0 Nx (r) A.
y Nx (r) s > 0 Ny (s) Nx (r) , , Ny (s) A , ,
y A. y Nx (r) A,
y A . Nx (r) A , x A .
x A A , A .
, A A.
B B A.
383
x B. B , x B,
r > 0 Nx (r) B , , Nx (r) A. x A,
x A .
x B x A , B A .
[] [] [] [], .
A
.
/ A A
{A | A }. , x A A x A
A .

/ A A {A | A }.
, x A A x A A .
(, , ) .
A . = {A | }. , A

A = A

. ,
A
,
,
A
{A | }
A
A

A {A | }, . ,

= {1,
. . . , n} n, nk=1 Ak A1 An nk=1
Ak A1 An .
+
+ N, k=1 Ak A1 An
k=1 Ak A1 A2 .
11.1. (X, d).
[] X
M , M = A A. M .
[] A1 , . . . , An X M ,
M = A1 An . M .
[] X M
, M = A A. M .
[] A1 , . . . , An X ,
M = A1 An . M .
. [] x M . A x A. A ,
Nx (r) x Nx (r) A. , Nx (r) M , x
M .
[] x M , x A1 , . . . , x An . Ak ,
Nx (r1 ) A1 , . . . , Nx (rn ) An .
r = min{r1 , . . . , rn },
Nx (r) Nx (r1 ) A1 , . . . , Nx (r) Nx (rn ) An . Nx (r) A1 An = M ,
x M .
[] M c = A Ac , A Ac .
M .
[] M c = A1 c An c , A1 c , . . . , An c . M
.
11.2.13. R.
11.2.14. R.
384
11.2.15. R A = {1, 12 , 13 , . . .}.
1
1
c
Ac = (, 0] (1, +) +
n=1 ( n+1 , n ). 0 A
c
c
0 A . A , ,
A .
, 0 A , , 0
A. , 0 A, A .
11.2.16. R B = {0, 1, 12 , 13 , . . .}. , B c = (, 0)
1
1
(1, +) +
n=1 ( n+1 , n ), , , . B
.
11.2.17. ,

.
, R, An = (0, 1) n, +
n=1 An
= (0, 1),
. , An = (1 1/n, 1 + 1/n) n, +
n=1 An = [1, 1],
.

.
+
, R, An = [1, 1] n, n=1 An =
[1, 1],
, , An = [1 + 1/n, 1 1/n] n, +
n=1 An = (1, 1),
o.
11.2.18.
(a1 , b1 ) (ad , bd ) = {(x1 , . . . , xd ) | ak < xk < bk k = 1, . . . , d}
Rd
. k = 1, . . . , d ek Rd 0 k- 1,
2d
:
)
d (
d
d
k=1 {x R | hx, ek i > ak } {x R | hx, ek i < bk } .
, Rd .
,
[a1 , b1 ] [ad , bd ] = {(x1 , . . . , xd ) | ak xk bk k = 1, . . . , d}
Rd
. , 2d
)
d (
d | hx, e i a } {x Rd | hx, e i b } ,
{x
R
k
k
k
k
k=1

Rd .
.
11.2.1. - R
. R
.
11.2.2. R;
A R \ A,
R, N, Q, R \ Q,
( A
)
R \ {1/n | n N}, R \ {0} {1/n | n N} .
, ,
.
385
11.2.3. R2 ;
A R2 \ A, A R2 , {(x1 , x2 ) | x1 > 0},
{(x1 , (x2 ) | x1 x2 > 1}, {(x1 , x2 ) | x1 x2 1},
R2 \ {(n, 0) | n N}, R2 \ {(1/n, 0) | n N},
)
R2 \ {(0, 0)} {(1/n, 1/m) | n, m N} , {(x1 , 0) | a x1 b}, ({(x1 , 0) | a < x1 < b},
)
2
2
2
2
2
R2 \{(x
1 , 0) | a x1 b}, R \{(x1 ,)0) | a < x1 < b}, Q , R \Q , R \ [0, 1]){1/n | n N} ,
(
R2 \ [0, 1] ({0} {1/n | n N}) .
, ,
.
11.2.4. R3 ;
A R3 \ A, A R3 , {(x1 , x2 , x3 ) | x1 +
x2 + (x3 > 1}, {(x1 , x2 , x3 ) | x1 2 + x2)2 < x3 }, {(x1 , x2 , x3 ) | x1 > 0}, R3 \ {(n, 0, 1) | n N},
R3 \ {(0, 0, 0)} {( n1 , 0, 0) | n N} , {(x1 , 0, 0) | a < x1 < b}, R3 \ {(x1 , 0, 0) | a x1 b},
Q3 , R3 \ Q3 , R3 \ {(x1 , x2 , 0) | a x1 b, c x2 d}.
, ,
.
11.2.5. Rd p- dp 1 p +.
d = 1 dp .
d = 2
p 1 +. ,
p = 1, p = 2 p = +.
d = 3.
11.2.6. A - R, sup A A.
, A - , inf A A.
11.2.7. R R2
.
11.2.8. [] I0 = [0, 1]. I1 = [0, 31 ][ 23 , 1].
, , , 13
I0 . I1 . , I2 =
[0, 91 ] [ 29 , 13 ] [ 23 , 79 ] [ 89 , 1]. , I3 , I4 , . . . . , ,
In ,
: , , 13
. C = +
n=1 In . To C Cantor.
In
;
C .
C , , C = .
R \ C .
C .
[]
R2):
) (Cantor
(
) I(0 = [0, 1] [0,
) 1],
( 1
1
1
I1 = [0, 3 ] [0, 3 ] [0, 3 ] [ 23 , 1] [ 23 , 1] [0, 31 ] [ 23 , 1] [ 32 , 1]
I2 , I3 , . . . .
In .
; In
;
2
C = +
n=1 In C R .
C , C = .
386
11.2.9. (X, d).

x X.
r>0 Nx (r)
= X
r>0 Nx (r)
= {x}
11.2.10. (X, d), A X x X. : x

A x A.
11.2.11. (X, d), x X r > 0. Nx (r) N x (r).
Rd Nx (r) = N x (r).
Nx (r) = N x (r); , , - X d Nx (1) N x (1).
11.2.12. (X, d), A X B X.
A \ B B \ A .
11.2.13. (X, d) A X. A = A X \ A A =
A \ A .
11.2.14. (X, d) A, B, A1 , . . . , An X X.
[] A B, A B A B.
[] (A ) = A (A) = A.
[] (A1 An ) = A1 An A1 An = A1 An .
( A A) A A A A A A.
R ( A A) 6= A A .
R A A 6= A A.
[] ( A A) A A A A A A.
A, B R (A B) 6= A B . A, B
R A B 6= A B.
[] A (A) (A ) A.
A R A 6= (A) . A R (A ) 6= A.
11.2.15. (X, d) A X. : A
A0 A.
11.2.16. (X, d) A, B X.
[] A0 .
[] A0 = (A)0 . , A A .
[] A B, A0 B 0 .
[] (A0 )0 A0 .
A R (A0 )0 6= A0 .
11.2.17. (X, d) A, B X.
A = B = A , (A B) = .
A B R A = B = (A B) = R.
11.2.18. (X, d) A, B X.
[] A , (A) = .
A R (A) = R.
[] (A B) A B.
A B = , (A B) = A B.
A, B R (A B) 6= A B.
387
11.2.19. (X, d), - A X x X.

x A d(x, A) = inf{d(x, y) | y A}.
d(x, A) = 0 x A.
11.2.20. (X, d), - A X r > 0. r- A

NA (r) = {x X | y A d(y, x) < r} = {x X | Nx (r) A 6= }.
NA (r) = xA Nx (r).
, R NA (r) r > 0 A : {1}, [0, 1],
(0, 1), {0, 1}, N, Q { n1 | n N};
NA (r) A NA (r).
1
A , A = +
n=1 NA ( n ). -
.
(
)
11.2.21.
B [0, 1] f
(
)
B [0, 1] f (x) = x2 x [0, 1].
f r > 0.
(
)
11.2.22.
B [0, 1] f
{
(
)
0, 0 x 1/3
B [0, 1] f (x) =

1, 1/3 < x 1
f r 21 [0, 1] 13 . ,
, f r > 21
[0, 1].
11.2.23. A Rd , x, y A t (0, 1)
tx + (1 t)y A. R2 R3 ;
R .
d- ( ) , d- ( )
, ( )
Rd .
A Rd , A A Rd .
11.2.24. [] (X, d) A X. A , A = X.
A Nx (r) x X A.
Q R; Q2 R2 ; Qd Rd ;
- X d .
[] (X, d) ,
X.
R ; Rd ;
- X d , X .
[] (X, d) A X x X. x A, r > 0 Nx (r)
A.
A , A .
A P A,
P 0 = P A \ P .
388
[] (X, d) P X. P , P 0 = P .
R.
(X, d) A X ,
P Z A = P Z P Z = .
11.2.25. [] - X d1 d2 X.
A X (X, d1 )
(X, d2 ) , , A X (X, d2 )
(X, d1 ).
d1 d2 A X
(X, d1 ) (X, d2 ) , , A X
(X, d2 ) (X, d1 ).
X - .
X .
Nxd1 (r) Nxd2 (r) x X (X, d1 )
(X, d2 ), . (i), (ii) .
(i) d1 d2 .
(ii) x X > 0 > 0 Nxd1 () Nxd2 () , ,
x X > 0 > 0 Nxd2 () Nxd1 ().
d(x,y)
[] (X, d). d0 : X X R d0 (x, y) = d(x,y)+1

x, y X.
d0 X d.
[] 11.1.3. p1 , p2 [1, +] p1 - p2 -
Rd .
11.2.26. 11.1.6. (X, d) - W X.

[] x W NxX (r) r- x (X, d) NxW (r)
r- x (W, d), NxW (r) = NxX (r) W .
[] A = (0, 1] W = (0, 1] R.
A0 = (0, 1], A = (0, 1] A = .
[] A W . A (W, d)
B (X, d) A = B W . A
(W, d) B (X, d) A = B W .
[] A W . A,X A (X, d) A,W
A (W, d), A,X A,W .
X
[] A W . A A (X, d) A
W
X
A (W, d), A = A W .
[] A W . X A A (X, d) W A
A (W, d), W A X A W .
11.3 .
. (X, d) A X x0 X A.
( ) x A,
x0 r > 0 x A 0 < d(x, x0 ) < r ,
, x (Nx0 (r) \ {x0 }) A.
:
x A x0
389
, , x0 , x0 .
, r1 > 0 x A 0 < d(x, x0 ) < r1
r2 > 0 x A 0 < d(x, x0 ) < r2 .
r = min{r1 , r2 } > 0
x A 0 < d(x, x0 ) < r 0 < d(x, x0 ) < r1 0 < d(x, x0 ) <
r2 , , .
. (X, d) (Y, ), A X, f : A Y , x0 X -
A y0 Y . y0 f x0 ,
y0 = limxx0 f (x),
> 0 > 0 f (x) Ny0 () x (Nx0 () \ {x0 }) A

, , > 0 > 0 (f (x), y0 ) < x A
0 < d(x, x0 ) < , , > 0 (f (x), y0 ) < x0 .

3.2 (X, d) (Y, ) R.
11.3.1. - X
d . X ,
X .
11.7. (X, d) (Y, ), A X, f : A Y x0 X
A. Y f x0 , .
. y00 = limxx0 f (x) y000 = limxx0 f (x), y00 y000
Y , ( ) y00 6= y000 .
11.1, > 0 Ny00 () Ny000 () = .
f (x) Ny00 () x0 , , f (x) Ny000 () x0 .
f (x) Ny00 () f (x) Ny000 () x0 .
11.7, .

4.1 (X, d) (Y, ) R.
. (X, d) (Y, ), A X, f : A Y x0 A. f
x0 > 0 > 0 f (x) Nf (x0 ) ()

x Nx0 () A , , > 0 > 0 (f (x), f (x0 )) <
x A d(x, x0 ) < .
x0 A A (
A), 8 ,
R, f x0 . , x0 A
A, f x0 limxx0 f (x) = f (x0 ).
. (X, d) (Y, ), A X f : A Y . f
A A.
8
11.3.2.
390
11.2. 9 (X, d) (Y, ), A X f : A Y .

:
(i) f A.
(ii) W Y U X f 1 (W ) = U A.
(iii) F Y G X f 1 (F ) = G A.
. [i ii]. W Y x f 1 (W ), f (x) W .
W , x > 0
Nf (x) (x ) W.
, f x, x > 0
f (x0 ) Nf (x) (x )
x0 Nx (x ) A.
f (x0 ) W , , x0 f 1 (W ) x0 Nx (x ) A.
Nx (x ) A f 1 (W )

U=
x f 1 (W ).
xf 1 (W ) Nx (x ).
(11.3)
(11.4)
U X, ,
X.
(11.3) (11.4)
(
)
(11.5)
U A = xf 1 (W ) Nx (x ) A f 1 (W ).
, x f 1 (W ) , , x A. ,
(11.4), x f 1 (W ) x U .
f 1 (W ) U A.
(11.6)
(11.5) (11.6) f 1 (W ) = U A.
[ii i]. x A f x.
> 0. Nf (x) () Y , U X
(
)
f 1 Nf (x) () = U A.
(11.7)
(
)
f (x) Nf (x) (), x f 1 Nf (x) () = U A , , x U . U
X, > 0 Nx () U . (11.7)
(
)
Nx () A f 1 Nf (x) () .
(
)
x0 Nx () A x0 f 1 Nf (x) () , , f (x0 ) Nf (x) ().
f x.
[ii iii]. F Y . W = Y \ F Y ,
U X f 1 (W ) = U A. G = X \ U
X
f 1 (F ) = f 1 (Y \ W ) = A \ f 1 (W ) = A \ (U A) = (X \ U ) A = G A.
9
. 11.1.6
11.2.12 ( []). (ii) : W (Y, ) f 1 (W )
(A, d). (iii) : W (Y, ) f 1 (W )
(A, d).
391
[iii ii]. W Y . F = Y \ W Y ,
G X f 1 (F ) = G A. U = X \ G X
f 1 (W ) = f 1 (Y \ F ) = A \ f 1 (F ) = A \ (G A) = (X \ G) A = U A.
11.3.2.
. R.
A (X, d), f : A R A a, b R.
A f X,
{x A | a < f (x)} = f 1 ((a, +)),
{x A | f (x) < b} = f 1 ((, b)),
{x A | a < f (x) < b} = f 1 ((a, b))

X.
, (a, +) R, U X
f 1 ((a, +)) = U A. A X,
f 1 ((a, +)) = U A X.
.
A f X,
{x A | a f (x)} = f 1 ([a, +)),
{x A | f (x) b} = f 1 ((, b]),
{x A | a f (x) b} = f 1 ([a, b])

X.
, ,
R.
, ,
f : A R A .
.
11.8. (X, d), (Y, ) (Z, ) , A X, B Y , x0 A,
f : A B g : B Z. f x0 g y0 = f (x0 ),
g f : A Z x0 .
. > 0. 0 > 0
(g(y), g(y0 )) <
y B (y, y0 ) < 0 .
(11.8)
, > 0
(f (x), y0 ) = (f (x), f (x0 )) < 0
x A d(x, x0 ) < .
(11.9)
(11.9) (11.8) y = f (x) x A d(x, x0 ) <

(g(f (x)), g(f (x0 ))) < . g f : A Z x0 .
11.9. (X, d), A X, x0 A f, g : A R
x0 . :
[] f + g : A R x0 , R.
[] f g : A R x0 .
[] B = {x A | g(x) 6= 0} g(x0 ) 6= 0, g1 : B R x0 .
392
. x0 A, x0 . x0 A.

[] > 0. |f (x) f (x0 )| < 2(||+1)
|g(x) g(x0 )| < 2(||+1)
x0 .

(f (x) + g(x)) (f (x0 ) + g(x0 )) |||f (x) f (x0 )| + |||g(x) g(x0 )|

|| 2(||+1)
+ || 2(||+1)
<

2

2
=
x0 , f + g : A R x0 .
[] > 0
}
{
1 = min ( 3 )1/2 , 3(|f (x0 )|+1) , 3(|g(x0 )|+1) > 0.
|f (x) f (x0 )| < 1 |g(x) g(x0 )| < 1 x0 .
|f (x)g(x) f (x0 )g(x0 )| |f (x) f (x0 )||g(x) g(x0 )| + |f (x0 )||g(x) g(x0 )|
+ |g(x0 )||f (x) f (x0 )|
1 2 + |f (x0 )|1 + |g(x0 )|1 <

3

3

3
=
x0 , f g : A R x0 .
[]
|g(x0 )|
2
> 0, |g(x) g(x0 )| <
|g(x0 )|
2
x0 .
|g(x)| = |g(x0 ) + (g(x) g(x0 ))| |g(x0 )| |g(x) g(x0 )| > |g(x0 )|
x0 .
> 0. |g(x) g(x0 )| <
|g(x)| >
|g(x0 )|
2
x0 .
1
g
g(x0 )2
2
g(x0 )2
2
|g(x0 )
2
|g(x0 )|
2
x0 .
|g(x) g(x0 )| <

x0 , ,

|g(x)g(x0 )|
2|g(x)g(x0 )|
1
1
<
g(x) g(x0 ) = |g(x)||g(x0 )|
g(x0 )2
: B R x0 .
, ,
, .
11.3.3. Rd k 1 k d k-
k : Rd R

k (x) = xk
x = (x1 , . . . , xd ) Rd .
k ,
(
)1/2
|k (x) k (y)| = |xk yk | (x1 y1 )2 + + (xd yd )2
= kx yke
x = (x1 , . . . , xd ) y = (y1 , . . . , yd ) Rd .
, g : R R , f : Rd R
f (x) = g(xk )
x = (x1 , . . . , xd ) Rd
, f = g k .
p : Rd R,
p(x1 , . . . , xd ) = Ax1 a1 xd ad + Bx1 b1 xd bd + ,
,
, . , , (
) , ... .
393
11.3.4. (X, d) - A X.
BC(A) , f : A R. ,
BC(A) = {f | f : A R }.
BC(A) , , B(A). B(A) -
A A (X, d) A BC(A).
f, g BC(A)
dA (f, g) = kf gkA = sup{|f (x) g(x)| | x A}
B(A).
dA : BC(A) BC(A) R
BC(A) .
, 11.1.4 dA (i) (iv)
f, g, h B(A), , BC(A) B(A), dA (i) (iv) f, g, h BC(A).
.
11.3.1. (X, d) (Y, ), A X, x0 X A
f : A Y x0 , y0 Y r > 0
f (x) = y0 x Nx0 (r) A. limxx0 f (x) = y0 .
11.3.2. (X, d) (Y, ), A X, x0 A f : A Y .
x0 A, f x0 .
x0 A, f x0
limxx0 f (x) = f (x0 ).
11.3.3. f A
(X, d ), d , A.
11.3.4. (X, d) (Y, ), B A X A B, y0 Y f : A Y
A. f (x) = y0 x B, f (x) = y0 x A.
11.3.5. {x R | 2 < x3 x < 4} {x R | sin2 x < ex < sin x}
R. {x [0, 1] | 14 < x2 < 4} R;
{x R2 \ {0} | ekxk2 + sin kxk2 > 3} R2 .
{x R2 \ {0} | kxk2 kxk2 3 3} R2 ;
11.3.6. (X, d) (Y, ), A X f : A Y .
:
(i) f A.
(
)
(ii) f 1 (B ) f 1 (B) A B Y .
(iii) f (B A) f (B) B A.
11.3.7. (X, d), A X, x0 A, f, g : A R
limxx0 f (x) = l limxx0 g(x) = m.
limxx0 (f + g)(x) = l + m limxx0 (f g)(x) = lm.
, , m 6= 0, B = {x A | g(x) 6= 0} x0
1
1
B g1 : B R limxx0 g(x)
=m
.
394
11.3.8. [] (X, d), - A X d( , A) : X R

11.2.19. |d(x, A) d(y, A)| d(x, y)
x, y X d( , A) : X R .
[] (X, d) - A B X A B = .
d(x,A)
x X.
f : X R f (x) = d(x,A)+d(x,B)
f .
f (x) = 1 x B f (x) = 0
x A.
)
)
(
(
O K = f 1 (, 12 ) L = f 1 ( 21 , +) . K L
X, K L = A K B L.
11.4 .
2.2
R.
. (X, d), x X (xn ) X. (xn )
x (X, d) x (xn ) (X, d),

xn x
limn+ xn = x,
> 0 n0 xn Nx () n n0 , ,
> 0 n0 d(xn , x) < n n0 , ,
> 0 d(xn , x) < .
11.10. (X, d) (xn ) X.
(xn ), .
. xn x0 xn x00 ( )
x0 6= x00 .
> 0 Nx0 () Nx00 () = . xn Nx0 ()
xn Nx00 () , , .
11.10, .
11.4.1. (X, d), x X (xn ) X
x. xn x.
, n0 xn = x n n0 .
> 0 n n0 d(xn , x) = 0 < . xn x.
Rd
.
11.11. xn = (xn,1 , . . . , xn,d ) Rd n x = (x1 , . . . , xd ) Rd .
.
(i) xn x Rd .
(ii) xn,k xk R k = 1, . . . , d.
. [i ii]. xn x Rd . > 0
kxn xk < . , k = 1, . . . , d
(
)1/2
0 |xn,k xk | (xn,1 x1 )2 + + (xn,d xd )2
= kxn xk < .
k = 1, . . . , d xn,k xk R.
395
[ii i]. xn,k xk R k = 1, . . . , d. > 0

|xn,k x| < / d k = 1, . . . , d.
(
)1/2
2
kxn xk = (xn,1 x1 )2 + + (xn,d xd )2
< (d d )1/2 = .
xn x Rd .
11.4.2. - X d Nx () = {x},
0 < 1, Nx () = X, 1 < .
(xn ) x, = 12 n0 xn Nx ( 12 ) =
{x} , , xn = x n n0 , (xn ) . ,
11.4.1, .
(X, d )
.
11.4.3. 11.1.4, (B(A), dA ),
A - B(A) f :
A R. f, g B(A)
dA (f, g) = kf gkA = sup{|f (x) g(x) | x A}.
(fn ) B(A), (fn ) f B(A) (B(A), dA ) > 0
kfn f kA = dA (fn , f ) < ,
kfn f kA 0.
, , , 9.2, (fn ) f A. , ,
(B(A), dA ) A. dA ,
B(A), A.
(BC(A), dA ) 11.3.4 A - , BC(A)
f : A R dA
BC(A). (BC(A), dA ) A.
.
, ,
:
, (, , )
, , .
11.12. (X, d), A X x X.
[] x A (xn ) A xn x.
[] x A (xn ) A \ {x}
xn x.
.
[] x A n N.
(1)
Nx n A xn . ,
xn A d(xn , x) < n1 n , , > 0 d(xn , x) <
(xn ) A xn x.
, (xn ) A xn x. > 0,
396
xn Nx () , , Nx () x
A. x A.
[] [], x A
A \ {x}.
11.4.4. (X, d) A X. x A
A, (x) A x.
11.4.5. a < b [a, b] R.
x [a, b] [a, b]. ,
( x [a,
) b]
[a, b]. , a x < b, x + bx
[a, b] \ {x}
n
)
(
ba
x , x = b, b n [a, b] \ {b} b.
, , a < b < c [a, b] {c} R. x [a, b] {c}
[a, b] {c}. , , x [a, b]
[a, b] {c}. , ( c
) [a, b] {c},
(xn ) [a, b] {c} \ {c} = [a, b] c.
11.13. (X, d) A X. .
(i) A .
(ii) x, A, A.
. [i ii]. x (xn ) A xn x.
11.12, x A, , A , x A.
[ii i]. x A. , 11.12,
A x , , x A. A ,
.
11.4.6. [a, b] R x
(xn ) [a, b]. , a xn b n xn x.
n +, a x b, , x [a, b]. [a, b]
.
, [a, +), (, b], (, +) .
(a, b) x, x = a x = b,
(a, b), (a + (b a)/2n) (b (b a)/2n), ,
(a, b). (a, b) .
(a, +), (, b), [a, b), (a, b] .
11.14 11.15 3.1 4.1, ,
R.
11.14. (X, d) (Y, ), A X, x0
A, y0 Y f : A Y . .
(i) limxx0 f (x) = y0 .
(ii) (xn ) A \ {x0 } xn x0 f (xn ) y0 .
. [i ii]. (xn ) A \ {x0 } xn x0 . > 0,
> 0
d(f (x), y0 ) <
x A 0 < d(x, x0 ) < .
(11.10)
, n0
d(xn , x0 ) <
n n0 .
397
(11.11)
xn 6= x0 n, (11.11) (11.10) x = xn n n0 d(f (xn ), y0 ) < . f (xn ) y0 .

