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U5Mea08-Engg Metrology & Instrumentation
U5Mea08-Engg Metrology & Instrumentation
INSTRUMENTATION
UNIT- I
METROLOGY
UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS
Metrology.
Metrology defines as the Science of
pure measurement. But in engineering
purposes,
it in restricted to
measurements of length and angles
and other qualities which are
expressed in linear or angular terms.
Units of Measurement:
C.G.S. System of Units
Centimeter Gram Second system of unit
M.K.S. System of Units:
Meter kilogram second system of units
International System (SI) of Units:
the meter (m), kilogram (k), second (s), and
ampere (A) of the MKSA system and, in addition,
the Kelvin (K) and the candela (cd) as the units of
temperature and luminous
Terminology in instrumentation
Precision Degree of repetitiveness. If an
instrument is not precise it will give different
results for the same dimension for the
repeated readings.
Accuracy The maximum amount by which
the result differ from true value(ie) Closeness
to true value
Calibration
is the process of establishing the relationship
between a measuring device and the units of
measure. This is done by comparing a devise
or the output of an instrument to a standard
having known measurement characteristics.
Sensitivity
It is ratio between output signal to input signal
Methods of measurement.
1. Direct Method
2. Indirect Method
3. Comparison Method
4. Coincidence Method.
Classification of measuring instruments.
Sources of error
Controllable Errors Calibration Errors ,ambient Conditions , Stylus
pressure, avoidable errors
Random Errors
These occur randomly and the specific causes of
such errors cannot be determined, but likely
sources of this type of error are small variations
in the position of setting standards and
workpiece, slight displacement of lever joints in
the measuring joints in the measuring
instrument,
Parallax Error :
On most dials the indicating finger or pointer
lies in a plane parallel to the scale but
displaced a small distance away to allow free
movement of the pointer. It is then essential
to observe the pointer along a line normal to
the scale otherwise a reading error will occur.
Straight edge.
Outside caliper.
Inside caliper.
Vernier caliper
Screw gauge
vernier height gauge
vernier depth gauge
Dial gauges
Comparators
Classification of comparators
Mechanical
Electrical and Electronics comparators
Optical comparators
Pneumatic comparators
Fluid displacement comparators
Projection comparators.
Multi check comparators
Automatic Gauging Machines
Electro-Mech. Comparators.
. Classification of measuring
Instruments.
Angular measurements
Measuring the angle of Taper.
4. Auto Collimator
Angle measurement
Sine bar
Sine Centre:
Sine Table
Taper Measurement
Using Precisions Balls and Rollers:-
Slip Gauges
Direct precise measurement, where the accuracy of the work piece demands it.
For checking accuracy of venire calipers, micro metes, and such other measuring
instruments.
Setting up a comparator to specific dimension.
For measuring angle of work piece and also for angular setting in conjunction with
a sine bar.
The distances of plugs, spigots, etc. on fixture are often best measured with the
slip gauges or end bars for large dimensions.
To check gap between parallel locations such as in gap gauges or between two
mating parts.
Slip gauges are rectangular blocks of high grade steel with exceptionally close
tolerances. These blocks are suitably hardened though out to ensure maximum
resistance to wear. They are then stabilized by heating and cooling successively in
stages so that hardening stresses are removed.
Roughness measurement
Maximum Peak to Valley. Height of
Roughness.
Root Mean Square Value (R.M.S. Value)..
Centre Line Average Method (C.L.A. Value)
UNIT IV
TEMPERATUREMEASUREMENTS
CLASSIFICATION OF
TEMPERATUREMEASURING
EQUIPMENTS
Bimetallic Thermometers:
Principle Involved : These use the principles
of metallic expansion when temperature
changes.
1. Simple
2. Inexpensive
3. Accuracy of 0.5% to 2%
RESISTANCE THERMOMETERS
Basic principle of resistance thermometers?
Thermocouples
Principles Involved : When heat is applied to
the junction of two dissimilar metals, an e.m.f.
is generated. (Figure)
Thermistors:
UNIT III
FLOW MEASUREMENT
FLOW METERS
VENTURIMETER
USES
1. Low head loss about 10% of differential
pressure head.
2. High co-efficient of discharge.
3. Capable of measuring high flow rates in
pipes having very large diameter.
4. Characteristics are well established so they
are extensively used in process and other
industries.
VENTURI PRINCIPLE
This is just like an orifice meter. It has three distinct parts, namely
convergent cone, throat and divergent cone. A manometer
measures the pressure difference between two sections as shown
in figure.
Let
a1
Area at the inlet (1-1)
A2
Area at the section (2-2)
x
Pressure head difference
Cd
Discharge coefficient
,Q=
Cd a1 a2 2 g x
a21 a2 2
Orifice METER
Let
a1 Area at section I-I
a0 Area of orifice
Cd Discharge coefficient
ROTO METERS
Rotameter:
A rotameter is a variable area type flow meter. It consists of
a vertical tapered tube with a float which is free to move
within the tube. The fluid goes from the bottom to the top.
When no fluid flows, the float rests at the bottom of the
tube. The float is made of such a diameter that it
completely blocks the inlet. When flow starts in the
pipeline and fluid reaches the float, the buoyant effect of
fluid makes the float lighter. The float passage remains
closed until the pressure of the flowing material plus the
buoyance effect exceeds the downward pressure due to the
float weight. Thus, depending on flow, the float assumes a
position. Thus the float gives the reading of flow rate.
Pitot Tube
Principle: Transformation of kinetic energy of
a liquid into potential energy in the form of a
static head.
Figure shows a pitot tube installed in a
pipeline where it acts like a probe. The tube
consists of two concentric tubes, the inner
tube with its open ends faces the liquid.
If
P
Ps
UNIT V
FORCE MEASUREMENT
FORCE MEASUREMENT
Force.
The mechanical quantity which changes or
tends to change the motion or shape of a
body to which it is applied is called force.
.Force measureing equipments
load cells
Load cells are devices used for force
measurement through indirect methods.
c. Pendulum scale
PROVING RING
LOAD CELLS
Use of Load Cell
Force transducers intended for weighing
purposes are called load cells. Instead of using
total deflection as a measure of load, strain
gauge load cells measure load in terms of unit
strains. A load cell utilizes an elastic member
as the primary transducer and strain gauges as
secondary transducer. Figure shows one such
load cell arrangement.
DYNAMO METERS
Mechanical Dynamometer:
These come under the absorption type. An example for this kind is prony brake.
In Prony brake, mechanical energy is converted into heat through dry friction between
the wooden brake blocks and the flywheel (pulley) of the machine. One block carries a lever
arm. An arrangement is provided to tighten the rope which is connected to the arm. Rope is
tightened so as to increase ht frictional resistance between the blocks and the pulley.
If
F Load applied and
Power dissipated
r - Lever arm
N Speed of flywheel (rpm)
Torque T = F.r
The capacity of Prony brake is limited because:
Due to wear of wooden blocks, friction coefficient varies. So, unsuitable for large powers
when used for long periods.
To limit temperature rise, cooling is to be ensured.
D.C. Dynamometer