[ii i]. limxx0 f (x) = y0 . > 0 > 0
x A 0 < d(x, x0 ) < (f (x), y0 ) . n N
xn A 0 < d(xn , x0 ) <
1
n
(f (xn ), y0 ) .
(xn ) A\{x0 } xn x0 f (xn ) y0 .

, limxx0 f (x) = y0 .
11.15 11.14.
11.15. (X, d) (Y, ), A X, x0 A f : A Y .
.
(i) H f x0 .
(ii) (xn ) A xn x0 f (xn ) f (x0 ).
. [i ii]. (xn ) A xn x0 . > 0,
> 0
d(f (x), f (x0 )) <
x A d(x, x0 ) < .
(11.12)
, n0
n n0 .
d(xn , x0 ) <
(11.13)
(11.13) (11.12) x = xn n n0
d(f (xn ), f (x0 )) < . f (xn ) f (x0 ).
[ii i]. f x0 . > 0 > 0
x A d(x, x0 ) < (f (x), f (x0 )) . n N
xn A d(xn , x0 ) <
1
n
(f (xn ), f (x0 )) .
(xn ) A xn x0 f (xn ) f (x0 ).

f x0 .
.
11.4.1. xn x (X, d) (xnk ). xnk x
(X, d).
11.4.2. xn x yn y (X, d). d(xn , yn ) d(x, y) R.
11.4.3. (X, d), A X x X. x
A (x0n ) A (x00n ) Ac x0n x x00n x.
11.4.4. (xn ) (yn ) Rd (n ) R. xn x,
yn y Rd n R, xn + yn x + y n xn x Rd
hxn , yn i hx, yi R.
11.4.5. , { n1 | n N}
R {0} { n1 | n N} R.
11.4.6. , , ,
Rd
Rd .
398
11.4.7. - X d . , A X .
11.4.8. BC([a, b], dA ) [a, b] I : BC([a, b]) R
I(f ) =
b
a
f (x) dx
f BC([a, b]).
I .
11.4.9. (X, d) (xn ) X.
(xn ) X .
11.5 .
11.16
2.17 R 2.6.
. (X, d) (xn ) X. (xn ) Cauchy > 0 n0 d(xn , xm ) < n, m n0 .
11.16. (X, d) (xn ) X. (xn ) ,

Cauchy.
. xn x > 0. n0 d(xn , x) < 2
n n0 . , d(xm , x) < 2 m n0 .
n, m n0
d(xn , xm ) d(xn , x) + d(x, xm )

2

2
= .
(xn ) Cauchy.
. (X, d) A X. A -
(xn ) A, Cauchy, A.
(X, d) X ,
(xn ) X, Cauchy, X.
11.5.1. 2.6, R
.
11.5.2. - X d Cauchy
(xn ). = 1 n0 d (xn , xm ) < 1 n, m n0 .
xn = xm n, m n0 , , (xn ) , .
(X, d ) .
11.3. Rd .
. (xn ) Cauchy Rd . > 0,
n0 kxn xm ke < n, m n0 . xn = (xn,1 , . . . , xn,d ),
k = 1, . . . , d
|xn,k xm,k | kxn xm ke <
n, m n0 , , k = 1, . . . , d (xn,k ) Cauchy
R. , R , k = 1, . . . , d xk R xn,k xk
R. x = (x1 , . . . , xd ) xn x Rd .
399
11.4. (B(A), dA ) .
. Cauchy (fn ) (B(A), dA ). > 0 n0
kfn fm kA n, m n0 .
x A. > 0 n0
|fn (x) fm (x)| kfn fm kA
n, m n0 .
(fn (x)) Cauchy , ,

.
f (x) = limn+ fn (x) x A, f : A R.
> 0 n0
|fn (x) fm (x)|
x A n, m n0 .
(11.14)
limm+ (11.14), > 0 n0

|fn (x) f (x)|
x A n n0 .
(11.15)
f A,
B(A). , (11.15) n = n0 fn0
A, M |fn0 (x)| M x A,
|f (x)| |fn0 (x) f (x)| + |fn0 (x)| + M
x A.
, (11.15) > 0 n0
kfn f kA
n n0 .
(fn ) f (B(A), dA ).
11.5. (X, d) A X. (BC(A), dA )
.
. Cauchy (fn ) (BC(A), dA ). BC(A)
B(A), (fn ) B(A). , dA BC(A) dA
B(A), (fn ) Cauchy (B(A), dA ). ,
11.4, f B(A) (fn ) f (B(A), dA ). f A f BC(A).
A > 0. n0 kfn f kA < 3 n n0 ,
, kfn0 f kA < 3 . fn0 , > 0
|fn0 (x) fn0 ()| < 3 x N () A. x N () A
|f (x) f ()| |f (x) fn0 (x)| + |fn0 (x) fn0 ()| + |fn0 () f ()|
kfn0 f kA + |fn0 (x) fn0 ()| + kfn0 f kA <

3

3

3
= .
f .
11.17. (X, d) A X. A , A
.
. x A. (xn ) A xn x. (xn )
, Cauchy. A , (xn )
A. , A x.
A , .
400
11.18. (X, d) A B X. B A
, A .
. (xn ) A, Cauchy. (xn ) B
, B , (xn ) , x, B. (xn )
A, x A , A , x A.
(xn ) A, Cauchy, A,
A .
. (X, d) - M X. M ,
diam M ,
diam M = sup{d(x, y) | x, y M }.
{d(x, y) | x, y M } -, M - , x M ,
d(x, x) = 0 . , R
- . , supremum
0 , , supremum
+. , M
0 diam M +.
11.5.3. Rd
d- .
11.5.4. (X, d) x X r > 0
diam N x (r) 2r. , y, z N x (r)
d(y, z) d(y, x) + d(x, z) r + r = 2r.
11.19. (X, d) F1 , F2 . . . . - X Fn+1 Fn n diam Fn 0.
Fn , , +
n=1 Fn .
. xn Fn (xn ).
> 0. n0 diam Fn0 < . n, m n0 xn Fn
Fn0 xm Fm Fn0 , ,
d(xn , xm ) diam Fn0 < .
(xn ) Cauchy , F1
F1 , (xn ) F1 . , x F1
xn x. , , m (xn )
Fm , , x Fm . , Fm ,
,
x. x
+

Fm , m=1 Fm .
+
m=1 Fm , x, y, m x, y Fm ,
0 d(x, y) diam Fm 0.
d(x, y) = 0, y = x. +
n=1 Fn .
. (X, d) A X. A A = X.
11.5.5. Q R.
401
BAIRE. (X, d). n Un

X, +
n=1 Un X.
. x X r > 0.
U1 , U1 = X, x U1 ,
U1 Nx (r) - ( ).
x1 X r1 > 0
N x1 (r1 ) U1 Nx (r).
, , r1 , , ,
0 < r1 < 1.
U2 , U2 = X, x1 U2 ,
U2 Nx1 (r1 ) - . x2 X r2 > 0
N x2 (r2 ) U2 Nx1 (r1 ).
, , r2 , , ,
0 < r2 < 21 .

,
( ,
)
Nxn (rn )
N xn+1 (rn+1 ) Un+1 Nxn (rn ),
0 < rn <
1
n
n.
, N xn (rn ) , , X. ,

0 diam N xn (rn ) 2rn <
2
n
0.
, 11.19, () y N xn (rn ).
, y N x1 (r1 ) , ,
+ Nx (r). ,
N xn (rn ) Un
+n, y n=1 Un .
,
,
n=1 Un
+ x, x
+
n=1 Un . x X, n=1 Un .
.
11.5.1. (X, d) A X. A A
.
, X
+ n Fn
X, n=1 Fn X.
11.5.2. . (X, d)
F f : X R x X Mx
|f (x)| Mx f F . - U X
M |f (x)| M f F x U .
11.5.3. 11.1.4 11.1.5.
1 p +, (lp , dp ) .
(
)
1 p < +, C([a, b]), dp .
11.5.4. 10 (X, d). F1 , F2 . . . . -
X, Fn+1 Fn n diam Fn 0,
+
n=1 Fn -, .
10
, 11.19.
402
11.5.5. 11 (X, d) A X. 0 M < 1 f : A A

d(f (x), f (y)) M d(x, y) x, y A, f A
A f () = .
11.6 .
. - X M X X. ,
A X.
M M A A. , , ,
M .
0 M . 0 , 0
0 .
(X, d) M X. M A
, M .
, 0 M 0
M , 0 M . , , ,
M N M , N .
)
(
1
1
11.6.1. R [0, 1], Ax = x 100
, x + 100
= {Ax | x R}.
, , [0, 1].(
)
k
1
1
, xk = 100
Axk = xk 100
, xk + 100
k =
0
0, . . . , 100, = {Axk | k = 0, . . . , 100}
[0, 1] .
[0, 1] [0, 1]
.
(
)
1
1
11.6.2. R R, Ax = x 100
, x + 100
= {Ax | x R},
R. R
.

)
(
)
( 1 . ,
1
1
1
Ax1 = x1 100
, x1 + 100
, . . . , Axn = xn 100
, xn + 100
0 =
{Axk | k = 1, . . . , n}, 0
R. , ) l = min{x1 , . . . , xn }
(

1
1
u = max{x1 , . . . , xn }, A0 A l 100 , u + 100
.
R
R .
11.6.3. R R, (n, +) (, n)
= {(n, +), (, n) | n N}.
, R 0 = {(1, +), (, 1)} , ,
R , , .
R R .
11.6.4. R
( 1
)(0, 1) = {Ax | x R}
1
11.6.1, Ax = x 100
, x+ 100
. (0, 1). 0 =
k
{Axk | k = 0, . . . , 100}, xk = 100
, , 11.6.1,
(0, 1) .
(0, 1) (0, 1)
.
11
4.3.5.
403
11.6.5. R (0, 1), An = ( n1 , 1)

= {An | n = 2, 3, . . . }.
(0, 1), x (0, 1) ( n1 , 1),
n n1 < x < 1.

( 1 )
( 1 )
, An1 = n1 , 1 , . . . , AnN = nN , 1 ,
0
0 = {Ank | k = 1, . . . , N
}, 1 (0, 1). ,
m = max{n1 , . . . , nN }, A0 A = ( m , 1).
(0, 1)
(0, 1) .
, R :
(i) M = (0, 1) M = R
M 0 M 0
M 0 M
0 .
(ii) M = [0, 1] M
0 M 0
[0, 1] 0 M 0 .
[0, 1]
0 M 0 ; !
[0, 1], , , R :
(X, d) M X, M 0 M 0 ;
,
. , .
. (X, d) M X. M
M 0 M
.
11.6.6. 11.6.2 11.6.5, R (0, 1)

R.
11.6.7. (X, d) M X. , M =
{x1 , . . . , xn } x1 , . . . , xn X. M .
M . xk M Ak
. , , M = {x1 , . . . , xn } A1 An , , 0 =
{A1 , . . . , An } M 0 . M .
11.6.8. - X d M X.
M .
, M , ,
, .
, M . x M Ax = {x},
, = {Ax | x M } M . M
, 0 M 0 .
0 = {Ax1 , . . . , Axn } x1 , . . . , xn M M Ax1 Axn = {x1 }
{xn } = {x1 , . . . , xn }. , , x1 , . . . , xn M , M = {x1 , . . . , xn } ,
, M .
. (X, d) M X. M
x0 X R M Nx0 (R) , , d(x, x0 ) < R

x M .
404
, M N M , N .
11.6.9. R M
(a, b). , Rd M
.
, M Rd , R < + x0 = (x0,1 , . . . , x0,d )

(
)1/2
(x1 x0,1 )2 + + (xd x0,d )2
= kx x0 ke < R
x = (x1 , . . . , xd ) M . |xk x0,k | < R k = 1, . . . , d
x = (x1 , . . . , xd ) M . x M
x [x0,1 R, x0,1 + R] [x0,d R, x0,d + R],
M . [x0,1 R, x0,1 +R] [x0,d R, x0,d +R].
k
, M [a1 , b1 ] [ad , bd ]. x0,k = ak +b
bk ak
k = 1, . . . , d R = d max{ 2 | 1 k d}. x = (x1 , . . . , xd ) M
|xk x0,k | Rd k = 1, . . . , d , ,
(
)1/2 ( R2 )1/2
kx x0 ke = (x1 x0,1 )2 + + (xd x0,d )2
d d
= R.
M Rd .
11.6.10. - X d . M X
, , X .
d , 0 1. , ,
x0 X, d (x, x0 ) 1 x X.
M . , R R
R .
11.20. (X, d) M X. M ,
.
. x0 X = {Nx0 (n) | n N}.
M (, , X),
0 M . ,
n1 , . . . , nN M Nx0 (n1 ) Nx0 (nN ). R = max{n1 , . . . , nN }, M Nx0 (R) , , M .
(
)c
x0 M c . An = {x X | d(x, x0 ) > n1 } = N x0 ( n1 ) = {An | n N}. M ,
0 M . , n1 , . . . , nN M An1 AnN .
n = max{n1 , . . . , nN }, M An , , Nx0 ( n1 ) M c . x0 M c M c . M c , ,
M .
11.21. (X, d) N M X. M
N , N .
. N . 1 = {N c }
M (, , X). ,
M X = N c N N c A A = A1 A.
405
M , 01 M 1 .
, A1 , . . . , An 1 ( )
M A1 An . , , N c
A1 , . . . , An .
N c = An ( A1 , . . . , An ).
M A1 An M A1 An1 N c , N A1 An1 .
0 = {A1 , . . . , An1 } N
.
A1 , . . . , An , 0 = {A1 , . . . , An }
N .
, , N .
11.22 , , ,
.
11.22. (X, d) M, N X M N = . M
N , > 0 d(x, y) x M
y N.
. x M x N c , N c , x > 0
Nx (x ) N c , , Nx (x ) N = . , ,
d(x, y) x
x M y N.
(11.16)
{Nx ( 2x ) | x M } M , , M , x1 , . . . , xn M
M Nx1 (
x1
2 )
= min{
Nxn ( x2n ).
x1
2 ,
(11.17)
. . . , x2n } > 0.
(11.18)
x M , (11.17), k = 1, . . . , n x
, (11.16) (11.18), y N
d(x, y) d(y, xk ) d(x, xk ) xk
xk
2
xk
2
x
Nxk ( 2k )
.
d(x, y) x M y N .
11.6 R: [a1 , b1 ] [a2 , b2 ] . . . [an , bn ] . . . ,
x [an , bn ] , , , bn an 0, x
.
11.6. (X, d) K1 , K2 . . . . -
X Kn+1 Kn n.
Kn , , +
n=1 Kn . , , diam Kn 0,
Kn .
c
. +
n=1 Kn = . = {Kn | n N}
K1 (, , X).
,
c
K1 X = c = +
n=1 Kn .
K1 , n1 , . . . , nN
K1 Kn1 c KnN c . n = max{n1 , . . . , nN }, K1 Kn c ,
406
, Kn K1 Kn 6= .
diam Kn 0. x, y Kn ,
0 d(x, y) diam Kn
n. d(x, y) = 0 , , x = y.
11.7 ,
, .12
11.7. (X, d) M X. .
(i) M .
(ii) M M .
. [i ii]. (xn ) M .
x M Nx (x ) x ( x x),
(xn ). = {Nx (x ) | x M }
M . 0 M . ,
x1 , . . . , xn
M Nx1 (x1 ) Nxn (xn ).
(xn ),
, , M , (xn ). , , (xn ) M .
, , x0 M > 0
Nx0 () (xn ). Nx0 (1) (xn ),
n1 1 xn1 Nx0 (1). , Nx0 ( 12 ) (xn ),
n2 > n1 xn2 Nx0 ( 21 ). , Nx0 ( 13 ) (xn ),
n3 > n2 xn3 Nx0 ( 13 ). ,
(xnk ) (xn ) xnk Nx0 ( k1 ) , , d(xnk , x0 ) < k1 k.
xnk x0 (X, d).
[ii i]. 1. > 0.
x1 , . . . , xn M
M Nx1 () Nxn ().
. x1 M . M 6 Nx1 (). x2 M
x2 6 Nx1 (). M 6 Nx1 () Nx2 (). x3 M x3 6 Nx1 () Nx2 ().
M 6 Nx1 () Nx2 () Nx3 (). x4 M x4 6 Nx1 () Nx2 () Nx3 (). (xn ) M d(xn , xm )
n, m n 6= m. , ,
(xn ) .
12
, 11.7 .
(X, d) M X. M M
M .
,
( )
. , , ,
, 11.7 ,
( ),
, . , ,
, , , , 11.7
.
407
2. M . > 0 : x M Nx () A .13

> 0 . , > 0
x M Nx () A . = n1
n N n xn M Nxn ( n1 )
A . , , (xnk ) (xn )
x0 M . x0 A . x0 A0 . A0
, > 0 Nx0 () A0 . nk
d(xnk , x0 ) <
1
nk
< 2 .
x Nxnk ( n1k )
d(x, x0 ) d(x, xnk ) + d(xnk , x0 ) <
1
nk
+ d(xnk , x0 ) <
, , Nxnk ( n1k ) Nx0 () A0 , Nxnk ( n1k )

A .
3. M . , 2, > 0
x M Nx () A . 1,
x1 , . . . , xn M
M Nx1 () . . . Nxn ().
, , Nxk () A . Nxk () Ak .
M Nx1 () Nxn () A1 An .
, 0 = {A1 , . . . , An } M .
11.6.11. (a, b] R (xn ) xn = a + ba
n
n. xn a, (xn ) a. (xn )
(a, b] (a, b]. (a, b]
R.
11.6.12. [a, b] R (xn )
[a, b]. (xn ) . , Bolzano - Weierstrass R,
(xn ) (xnk ) x R.
[a, b] (xnk ) [a, b], x [a, b]. , ,
[a, b] [a, b] ,
, [a, b] R.
11.6.13. [a, +) R (xn ) xn = a + n
n. xn +, +. (xn )
[a, +) [a, +).
[a, +) R.
, M
: M
M . M
: M M .
11.6.12, Bolzano Weierstrass R.
13
Lebesgue M .
408
11.23. Rd
.
. M = [a1 , b1 ] [ad , bd ]. (xn ) M
xn = (xn,1 , . . . , xn,d ) n.
ak +bk
k
[ak , bk ] [ak , ak +b
2 ] [ 2 , bk ],
d
M 2 . , , M
M M . , (xn ) M , 2d (xn ).
M1 = [a1,1 , b1,1 ]
a +b
a +b
[a1,d , b1,d ]. [a1,k , b1,k ] [a1,k , 1,k 2 1,k ] [ 1,k 2 1,k , b1,k ],
M1 2d . M1
M1
M1 , (xn ) M1 , 2d
, , (xn ).
M2 = [a2,1 , b2,1 ] [a2,d , b2,d ].
, Ml = [al,1 , bl,1 ] [al,d , bl,d ] :
(i) Ml (xn ).
(ii) M M1 . . . Ml1 Ml . . . .
(iii) k = 1, . . . , d
ak a1,k . . . al1,k al,k . . . bl,k bl1,k . . . b1,k bk .
(iv) k = 1, . . . , d l 2
bl,k al,k =
bl1,k al1,k
2
= ... =
b1,k a1,k
2l1
bk ak
,
2l
bl,k al,k 0
(v) l 2
diam Ml =
diam Ml1
2
= ... =
diam M1
2l1
diam M
,
2l
diam Ml 0.
M1 (xn ) xn1 M1 . M2 (xn ) xn2 M2 n2 > n1 . M3
(xn ) xn3 M3 n3 > n2 . , (xnl )
(xn ) xnl Ml l 1. :
al,k xnl ,k bl,k
k = 1, . . . , d l 1.
(11.19)
(iii) k = 1, . . . , d (al,k ) , (bl,k )

, ,
, , (iv), .
xk = liml+ al,k = liml+ bl,k .
(11.19)
xnl ,k xk
, k = 1, . . . , d,
xnl x = (x1 , . . . , xd ).
409
(11.20)
, , x Ml l 1, , (iii) (11.20),
al,k xk bl,k
k = 1, . . . , d l 1.
, x Ml (, , M Ml ).
, , (xn ) M
M , M .
. M , , 0 M .
, M 2d
.
, - , M
. M1 . ,
M1 2d -
. M2 . , (Ml )
(ii) (v)
(i) :
(i0 ) l Ml .
, x M Ml .
M , A0 x A0 . A0 , 0 > 0
Nx (0 ) A0 . diam Ml 0, l0 diam Ml0 < 0 .
y Ml0 ( x Ml0 )
ky xke diam Ml0 < 0
, , y Nx (0 ). Ml0 Nx (0 ) A0 . 0 = {A0 }
Ml0 .
Bolzano - Weierstrass Rd ,
() .
BOLZANO - WEIERSTRASS. [] Rd
.
[] Rd .
. [] (xn ) Rd .
M xn M
n. 11.23, M , ,
11.7, (xn ) ( M ).
[] K Rd . K ,
(xn ) K . K , (xn )
, , [], (xnk ) (xn )
x Rd . (xnk ) ,
x. (xnk )
x x. 11.12 x
K.
, ,
.
: .
11.8. M Rd . M
.
410
. 11.20 .
M . (xn ) M .
M , (xn ) , Bolzano - Weierstrass,
(xnk ) , , xnk x x Rd . M
(xnk ) M , x M .
M M , , 11.7
M .
. 11.20 .
M , N M N . 11.23 N
, M , M , 11.21, .
11.6.14. N x0 (R) Rd .
11.8 11.20 Rd . , ,
.
11.6.15. 11.6.8 11.6.10,
X d
.
11.24. - R .
. - M R. M - ,
M supremum u = sup M .
> 0 x M u < x u , , x Nu (). u
M , M , u M . u M .
.
11.9. (X, d) (Y, ), M X f : M Y . f
M M , f (M ) .
. (yn ) f (M ). (yn )
f (M ). n xn M
f (xn ) = yn . M , (xnk )
M , xnk x x M . f M ,
ynk = f (xnk ) f (x) f (M ).
. T f (M ). 11.2,
B T AB X
f (M )
BT
f 1 (B) = AB M.
(11.21)
B,
M BT f 1 (B) BT AB .
, = {AB | B T } M . M
, B1 , . . . , Bn T
M AB1 ABn .
(11.21)
M (AB1 ABn ) M = (AB1 M ) (ABn M ) = f 1 (B1 ) f 1 (Bn ),
f (M ) B1 Bn . {B1 , . . . , Bn } f (M )
T .
411
11.10 f : [a, b] R R.
11.10. (X, d), M X f : M R. f
M M , f .
. 11.9 f (M ) . ,
11.24, f (M ) .
11.6.16. (B(A), dA )
(BC(A), dA ) dA A, A
(X, d). f : A R,
C(A) = {f | f : A R }.

BC(A) = B(A) C(A),
, , B(A), C(A) .
A A
A A A.
, A , A A,
BC(A) = C(A) B(A).

, .
. (X, d) (Y, ), A X f : A Y . f
A > 0 > 0 (f (x0 ), f (x00 )) <

x0 , x00 A d(x0 , x00 ) < .
11.11. (X, d) (Y, ), M X f : M Y . f

M M , f M .
. f M . > 0
> 0 x0 , x00 M d(x0 , x00 ) < (f (x0 ), f (x00 )) .
n N x0n , x00n M
d(x0n , x00n ) <
1
n
(f (x0n ), f (x00n )) .
M , (x0n ) (x0nk )
M , x0nk x x M . , ,
d(x00nk , x) d(x00nk , x0nk ) + d(x0nk , x) <
1
nk
+ d(x0nk , x) 0
, , x00nk x. f x, f (x0nk ) f (x) f (x00nk ) f (x).
(
)
(
)
(
)
f (x0nk ), f (x00nk ) f (x0nk ), f (x) + f (x), f (x00nk ) 0.
)
(
f (x0nk ), f (x00nk ) k.
. > 0. f M , x M x > 0

(f (y), f (x)) <

2
y M d(y, x) < x .
(11.22)
, {Nx ( 2x ) | x M } M , M , x1 , . . . , xn M
M N x1 (
x1
2 )
Nxn ( x2n ).
412
(11.23)

= min{
x1
2 ,
. . . , x2n } > 0
(11.24)
x0 , x00 M d(x0 , x00 ) < . x0 M , ,

x
(11.23), k = 1, . . . , n x0 Nxk ( 2k ) , ,
d(x0 , xk ) <
xk
2
< xk .
(11.25)
(11.24) (11.25)
d(x00 , xk ) d(x00 , x0 ) + d(x0 , xk ) < +
xk
2
x k .
(11.26)
(11.25), (11.26) (11.22) (f (x0 ), f (xk )) < 2 (f (x00 ), f (xk )) < 2 .
(f (x0 ), f (x00 )) (f (x0 ), f (xk )) + (f (x00 ), f (xk )) < .

x0 , x00 M d(x0 , x00 ) < (f (x0 ), f (x00 )) < . f
M .
.
11.6.1. {(x1 , x2 ) | x1 0, x2 0, x1 + x2 1}
R2 {(x1 , x2 , x3 ) | x1 2 + x2 2 x3 1} R3 .
11.6.2. (0, 1) R Ax = ( x2 , 1+x
2 ) 0 < x < 1.
= {Ax | 0 < x < 1} (0, 1)
0 (0, 1) .
[0, 1] R Ax = ( x2 , 1+x
2 ) 0 < x < 1. I J
0 I 1 J. = {I, J} {Ax | 0 < x < 1}
[0, 1] 0 [0, 1] .
[0, 1] .
11.6.3. Rd .
11.6.4. X (X, d ), d -
X, : (i) X (ii) X
. x0 X
N x0 (1). =
;
11.6.5. 11.1.3. 1 p < q + M Rd . M
(Rd , dp ) (Rd , dq ).
11.6.6. f (x1 , x2 ) = ex1 +x2 , {(x1 , x2 ) R2 | x1 2 + x2 2 1}
, 11.10, . ;
11.6.7. f : Rd R f (x) 0 kxk2 +. , ,
> 0 R > 0 |f (x)| < x Rd kxk2 > R.
x0 Rd f (x0 ) 0, f .
x0 Rd f (x0 ) 0, f .
2
2
f : R2 R f (x1 , x2 ) = x1 ex1 x2
.
413
11.6.8. (X, d).

X.
X .
11.6.9. (X, d), (xn ) X, x X xn 6= x
n xn x. {xn | n N} {x} {xn | n N}
.
11.6.10. (X, d) M, M1 , . . . , Mn X.
M1 , . . . , Mn , M1 Mn .
M1 , M2 , . . . R +
n=1 Mn R.
11.6.11. (X, d) - M X. M
diam M < +.
11.6.12. (X, d).
X.
M, N X M N , M N .
11.6.13. (X, d), M X x00 , x000 X. R0
M Nx00 (R0 ) R00 M Nx000 (R00 ).
|xy|
11.6.14. R d d(x, y) = |xy|+1

x, y R. 11.2.25[], d .
R d
. R d R
.
11.6.15. (X, d).

6= N M X, diam N diam M .
6= M, N X M N 6= , diam (M N ) diam M + diam N .
11.6.16. (X, d) - M X. diam M = diam M .
11.6.17. (X, d) A, B X. A B ,
A B .
11.6.18. (X, d), x0 X - M N X.
x0 , y 0 M d(x0 , y 0 ) = diam M .
x0 M d(x0 , x0 ) = inf{d(x0 , x) | x M }.
x0 M y 0 N d(x0 , y 0 ) = inf{d(x, y) | x M, y N }.
11.6.19. x0 Rd , - M Rd -
N Rd .
x0 M kx0 x0 k2 = inf{kx0 xk2 | x M }.
x0 M y0 N kx0 y0 k2 = inf{kx yk2 | x M, y N }.
11.6.20. M Rd . M , M 0 M .
11.6.21. R .
11.6.22. (X, d) (Y, ), M X, N Y f : M N
-- . f M M ,
f 1 : N M N .
414
11.6.23. A R f : A R. Gf = {(x, f (x)) | x A} R2

f .
f . , Gf , f .
A . , f , Gf .
A . f Gf
.
11.6.24. (X, d) (Y, ), B A X f : A Y . f
A, B.
11.6.25. (X, d), (Y, ) (Z, ), A X, B Y , f : A B g : B
Z. f A g B,
g f : A Z A.
11.6.26. (X, d), A X f : A R. A
f A. :
(i) f A, F : A R A
F (x) = f (x) x A.
(ii) f A.
11.6.27. (X, d) M X. M ,
A M M A.
11.6.28. 14 (X, d) M X.
M > 0 X X
.
M .
11.6.29. 15 11.1.6 11.2.26. (X, d) - M
X. M (X, d) M
(M, d).
11.6.30. (X, d).
[]
Zb = {A | A - X}.
A, B Zb
}
{
e B) = inf R | A
d(A,
aA Na () .
bB Nb () B
e B) -
infimum d(A,
e
0 , , 0 d(A, B) < +.
de Zb . ,
e A) = 0.
(ii), : A Zb d(A,
e B) = 0 A = B.
A, B Zb d(A,
[]
Zbc = {A | A -, X}.
14
. 11.7,
, , .
15
M
M ( ) .
415
e B).
A, B Zbc d(A,
de Zbc . de Hausdorff Zbc
-, (X, d).
, (X, d) Rd . (An ) -,
e n , A) 0,
(, ) Rd d(A
d
A , , -, R . ,
An , A .
e B)
d(A,
2
3
R R .
11.7 .
. (X, d) A X. B, C
A (i) B C = A, (ii) B C = , (iii) B 6= , C 6= , (iv) B, C

.
(i), (ii), (iii), B, C A.
11.7.1. R2 B = N0 (1), C = N3 (1)

A = B C. B, C A.
B = N0 (1), C = N2 (1) A = B C,
B, C , , A.
B = N0 (1), C = N2 (1) A = B C,
B, C A: B 1
C.
. (X, d) A X. A
, B, C
(i) - (iv)
11.7.2. A 11.7.1 - R2 .
, , A
11.7.1 . B, C A A. , A
, ,
A.
11.7.3. {x}
.
.
11.2. (X, d) A, B, C X B C =
B, C . A A B C,
A B A C.
.
B1 = A B,
C1 = A C.
, B1 C1 = A B1 C1 = .
, x B1 . x B, x C. r > 0
C Nx (r) , C1 C, C1
Nx (r). x C1 . B1
C1 . C1 B1 .
416
B1 6= C1 6= , B1 , C1 A
, A . B1 = C1 = , , A C
A B, .
11.25. (X, d)
X . A A
.
. U = A A U .
, , x0 A .
U , B, C B C = U , B C = ,
B 6= , C 6= B, C .
, x0 U , x0 B x0 C. x0 B (
x0 C).
A A U , , A B C. 11.2,
A B C. : A
C, x0 B. ,
, A B. U = A A B.
U B C - U .
U .
11.26. (X, d) A X. A A
D A, D .
. D , B, C B C = D,
B C = , B 6= , C 6= B, C .
A D, A B C. A , 11.2
A B A C. A B. ( A C.)
D A, D A , ,
B ( A B). D C ( C
B). C - D.
D .
11.12. (X, d), (Y, ), A X f : A Y A.
A , f (A) .
. f (A) .
B 0 , C 0 B 0 C 0 = f (A), B 0 C 0 = , B 0 6= , C 0 6=
B 0 , C 0 .
B 0 , C 0 A,
B = f 1 (B 0 ) = {x A | f (x) B 0 },
C = f 1 (C 0 ) = {x A | f (x) C 0 }.
B C = A, B C = , B 6= , C 6= .
, B C, b B b
C. (cn ) C cn b. f b,
f (cn ) f (b). (f (cn )) C 0 , , f (b)
C 0 . , f (b) B 0 B 0
C 0 . B C.
C B.
B, C A. A .
f (A) .
417
. (X, d), x, y X r > 0. {z0 , . . . , zn } X

z0 = x, zn = y d(zk , zk1 ) < r k = 1, . . . , n r-
x, y. , , zk A k = 0, . . . , n,
r- A.
11.13. (X, d) K X. K
x, y K r > 0 r-
K x, y.
. K .
x, y K r > 0 ( )
r- K x, y.

B = {b K | r- K x, b},
C = {c K | r- K x, c}.
B C = K, B C = , B 6= ( x B) C 6= ( y C).
B , b, C. ( b B)
r- K x, b , , ( b
C) c C d(c, b) < r. r- K
x, b ( b) c, r-
K x, c. , , c C. B
C.
, , C , c, B. (
c B) b B d(c, b) < r ( b B)
r- K x, b. r- K
x, b ( b) c, r-
K x, c. , , c C. C
B.
B, C K K .
r- K x, y.
, x, y K r > 0 r-
K x, y.
( ) K .
B, C B C = K, B C = , B 6= , C 6= B, C
.
x B. B K, x K. K
, x K. x
/ C ( C B)
x B. B , , .
, B K K , B .
C .
B, C , , 11.22, r > 0
d(b, c) r b B c C. B 6= , C 6= ,
b0 B c0 C. r-
K b0 , c0 , .
, r- {z0 , . . . , zn } K z0 = b0 , zn = c0
d(zk , zk1 ) < r k = 1, . . . , n. z0 B, zn C,
k zk1 B, zk C. d(zk , zk1 ) < r d(b, c) r
b B, c C.
11.27. I R .
418
. I . I , ,
1.4, x1 , x2 , x x1 < x < x2 x1 , x2 I x
/ I.
B = I (, x) C = I (x, +) I .
I .
, I .
I , .
I = [a, b] a < b, [a, b]
x, y [a, b] r > 0,
[a, b], x y,
< r. ( r
.) [a, b] .
I , In = [an , bn ] I.
In , 11.25 I
.
11.12.
11.28. (X, d), A X f : A R A. A
, f A.
. f (A) R , , . , ,
u1 , u2 f A, u1 , u2 f (A).
u u1 < u < u2 f (A). ,
u1 , u2 f A f A.
11.28
, f : I R I R,
I. , I R.
. (X, d), I R : I X
I. (X, d). = (I) = {(t) | t I}

.
A X, A.
11.7.4. 11.27 11.12
(X, d) X. , I ( ) (, , )
R, 11.9 X.
, Rd
Rd . , R2 R2 ,
, R2 .
. (X, d) A X. A A A .
11.29. (X, d) A X. A , .
. x0 A.
x A
A x0 x. , x A
x
x0 , x x . , , xA x A. , x A
419
x , , , A
A = xA x .
xA x
, x x x0 , A .
11.7.5. A Rd , ,
. , A
A.
,
Rd .
11.7.6. A Rd x0 A x A . [x0 , x] A.
x0 A. , A .
A , , .
, A
A : . x0
. x0 .
11.7.7. R2 .
11.7.8. A = N0 (1) N2 (1) 11.7.1 11.7.2
R2 , 1.
11.14. A Rd . A
.
. A , , 11.29,
.
, A .
x, y A ( )
A x, y.

B = {b A | A x, b},
C = {c A | A x, c}.
B C = U , B C = , B 6= ( x B) C 6= ( y C).
B , b, C. ( b B)
A x, b. A , r > 0
Nb (r) A ( b C) c Nb (r) C.
A x, b ( ) . [b, c]
( Nb (r), A),
A x, c. , , c C. B
C.
, , C , c, B. A
, r > 0 Nc (r) A. ( c B)
b Nc (r) B. , ( b B) A
x, b , ( ) . [b, c] (
Nc (r), A), A x, c. ,
, c C. C B.
420
B, C A
A .
A x, y. , ,
, .
. (X, d) A X. C A
A C : C C 0 A C 0
, C = C 0 .
, C A A
A.
. C
A B A C B 6=
. C B , ,
C C B A. C A, C B = C
, , B C. :
A A .
C1 , C2 A C1 C2 6=
. C1 A C2
A, C1 C2 . C2 C1 , , C1 = C2 .
, C1 C2 = . :
A .
11.30. (X, d) A X. A
( ) .
. A A.
x A Cx B A
x. ( {x}.)
Cx = {B | B A x B}.
Cx A, B A. Cx x
, B x.
, Cx C 0 A C 0 , C 0
B A x, Cx C 0 Cx ,
, Cx = C 0 .
Cx A x.
A A A.
11.7.9. A = N0 (1) N3 (1) R2 .
N0 (1) N3 (1) A.
11.2 B = N0 (1) C = N3 (1), A N0 (1) N3 (1). ,
A N0 (1) N3 (1).
N0 (1) N3 (1) A.
11.7.10. Z R {n}
n Z.
(
)
{n} . {n} C 0 Z C 0 6= {n}. C 0 = {n} C 0 \ {n} .
{n} C 0 \ {n} C 0 ,
. C 0 . , {n}
Z.
Z , .
421
11.31. (X, d) A X. A ,
A .
. C A.
C A A C C,
C C A.
11.26 C C
A, C = C. C .
11.32. A Rd . A
.
. C A x C.
x A , A , r > 0 Nx (r) A.
Nx (r) A C A, Nx (r) C. x C.
C .
, 11.30 11.32, Rd
.
,
R. T
R.
11.15. - A R. A
.
,
A = I I. , ,
.
. 11.27, 11.30 11.32.
, A. A ,
.
A Q. ,
Q, .
.
11.7.1. R2 ( )
( . {x R2 | kx (0, 1)ke 6= 2},
R2 \ [(1, 0), (1, 1)] [(1, 1), (0, 2)] ,
)
R2 \ [(1, 0), (1, 1)] [(1, 1), (0, 2)] [(0, 2), (1, 0)] , N(0,0) (1) N(3,0) (1) [(1, 0), (2, 0)],
+
1
1
N(0,n) (1), {( n1 , 0)|n N}, {(0, 0)} {( n1 , 0)|n N}, [(0, 0), (1, 0)] +
n=1
n=1 [(0, n ), (1, n )],
+
1
2
n=1 {x R | kxke = 1 + n }, {(x, 0) | x Q}, {(x, y) | x, y Q}.
11.7.2. {(x, sin x) | x R}, {(x, sin x1 ) | 0 < x 1},
{(x, sin x1 ) | 0 < x 1} [(0, 1), (0, 1)] R2 .
11.7.3. d 2, U Rd a1 , . . . , an U .
U \ {a1 , . . . , an } . d = 1;
11.7.4. L Rd Rd
L. Rd
, L.
11.7.5. 11.2.8 C
Cantor .
422
11.7.6. (X, d)
An X
An An+1 6= n. +
n=1 An .
11.7.7. R2
.
11.7.8. A R2 A .
A R2 A .
11.7.9. B Rd . B , , ,
B = B = Rd .
11.7.10. U Rd .
U U .
11.7.11. (X, d) A X.
A , A B, C
B C = A, B C = , B, C 6= .
A , A B, C
B C = A, B C = , B, C 6= .
11.7.12. U Rd .
U ( ).
11.7.13. (X, d) A X. A
f : A {0, 1} A .
{0, 1} Z;
11.7.14. (X, d) ( ) A X. r > 0 x, y A r- A
x, y.
11.7.15. (X, d). (X, d)
x X r > 0 U x U Nx (r).
(X, d) A X
A .
11.7.16. (X, d). (X, d) x X r > 0 U
x U Nx (r).
(X, d) , A X
.
11.7.17. 16 11.1.6 11.2.26. (X, d) - A X.
A (X, d) A
(A, d).
16
A
A ( ) .
423
424
12
.
12.1 .
6
Riemann .
. , : - -
.
1. b R {+} f : [a, b) R. f [a, b) , , [a, x]
x [a, b).
b
. a f (x) dx f [a, b)
, ,
.
x
limxb a f (t) dt R,
b
a f (x) dx
b
a
f (x) dx = limxb
x
a
f (t) dt.
x
b
limxb a f (t) dt , a f (x) dx x
b
, limxb a f (t) dt = , a f (x) dx
.
x
b
limxb a f (t) dt, a f (x) dx .
b
a f (x) dx .
f [a, b), . ,
, .
+ 1
x 1
1
12.1.1. 1
2 dx = limx+ 1 t2 dt = limx+ (1 x ) = 1. ,
x
+ 1
1
dx 1.
x2
+ 1
x
12.1.2. 1
dx = limx+ 1 1t dt = limx+ log x = +. ,
x
+ 1
1
x dx + +.
1 1
x 1
12.1.3. 0 x1
dx = limx1 0 t1
dt = limx1 log(1 x) = .
1 1
, 0 x1 dx .
425
x 1
dx = limx1 0 1t
dt = limx1 (2 2 1 x) = 2
1 1
, , 0 1x
dx 2.
12.1.4.
1
0
1
1x
x
12.1.5. limx+ 0 cos t dt = limx+ sin x . +
0
cos x dx .
12.1 .
12.1. f : [a, b] R [a, b].
b
b
b
f (x) dx a f (x) dx = a f (x) dx.
a
. f [a, b], M |f (x)| M
x [a, b]. , f [a, b] , ,
[a, x] x [a, b). ,
x

f (t) dt b f (t) dt = b f (t) dt M (b x)

a
x [a, b), limxb
x
a
f (t) dt =
b
a
f (t) dt.
2. a R{} f : (a, b] R. f
(a, b] , , [x, b] x (a, b].
b
. a f (x) dx f (a, b]
, ,
.
b
limxa+ x f (t) dt R,
b
a f (x) dx
b
a f (x) dx
= limxa+
b
x
f (t) dt.
b
b
limxa+ x f (t) dt , a f (x) dx b
b
, limxa+ x f (t) dt = , a f (x) dx
.
b
b
limxa+ x f (t) dt, a f (x) dx
.
2
2
12.1.6. 0 1x dx = limx0+ x 1t dt = limx0+ (2 2 2 x) = 2 2 .
2
, 0 1x dx 2 2 .
2
2
12.1.7. 0 x1 dx = limx0+ x 1t dt = limx0+ (log 2 log x) = +.
2
, 0 x1 dx + +.
0
0 1
1
1
12.1.8. (x1)
2 dx = limx x (t1)2 dt = limx (1 1x ) = 1.
0
1
, (x1)
2 dx 1.
1
12.1.9. limx0+ x t12 cos 1t dt = limx0+ (sin x1 sin 1) .
1
0 t12 cos 1t dt .
, , 12.1, .
12.2. f : [a, b] R [a, b].
b
b
b
a f (x) dx a f (x) dx = a f (x) dx.
426
. f [a, b], M |f (x)| M

x [a, b]. , f [a, b] , ,
[x, b] x (a, b]. ,
b

f (t) dt b f (t) dt = x f (t) dt M (x a)

x
x (a, b], limxa+
b
x
f (t) dt =
b
a
f (t) dt.
3. a R {}, b R {+} f : (a, b) R

(a, b).
b
. a f (x) dx f (a, b)
, , .
d
b d a < d < b.
a f (x) dx d f (x) dx ,
b
a f (x) dx . ,
d
b
d
a f (x) dx, d f (x) dx a f (x) dx +
b
b
f
(x)
dx
f (x) dx
d
d
b a
. , a f (x) dx, d f (x) dx
d
b
a f (x) dx + d f (x) dx ,
b
a f (x) dx
b
a
f (x) dx =
a f (x) dx
b
d
f (x) dx.
b
a f (x) dx ,
b
a f (x) dx , , ,
.
12.1 ,
b d,
a f (x) dx.
12.1. a R {}, b R {+} f : (a, b) R
(a, b). a < d < d0 < b.
b
d
b
d0
f (x) dx, a f (x) dx + d0 f (x) dx
a f (x) dx + d
.
.
x
d0
f (t) dt =
x
d
f (t) dt +
d0
f (t) dt
x (a, b) d0 f (t) dt . limxb

x
limxb d0 f (t) dt
limxb
,
x
d0
b
d0
f (x) dx =
d0
x (a, b)
f (t) dt = limxb
f (t) dt =
d
x
x
d
f (t) dt +
f (x) dx +
f (t) dt
d0
d0
d0
f (x) dx.
f (t) dt = limxa+
427
d
x
f (t) dt, -
(12.1)
f (t) dt
f (t) dt . limxa+
d0
limxa+ x f (t) dt
d0
f (t) dt.
d0
limxa+
f (t) dt
d0
f (t) dt.
d
x
f (t) dt, -
d0
d0
a f (x) dx
a f (x) dx
d0
f (x) dx.
(12.2)
f (x) dx , , (12.1) (12.2),

d0
a f (x) dx
b
d0
f (x) dx =
a f (x) dx
b
d
f (x) dx.
12.3 12.1, 12.2.

12.3. f : [a, b] R [a, b].
b
b
b
a f (x) dx a f (x) dx = a f (x) dx.
. a < d < b. f [a, d] [d, b].
d
d
b
b
12.1, 12.2 a f (x) dx = a f (x) dx d f (x) dx = d f (x) dx , b
b
, a f (x) dx = a f (x) dx.
+ x
x t
1
2
12.1.10. 0
dx
=
lim
x+
2
0 t2 +1 dt = limx+ 2 log(x +1) =
x +1
0
0
t
+ x2x+1 dx = limx x t2 +1
dt = limx 21 log(x2 + 1) = .
+ x
x2 +1 dx .
x 1
+ 1
dx
=
lim
12.1.11. 0
x+
2
0 t2 +1 dt = limx+ arctan x = 2
x +1
0
0
x21+1 dx = limx x t21+1 dt = limx arctan x = 2 .
+ 1
x2 +1 dx = .
b
b
b
, a f (x) dx, a f (x) dx, a f (x) dx, ,
b
a f (x) dx.
, , 12.1, 12.2 12.3, (,

) .
, , ,
,
.
4. .
a R {}, b R {+} f (a, b) , ,
. , 1 , . . . , n1
f : (a, 1 ) (1 , 2 ) (n2 , n1 ) (n1 , b) R.
n1
b
. . a 1 f (x) dx, 12 f (x) dx, . . . , n2
f (x) dx, n1 f (x) dx
, . f (a, b)
b
1
2
n1
b
a f (x) dx = a f (x) dx + 1 f (x) dx + + n2 f (x) dx + n1 f (x) dx.
. +
, . f (a, b)
b
+ a f (x) dx = +. , .

b +, .
f (a, b) a f (x) dx = .
, . f (a, b) .
428

.
b
b
, . a f (x) dx a f (x) dx. ,
b = +, .
+
f (x) dx.
a
f : [a, +) R
[a, +)
+
x
+
f (x) dx = a
f (x) dx = limx+ a f (t) dt,
a
.
.
+
+
12.4. a < c. a f (x) dx c f (x) dx
+
c
+
a f (x) dx = a f (x) dx + c f (x) dx.
.
x
c
f (t) dt =
c
a
f (t) dt +
x
c
f (t) dt
x
x [a, +). a f (t) dt , limx+ a f (t) dt
x
limx+ c f (t) dt , ,
+
a
x
c
x
f (x) dx = limx+ a f (t) dt = a f (t) dt + limx+ c f (t) dt
c
+
= a f (x) dx + c f (x) dx.
+
12.5. f, g +, a f (x) dx
+
a g(x) dx . , .
+ .
. c [a, +) f (x)= g(x) x [c, +).
+
+
, , c f (x) dx c g(x) dx
+
+
f (x) dx = c g(x) dx. 12.4.
c
+
+
+
+
12.6. a f (x) dx, a g(x) dx a f (x)dx+ a g(x)dx
+
, a (f (x) + g(x)) dx
+
a
(f (x) + g(x)) dx =
x
a
+
a
(f (t) + g(t)) dt =
x
a
f (x) dx +
f (t) dt +
+
a
x
a
g(x) dx.
g(t) dt
x [a, +) , ,
+
x
(f (x) + g(x)) dx = limx+ a (f (t) + g(t)) dt
a
x
x
= limx+ a f (t) dt + limx+ a g(t) dt
+
+
= a f (x) dx + a g(x) dx.
+
+
12.7. a f (x) dx a f (x) dx
+
, a f (x) dx
+
a
f (x) dx =
429
+
a
f (x) dx.
x
a
f (t) dt =
x
a
f (t) dt
x [a, +),
+
x
x
+
f (x) dx = limx+ a f (t) dt = limx+ a f (t) dt = a f (x) dx.
a
12.8. f (x) g(x) x [a, +).

+
+
+
+
[] a f (x) dx, a g(x) dx , a f (x) dx a g(x) dx.
+
+
[] a f (x) dx = +, a g(x) dx = +.
+
+
[] a g(x) dx = , a f (x) dx = .
x
x
. [] a f (t) dt a g(t) dt x [a, +) , ,
+
x
x
+
f (x) dx = limx+ a f (t) dt limx+ a g(t) dt = a g(x) dx.
a
x
x
x
[] a f (t) dt a g(t) dt x [a, +). limx+ a f (t) dt = +,
x
limx+ a g(t) dt = +.
[] [].
12.9 .
:
.
+
12.9. [] f, g [a, +). a f 0 (x)g(x) dx
+
, limx+ f (x)g(x) limx+ f (x)g(x) a f 0 (x)g(x) dx
+
, a f (x)g 0 (x) dx :
+
+
f (x)g 0 (x) dx = limx+ f (x)g(x) f (a)g(a) a f 0 (x)g(x) dx.
a
[] : [a, +) R [a, +), limx+
(x) = + f
+
+
([a, +)). (a) f (y) dy a f ((x))0 (x) dx
, ,
+
+
f
(y)
dy
=
f ((x))0 (x) dx.
(a)
a
. [] x [a, +)
x
x 0
0
a f (t)g (t) dt = f (x)g(x) f (a)g(a) a f (t)g(t) dt.
+
a
f (x)g 0 (x) dx = limx+
f (t)g 0 (t) dt
x
= limx+ f (x)g(x) f (a)g(a) limx+ a f 0 (t)g(t) dt
+
= limx+ f (x)g(x) f (a)g(a) a f 0 (x)g(x) dx.
[] x [a, +)
x
a
f ((t))0 (t) dt =
(x)
(a)
f (s) ds.
+
a
f ((x))0 (x) dx = limx+
0
a f ((t)) (t) dt = limx+
y
+
= limy+ (a) f (s) ds = (a) f (y) dy.
430
(x)
(a)
f (s) ds
. f : [a, c) (c, b] R [a, c)

(c, b]. ( c
)
b
b
a f (x) dx , , lim0+ a f (x) dx + c+ f (x) dx b
P.V. a f (x) dx. ,
(
)
b
b
c
P.V. a f (x) dx = lim0+ a f (x) dx + c+ f (x) dx .

.
1
12.1.12. 1 x1 dx .
1
1
, 0 x1 dx = limx0+ x 1t dt = limx0+ ( log x) = +
x 1
0 1
dt = limx0 log |x| = .
x0
1 x dx = lim
0 1 1 t 1 1
, 1 x dx + 0 x dx = () + (+) .
(
)
1
1
, P.V. 1 x1 dx = lim0+ 1 x1 dx + x1 dx = lim0+ 0 = 0.
12.10. f : [a, c) (c, b] R
b
[a, c) (c, b]. . a f (x) dx ,
b
b
P.V. a f (x) dx a f (x) dx.
b
. . a f (x) dx , . c
b
a f (x) dx, c f (x) dx . ,
lim0+

c
a
c
a
f (x) dx =
f (x) dx +
P.V.
b
c
b
a
c
a
f (x) dx,
lim0+
c+ f (x) dx
b
c
f (x) dx.
f (x) dx ,
( c
)
b
f (x) dx = lim0+ a f (x) dx + c+ f (x) dx
c
b
b
= a f (x) dx + c f (x) dx = a f (x) dx.
.
3 2
+
1
dx, 1 x2
dx, 1
x2 x
3
7
7
+ 1
x
1 dx,
12.1.1. 1 x1 dx, 1
x dx, 2 log x1 dx,
x
+
log x dx ;
0
1
1
5 x
1
12.1.2. 0 x log x dx, 0 sinx x dx, 1 log
x1 dx, 0 log x log(1 + x) dx .
() ;
+
+
1 1
12.1.3. sin1 x dx, 0 log | cos x| dx, 0 sin(1/x)
dx
;
+
+ x
+ 1
+ 1
+
1
12.1.4. 1
dx, 1
dx, 0
dx, 0 ex dx,
x(x+1) dx, 0
x2 (x2 +1)
x2 +a2
x2 +a2
+
+ x2
b
+ arctan x
+
x
dx, 0
xe
dx, 0
dx, 2 (x2 1)1x2 +1 dx, a 1
dx.
0
x3 +x2 +x+1
1+x2
(xa)(bx)
12.1.5.
+
0
12.1.6.
12.1.7.
eax cos bx dx,
+
0
eax sin bx dx,
1
eax +eax
xn ex dx = n! n Z, n 0.
1
x2 +2x cos +1
dx =
sin
431
(0, ).
dx.
12.1.8.
p < 1.
1
0
1
xp log x dx = (p+1)
2 , p > 1,
+ xn1
12.1.9. 0
dx =
(1+x)n+m
+ log x
12.1.10. 0
dx.
(x+1)2
(n1)!(m1)!
(n+m1)!
12.1.11.
+
0
+
1
xp log x dx =
1
(p+1)2
n, m N.
(1)[x] dx.
12.1.12. f (0, +)
0 < A B < +.
x
[] g(x) = x1 1 f (t) dt 0 < x < + L = limx+ g(x)
. :
B
B g(x)
(i) A f (x)
x dx = g(B) g(A) + A x dx.
BT
B
(ii) limT + AT f (x)
x dx = L log A .
+ f (Ax)f (Bx)
B f (x)
B
(iii) 1
dx
=
L
log
+
x
A
A x dx.
1 f (t)
[] h(x) = x x t2 dt 0 < x < + l = limx0+ h(x)
. :
B
B h(x)
(i) A f (x)
x dx = h(A) h(B) + A x dx.
Bt
B
(ii) limt0+ At f (x)
x dx = l log A .
B f (x)
1
(Bx)
dx = l log B
(iii) 0 f (Ax)f
x
A A x dx.
+ f (Ax)f (Bx)
A
[] [], [], 0
dx = (L l) log B
.
x
+ cos(Ax)cos(Bx)
Ax
Bx
+ e
B
B
e
0
dx = log A 0
dx = log A .
x
x
12.2 - .
+
12.1. f (x) 0 x [a, +), a f (x) dx
+
0 +. , 0 a f (x) dx +.
+
x
, a f (x) dx , a f (x) dx , x [a, +),
, +, .
. a x1 < x2 ,
x2
x1
x2
x1
a f (t) dt = a f (t) dt + x1 f (t) dt a f (t) dt.
x
x
a f (t) dt , x,
[a,
+).
lim
x+
a f (t) dt
x

+.
,
f
(t)
dt
[a,
+),
a
x
limx+ a f (t) dt 0.
x
x
, a f (t) dt
x, limx+ a f (t) dt ,
, limx+ a f (t) dt +.
. - ,
+
0 +. , , a f (x) dx
+
+
a f (x) dx < + a f (x) dx = +.
12.11.
[] 0 f (x) g(x) x [a, +). 0
+
+
f
(x)
dx
g(x) dx.
a
a
+
+
, , a g(x) dx , a f (x) dx .
[] f (x) 0, g(x) > 0 x [a, +) limx+
f (x)
g(x)
(x)
, , fg(x)
+.
+
+
a g(x) dx , a f (x) dx .
432
+
+
. [] 12.1, a f (x) dx, a g(x) dx ,
+
+
+
12.8 0 a f (x) dx a g(x) dx. a g(x) dx ,
+
+
+
a g(x) dx < +, a f (x) dx < + , , a f (x) dx
.
(x)
M x [c, +).
[] M c [a, +) 0 fg(x)
+
+
g(x) dx , c g(x) dx .
a
+
c
+
c
f (x) dx
+
c
M g(x) dx = M
f (x) dx , ,
+
a
+
c
g(x) dx < +.
f (x) dx .
, ,
12.11 , ,
12.12.
+ 1
12.2.1. 1
p dx.
+ 1
x 1 x
+ 1
x1p 1
p 6= 1, 1
xp dx = limx+ 1 tp dt = limx+ 1p . 1
xp dx = +,
+ 1
1
p < 1, 1
xp dx = p1 , p > 1.
+ 1
x 1
, 1
x dx = limx+ 1 t dt = limx+ log x = +.
:
{
1
+ 1
p > 1
p1 ,
dx
=
p
x
1
+, p 1
1
12.2.2. , 0 x1p dx.
1
1
1
1p
p 6= 1, 0 x1p dx = limx0+ x t1p dt = limx0+ 1x
.
1p
0
1
0 x1p dx = +, p > 1.
1
1
, 0 x1 dx = limx0+ x 1t dt = limx0+ log x = +.
:
{
1
1 1
p < 1
1p ,
dx
=
p
0 x
+, p 1
1
xp
dx =
1
1p , p
< 1,
12.2.1 12.2.2
+ 1
p.
xp dx = +
0
+
q
12.2.3. c, q > 0. 1 xp ecx dx.
xn
x
q
n > p+1
q . x 0 e n! . x cx
n
q
q
c
n!
1
ecx n! xqn . 0 < xp ecx cn xqnp x > 0. qn p > 1,
+ 1
12.2.1, . 1
dx . .
xqnp
+ p cxq
x e
dx :
1
0
+
1
xp ecx dx < +
q
c, q > 0.
.
,
8.7.
+
12.11[] , , : a f (x) dx
+
+, a g(x) dx +.
(x)
, f (x), g(x) > 0 x [a, +) limx+ fg(x)
= ,
+
, 0 < < +, a f (x) dx
433
+
a g(x) dx : .
(x)
+. , limx+ fg(x)
= , +
+
, a g(x) dx , a f (x) dx .
+
1
1
limx+ fg(x)
f (x) dx ,
(x) = , , a
+
a g(x) dx . , f (x), g(x) > 0 x [a, +)
+
(x)
limx+ fg(x)
= 0, , 12.11[], a g(x) dx
+
, a f (x) dx . .
+ 1
+ 1
2
12.2.4. limx+ 1/x
dx < + 1
x dx = +.
1/x = 0, 1
x2
(x)
, f (x), g(x) > 0 x [a, +) limx+ fg(x)
= +, +
+
a f (x) dx , a g(x) dx .
limx+ fg(x)
(x) = 0 12.11[].

. 12.11.
, .
. .
. , ,
5.8.
+ e2x +3ex +1
12.2.5. 1
dx.
e3x +x2
2x
+3e +1
e e3x
e2x e3x , +x2
.
2x
x +e2x
e2x +3ex +1
= ee3x 1+3e
e3x +x2
1+x2 e3x
x [1, +)
limx+ ( e
2x +3ex +1
e3x +x2
2x
)/( ee3x ) = 1.
.
+ e2x
+
dx = 1 ex dx.
1
e3x
. , .
+ x3 +3
dx.
12.2.6. 1
2x4 +x+1
3
+3
2xx4 +x+1
x3 2x4 , .
1+3x3
x3 +3
x3
= 2x
4 1+(1/2)x3 +(1/2)x4
2x4 +x+1
+3
x
limx+ ( 2xx4 +x+1
)/( 2x
4 ) = 1.
1
+
1
x3
2x4
dx =
1
2
+
1
x3 +3
2x4 +x+1
1
x
dx = +,
= +.
+
12.2.7. 1 sin x1 dx.

limx+ (sin x1 )/( x1 ) = 1.
+ 1
+
1 1
sin x1 dx.
x dx +, 1

434
. ,
. .
. (xn ) xn 0
n.
f : [1, +) R [1, +) f (n) = xn
+
n. 1 f (t) dt , 0 +
+
+
(i) n=1
xn < + 1 f (t) dt < +,
+
+
xn = + 1 f (t) dt = +.
(ii) n=1
,
n+1
n
f (u) du x1 + + xn x1 + 1 f (u) du
n N
1
+
+
f (t) dt +
f (t) dt.
n=1 xn x1 + 1
1
12.2.1.
+
1
12.2.2.
12.2.3.
12.2.4.
12.2.5.
12.2.6.
q > 1.
.
+ (sin x)2
(sin x1 )2 dx 1 0
dx 2.
x2
1
0 xp (1x)q
+
0
+
0
dx p, q < 1.
dx 1 q 0.
0
+
1
2
xp (log x)q dt (i)
p > 1 (ii) p = 1
+
+
8
2
1
12.2.7. 0 x2 ex (sin x) dx, 1
dx .
1+x4 (sin x)2
+ 3 x8 (sin x)2
+
1
dx +.
0 x e
dx, 1
1+x2 (sin x)2
12.2.8. . .
+
f : [1, +) [0, +) 1 f (x) dx
limx+ f (x).
+
f : [1, +) R. limx+ f (x) 1 f (x) dx,
limx+ f (x) = 0.
12.2.9. f, g : [a, +) [0, +) [a, +) p, q > 1 p1 + 1q = 1.
+
+
[] a (f (x))p dx < + a (g(x))q dx < +, Hlder
. :
)1/q
)1/p ( +
( +
+
(g(x))q dx
.
f (x)g(x) dx a (f (x))p dx
a
a
Schwarz, Buniakowsky . :
)1/2
)1/2 ( +
( +
+
(g(x))2 dx
.
f (x)g(x) dx a (f (x))2 dx
a
a
Hlder s, t 0
0 s(f (x))p = t(g(x))q x [a, +).
+
+
[] a (f (x))p dx < +, a (g(x))p dx < +, Minkowski
. :
)1/p
)1/p ( +
)1/p ( +
( +
.
+ a (g(x))p dx
(f (x) + g(x))p dx
a (f (x))p dx
a
Minkowski s, t 0
0 sf (x) = tg(x) x [a, +).
435
12.3 .
+
CAUCHY. a f (x) dx > 0

x00
c0 [a, +) x0 f (t) dt < x0 , x00 (c0 , +).
x
. F (x) = a f (t) dt x [a, +).
x00
F (x00 ) F (x0 ) = x0 f (t) dt , ,
F Cauchy .
+
f
(x)
dx
|f (x)| dx , a
a
+
, a |f (x)| dx < +.
+
. a f (x) dx ,
+
+

f (x) dx a |f (x)| dx.
a
+
. a |f (x)| dx . > 0. , x00
Cauchy, c0 [a, +) x0 |f (t)| dt < , ,
x00
00
0 f (t) dt x0 |f (t)| dt <
x
x
+
0
00
x , x (c0 , +). a f (x) dx .
, x [a, +) |f (x)| f (x) |f (x)|,
+
+
+
+
a |f (x)| dx = a (|f (x)|) dx a f (x) dx a |f (x)| dx.
+
+
a f (x) dx a |f (x)| dx.
. f + , f : [a, +) R
.
f (x) = (f (x)) .
f + (x) = (f (x))+ ,
0 f + (x) |f (x)|, 0 f (x) |f (x)|, f + (x) + f (x) = |f (x)|, f + (x) f (x) = f (x)
x [a, +).
+
+
+
a |f (x)| dx < +, a f + (x) dx, a f (x) dx .
+
f = f + f , a f (x) dx
+
+
+
+
f (x) dx = a (f + (x) f (x)) dx = a f + (x) dx a f (x) dx.
a
,
+
+ +
+ +
+

+

=

+

f
(x)
dx
f
(x)
dx
f
(x)
dx
f
(x)
dx
f
(x)
dx
a
a
a
a
a
+ +
+
+ +
= a f (x) dx + a f (x) dx = a (f (x) + f (x)) dx
+
= a |f (x)| dx.
+
12.12. [] |f (x)| g(x) x [a, +) a g(x) dx +

+
, a f (x) dx , . , a f (x) dx
+
g(x) dx.
a
[] g(x) > 0 x [a, +) limx+
|f (x)|
g(x)

+
+. a g(x) dx ,
(x)|
, , |fg(x)
+
a f (x) dx , , .
436
+
+
. [] a g(x) dx , a |f (x)| dx ,
+
a f (x) dx
+
+
+

|f (x)| dx
g(x) dx.
f (x) dx
a
[] 12.11 .

12.11 ,
+
+
a |f (x)| dx a f (x) dx. ,
+
a f (x) dx.
+ sin x
x
12.3.1. 1
dx , | sin
| x12 x
x2
x2
+ 1
dx .
[1, +) 1
x2
+
+
12.3.2. | sinx x | dx = | sinx x| dx = +,
+ sin x
x dx .
(k+1) | sin x|
(k+1)
1
2
| sin x| dx = (k+1)
x dx (k+1) k
k
k N. , n N,
n
| sin x|
x
dx =
n1 (k+1)
k=1
| sin x|
x
dx
n1
1
k=1 k+1
n
+
nk=2 k1 +, | sinx x| dx +,
+
sinx x dx .
1
k=2 k .
| sin x|
x
dx = +.
.
.
+
a
f (x) dx
.
x
12.2. f, g : [a, +) R F (x) = a f (t) dt x [a, +)
f [a, +) g [a, +).
[] g [a, +), limx+ g(x) = 0 F
+
[a, +). a f (x)g(x) dx .
+
[] g [a, +) a f (x) dx .
+
a f (x)g(x) dx .
. [] M |F (x)| M x [a, +). f
, F 0 (x) = f (x) x [a, +). , g 0 (x) 0 x
[a, +).
x
x 0
x
0
(12.3)
a f (t)g(t) dt = a F (t)g(t) dt = F (x)g(x) a F (t)g (t) dt
+
x [a, +). a F (x)g 0 (x) dx ,
+
a
|F (x)g 0 (x)| dx M
+
a
|g 0 (x)| dx = M
+
a
g 0 (x) dx = M limx+
x
a
g 0 (t) dt
= M limx+ (g(x) g(a)) = M g(a) < +.

+
x
a F (x)g 0 (x) dx , limx+ a F (t)g 0 (t) dt . |F (x)g(x)| M g(x) x [a, +),
limx+ F (x)g(x) = 0.
437
, (12.3)
x
x
limx+ a f (t)g(t) dt = limx+ a F (t)g 0 (t) dt
,
+
a
f (x)g(x) dx .
+
[] To l = limx+ g(x) . [], a f (x)(g(x)l) dx
.
+
+
+
f (x)g(x) dx = a f (x)(g(x) l) dx + a f (x)l dx
a
+
+
= a f (x)(g(x) l) dx + l a f (x) dx,
+
f (x)g(x) dx .
+
12.3.3. sinx x dx , ,
12.3.2, .
x1 [, +) limx+ x1 = 0.
sin x [, +)
x

sin t dt = | cos cos x| 2
x .
sin x
x
dx .
sin x
x
dx
{ .
sin x
x , 0 < x ,
g : [0, ] R g(x) =
1,
x = 0
sin x
, [0, ].
0 x dx = 0 g(x) dx
0 g(x) dx.
12.3.4.
12.3.5. ,
+ sin x
sin x
+ sin x
x dx = 0 x dx +
x dx
0
+ sin x
. 0
x dx 12.3.12
12.4. .
,
+
0
sin x
x
dx =
=
(1cos x)0
dx
x
0
+ 1cos x
dx.
0
x2
= limx+
1cos x
x
limx0+
1cos x
x
+
0
1cos x
x2
dx
+
0
sin x
x
dx =
/4
0
1cos x
x2
dx +
7/4
/4
1cos x
x2
dx +
+
7/4
1cos x
x2
dx
7/4
/4
1cos x
x2
dx.
1 cos x 1 cos 4 x [ 4 , 7
4 ],
+
0
sin x
x
dx (1 cos 4 )
7/4
/4
1
x2
dx =
12(2 2)
7
> 0.
8.3
8.3.8 .
.
+
. a f (x) dx -
f : [a,+) [0, +). . x
a f (t) dt :
438
. limx+ f (x) = 0
. ,
+ 1 . + 1
dx 1
, . 1
x dx
x2
0 +, . .
x12 x1 . :
2
)
1
limx+ 1/(x
1/x = 0. , x2 . x1
. . 12.11.
, . , . .
.
- .
. . . ,
. ,
+
. , . sinx x dx
+ | sin x|
x dx. . ,
. , . .
.
. . .
,
, . .
. - .
.
12.11 12.12 . , .
.
- . . . , ,
12.2.
.
n1
12.3.1. f : [0, +) R f (x) = (1)n

x [n 1, n) n N.
+
0 f (x) dx .
+ cos x
+ x
+ 1
1
12.3.2. 0
dx,
e
cos
x
dx,
2
x sin x dx .
0
1
1+x
+ x
12.3.3. , p > 1, sin
xp dx , 0 < p 1,
. .
+ x sin x
+ sin x
+ x cos(x2 )
+ x(x+1) sin(x2 )
12.3.4. 1
dx,
dx,
dx,
dx,
2
log
x
1+log
x
x+sin x
2
1
1
1+x+x
+ x cos x
+
+
x sin x
1
cos x sin x dx .
x+1 dx, 0
1
(x+1)(x+sin x) dx, 0
P (x)
12.3.5. R(x) = Q(x)
, P (x) Q(x) .
+
R(x) dx Q(x)
deg Q(x) deg P (x) + 2.
+
R(x) sin x dx Q(x)
{k | k Z} 1 deg Q(x) deg P (x) + 1.
439
12.3.6. 7.3.16.
: [a, +) R
+ [a, +)
limx+ 0 (x) = +. a sin((x)) dx .
+
+
1 sin(xa ) dx, 1 cos(xa ) dx , |a| > 1, ,
+
+
|a| 1. , 0 sin(x2 ) dx, 0 cos(x2 ) dx .1
1
12.3.7. 1 < x < + (x) = +
n=1 nx . 10.1.26 7.3.20.
+ [t]
+ [t]
1
x
dt x1
x 1
dt x1
x > 1,
(x) = x 1
tx+1
tx+1
+ 1
1
x
x1 n=1 nx x1
.
+
t[t]
x
dt x > 1.
(x) = x1
x 1
tx+1
. x > 0. 0 (x)
0 (x) (0, 1) (1, +)
(x) (1, +). , (x) ,
, (0, 1).
(x) [] 7.3.20 ,
7.1.8, x
n (x) 1 (x) = (x) n+1 (x) = 1 (n (t) n ) dt, n =
2
1 n (t) dt, n. , n, n (x) 1,
R n (1) = 0. , n (x) R. ,
[],
(x) =
1 x 2 x(x + 1) n1 x(x + 1) (x + n 2)
+ n (t)
x(x + 1) (x + n) 1
dt
tx+n+1
x+1
x1
x > 1 n. .
x > n. n (x)
n (x) (n, 1) (1, +) (x)
(1, +). , (x) , ,
(n, 1).
, , n < m, n (x) m (x) (n, 1)
(1, +), .
(, 1) (1, +) , n, n (x) (n, 1)
(1, +).
, , - Riemann
: (, 1) (1, +) R : (1, +) R,
10.1.26.2
{
1
, 0 x n
12.3.8. 3 [] fn (x) = n
n. (fn )
0, x > n
+
+
0 [0, +) 0 fn (x) dx 6 0 0 dx.
[] f, fn : [a, +) R n g : [a, +) [0, +).
|fn (x)| g(x)
f
+x [a, +), c > a (fn) +
[a, c] a g(x) dx . a f (x) dx
+
+
fn (x) dx a f (x) dx.
a
12.3.9. f : [0, 1] R [0, 1], f (0) = 0 f 1
3
0. 0 f (x)x 2 dx .
1
. Fresnel.
12.4.2 12.5.4.
3
.
2
440
+ xp1 xq1
+ sin(xp )
12.3.10. p, q 0
dx, 0
x1
xq dx
;
+ x[x](1/2)
dx p > 0.
12.3.11. 1
xp
12.3.12. (6.40) 6.5.1, :
(i) 0 sin((n+(1/2))x)
dx = n,
sin(x/2)
sin(nx)
(ii) 0 sin x dx = 0, n , ,
)2
(
(iii) 0 sin(nx)
dx = n n.
sin x
{
1
2 , 0 < x
f (x) = sin(x/2) x
f (x)
0,
x = 0
[0, ]. 7.3.22[] limn+ 0 f (x) sin((n + 12 )x) dx = 0.
limn+ 0 x2 sin((n + 12 )x) dx = limn+ 0 sin((n+(1/2))x)

dx = . sin(x/2)
4

+ sin x
x dx = 2 .
0
12.3.13. f, g : [a, +) R [a, +) p, q > 1 p1 + 1q = 1.
+
+
+
[] a |f (x)|p dx < + a |g(x)|q dx < +, a f (x)g(x) dx
Hlder :
+
( +
)1/p ( +
)1/q

f (x)g(x) dx a |f (x)|p dx
|g(x)|q dx
.
a
a
Schwarz, Buniakowsky:
+
( +
)1/2 ( +
)1/2

f (x)g(x) dx a |f (x)|2 dx
|g(x)|2 dx
.
a
a
Hlder s, t 0
0 s|f (x)|p = t|g(x)|q x [a, +) f (x)g(x) 0
x [a, +) f (x)g(x) 0 x [a, +).
+
+
[] a |f (x)|p dx < +, a |g(x)|p dx < +, Minkowski
:
( +
)
( +
)
( +
)
p dx 1/p
p dx 1/p +
p dx 1/p .
|f
(x)
+
g(x)|
|f
(x)|
|g(x)|
a
a
a
Minkowski s, t 0
0 s|f (x)| = t|g(x)| x [a, +) f (x)g(x) 0
x [a, +) f (x)g(x) 0 x [a, +).
+
12.3.14. f : [a, +) R w : [a, +) (0, +) a w(x) dx = 1
+
+
a f (x)w(x) dx. Ew (f ; a, +) = a f (x)w(x) dx.5
Jensen.6 f : [a, +) (c, d)
[a, +) g : (c,d) R (c, d). , , w : [a, +) (0, +)
+
+
[a, +)
w(x) dx
a
(
) = 1. Ew (f ; a, +) = a f (x)w(x) dx ,
g Ew (f ; a, +) Ew (g f ; a, +) , ,
) +
( +
g a f (x)w(x) dx a g(f (x))w(x) dx.
g (c, d), .
g , , () (c, d), Jensen
f [a, +).
4
12.4.10 12.4.4.
+
Ew (f ; a, +) = a f (x)w(x) dx f w [a, +)
, w .
6
6.4.19[,] 8.3.24.
5
441
12.4 .
.
. I f : I [c, d] R.
x I f (x, y), y [c, d], [c, d],

d
c f (x, y) dy. x I, g : I R

d
g(x) = c f (x, y) dy
x I.
d
c f (x, y) dy x I.
, f I [c, d], x I f (x, y),
y [c, d], [c, d] , , [c, d].
12.3, 12.4 , , g , , I.
12.3. I f : I [c, d] R. f I [c, d],
d
g : I R g(x) = c f (x, y) dy I.
. I. [a, b] I :
I, , , [a, b] ,
I, , , [a, b]. g
g [a, b] .
> 0. f [a, b] [c, d], > 0
|f (x0 , y 0 ) f (x00 , y 00 )| <

dc+1
(12.4)
(x0 , y 0 ), (x00 , y 00 ) [a, b] [c, d] |(x0 , y 0 ) (x00 , y 00 )| < .

x [a, b] |x | < y [c, d] (x, y), (, y) [a, b] [c, d]
|(x, y) (, y)| = |x | < , (12.4)
|f (x, y) f (, y)| <

dc+1 .
(12.5)
x [a, b] |x | < , (12.5)

d

|g(x) g()| = c (f (x, y) f (, y)) dy

dc+1 (d
c) < .
g [a, b] .
. limx
f (x,)f (,)
,
x
, x
(,)
f (, ). , limy f (,y)f
, , y
y f (, ).
f
x (, )
= limx
f (x,)f (,)
,
x
f
y (, )
= limy
f (,y)f (,)
.
y
12.4. I f : I [c, d] R. f
I [c, d] f
x , , I [c, d]. g : I R g(x) =
d
c f (x, y) dy x I I
g 0 (x) =
f
c x (x, y) dy
x I.
. I. 12.3, [a, b] I
, I, ,
I. , g [a, b]
442
d
g 0 () = c f
x (, y) dy.
f
> 0. x [a, b] [c, d], > 0
f 0 0
(x , y )
f
00 00
x (x , y )
<

dc+1
(12.6)
(x0 , y 0 ), (x00 , y 00 ) [a, b] [c, d] |(x0 , y 0 ) (x00 , y 00 )| < .

x [a, b], y [c, d] |x | < . x,
f (x,y)f (,y)
x
f
x (, y)
, | | |x | < , (12.6)
f (x,y)f (,y)

= f
x (, y)
f

x (, y)
f

x (, y)
<

dc+1 .
(12.7)
x [a, b] |x | < , (12.7)

g(x)g() d

c
x
limx

f

x (, y) dy
d(
(,y)
= c f (x,y)f
d
g(x)g()
= c f
(, y) dy ,
x
xd f
0
g () = c x (, y) dy.
x2 (y 2 +1)

dc+1 (d
c) < .
, g [a, b] -
(x
2 2
)
s2 ds 2 g(x) = 1 ex (y +1) dy.

0 e
0
y 2 +1
2 x
2
f 0 (x) = 2ex 0 es ds x.
2 2
x 2xex (y +1)
12.4.1. f (x) =
, ,
)
f
(,
y)
dy
x
e y2 +1

R [0, 1], 12.4
1
2 2
2 1
2 2
2 x
2
g 0 (x) = 2x 0 ex (y +1) dy = 2xex 0 ex y dy = 2ex 0 es ds = f 0 (x)
x. f + g R,
1
f (x) + g(x) = f (0) + g(0) = 0 + 0 y21+1 dy = arctan 1 arctan 0 =
(12.8)
x.
0 g(x)
ex
0 1+y 2
dy = 4 ex
x , , limx+ g(x) = 0. (12.8)

limx+ f (x) =
+
0
limx+ g(x) = 4 .
ex dx =
2
2 .
0
2
2
, ex , ex dx =
, Gauss:
+ x2
dx = .
e
443
.
. I f : I [c, +) R. x I f (x, y),
y [c, +),
+
[c, +) c f (x, y) dy . x I, ,
, g : I R
+
g(x) = c f (x, y) dy
x I
. x I
g(x) I.
+
c
f (x, y) dy
g I.
+
12.4.2. {0 exy dy x.
y
(exy 1)/x, x 6= 0
y 0 0 ext dt =
, limy+ ,
y,
x = 0
{
+ xy
+
+, x 0
0 e
dy =
0 exy dy 1/x, x > 0
1
x (0, +).
+
0 exy dy = x1 , ,
(0, +).
+ sin(xy)
12.4.3. 0
dy x.
y
, x = 0, . 0.
+ sin(xy)
+ sin y
, , x > 0. 0
dy = 0
y
y dy.
+ sin y
+ sin(xy)
0
dy =
y dy A . 0
y
A x > 0.
+ sin(|x|y)
+ sin(|x|y)
+ sin(xy)
dy = 0
dy = 0
dy = A.
x < 0, 0
y
y
y
x > 0
A,
+ sin(xy)
dy g(x) = 0,
0
x = 0 R.
y
A, x < 0
, , A > 0 , , g 0 ,
, (, 0) (0, +).
+
. c
f (x, y) dy g(x)
I

}
{
y
limy+ sup g(x) c f (x, t) dt | x I = 0

y
, , > 0 c0 [c, +) g(x) c f (x, t) dt
x I y (c0 , +).
. ,
+
c
..
f (x, y) dy = g(x) I
f (x, y) dy = g(x) I

+. ,
, c f (x, y) dy = g(x) x I , ,
y
limy+ c f (x, t) dt = g(x) x I.
, y [c, +) gy : I R
y
gy (x) = c f (x, t) dt
x I.
444

{
}
y
sup g(x) c f (x, t) dt | x I = sup{|g(x) gy (x)| | x I} = kgy gkI .
:
g(x) I
+
c
f (x, y) dy
lim kgy gkI = 0.
y+
+
12.13. c f (x, y) dy g(x)
I, g(x) I.
. I.

{
}
g() y f (, t) dt sup g(x) y f (x, t) dt | x I = kgy gkI ,

c
c
y
limy+ c f (, t) dt = g().
+
I, c f (x, y) dy g(x) I.
+
12.4.4. 0 exy dy x1
(0, +).
+
0
.. 1
x
exy dy =
(0, +).
,
, (0, +).

y
xy
x1 0 ext dt = e x x > 0 y 0.

{
}
y
xy
sup x1 0 ext dt | x (0, +) = sup{ e x | x > 0} = +

{
}
y
y 0. limy+ sup x1 0 ext dt | x (0, +) = 0,
+ xy
0 e
dy x1 (0, +).
+
, a > 0, 0 exy dy x1 [a, +). ,
a > 0 :
+
0
1
x
exy dy =
[a, +).
,

{
}
y
xy
sup x1 0 ext dt | x [a, +) = sup{ e x | x a} =
y > 0 , ,

{
}
y
limy+ sup x1 0 ext dt | x [a, +) = limy+
eay
a
eay
a
= 0.
(yn ) [c, +) yn +.
gyn : I R
y
gyn (x) = c n f (x, t) dt
x I n.
, ,
+
c
f (x, y) dy ..
g(x) I, , , gyn g gyn g I.

g, .
445

+ 12.5. I f : I[c, +) R. f I[c, +)
c f (x, y) dy g(x) I, g : I R
I.
. (yn ) [c, +) yn +. , y
gyn : I R gyn (x) = c n f (x, t) dt. gyn g I. f

I [c, yn ], I [c, +), , 12.3,
n, gyn I. g I.
12.6. I f : I [c, +) R. f , f
x
+ f
I [c, +), c
(x,
y)
dy
h(x)
I
x
+
+
c f (, y) dy I. c f (x, y) dy
g(x) I
I, g I g 0 (x) = h(x) x I.
. (y
ynn) [c, +) yn +
gyn : I R gyn (x) = c f (x, t) dt.
y
12.4, gyn 0 (x) = c n f
x (x, t) dt x I.
, gyn 0 h I. , , (gyn ()) .

9.3 (gyn ) g
I I, g
I g 0 (x) = h(x) x I. ,
y
+
g(x) = limn+ gyn (x) = limn+ c n f (x, t) dt = c f (x, y) dy
+
x I. c f (x, y) dy g(x) I.
+
c f (x, y) dy g(x)
[a, b] I.
F : [c, +) R F (y) = kgy gk[a,b] .
+
, c f (x, y) dy g(x) [a, b]
limy+ F (y) = 0. ,
(yn ) [c, +)
y
yn + gyn (x) = c n f (x, t) dt x I.
(gyn ) g [a, b], F (yn ) = kgyn gk[a,b] 0.
3.1, limy+ F (y) = 0.
12.5 12.6
. , ,
, Weierstrass
.
12.7. I f : I [c, +) R
F : [c, +) R
+
|f (x, y)| F (y) y [c, +), x I. c F (y) dy ,
+
f (x, y) dy I.
c
+
. 12.12, x I c f (x, y) dy .
+
g :I
R
g(x)
=
f (x, y) dy. , , gy : I R
c
y
gy (x) = c f (x, t) dt.
+
c f (x, y) dy g(x) I , , limy+ kgy gkI = 0.
y [c, +), x I
+
+
+
y
|g(x) gy (x)| = c f (x, t) dt c f (x, t) dt = y f (x, t) dt y |f (x, t)| dt
+
y F (t) dt,
446
+
+
y
kgy gkI y F (t) dt = c F (t) dt c F (t) dt.
y
+
limy+ c F (t) dt = c F (t) dt, limy+ kgy gkI = 0.
+
12.4.5. 0 ey sin(xy) dy x.
+
|ey sin(xy)| ey y [0, +), x R 0 ey dy .
+
, 12.7, 0 ey sin(xy) dy g(x)
R. ,
+ y
e sin(xy) dy = g(x)
R.
0
12.5 g(x) R.
+
..
, 0 ey sin(xy) dy = g(x) R , ,
+
g(x) = 0 ey sin(xy) dy
x.
ey sin(xy) R [0, +). , 12.5,
g R.
x ey sin(xy) yey cos(xy),
R [0, +). , |yey cos(xy)| yey y [0, +), x R

+
0 yey dy .
+
0 yey cos(xy) dy h(x) R. ,
+
0
yey cos(xy) dy = h(x)
R.
+
, 0 ey sin(xy) dy g(x) R, 12.6
g(x) R
+
g 0 (x) = h(x) = 0 yey cos(xy) dy
x.
+
, g(x) = 0 ey sin(xy) dy
:
+ y
+ d ey
e sin(xy) dy = 0
dy sin(xy) dy
0
+
= limy+ ey sin(xy) + x 0 ey cos(xy) dy
+ d ey
= x 0
dy cos(xy) dy
+
= x limy+ ey cos(xy) + x x2 0 ey sin(xy)dy
+
= x x2 0 ey sin(xy)dy.
limy+ ey sin(xy) = limy+ ey cos(xy) = 0,
|ey sin(xy)| ey |ey cos(xy)| ey .
+ y
x
e sin(xy) dy = 1+x
2.
0
, , 7.3.7.
+
12.4.6. 0 exy siny y dy x > 0.

+
exy siny y exy y (0, +) x (0, +) 0 exy dy
.
+
, 12.12, 0 exy siny y dy x (0, +)

+
g(x) = 0 exy siny y dy
x (0, +).
447
+ xy sin y
..
e
dy = g(x) (0, +).
0xy sin y y xy
e
a > 0. e
eay y (0, +) x
y
+ ay
+
[a, +). 0 e
dy , , 12.7, 0 exy siny y dy
g(x) [a, +).
,
, ,
a > 0 :
exy siny y dy = g(x) [a, +).
exy siny y [a, +) (0, +). ,

12.5, g [a, +). a > 0, g
(0, +).
x exy siny y exy sin y, [a, +) (0,+). , | exy sin y| exy eay y (0, +),
+
+
x [a, +) 0 eay dy . 0 exy sin y dy h(x) [a, +).
,
+
a > 0 :
0 exy sin y dy = h(x) [a, +).
12.6 g(x) [a, +)
+
g 0 (x) = h(x) = 0 exy sin y dy
x [a, +).
, g 0 (x) = x1

g 0 (x) = x21+1
+
0
ey sin( xy ) dy, 12.4.5
x [a, +).
a > 0,
g 0 (x) = x21+1 = arctan0 x
x > 0.
c
g(x) = arctan x + c
,
|g(x)|
x > 0.
exy | siny y | dy
exy dy =
1
x
x > 0, limx+ g(x) = 0. 0 = limx+ arctan x + c, c = 2 .
+ xy sin y
e
x > 0.
y dy = 2 arctan x
0
y
F (y) = 0 sint t dt.
+ sin t
12.3.5, A = limy+ F (y) = 0
t dt
+ xy sin y
. limx0+ 0 e
y dy = A.
, F 0 (y) =

A
+
0
exy siny y dy =
+
0
= x
sin y
y
y > 0.
(1 exy ) siny y dy =
+
0
+
0
(1 exy ) d (F (y)A)
dy
dy
exy (F (y) A) dy,
A + exy sin y dy x + exy |F (y) A| dy.

y
0
0
448
F [0, +) limy+ F (y) = A

. M 0 |F (y) A| M y 0.
> 0. y0 > 0 |F (y) A| < 4 y y0 .
limx0+ exy0 = 1, > 0 1 exy0 < 4M+1 x (0, ). ,
x (0, )

A + exy sin y dy x y0 exy |F (y) A| dy + x + exy |F (y) A| dy

y
0
0
y0
+ xy
y0 xy

Mx 0 e
dy + 4 x y0 e
dy
= M (1 exy0 ) + 4 exy0

4

4
<
+
, , limx0+ 0 exy siny y dy = A.
A = limx0+ ( 2 arctan x) = 2 ,
+
0
sin y
y
dy = 2 .7
.
+
2
12.4.1. 0 ey cos(2xy) dy x.
. g(x) R. +
2
, 0 ey cos(2xy) dy = g(x) R.
g(x)
R g 0 (x) + 2xg(x) = 0 x.
x2
, g(x) = 2 e
x.
12.4.2. 12.3.7.
+ n (t)
, n N, 1
dt x
tx+n+1
(n, +) , a > n, [a, +).
(x) (, 1) (1, +)
(x 1)(x) (, +).
+ sin x
+ sin x cos x
+ (sin x)2
12.4.3. 0
dx = 4 , 0
dx = 2 ,
x dx = 2 , 0
x
x2
+ (sin x)4
4
+ (sin x)
dx = 4 , 0
dx = 3 .
0
x2
x4
+ x2 sin y
12.4.4. 0
dy x 0.
x2 +y 2 y
. g(x) [0, +).
+ x2 sin y
..
, 0
dy = g(x) [0, +).
x2 +y 2 y
, a > 0, . g(x) [0, a].
+ x2 sin y
, 0
dy = g(x) [0, a] a > 0.
x2 +y 2 y
g(x) [0, +) g 00 (x)g(x) =
2 x 0. g(x) = 2 (1 ex ) x 0.
+ sin y
0
y dy = limx+ g(x) = 2 .
12.4.5. [] f : [0, +) R [0, +) limx+ f (x) = l.
+
limx+ x 0 exy f (y) dy = l.
[]
1 f : (0, 1] R (0, 1] limx0+ f (x) = l.
limx0+ x 0 y x1 f (y) dy = l.
7
12.3.12 12.4.4. , , 12.4.5. , 12.4.12 Dirichlet Abel.
449
12.4.6.
+
0
x
1+x2 y 2
dy x.
. g(x) ,
, R.
, a > 0, . g(x) (, a]
[a, +).
g(x);
+ cos y
12.4.7. 2
y+sin x dy x R.
+ sin y
0
x+y dy x 0
[0, +).
+
0 exy sin xy dy x > 0 (0, +).
{
1
,
0 x y 1
y2
12.4.8. [] f : [0, 1] [0, 1] R f (x, y) =
1
x2 , 0 y < x 1
)
)
1(1
1(1
0
0 f (x, y) dy dx 6= 0
0 f (x, y) dx dy.
d
[] f : [a, b] [c, d] R [a, b] [c, d]. c f (x, y) dy
)
b(d
, x, [a, b]. a c f (x, y) dy dx. b
, a f (x, y) dx , y, [c, d].
)
d(b
f
(x,
y)
dx
dy.
c
a
b(d
a
)
)
d(b
f (x, y) dy dx = c
a f (x, y) dx dy.
+
[] f : [a, b] [c, +) R [a, b] [c, +) c f (x, y) dy
+
[a, b]. c f (x, y) dy , x,
(
)
b +
b
[a, b]. a c f (x, y) dy dx. , a f (x, y) dx ,
(
)
+ b
f
(x,
y)
dx
dy
y, [c, +). c
a

)
)
b ( +
+ ( b
f (x, y) dy dx = c
a
c
a f (x, y) dx dy.
)
b ( +
+ ( b xy )
dx dy.
[] 0 < a < b, a 0 exy dy dx = 0
a e
+ eay eby
0
dy.
y
)
)
1 ( +
+ ( 1
1
1
[] 0
dy dx = 0
0
0 1+x2 +y 2 dx dy.
1+x2 +y 2
t)
02 arctan(sin
dt = 2 log(1 + 2).
sin t
12.4.9. 02 cos(x sin y) dy x g(x)

R, g(x) R
8 xy 00 + y 0 + xy = 0 R.
+
2
12.4.10. 0 ey cosh(xy) dy x.
. g(x) R ,
a > 0, [a, a].
g R 2g 0 (x) xg(x) = 0
x.
g(x).
8
Bessel 0.
450
+ arctan(xt) arctan(yt)
12.4.11. 2 0
dt x, y > 0.
t2
. g(x, y)
(0, +) (0, +).
g(x, y) +
2g
1
1
g xy
(x, y) = 2 0
dt = x+y
x, y > 0.
(1+x2 t2 )(1+y 2 t2 )
g(x, y) = (x + y) log(x + y) x log x y log y x, y > 0.
y
12.4.12. I, f, g : I [c, +) R F (x, y) = c f (x, t) dt x I
g
y [c, +) f , y
I [c, +).
[] x I g(x, y) , y, [c, +),
limy+ g(x, y) = 0 I F I [c, +),
+
c f (x, y)g(x, y) dy I.
[] x I g(x, y) ,
y, [c, +), g(x, y)
+
I [c, +) c f (x, y) dy +
I, c f (x, y)g(x, y) dy
I.
+ sin y
+ xy sin y
12.4.13. 0
e
y dy = 2 limx0+ 0
y dy =
+ sin y
A, A = 0
y dy.
12.4.12[] f (x, y) =
sin y
y
g(x, y) = exy [0, +) [0, +).
12.4.14. Hermite 5.5.22.

1
x2
, , n (x) = Hn (x)e 2 = (2n n! ) 2 n (x).
5.5.22
(i) n+1 (x) = xn (x) n 0 (x),
(ii) n 00 (x) = (x2 2n 2)n (x)
x n Z, n 0.
(
)
d
m (x)n 0 (x) m 0 (x)n (x) = 2(m n)m (x)n (x)
(ii) dx
+
x m, n Z, m, n 0. 2(m n) m (x)n (x) dx = 0
m, n Z, m, n 0 , ,
+
m, n Z, m, n 0, m 6= n.
m (x)n (x) dx = 0,
+
+
, 2 xn (x)n 0 (x) dx = (n (x))2 dx
n Z, n 0.
+
+
(n+1 (x))2 dx = 2(n + 1) (n (x))2 dx
n Z, n 0
+
+
2
2
(n+1 (x)) dx = (n (x)) dx
n Z, n 0. , Gauss,
+
2
n Z, n 0.
(n (x)) dx = 1,
12.5 .
9
+
0
y x1 ey dy
9
Euler. Euler
12.5.8.
451
x (0, +).
x > 1, y x1
ey y
[0, +). 12.2.3
+
1
x1
y
x1
1 y
e dy . , 0 y
ey dy + x1 y
. , 0 y
e dy
.
+
x 1, y x1 ey y (0, +). 1 y x1 ey dy
1
. 0 y x1 ey dy , , . (- )
1 x1 y
1
e dy 0 y x1 dy < +
0 y
+
0 < x 1. , 0 < x 1, 0 y x1 ey dy
.
+
, , x > 0, 0 y x1 ey dy .
, , n,
+ x1
y
(log y)n ey dy.
0
, y x1 (log y)n ey , y, (0, +)
. . .
+ x1
+
y
(log y)n ey dy 1 y x+n1 ey dy < +.
1
,
+ n s
1 x1
1
+
1
s e ds < +
| log y|n ey dy 0 y x1 | log y|n dy = 0 tn ext dt = xn+1
0
0 y
+
1
x > 0. 1 y x1 (log y)n ey dy 0 y x1 (log y)n ey dy x > 0,
+
0 y x1 (log y)n ey dy .
+
+
12.2. 0 y x1 ey dy 0 y x1 (log y)n ey dy x > 0
n N. ,
[a, b] (0, +).
. . x > 0.
, .
+
n = 0. , , 0 y x1 (log y)n ey dy g(x)
(0, +). ,
+ x1
..
y
(log y)n ey dy = g(x)
(0, +).
(12.9)
0
a, b 0 < a b < + x [a, b].
y 1,
|y x1 (log y)n ey | y n+x1 ey y n+b1 ey
+
+
, 1 y n+b1 ey dy < +, 1 y x1 (log y)n ey dy h(x) [a, b]. ,
+ x1
y
(log y)n ey dy = h(x)
[a, b].
(12.10)
1
0 < y 1,
|y x1 (log y)n ey | y a1 | log y|n

1
1
, 0 y a1 | log y|n dy < +, 0 y x1 (log y)n ey dy
q(x) [a, b]. ,
1 x1
(log y)n ey dy = q(x)

[a, b].
(12.11)
0 y
452
(12.10) (12.11)
+
0
y x1 (log y)n ey dy = q(x) + h(x)
[a, b].
+
..
0 y x1 (log y)n ey dy = q(x) + h(x) [a, b], (12.9) q(x) +
h(x) = g(x) x [a, b] , ,
+
0
y x1 (log y)n ey dy = g(x)
+
0
. ,
+
(x) = 0 y x1 ey dy
[a, b].
y x1 ey dy : (0, +) R
x (0, +).
.
12.14. (0, +)
+
(n) (x) = 0 y x1 (log y)n ey dy
x (0, +), n N.
. (0, +). a, b 0 < a < < b < +
y x1 ey x, y x1 (log y)ey ,
[a, b] (0, +).
+
+
12.2, 0 y x1 ey dy 0 y x1 (log y)ey dy - (x) - [a, b]. 12.6 [a, b] , ,
+
0 () = 0 y 1 (log y)ey dy.
y x1 (log y)ey x, y x1 (log y)2 ey ,
+ [a, b] (0, +).
+
12.2, 0 y x1 (log y)ey dy 0 y x1 (log y)2 ey dy [a, b], 12.6
+
00 () = 0 y 1 (log y)2 ey dy.
.
12.15. :
(i) (x) > 0 x (0, +).
(ii) limx+ (x) = + limx0+ (x) = +.
(iii) (x + 1) = x(x) x (0, +).
(iv) (1) = 1 (n) = (n 1)! n N.
(v) log (0, +).
. (i) y x1 ey > 0 y > 0,
+
(x) = 0 y x1 ey dy 0.
, y x1 ey y = 1 1e > 0, ,
1
, c, d 0 < c < 1 < d < + y x1 ey 2e
y [c, d].
d 1
(x) c 2e
dy = dc
2e > 0.
453
(ii) x > 0
(x)
1
0
y x1 ey dy e1
1
0
y x1 dy =
1
ex .
limx0+ (x) = +.
, x 1
+
+
(x) 2 y x1 ey dy 2x1 2 ey dy = 2x1 e2 .
limx+ (x) = +.
(iii) , x (0, +)
+
+
(x + 1) = 0 y x ey dy = x 0 y x1 ey dy = x(x).
+
(iv) (1) = 0 ey dy = 1. (x + 1) = x(x), , (2) = 1(1) = 1, (3) = 2(2) = 2 1 = 2!, (4) = 3(3) = 3 2! = 3! ,
, (n) = (n 1)!.
(v) x (0, +) t
+
t2 00 (x) + 2t0 (x) + (x) = 0 y x1 (t log y + 1)2 ey dy 0.
00 (x)(x) (0 (x))2 , , (log )00 (x) 0 x > 0.
(0, +)
N :
(n) = (n 1)!
n N.
.
, 12.5.9 1
Rd .
12.5.1.
1
0
.
(log y1 )x1 dy = (x) x > 0.
12.5.2. 12.15 00 (x)(x) (0 (x))2

log (x).
Schwarz, Buniakowsky 12.3.13.
+ x2
12.5.3. (
Gauss,
e
dx
=
2 , 0
)
12 = .
(
)
n + 12 =
(2n)!
4n n!
n Z, n 0.
12.5.4. x > 1.
ny y x1 , y, , a > 0, +
n=1 e
x1
eyy 1 [a, +).
b ny x1
+ ny x1
b x1
y
dy +
e
y
dy, 0 < a 1.
n=1 0
ey 1 dy
454
+
n N 0 eny y x1 dy = (x)
nx .
12.4.2 12.3.7.
(x)(x) =
+
0
y x1
ey 1
dy
x > 1.
y x1 (1 ny )n dy (x) x > 0.
n
0 y x1 (1 ny )n dy =
, Gauss:10
12.5.5.
nx n!
x(x+1)(x+n)
(x)
nx n!
x(x+1)(x+n)
x > 0.
Gauss x = 12 Wallis
7.3.11.
:
(x)(x + 21 ) = 212x (2x)

x > 0.
Gauss,
(x
)
x
log (x) = x log x + +
n=1 n log(1 + n )
= limn+ (1 +
6.4.11 7.3.20.
1
2
+ +
1
n
x > 0
log n) Euler 2.4.6,
12.5.6. f : (0, +) R : (i) f (x) > 0 x (0, +),

(ii) f (1) = 1, (iii) f (x + 1) = xf (x) x (0, +) (iv) log f
(0, +).
nx n!
f (x) x (0, +).
x(x+1)(x+n)
f ,
, f =
Gauss 12.5.5.
12.5.7.
0 (x)
(x)
= limn+ (1 +
6.4.11 7.3.20.
=
1
2
1
x
+ +
+
1
n
x
n=1 n(n+x)
x > 0,
log n) Euler 2.4.6,
12.5.8. 11
1
B(x, y) = 0 tx1 (1 t)y1 dt
x, y > 0.
B.
B(x, y) = B(y, x) x, y > 0 B(x, 1) = x1
B(1, y) = y1 x, y > 0.
x
B(x, y) x, y > 0 B(x + 1, y) = x+y
.
y > 0
x, B0 (x, y) =
1 x1 ,
1
00
y1
x1
(1 t)
log t dt B (x, y) = 0 t (1 t)y1 (log t)2 dt. ,
0 t
log , y > 0, log B(x, y) ,
10
11
Gauss 12.5.6.
Euler.
455
x, (0, +).
1
y > 0, f (x) = (y)
B(x, y)(x + y) x (0, +). f : (i) f (x) > 0 x (0, +), (ii) f (1) = 1,
(iii) f (x + 1) = xf (x) x (0, +) (iv) log f (0, +).
12.5.6, f = ,
B(x, y) =
(x)(y)
(x+y)
x, y > 0.
7.3.13.
12.5.9. Vd 1 d- Rd . : V1 = 2, V2 = , V3 = 4
3 .
k N, k 2. , Rk r > 0,
rk Vk . Rk 0 1
x1 [1, 1] x1 -
x1 Rk1 1 x1 2 ,
k1
(1 x1 2 ) 2 Vk1 . ,
Vk = Vk1
1 (1
x1 2 )
k1
2
dx1 = Vk1
12.5.8 , , ( 12 ) =
1
Vk = Vk1 B( k+1
2 , 2 ) = Vk1
(1 t)
d1
2
2
.
( d2 +1)
456
t 2 dt.
1
( k1 +1)
Vk1 ( k2 +1) .
2
( 1 +1)
V1 ( d2 +1)
2
Vd =
k1
2
12.5.3,
)( 12 )
( k+1
2
k
( 2 +1)
, Vd =
13
.
13.1 Peano.
, N . , , N ,
, Peano,
( )
N.
Peano:
1. N , 1.
2. n N n0 N, n.
3. n N n0 6= 1.
, 1 .
4. n, m N n0 = m0 , n = m.
, n, m N n 6= m, n0 6= m0 .
5. K N : (i) 1 K (ii) n K, n0 K.
K = N.
2 n 7 n0 N N. , 3 1
4 --. 5
.
.
13.1. n N n0 6= n.
. K n N n0 6= n. 1
3 1 K. n K. n N n0 6= n. 4
(n0 )0 6= n0 , , n0 K. K = N.
13.2. m N, m 6= 1 n N n0 = m.
. K 1 m N n N
n0 = m. , , 1 K. m K. m0 N n N
(: m) n0 = m0 . m0 K.
K = N. m N K, , m 6= 1, n N n0 = m.
4 n N n0 = m .
457
13.2 n 7 n0 N \ {1},
, , N N \ {1}.
13.1. : N N N : (i)
n N (n, 1) = n0 (ii) n, m N (n, m0 ) = ((n, m))0 .
. K n N : fn : N N
(i) fn (1) = n0 (ii) m N fn (m0 ) = (fn (m))0 .
, 1 K. , f1 : N N f1 (m) = m0 .
(i) f1 (1) = 10 (ii) m N f1 (m0 ) = (m0 )0 = (f1 (m))0 .
, n K. , fn : N N (i) fn (1) = n0
(ii) m N fn (m0 ) = (fn (m))0 . n0 K.
fn0 : N N fn0 (m) = (fn (m))0 . (i) fn0 (1) = (fn (1))0 = (n0 )0 (ii)
m N fn0 (m0 ) = (fn (m0 ))0 = ((fn (m))0 )0 = (fn0 (m))0 . n0 K.
K = N. n N fn : N N (i) fn (1) = n0
(ii) m N fn (m0 ) = (fn (m))0 .
, : N N N (n, m) = fn (m). : (i) (n, 1) =
fn (1) = n0 (ii) n, m N (n, m0 ) = fn (m0 ) = (fn (m))0 = ((n, m))0 .
(i), (ii) .
: N N N : (i) n N (n, 1) = n0
(ii) n, m N (n, m0 ) = ((n, m))0 . n N
K m N : (n, m) = (n, m). 1 K,
(n, 1) = n0 = (n, 1). , m K, (n, m) = (n, m). (n, m0 ) =
((n, m))0 = ((n, m))0 = (n, m0 ) , , m0 K. K = N.
m N (n, m) = (n, m) , n N,
(n, m) = (n, m) n, m N. , .
. (n, m) N , 13.1,
n, m N n, m
n + m.
, n + m = (n, m). n, m N N.
13.1 , :
n+1 = (n, 1) = n0 , 1+n = (1, n) = f1 (n) = n0 , n+m0 = (n, m0 ) = ((n, m))0 = (n+m)0
n0 + m = (n0 , m) = fn0 (m) = (fn (m))0 = ((n, m))0 = (n + m)0 . :
n + 1 = n0 = 1 + n,
n + m0 = (n + m)0 = n0 + m.
13.3. n, m N n + m = m + n.
. n N K m N : n + m = m + n.
n + 1 = n0 = 1 + n. 1 K. , m K, n + m = m + n.
n + m0 = (n + m)0 = (m + n)0 = m0 + n, m0 K.
K = N.
13.4. n, m, k N (n + m) + k = n + (m + k).
. n, m N K k N : (n + m) + k =
n + (m + k).
(n + m) + 1 = (n + m)0 = n + m0 = n + (m + 1). 1 K. , k K,
(n + m) + k = n + (m + k). (n + m) + k 0 = ((n + m) + k)0 = (n + (m + k))0 =
n + (m + k)0 = n + (m + k 0 ), k 0 K.
K = N.
458
, 13.3 13.4, , . :
(m + n) + (k + l) = ((n + l) + m) + k, (m + n) + (k + l) = (n + m) + (l + k) =
((n + m) + l) + k = (n + (m + l)) + k = (n + (l + m)) + k = ((n + l) + m) + k. ,

. : (m + n) + (k + l), ((n + l) + m) + k n + m + k + l
( n + l + k + m k + m + l + n ).
13.5. n, m N m 6= n + m.
. n N K m N : m 6= n + m.
1 6= n0 = n + 1, 1 K. , m K, m 6= n + m. m0 6=
(n + m)0 = n + m0 , m0 K.
K = N.
13.6. n, m, k N. m 6= k, n + m 6= n + k.
. m, k N, m 6= k K n N : n + m 6=
n + k.
1 + m = m0 6= k 0 = 1 + k, 1 K. , n K, n + m 6= n + k.
n0 + m = (n + m)0 6= (n + k)0 = n0 + k, n0 K.
K = N.
13.7. n, m N : (i) n = m, (ii)
k N n = m + k (iii) k N m = n + k. k (ii), (iii)
.
. n N K m N
(i) (iii).
, 1 K. , n = 1, (i) 1. , n 6= 1,
k N n = k 0 = 1 + k, (ii) 1.
m K, (i) (iii) m. (i)
m, n = m, n + 1 = n0 = m0 , , (iii) m0 .
(ii) m, k N n = m + k. k = 1,
n = m + 1 = m0 , (i) m0 . k 6= 1, l N k = l0 ,
n = m + l0 = (m + l)0 = m0 + l , , (ii) m0 . ,
(iii) m, k N m = n + k. m0 = (n + k)0 = n + k 0 ,
(iii) m0 . , , m0
(i) (iii) , , m0 K.
K = N.
k (ii), (iii) 13.6.
(i), (ii) 13.5. , (i),
(iii) . (ii), (iii), n = m+k
m = n + l k, l Z, n = m + k = n + l + k = (l + k) + n,
13.5. (i) (iii).
.
. n, m N. k N n = m+k, n
m n > m , , m n
m < n.
459
n, m N. n > m, k N n = m + k
n, m
n m.
n, m N, n > m n m N.
13.8. n, m N : n = m, n > m,
n < m.
. 13.7.
. n, m N. n > m n = m , , m < n m = n,
n m n m , , m
n m n.
13.9. m, n, k N.
[] n < m m < k, n < k.
[] n m m < k n < m m k, n < k.
[] n m m k, n k.
. [] n < m m < k. p, q N m = n + p k = m + q.
k = m + q = n + p + q = n + (p + q), n < k.
[], [] , [].
13.10. n, m N n + m > n.
. .
13.11. m, n, k N. n < m n + k < m + k. ,
n = m n + k = m + k.
. n < m. l N m = n+l. m+k = n+l+k = (n+k)+l
, , n + k < m + k.
n + k < m + k. n = m, n + k = m + k , m < n, m + k < n + k.
. n < m.
, n = m, n + k = m + k. n + k = m + k. n < m, n + k < m + k
, m < n, m + k < n + k. .
n = m.
13.12. m, n, k, l N.
[] n < m k < l, n + k < m + l.
[] n m k < l n < m k l, n + k < m + l.
[] n m k l, n + k m + l.
. [] n < m k < l. , 13.11, n + k < m + k <
m + l.
[], [] , [].
13.13. n N n 1.
. n = 1, n 1. n 6= 1, m N n = m0 = m + 1 > 1.
13.14. m, n N.
[] n > m, n m + 1.
[] n < m + 1, n m.
460
. [] n > m, k N n = m + k. k 1, n m + 1.
[] , [].
. - N .
. - M N m0 M . K n N
m m M .
, 1 K. m0 + 1 > m0 m0 M , m0 + 1 K. K
N, , , n0 K
n0 + 1 = n0 0
/ K.
, (i) n0 m m M . , n0 K. ,
n0
/ M . m M n0 < m , , n0 +1 m. n0 +1 K
. (ii) n0 M .
(i), (ii) n0 M .
.
13.2. : N N N : (i)
n N (n, 1) = n (ii) n, m N (n, m0 ) = (n, m) + n.
. K n N : fn : N N
(i) fn (1) = n (ii) m N fn (m0 ) = fn (m) + n.
, 1 K. , f1 : N N f1 (m) = m. (i)
f1 (1) = 1 (ii) m N f1 (m0 ) = m0 = m + 1 = f1 (m) + 1.
, n K. , fn : N N (i) fn (1) = n (ii)
m N fn (m0 ) = fn (m) + n. n0 K.
fn0 : N N fn0 (m) = fn (m)+m. (i) fn0 (1) = fn (1)+1 = n+1 = n0 (ii)
m N fn0 (m0 ) = fn (m0 )+m0 = fn (m)+n+m0 = fn (m)+n0 +m = fn0 (m)+n0 .
n0 K.
K = N. n N fn : N N (i) fn (1) = n
(ii) m N fn (m0 ) = fn (m) + n.
, : N N N (n, m) = fn (m). : (i) (n, 1) =
fn (1) = n (ii) n, m N (n, m0 ) = fn (m0 ) = fn (m) + n = (n, m) + n.
(i), (ii) .
: N N N : (i) n N (n, 1) = n
(ii) n, m N (n, m0 ) = (n, m) + n. n N
K m N : (n, m) = (n, m). 1 K,
(n, 1) = n = (n, 1). , m K, (n, m) = (n, m). (n, m0 ) =
(n, m) + n = (n, m) + n = (n, m0 ) , , m0 K. K = N.
m N (n, m) = (n, m) , n N,
(n, m) = (n, m) n, m N. , .
. (n, m) N , 13.2,
n, m N n, m
n m.
, nm = (n, m). n, m N
N.
13.2 ,
: n 1 = (n, 1) = n, 1 n = (1, n) = f1 (n) = n, n m0 = (n, m0 ) = (n, m) + n =
nm+n n0 m = (n0 , m) = fn0 (m) = fn (m)+m = (n, m)+m = nm+m. :
n 1 = n = 1 n,
n m0 = n m + n,
461
n0 m = n m + m.
n m nm
n1 = n = 1n,
nm0 = nm + n,
n0 m = nm + m.
13.15. n, m N nm = mn.
. n N K m N : nm = mn.
n1 = n = 1n. 1 K. , m K, nm = mn. nm0 =
nm + n = mn + n = m0 n, m0 K.
K = N.
13.16. n, m, k N n(m + k) = nm + nk.
. n, m N K k N : n(m + k) =
nm + nk.
n(m + 1) = nm0 = nm + n = nm + n1. 1 K. , k K,
n(m+k) = nm+nk. n(m+k 0 ) = n(m+k)0 = n(m+k)+n = nm+nk +n = nm+nk 0 ,
k 0 K.
K = N.
13.17. n, m, k N (nm)k = n(mk).
. n, m N K k N : (nm)k = n(mk).
(nm)1 = nm = n(m1). 1 K. , k K, (nm)k = n(mk).
(nm)k 0 = (nm)k + nm = n(mk) + nm = n(mk + m) = n(mk 0 ), k 0 K.
K = N.
, , 13.15 13.17, , .
13.18. m, n, k N. n < m nk < mk. ,
n = m nk = mk.
. n < m. l N m = n + l. mk = nk + lk , ,
nk < mk.
nk < mk. n = m, nk = mk , m < n, mk < nk.
. n < m.
, n = m, nk = mk. nk = mk. n < m, nk < mk , m < n,
mk < nk. . n = m.
13.19. m, n, k, l N.
[] n < m k < l, nk < ml.
[] n m k < l n < m k l, nk < ml.
[] n m k l, nk ml.
. [] n < m k < l. , 13.18, nk < mk < ml.
[], [] , [].
462
13.2 .
(n1 , n2 ), NN.
(n1 , n2 ), (m1 , m2 )
(n1 , n2 ) (m1 , m2 )
n1 m2 = m1 n2 .
13.20. (n1 , n2 ), (m1 , m2 ), (k1 , k2 ) N N.
[] (n1 , n2 ) (n1 , n2 ).
[] (n1 , n2 ) (m1 , m2 ), (m1 , m2 ) (n1 , n2 ).
[] (n1 , n2 ) (m1 , m2 ) (m1 , m2 ) (k1 , k2 ), (n1 , n2 ) (k1 , k2 ).
. [] n1 n2 = n1 n2 , (n1 , n2 ) (n1 , n2 ).
[] (n1 , n2 ) (m1 , m2 ), n1 m2 = m1 n2 . m1 n2 = n1 m2 ,
(m1 , m2 ) (n1 , n2 ).
[] (n1 , n2 ) (m1 , m2 ) (m1 , m2 ) (k1 , k2 ), n1 m2 = m1 n2 m1 k2 = k1 m2 .
n1 m2 m1 k2 = m1 n2 k1 m2 , n1 k2 = k1 n2 . (n1 , n2 ) (k1 , k2 ).
. , ,
N N : ,
, ,
, .
Q+ . r (, ), r
r. ,
-
.
.
. (n1 , n2 ), (m1 , m2 ) N N. (n1 , n2 )
(m1 , m2 ) (n1 , n2 ) (m1 , m2 ) , , (m1 , m2 )

(n1 , n2 ) (m1 , m2 ) (n1 , n2 ) n1 m2 > m1 n2 , , m1 n2 <
n1 m2 .
13.21. (n1 , n2 ), (m1 , m2 ), (k1 , k2 ), (l1 , l2 ) N N. (n1 , n2 ) (m1 , m2 ),

(n1 , n2 ) (k1 , k2 ), (m1 , m2 ) (l1 , l2 ), (k1 , k2 ) (l1 , l2 ).
. (n1 , n2 ) (m1 , m2 ), (n1 , n2 ) (k1 , k2 ) (m1 , m2 ) (l1 , l2 ). n1 m2 >
m1 n2 , n1 k2 = k1 n2 m1 l2 = l1 m2 . k1 n2 m1 l2 = l1 m2 n1 k2 > l1 k2 n2 m1 . k1 l2 >
l1 k2 , , (k1 , k2 ) (l1 , l2 ).
13.21 r
s, r s. , , .
. r, s Q+ . r s r > s ,
, s r s < r (n1 , n2 ) (m1 , m2 )

(, , ) (n1 , n2 ) r (,
, ) (m1 , m2 ) s.
13.22. r, s Q+ : r = s, r > s,
r < s.
463
. (n1 , n2 ), (m1 , m2 ) r, s, .
, r = s, r > s, r < s
(n1 , n2 ) (m1 , m2 ), (n1 , n2 ) (m1 , m2 ), (n1 , n2 ) (m1 , m2 )
n1 m2 = m1 n2 , n1 m2 > m1 n2 , n1 m2 <
m1 n2 .
. , r s r s ,
, s r s r r > s
r = s , , s < r s = r.
13.23. r, s, t Q+ .
[] r < s s < t, r < t.
[] r s s < t r < s s t, r < t.
[] r s s t, r t.
. r < s s < t. (n1 , n2 ), (m1 , m2 ), (k1 , k2 ) r, s,
t, . (n1 , n2 ) (m1 , m2 ) (m1 , m2 ) (k1 , k2 ), n1 m2 < m1 n2
m1 k2 < k1 m2 . n1 m2 m1 k2 < m1 n2 k1 m2 , , n1 k2 < k1 n2 .
(n1 , n2 ) (k1 , k2 ), r < t.
[], []. , [].
13.24. [] r Q+ s Q+ s > r.
[] r Q+ s Q+ s < r.
[] r, s Q+ , r < s t Q+ r < t < s.
. [] r Q+ (n1 , n2 ) r. (n1 + n1 , n2 ) s Q+ , (n1 + n1 , n2 ) .
(n1 + n1 , n2 ) (n1 , n2 ) (n1 + n1 )n2 = n1 n2 + n1 n2 > n1 n2 . s > r.
[] r Q+ (n1 , n2 ) r. (n1 , n2 +
n2 ) s Q+ , (n1 , n2 + n2 ) . (n1 , n2 + n2 )
(n1 , n2 ) n1 (n2 + n2 ) = n1 n2 + n1 n2 > n1 n2 . s < r.
[] r, s Q+ , r < s (n1 , n2 ) (m1 , m2 ) r, s, . , (n1 , n2 ) (m1 , m2 ), n1 m2 < m1 n2 .
(n1 + m1 , n2 + m2 ) t Q+ , (n1 + m1 , n2 + m2 ) .
n1 m2 < m1 n2 n1 n2 + n1 m2 < n1 n2 + m1 n2 , n1 (n2 + m2 ) <
(n1 + m1 )n2 . (n1 , n2 ) (n1 + m1 , n2 + m2 ) , , r < t.
n1 m2 < m1 n2 n1 m2 + m1 m2 < m1 n2 + m1 m2 , (n1 + m1 )m2 <
m1 (n2 + m2 ). (n1 + m1 , n2 + m2 ) (m1 , m2 ) , , t < s.
.
. (n1 , n2 ), (m1 , m2 ) N N.
(n1 , n2 ) + (m1 , m2 ) (n1 m2 + m1 n2 , n2 m2 ).

13.25. (n1 , n2 ), (m1 , m2 ), (k1 , k2 ), (l1 , l2 ) N N. (n1 , n2 ) (k1 , k2 )
(m1 , m2 ) (l1 , l2 ), (n1 , n2 ) + (m1 , m2 ) (k1 , k2 ) + (l1 , l2 ).
. (n1 , n2 ) (k1 , k2 ) (m1 , m2 ) (l1 , l2 ). n1 k2 = k1 n2 m1 l2 =
l1 m2 . (n1 , n2 ) + (m1 , m2 ) (k1 , k2 ) + (l1 , l2 ) , , (n1 m2 +
m1 n2 , n2 m2 ) (k1 l2 + l1 k2 , k2 l2 ), (n1 m2 + m1 n2 )k2 l2 = (k1 l2 +
l1 k2 )n2 m2 . , , n1 k2 = k1 n2 m1 l2 = l1 m2 .
13.25 . r s .
464
t.
r s,
, t. , ,
.
. r, s Q+ . r, s
r+s
(n1 , n2 ) + (m1 , m2 ) (,
, ) (n1 , n2 ) r (, , ) (m1 , m2 ) s. r, s Q+ r + s
Q+ .
13.26. r, s Q+ r + s = s + r.
. (n1 , n2 ), (m1 , m2 ) r, s, . (n1 , n2 )+(m1 , m2 ) =
(n1 m2 + m1 n2 , n2 m2 ) r + s (m1 , m2 ) + (n1 , n2 ) = (m1 n2 +
n1 m2 , m2 n2 ) s+r. (n1 m2 +m1 n2 , n2 m2 )
(m1 n2 + n1 m2 , m2 n2 ). , , , .
13.27. r, s, t Q+ (r + s) + t = r + (s + t).
. (n1 , n2 ), (m1 , m2 ) (k1 , k2 ) r, s t, .
((n1 , n2 ) + (m1 , m2 )) + (k1 , k2 ) = (n1 m2 + m1 n2 , n2 m2 ) + (k1 , k2 ) = (n1 m2 k2 + m1 n2 k2 +
k1 n2 m2 , n2 m2 k2 ) (r + s) + t (n1 , n2 ) + ((m1 , m2 ) + (k1 , k2 )) =
(n1 , n2 )+(m1 k2 +k1 m2 , m2 k2 ) = (n1 m2 k2 +m1 k2 n2 +k1 m2 n2 , n2 m2 k2 )
r + (s + t). (n1 m2 k2 + m1 n2 k2 + k1 n2 m2 , n2 m2 k2 )
(n1 m2 k2 + m1 k2 n2 + k1 m2 n2 , n2 m2 k2 ). , , ,
.
, 13.26
13.27, ,
.
13.28. r, s Q+ r + s > r.
. (n1 , n2 ), (m1 , m2 ) r, s, . (n1 , n2 )+(m1 , m2 ) =
(n1 m2 + m1 n2 , n2 m2 ) r + s, , r + s > r,
(n1 m2 + m1 n2 , n2 m2 ) (n1 , n2 ) , , n1 m2 n2 + m1 n2 n2 >
n1 n2 m2 , .
13.29. r, s, t Q+ . r < s r + t < s + t. ,
r = s r + t = s + t.
. r < s (n1 , n2 ), (m1 , m2 ), (k1 , k2 ) r, s, t, .
(n1 , n2 ) (m1 , m2 ) , , n1 m2 < m1 n2 . (n1 , n2 ) + (k1 , k2 ) = (n1 k2 +
k1 n2 , n2 k2 ), (m1 , m2 ) + (k1 , k2 ) = (m1 k2 + k1 m2 , m2 k2 ) r + t, s + t,
. , r + t < s + t (n1 k2 +
k1 n2 , n2 k2 ) (m1 k2 + k1 m2 , m2 k2 ) , , n1 k2 m2 k2 + k1 n2 m2 k2 < m1 k2 n2 k2 +
k1 m2 n2 k2 . , , n1 m2 < m1 n2 .
r + t < s + t. r = s, r + t = s + t , s < r, s + t < r + t.
. r < s.
, r = s, r + t = s + t. r + t = s + t. r < s, r + t < s + t ,
s < r, s + t < r + t. . r = s.
465
13.30. r, s, t, u Q+ .
[] r < s t < u, r + t < s + u.
[] r s t < u r < s t u, r + t < s + u.
[] r s t u, r + t s + u.
. [] r < s t < u. , r + t < s + t < s + u.
[], []. , [].
13.31. r, s Q+ . r < s, t Q+ r + t = s.
, r s, t Q+ r + t = s.
. r < s (n1 , n2 ), (m1 , m2 ) r, s, .
(n1 , n2 ) (m1 , m2 ) , , n1 m2 < m1 n2 . k N
n1 m2 + k = m1 n2 . t Q+ (k, n2 m2 ).
r + t (n1 , n2 ) + (k, n2 m2 ) = (n1 n2 m2 + kn2 , n2 n2 m2 ) ,
r + t = s, (n1 n2 m2 + kn2 , n2 n2 m2 ) (m1 , m2 ) ,
, n1 n2 m2 m2 + kn2 m2 = m1 n2 n2 m2 . , , n1 m2 +
k = m1 n2 .
t 13.29.
r + t = s s > r. , r s,
t Q+ r + t = s.
. r, s Q+ , r < s, t Q+ r +t = s
s, r
s r.
r, s Q+ , r < s s r Q+ .
.
. (n1 , n2 ), (m1 , m2 ) N N.
(n1 , n2 ) (m1 , m2 ) (n1 m1 , n2 m2 ).
13.32. (n1 , n2 ), (m1 , m2 ), (k1 , k2 ), (l1 , l2 ) N N. (n1 , n2 ) (k1 , k2 )

(m1 , m2 ) (l1 , l2 ), (n1 , n2 ) (m1 , m2 ) (k1 , k2 ) (l1 , l2 ).
. (n1 , n2 ) (k1 , k2 ) (m1 , m2 ) (l1 , l2 ). n1 k2 = k1 n2 m1 l2 =
l1 m2 . n1 k2 m1 l2 = k1 n2 l1 m2 , , (n1 m1 , n2 m2 ) (k1 l1 , k2 l2 ),
(n1 , n2 ) (m1 , m2 ) (k1 , k2 ) (l1 , l2 ).
13.32 .
r s .
t.
r s, t. , , .
. r, s Q+ . r, s
rs
(n1 , n2 ) (m1 , m2 ) (,
, ) (n1 , n2 ) r (, , ) (m1 , m2 ) s. r, s Q+ r s
Q+ .
, rs r s.
466
13.33. r, s Q+ rs = sr.
. (n1 , n2 ), (m1 , m2 ) r, s, . (n1 , n2 )(m1 , m2 ) =
(n1 m1 , n2 m2 ) rs (m1 , m2 )(n1 , n2 ) = (m1 n1 , m2 n2 ) sr. (n1 m1 , n2 m2 ) (m1 n1 , m2 n2 ). , ,
, .
13.34. r, s, t Q+ (rs)t = r(st).
. (n1 , n2 ), (m1 , m2 ), (k1 , k2 ), , r, s, t.
((n1 , n2 )(m1 , m2 ))(k1 , k2 ) = (n1 m1 , n2 m2 )(k1 , k2 ) = (n1 m1 k1 , n2 m2 k2 ) (rs)t (n1 , n2 )((m1 , m2 )(k1 , k2 )) = (n1 , n2 )(m1 k1 , m2 k2 ) = (n1 m1 k1 , n2 m2 k2 )
r(st). (n1 m1 k1 , n2 m2 k2 ) (n1 m1 k1 , n2 m2 k2 ).
, , , .
13.33
13.34, ,
.
13.35. r, s, t Q+ r(s + t) = rs + rt.
. (n1 , n2 ), (m1 , m2 ), (k1 , k2 ) , , r, s, t.
(n1 , n2 )((m1 , m2 )+(k1 , k2 )) = (n1 m1 k2 +n1 k1 m2 , n2 m2 k2 ) r(s+t)
(n1 , n2 )(m1 , m2 ) + (n1 , n2 )(k1 , k2 ) = (n1 m1 n2 k2 + n1 k1 n2 m2 , n2 m2 n2 k2 ) rs + rt. , r(s + t) = rs + rt,
(n1 m1 k2 + n1 k1 m2 , n2 m2 k2 ) (n1 m1 n2 k2 + n1 k1 n2 m2 , n2 m2 n2 k2 ).
(n1 m1 k2 + n1 k1 m2 )n2 m2 n2 k2 = (n1 m1 n2 k2 + n1 k1 n2 m2 )n2 m2 k2 ,
.
13.36. r, s, t Q+ . r < s rt < st. , r = s
rt = st.
. r < s (n1 , n2 ), (m1 , m2 ), (k1 , k2 ) r, s, t, . (n1 , n2 ) (m1 , m2 ) , , n1 m2 < m1 n2 . (n1 , n2 )(k1 , k2 ) =
(n1 k1 , n2 k2 ), (m1 , m2 )(k1 , k2 ) = (m1 k1 , m2 k2 ) rt, st, .
rt < st (n1 k1 , n2 k2 ) (m1 k1 , m2 k2 ) ,
, n1 k1 m2 k2 < m1 k1 n2 k2 . , , n1 m2 < m1 n2 .
rt < st. r = s, rt = st , s < r, st < rt.
. r < s.
, r = s, rt = st. rt = st. r < s, rt < st , s < r,
st < rt. . r = s.
13.37. r, s, t, u Q+ .
[] r < s t < u, rt < su.
[] r s t < u r < s t u, rt < su.
[] r s t u, rt su.
. [] r < s t < u. rt < st < su.
[], []. , [].
13.38. r, s Q+ . T t Q+ rt = s.
467
. (n1 , n2 ), (m1 , m2 ), , r, s. t
Q+ , (m1 n2 , n1 m2 ). (n1 , n2 )(m1 n2 , n1 m2 ) =
(n1 m1 n2 , n2 n1 m2 ) rt. , rt = s,
(n1 m1 n2 , n2 n1 m2 ) (m1 , m2 ) , , n1 m1 n2 m2 = m1 n2 n1 m2 ,
.
t 13.36.
. r, s Q+ , t Q+ rt = s
s, r
s
.
r
r, s Q+
s
r
Q+ .
.
. n N (n, 1)
n. r Q+ , r = n n N
. Z+ . , Z+ = {n | n N}
Z+ Q+ .
13.39. n, m N. n < m n < m. ,
n = m n = m.
. n m (n, 1) (m, 1), . n < m
(n, 1) (m, 1) n1 < m1. , n = m
(n, 1) (m, 1) n1 = m1.
13.39 r Z+
n N r = n.
13.40. r, s Q+ . n N nr > s.
. t = rs Q+ , tr = s. (n1 , n2 )
t n = n1 + 1. n2 1, nn2 n > n1 = n1 1,
(n, 1) (n1 , n2 ). n > t , , nr > tr = s.
13.41. r Q+ . n1 , n2 N r =
(n1 , n2 ) r r = nn12 .
n1
n2 .
. (n1 , n2 ) r Q+ . (n1 , 1) (n2 , 1)

n1 n2 , . (n2 , 1)(n1 , n2 ) = (n2 n1 , n2 ) n2 r , , (n2 n1 , n2 ) (n1 , 1), n2 r = n1 . r = nn12 .
, n1 , n2 N r = nn12 , n2 r = n1 . (m1 , m2 )
r, o (n2 , 1)(m1 , m2 ) = (n2 m1 , m2 ) n2 r, (n2 m1 , m2 ) (n1 , 1) , , n2 m1 = n1 m2 , ,
(n1 , n2 ) (m1 , m2 ). (n1 , n2 ) r.
13.42. n, m, k N.
[] n + m = k n + m = k.
[] nm = k n m = k.
. [] (n, 1), (m, 1), (k, 1) n, m, k. (n, 1) + (m, 1) =
(n1 + m1, 11) = (n + m, 1) n + m. n + m = k
(n + m, 1) (k, 1) (n + m)1 = k1 n + m = k.
[] (n, 1)(m, 1) = (nm, 11) = (nm, 1) n m. n m = k
(nm, 1) (k, 1) nm1 = k1 nm = k.
468
13.42 :
. , n + m n, m
k, k = n + m. , n + m = n + m. ,
n m n, m k, k = nm. ,
n m = nm.
13.39 13.42 .
n N n Z+ , ,
n Z+ n N.
N
Z+ . : (i) n < m
n < m n = m n = m, (ii) n + m = k
n + m = k (iii) nm = k n m = k.
N Z+ , , Z+
N ,
.
: n n.
. , n
n , , N Z+ . , ,
n N,
n n Z+ . ,
N, Z+ Z+
Z+ . , , N, Z+ ,
N Q+ .
, 13.40 n n
: r, s n nr > s. ,
, :
r, s n nr > s.
. 13.41 : r nn21
, ,
r nn12 .
, 13.41
.
13.3 .
. x Q+ ,
: (i) x Q+ , (ii) x
Q+ x (iii) x
, x x.
R+ .
: ( ) .
. (i) (iii), ,
, , Dedekind.
.
13.43. x R+ .
[] r, s Q+ : r
/ x s > r, s
/ x.
469
[] r, s Q+ : r x s < r, s x.
[] r x s x, s > r.
. [], ] (ii) x. []
(iii) x.
. x R+ . (ii) x, x
x x x.
Q+ ,
(i) (iii), : (i)
, (ii)
,
(iii) ,
.
.
. x, y R+ , y x y > x ,
, x y x < y y x , ,
x y.
:
.
13.44. x, y R+ . x < y r Q+ r y
r
/ x.
. x < y, x y. r Q+ r y r
/ x.
r Q+ r y r
/ x. s x. s < r , , s y.
x y , r, x y.
13.45. x, y R+ : x = y, x > y,
x < y.
. x = y, x > y, x < y , , x = y, x y,
x y, .
x 6= y. (i) r Q+ r y r
/ x (ii) r Q+
r x r
/ y. (i) , 13.44, x < y
(ii) , , x > y.
. x, y R+ , y x y x
, , x y x y y > x
y = x , , x < y x = y. , y x , , x y
y x , , x y.
13.46. x, y, z R+ .
[] x < y y < z, x < z.
[] x y y < z x < y y z, x < z.
[] x y y z, x z.
. [] x < y y < z. x y y z , , x z. x < z.
[], []. .
470
.
13.3. x, y R+ . z = {r + s | r x, s y}
, R+ . , t, u Q+ , t
/ x, u
/ y t + u
/ z.
. r x, s y , , r + s z. z . ,
t, u Q+ , t
/ x, u
/ y. , r x, s y r < t, s < u,
r + s < t + u. z 6= t + u, t + u
/ z. z
(i) .
, , t, u Q+ , t
/ x, u
/ y t + u
/ z.
z. r + s, r x, s y.
t
t
(r + s) = t < r + s = 1(r + s), r+s
< 1.
t Q+ , t < r + s. r+s
t
t
t
t
r r+s < r1 = r s r+s < s1 = s. r r+s x s r+s y , ,
t
t
t
t
t
r r+s
+ s r+s
z. , r r+s
+ s r+s
= (r + s) r+s
= t, t z. z
(ii) .
, z. r + s, r x, s y.
t x, u y r < t, s < u. r + s < t + u t + u z.
z (iii) .
z R+ .
. x, y R+ . z R+ 13.3
x, y
x + y.
, x + y = {r + s | r x, s y}. x, y R+
x + y R+ .
13.47. x, y R+ x + y = y + x.
. x + y = {r + s | r x, s y} = {s + r | s y, r x} = y + x.
13.48. x, y, z R+ (x + y) + z = x + (y + z).
. x + y = {r + s | r x, s y} y + z = {s + t | s y, t z}.
(x + y) + z = {(r + s) + t | r x, s y, t z} = {r + (s + t) | r x, s y, t z} =
x + (y + z).

.
13.49. t Q+ x R+ . r x, s Q+ , s
/ x s r = t.
. r1 x s1 Q+ , s1
/ x. s1 > r1 , s1 r1 Q+ .
13.40, n N nt > s1 r1 , r1 + nt > s1 .
{n N | r1 + nt
/ x} , n0 .
n0 = 1, r = r1 , s = r1 + n0 t = r1 + t, r x, s Q+ , s
/ x
s r = t. n0 > 1, r = r1 + (n0 1)t x, s = r1 + n0 t
/ x,
r x, s Q+ , s
/ x s r = t.
13.50. x, y R+ x + y > x.
. t y. 13.49, r x, s Q+ , s
/ x
s r = t. , r + t = s
/ x r + t x + y. , 13.44,
x < x + y.
471
13.51. x, y, z R+ . x < y x + z < y + z. ,

x = y x + z = y + z.
. x < y. t1
/ x, t1 y. , t2 y, t2 > t1 ,
t2 t1 Q+ . 13.49, r z, s Q+ , s
/ z s r = t2 t1 .
t = t1 + s = t2 + r. t2 y, r z, t y + z. t1
/ x, s
/ z,
t
/ x + z. x + z < y + z.
x + z < y + z. x = y, x + z = y + z , y < x, y + z < x + z.
. x < y.
, x = y, x + z = y + z. x + z = y + z. x < y, x + z < y + z ,
y < x, y + z < x + z. . x = y.
13.52. x, y, z, w R+ .
[] x < y z < w, x + z < y + w.
[] x y z < w x < y z w, x + z < y + w.
[] x y z w, x + z y + w.
. [] x < y z < w. x + z < y + z < y + w.
[], []. , [].
13.53. x, y R+ . x < y, z R+ x + z = y.
, x y, z R+ x + z = y.
. , x + z > x. , z
13.51.
x < y. z = {s r | s y, r
/ x, s > r}
z R+ x + z = y.
t1
/ x, t1 y. , t2 y, t2 > t1 . t2 t1 z. ,
t Q+ , t
/ y. s y, r
/ x, s > r, s r < (s r) + r = s < t. t
/ z.
z (i) .
s r z, s y, r
/ x, s > r. t Q+ , t < s r. t + r <
(s r) + r = s, t + r y. , t + r > r. t = (t + r) r z. z
(ii) .
, s r z, s y, r
/ x, s > r. t y, t > s, t > r.
t r = (t s) + (s r) > s r t r z. z (iii)
.
z R+ .
, x + z y. r1 + (s r) x + z,
r1 x, s y, r
/ x, s > r. (r1 + (s r)) + (r r1 ) = s r > r1 ,
r1 + (s r) < s. r1 + (s r) y.
, y x + z. (i) s y, s
/ x. s1 y, s1 > s. ,
r x, s2 Q+ , s2
/ x s2 r = s1 s. s = r + (s1 s2 ),
r x, s1 y, s2
/ x s1 > s2 ( s1 = s2 + (s r) s > r). s x + z. (ii)
s y, s x. s1 y, s1
/ x s < s1 . (i) s1 x + z.
s x + z.
x + z y y x + z x + z = y.
. x, y R+ , x < y, z R+ x + z = y
y, x
y x.
x, y R+ , x < y y x R+ .
472
.
13.4. x, y R+ . z = {rs | r x, s y} , R+ . , t, u Q+ , t
/ x, u
/ y tu
/ z.
. r x, s y , , rs z. z . ,
t, u Q+ , t
/ x, u
/ y. , r x, s y r < t, s < u,
rs < tu. z 6= tu, tu
/ z. z
(i) .
, , t, u Q+ , t
/ x, u
/ y tu
/ z.
z. rs, r x, s y.
t Q+ , t < rs. r rt = t < rs, rt < s. rt y , , t = r rt z.
z (ii) .
, z. rs, r x, s y. t x,
u y r < t, s < u. rs < tu tu z. z
(iii) .
z R+ .
. x, y R+ . z R+ 13.4
x, y
x y.
, x y = {rs | r x, s y}. x, y R+
x y R+ .
x y, , xy.
13.54. x, y R+ xy = yx.
. xy = {rs | r x, s y} = {sr | s y, r x} = yx.
13.55. x, y, z R+ (xy)z = x(yz).
. xy = {rs | r x, s y} yz = {st | s y, t z}. (xy)z = {(rs)t | r
x, s y, t z} = {r(st) | r x, s y, t z} = x(yz).

.
13.56. x, y, z R+ x(y + z) = xy + xz.
. x(y + z) r(s + t), r x, s y, t z.
, r(s + t) = rs + rt xy + xz. x(y + z) xy + xz.
xy + xz r1 s + r2 t, r1 , r2 x, s y, t z.
r r1 , r2 . r x rs r1 s, rt r2 t,
r(s + t) r1 s + r2 t. r(s + t) x(y + z), r1 s + r2 t x(y + z).
xy + xz x(y + z).
x(y + z) = xy + xz.
13.57. x, y, z R+ . x < y xz < yz. ,
x = y xz = yz.
. x < y. 13.53, w R+ x+w = y.
yz = (x + w)z = xz + wz > xz.
xz < yz. x = y, xz = yz , y < x, yz < xz.
. x < y.
, x = y, xz = yz. xz = yz. x < y, xz < yz , y < x,
yz < xz. . x = y.
473
13.58. x, y, z, w R+ .
[] x < y z < w, xz < yw.
[] x y z < w x < y z w, xz < yw.
[] x y z w, xz yw.
. [] x < y z < w. xz < yz < yw.
[], []. , [].
13.59. r Q+ . r = {s Q+ | s < r} , R+ .
. s Q+ , s < r , , r r . r
(i) .
s r t Q+ , t < s. s < r, t < r , , t r . r
(ii) .
s r . s Q+ , s < r. s1 Q+ s < s1 < r. s1 r
s1 > s. r (iii) .
13.60. x R+ x1 = x.
. x1 . rs, r x, s Q+ , s < 1.
rs Q+ rs < r1 = r, rs x. x1 x.
r x. r1 x, r1 > r. rr1 r1 = r < r1 = 1r1 , rr1 < 1 , ,
r
r
r1 1 . r = r1 r1 x1 . x x1 .
x1 = x.
13.61. x R+ y R+ xy = 1 .
. y 13.57.
s Q+ , s
/ x, y = { 1s | s Q+ , s
/ x}.
/ x, s 6= s0 }.
s Q+ , s
/ x s0 , y = { 1s | s Q+ , s
s Q+ , s
/ x. s + s Q+ , s + s > s, s + s
/ x s + s
1
s0 ( ). s+s y. , r x.
s Q+ , s
/ x s 6= r , s 1s = 1 = r 1r , 1r 6= 1s . 1r
y. y (i) .
1s y, s Q+ , s
/ x. r < 1s . r 1r = 1 =
1
1
1
1
/ x 1r s0 ( ).
s s, s < r . r Q+ , r
1
r = 1/r y. y (ii) .
1s y, s Q+ , s
/ x s
s0 ( ). s1 Q+ , s1
/ x, s1 < s , , s2 Q+ ,
s1 < s2 < s. , , s2
/ x s2 s0 ( ).
1
1
1
s2 y s < s2 . y (iii) .
y R+ .
, xy 1 . r 1s xy, r x,
s Q+ , s
/ x. s > r, r 1s < s 1s = 1 r 1s Q+ . r 1s 1 .
, 1 xy. t Q+ , t < 1. r x , ,
r1 x, s1 Q+ , s1
/ x s1 r1 = (1 t)r. rt1 Q+ rt1 > s1 ( (1 t)s1 >
(1 t)r, r1 = s1 (1 t)r > ts1 ). rt1
/ x s0 (
). r11/t y. , t = r1 r11/t xy.
xy 1 1 xy xy = 1 .
. y 13.61 x
x1 .
474
13.62. x, y R+ . z R+ xz = y.
. z 13.57.
x, y R+ . z = x1 y R+ , xz = xx1 y = 1 y = y.
. x, y R+ , z R+ xz = y, x1 y,
y, x
y
.
x
x, y R+
y
x
R+ .
supremum R+ .
. - A R+ u R+
: a u a A. u A.
13.5. - A R+ . A
.
. u0 = {a | a A} = {r Q+ | r a a A}. , u0
a (a A).
a0 A r0 Q+ , r0 a0 . r0 u0 . ,
u A s Q+ , s
/ u. r u0 .
a A r a. a u ( a u), r u, r 6= s.
r 6= s r u0 , s
/ u0 . u0 (i) .
r u0 r1 Q+ , r1 < r. a A r a, r1 a. r1 u0 .
u0 (ii) .
r u0 . a A r a. , r1 a, r1 > r.
r1 u0 , r1 > r. u0 (iii) .
u0 R+ .
u0 : a u0 a A. , a u0
a A, u0 A. , u A. a u
a A, a u a A , , u0 u. u0 u
u A. u0 A.
, , u0 0 A. u0 A
u0 0 A, u0 u0 0 . , u0 0
A u0 A, u0 0 u0 . u0 = u0 0 .
. - A R+ . A,
13.5, supremum
A
sup A.
.
. r Q+ , r R+ -
n Z+ (= N), n R+ . () Q+ R+
r (r Q+ ) () Z+ R+ n (n Z+ (= N)). ,
Q+ = {r | r Q+ } Z+ = {r | r Z+ (= N)}.
13.63. r, s Q+ . r < s r < s . ,

r = s r = s .
475
. r < s. r s r
/ r . r < s .
r < s . r = s, r = s , s < r, s < r .

, r < s.
r = s, , , r = s . r = s . r < s, r < s , s < r,
s < r . , r = s.
13.64. r, s, t Q+ .
[] r + s = t r + s = t .
[] r s = t r s = t .
[] rs = t r s = t .
[] rs = t rs = t .
. [] r + s = t. r1 + s1 r + s ,
r1 , s1 Q+ , r1 < r, s1 < s. r1 + s1 Q+ r1 + s1 < r + s = t, r1 + s1 t .
r + s t .
t1
t1
t1 t , t1 Q+ , t1 < t = r + s. r+s
< 1, r+s
r<r
t1
t1
t1
t1
t1
r+s s < s , , r+s r r r+s s s . t1 = r+s r + r+s s r + s .

t r + s .
r + s = t .
, r + s = t r + s = u. u = r + s = t , ,
u = t.
[] [].
[] rs = t. r1 s1 r s , r1 , s1 Q+ , r1 < r,
s1 < s. r1 s1 Q+ r1 s1 < rs = t, r1 s1 t . r s t .
t1 t , t1 Q+ , t1 < t = rs. t2 Q+ t1 < t2 < rs.
ts2 < r tt12 s < s , , ts2 r tt12 s s . t1 = ts2 tt12 s r s .
t r s .
r s = t .
, r s = t rs = u. u = r s = t , , u = t.
[] [].
13.65. x R+ . x Q+ s Q+
s
/ x. , r s Q+ s
/ x, x = r .
. x Q+ . , x = r , r Q+ . , x = {t Q+ | t <
r}, r s Q+ s
/ x. ,
s Q+ s
/ x s r. t x
t < r ( r
/ x) , , t Q+ , t < r, t x.
x = {t Q+ | t < r} = r .
13.66. x R+ , r Q+ . (i) r x r < x (ii)
r
/ x r x.
. (i) r x. r
/ r , r < x. , r < x.
r1 x, r1
/ r . r1 x r1 r, r x.
(ii) (i).
13.67. x, y R+ , x < y. r Q+ x < r < y.
. x < y. s y, s
/ x. , r y, r > s.
r y r
/ r , r < y. , s r s
/ x, x < r .
476
13.63 13.64 .
r Q+ r Q+ . r Q+
r Q+ .
Q+ r Q+ R+
r .
. , r
r , , Q+
Q+ R+ . , , r
Q+ , r
r Q+ . , o Q+
Q+
Q+ . , , Q+ , Q+ ,
Q+ R+ .
, (, ) n n , Z+ Z+
R+ . , n n
Z+ . , o Z+ , , N Z+

Z+ . , Z+ , Z+ , Z+ = N
R+ .
,
.
13.67 :
.
13.66 ()
()
: () ()
()
() .
, 13.65 :
,
, .
13.60 :
x1 = x x .
13.61 :
x y xy = 1.
13.4 .
. , R+ ,
0. 0
x R+ . , x R+ ,
x x x. x (x R+ ) 0 y R+ . , ,
x, y R+ , x, y .
477
x (x R+ ) R . , R = {x | x R+ }. , R . , R = R {0} R+ .
r (r Q+ ) Q . ,
Q = {r | r Q+ }. ,
Q . , Q = Q {0} Q+ .
, n (n Z+ = N)
Z . , Z = {n | n Z+ }. , Z . , Z = Z {0} Z+ .
.
. x R |x| x
x, x R+
|x| = 0, x = 0
y, x = y, y R+
, x , |x| .
. x, y R. x > y y < x
x, y . , x, y
. x y x > y , ,
y x y < x (i) x, y
|x| < |y| (ii) x y (iii) x y = 0 (iv)
x = 0 y .
13.68 .
13.68. x R. x x > 0. , x
x < 0.
13.69 13.70, ,

.
.
13.69. x, y R : x = y, x > y,
x < y.
. x, y R, x y
x y , , y x y x
x > y x = y , , y < x y = x.
13.70. x, y, z R.
[] x < y y < z, x < z.
[] x y y < z x < y y z, x < z.
[] x y y z, x z.
.
. x, y R. x + y x, y . , x, y . x, y
x+y
478
(i) (|x| + |y|) x < 0, y < 0, (ii) |x| |y| x > 0, y < 0, |x| > |y|, (iii)
(|y| |x|) x > 0, y < 0, |x| < |y|, (iv) 0 x > 0, y < 0, |x| = |y|, (v) |y| |x|
x < 0, y > 0, |y| > |x|, (vi) (|x| |y|) x < 0, y > 0, |y| < |x|, (vii) 0 x < 0, y > 0,
|x| = |y|, (viii) x y = 0 (ix) y x = 0.
, R.
. - .
13.71. x, y R x + y = y + x.
13.72. x, y, z R (x + y) + z = x + (y + z).
. x R. x x . , , x
, x
x
(i) 0 x = 0 (ii) |x| x < 0.
13.73. x R x > 0 x = 0 x < 0 , ,
x < 0 x = 0 x > 0.
13.74. x R (x) = x, | x| = |x| x + (x) = 0.
13.75. x, y R (x + y) = x + (y).
. x, y R x, y
xy
x + (y). , R.
13.76. x, y R (x y) = y x.
13.77. x, y R x > y x y > 0
y x < 0.
13.78. x, y R x > y x < y. , x = y
x = y.
13.79. x, y, z R. x < y x + z < y + z. ,
x = y x + z = y + z.
13.80. x, y, z, w R.
[] x < y z < w, x + z < y + w.
[] x y z < w x < y z w, x + z < y + w.
[] x y z w, x + z y + w.
13.81. x, y R z R x + z = y.
z 13.81 y + (x) = y x.
479
.
. x, y R. xy x, y .
, x, y . x, y
xy
, , xy (i) |x||y| x < 0, y < 0, (ii) (|x||y|) x < 0, y > 0 x > 0,

y < 0 (iii) 0 x = 0 y = 0.
, R.
13.82. x, y R. xy = 0 x, y
.
13.83. x, y R |xy| = |x||y|.
13.84. x, y R xy = yx.
13.85. x, y, z R (xy)z = x(yz).
13.86. x R x1 = x.
13.87. x, y R (x)y = x(y) = xy, (x)(y) = xy.
13.88. x, y, z R x(y + z) = xy + xz.
13.89. x, y, z R. z > 0, x > y xz > yz.
z < 0, x > y xz < yz.
. x R, x 6= 0. x , . ,
x ,
x1
x |x|1 .
13.90. x R, x 6= 0 xx1 = x1 x = 1.
13.91. x, y R, x 6= 0. z R xz = y.
. z xz = y , , x1 y.
y, x
y
.
x
, R.
supremum.
. - A R u R :
a u a A. u A.
13.6. - A R+ . A
.
. A , u1 R a u1
a A.
: A a0 R+ .
A1 = A R+ - a u1 a A1 . A1 -
R+ , 13.5, A1
, u0 , R+ . a A a R+ . a A1 , a u0 .
480
a A a
/ R+ . a a0 , a0 u0 , a u0 . , ,
a A, a u0 , u0 A. , u A.
u A1 , u0 u. u0 A.
: A R+ .
a0 A, a0 0. a1 R a0 + a1 R+
A1 = {a + a1 | a A}. A1 - u1 + a1 :
a + a1 u1 + a1 a A. , A1 R+ (
a0 + a1 ). , A1 , u2 . ,
a A a + a1 A1 , a + a1 u2 , , a u2 a1 . u0 = u2 a1
A. , u A, a A
a + a1 u + a1 , u + a1 A1 , , u + a1 u2
u u2 a1 = u0 . u0 A.
, A u0 .
, , u0 0 A. u0 A
u0 0 A, u0 u0 0 . , u0 0
A u0 A, u0 0 u0 . u0 = u0 0 .
R.
R 13.7 .

R.
13.7. 1. . x, y R R x + y :
. x + y = y + x x, y R.
. (x + y) + z = x + (y + z) x, y, z R.
. R 0 x + 0 = x x R.
. x R R x x + (x) = 0.
2. . x, y R R
xy :
. xy = yx x, y R.
. (xy)z = x(yz) x, y, z R.
. R 1, 0, x1 = x
x R.
. x R, x 6= 0 R x1 xx1 = 1.
3. . x(y + z) = xy + xz x, y, z R.
4. . R R+ :
. x + y R+ x, y R+ ,
. xy R+ x, y R+ ,
. x R x = 0, x R+ , x R+ .
5. supremum. - A R
.
R , , . R , . , R supremum,
.
481
13.5 .
13.3 ( 13.2
13.1).
Dedekind.
. . : , ,
( ) .
: . , :
.
,
: , , ,
, , supremum.
,
13.4.
, , ,
, , . , .
Cauchy.
(rn ) Q+ Cauchy Q+
n0 N |rn rm | < n, m N, n, m n0 .
Cauchy (rn ) (sn ) Q+ (rn )
(sn ) limn+ (rn sn ) = 0. Q+ n0 N
|rn sn | < n N, n n0 .

Cauchy Q+ . Cauchy Q+ : Cauchy Q+
Cauchy Q+ .
, , R+ .
Cauchy (rn ) (sn ) Q+ . (rn )
(sn ) , , (sn ) (rn ) (rn ) (sn )
, , (sn ) (rn ) Q+ n0 N rn sn >
n N, n n0 . , (rn ), (sn ), (tn ), (un ) Cauchy
Q+ (rn ) (sn ), (rn ) (tn ), (sn ) (un ), (tn ) (un ).
. x, y R+
(rn ) x (sn ) y. x
y , , y x x > y , ,
y < x (rn ) (sn ) , , (sn ) (rn ).
Cauchy (rn ) (sn ) Q+ . (rn + sn ) Q+
Cauchy. , , , (rn ), (sn ), (tn ), (un )
Cauchy Q+ (rn ) (tn ), (sn ) (un ), (rn + sn ) (tn + un ).
. x, y R+ (rn ) x
(sn ) y. x + y R+
(rn + sn ).
, Cauchy (rn ) (sn ) Q+ . (rn sn )
Q+ Cauchy , , , (rn ), (sn ), (tn ), (un ) Cauchy
482
Q+ (rn ) (tn ), (sn ) (un ), (rn sn ) (tn un ).

. x, y R+ (rn ) x
(sn ) y. xy R+
(rn sn ).
, R+ ,
R+ 3,
supremum.
, Cantor,
Cauchy Q+ , Q+ .
.
([rn , rn 0 ]) Q+ (rn ) Q+ (rn 0 ) Q+
limn+ (rn 0 rn ) = 0.
([rn , rn 0 ]) ([sn , sn 0 ])
Q+ ([rn , rn 0 ]) ([sn , sn 0 ]) limn+ (rn sn ) = 0 ,
, limn+ (rn 0 sn 0 ) = 0.

Q+ .
Q+ .
,
, R+ .
([rn , rn 0 ]) ([sn , sn 0 ])
Q+ . ([rn , rn 0 ]) ([sn , sn 0 ]) , , ([sn , sn 0 ])
([rn , rn 0 ]) ([rn , rn 0 ]) ([sn , sn 0 ]) , ,
([sn , sn 0 ]) ([rn , rn 0 ]) Q+ n0 N rn sn >
n N, n n0 . , ([rn , rn 0 ]), ([sn , sn 0 ]), ([tn , tn 0 ]), ([un , un 0 ]) Q+ ([rn , rn 0 ]) ([sn , sn 0 ]),
([rn , rn 0 ]) ([tn , tn 0 ]), ([sn , sn 0 ]) ([un , un 0 ]), ([tn , tn 0 ]) ([un , un 0 ]).
. x, y R+
([rn , rn 0 ]) x ([sn , sn 0 ]) y. x y , , y x x > y ,
, y < x ([rn , rn 0 ]) ([sn , sn 0 ]) , , ([sn , sn 0 ]) ([rn , rn 0 ]).
([rn , rn 0 ]) ([sn , sn 0 ])
Q+ . ([rn + sn , rn 0 + sn 0 ]) Q+ . , , , ([rn , rn 0 ]), ([sn , sn 0 ]), ([tn , tn 0 ]), ([un , un 0 ])
Q+ ([rn , rn 0 ]) ([tn , tn 0 ]),
([sn , sn 0 ]) ([un , un 0 ]), ([rn + sn , rn 0 + sn 0 ]) ([tn + un , tn 0 + un 0 ]). , , . x, y R+ ([rn , rn 0 ])
x ([sn , sn 0 ]) y. x + y R+
([rn + sn , rn 0 + sn 0 ]).
, ([rn , rn 0 ]) ([sn , sn 0 ])
Q+ . ([rn sn , rn 0 sn 0 ]) Q+ . , , , ([rn , rn 0 ]), ([sn , sn 0 ]), ([tn , tn 0 ]), ([un , un 0 ])
Q+ ([rn , rn 0 ]) ([tn , tn 0 ]),
([sn , sn 0 ]) ([un , un 0 ]), ([rn sn , rn 0 sn 0 ]) ([tn un , tn 0 un 0 ]).
. x, y R+ ([rn , rn 0 ]) x
([sn , sn 0 ]) y. xy R+
([rn sn , rn 0 sn 0 ]).
, R+ 3, supremum.
483
484

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, - .

Newton 1.1.5 5.4.8. , .

1.2 Supremum infimum.

1.2.5. 1.2.1 1.2.2, [a, b],

[a, b] [a, b) -, maximum maximum. , -,

1.2.6. A maximum, sup A = max A, supremum

1.2.2. (a, +) [a, b)

1.2.5. inf A = inf B sup A = sup B. A = B;

[x] x < [x] + 1.

1.3.2. [3] = 3, [3] = 3, [3.5] = 3, [3.5] = 4.

(i) , n y n y, y > 0, (ii) , 0, y = 0,

, n y, y > 0, (ii) , 0, y = 0, (iii) ,

cnk = ( n y)mnk = ( n y)n

dml = ( l y)kml = ( l y)l

y x = sup{y r | r Q, r < x}.

, , y 1/n < b. 1 < y 1/n .

1.8. [] y, y1 , y2 > 0. y1 x y2 x = (y1 y2 )x , y x1 y x2 = y x1 +x2 , (y x1 )x2 =

y2 r2 (yy1 y1 x2 ) , , y2 x (yy1 y1 x2 ) . y1 x y2 x (y1 y2 )x .

a > y. 1.2, , n N a1/n < ay . y < a(1/n) ,

[] n < m. y > 1, m y < n y. 0 < y < 1, n y < m y.

xn+1 > xn n, xn+1 xn n

2.1.13. ((1)n1 n) (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, . . . ) . , , , ,

2.1.17. (1)n1 > 0 n, n. ,

2.1.6. ((1)n1 n), (1)n

x (xn )  > 0 n0 |xn x| <  n n0 .

, 1.1 n0 n0 > 1 . , n > 1 n0 n n0 . n0

+ (xn ) M > 0 n0 xn > M n n0 .

> M n3 + n > M n2 +3M .

> M n4 > M n > 4M . nn2+n

>0 Nx () = {x} , ,

2.2.6. 6 (xn ) x  > 0

2.3.3. H ((1)n1 ) . 2.4[].

(xn ) (yn ) (xn + yn ).

(ak /bm )(+),

a > 0. M > 0 n0 na > M

an > M n n0 . , an > M n > loga M .

a > 1. M > 0 n0 loga n > M

xn0 b b b b xn0 = bnn0 xn0 =

c = bnn00 . 0 < b < 1, bn 0. xn 0.

xn0 b b b b xn0 = bnn0 xn0 =

|xn | 0 |x1n | +. |x1n | 1, ,

2.3.29. 2.12, n a 1 a > 0.

2.3.8. (xn ) n2 2n < n2 xn n2 + 3.

2.3.15. (1 + n1 )n +, (1 n12 )n 1, (1 + n12 )n 1.

2.3.23. (xn ) : xn+1 = xn +2, xn+3 = xn 3, xn+1 = xn 2 2, xn+2 = xn 2 +2,

[] Cesro: 16 (xn ), (yn )

[] xn > 0 n xn x [0, +], n x1 xn x.

xn = 1 + 212 + 312 + + n12 n.

2.5.4, 2.6.2 7.3.20

x1 , . . . , xn {0, 1, . . . , p 1}. (2.7)

[ xp1 + + xpnn , xp1 + + xpnn + p1n ), p1n , p

x1 , . . . , xn+1 {0, 1, . . . , p1}.

(sn ), (tn ) . ; (2.8)

[] x1 > 0 xn+1 = 2xn n. ,

2.4.12. 31 y 0 k N, k 2. (xn ) x1 > 0

2.4.16. [] f : [a, b] R [a, b]. f (a) > a f (b) < b,

log y = limn+ n( n y 1).

log y = limn+ y xn1 (xn ) xn 0 xn 6= 0

n n1 < n2 < < nk < nk+1 < .

2.5.4. (xn ) (xnk ) xnk x R,

2.4.4. 2.6.2 7.3.20 8.2.7, 8.2.10 8.3.1 2.4.6 6.4.11.

. xn x.  > 0. n0 |xn x| <

2.6.6, 2.6.7 2.7.14.

2.6.1. (xn ) xn = 1 + 212 + 312 + + n12 n.

x (xn ) > 0 n0 |xn x| < n n0 .

, 1.1 n0 n0 > 1 . , n > 1 n0 n n0 . n0

>0 Nx () = {x} , ,

2.2.6. 6 (xn ) x > 0

. xn x. > 0. n0 |xn x| <

, > 0. n0 n10 < . m > n n0

f > 0 > 0 f (x) N ()

|(3x + 2) 14| < |3x 12| < |x 4| < 3 .

|3x 12| < |(3x + 2) 14| < .

|x 2| < 3 3|x 2| < . ,

0 < |x 2| < 3|x 2| < .

12 ) 3|x 2| < ( 3 ) , , |x2||x3|

> 0. > 0 x N () x 6= x N ().

, > 0. N > 0 | x1 0| < x > N .

. [] f (x) R. > 0 |f (x) | < ,

(3.4) (3.3) y = f (x) (g f )(x) = g f (x) N ()

a > 0. > 0. > 0 |xa a | <

0 0 a . |xa a | < |xa a | < 0

a > 1. > 0 > 0 |ax a | < x

x 0 < |x | < loga (a 0 ) < x < loga (a + 0 ) , ,

a > 1. > 0 > 0 | loga x loga | <

e < (1 + n1 )n+1 < e +