MEAS1001 Revision:

Week 8: Ethnic & Gender Politics

Women in the Middle East

-

Three dimensions:
Patriarchy: male domination over women in terms of wealth and status
Deprivation reinforcing disadvantaged position: lower literacy & education,
segregation/seclusion
Culture: embedded norms that perpetuate male dominance.

Leila Ahmad: Argues there is no single blueprint of behavior for Muslim women, rather,
an accreditation of roles determined as much by history, class, culture and
economic context.
She adds the Islam-women debate has created two distinct approaches:
1. Promoting the argument that Islamic culture has created significant problems for women
in the MENA
2. Claims that Islam and the current revival of the religion is actually responsible for the
liberation of women, protecting and respecting their status and role rather than
objectifying and denigrating them.
Islamic views on women:
CONSERVATIVE: Islam has considerably improved womens status by comparison with
thepre-Islamic period
(b) Women are complementary to men, notequal (c) The family is the core of civilisation,
andthe private realm is thus the natural domainof women who, above all, are mothers
and nurturers(d) The natural social order must be upheldand women must be obedient
MODERNIST (or Islamic Feminist):
a. The Qurn provides for liberalising conditions. For example, although it allows for
polygamy (4:3), it makes this conditional on equitable treatment of all wivesand
implies such treatment is impossible (4:129)
b. The historical record indicates that women have served in important positions
throughout Islamic history
c. If women are equal to men spiritually, then they must be equal in social conditions
as well
d. Women are not to be restricted to the private realm only, but have public roles to
play.
SECULAR FEMINIST: (eg Moroccan sociologist Fatima Mernissi):
a. The general position is close to modernism
b. But here religion is itself a hindrance to the full participation of women, not Islam
specifically.

c. They also identify the state as a chief culprit in aiding and abetting the Islamists in
their tasks.

Challenges:

Women, post-Independence (& Arab Spring), remain defined by their status as a

wife, mother or daughter rather than as individuals with a varitety of role to play
within society.
In reality, women continue to be detained political equality and are barely
represented in formal spheres of power associated with the state
Yet whether formally or informally they continue to be equal contributions to
political, economic, social, and civil society.

Legal Systems in the ME:

Islamic Sharia Law: Yemen, Iran, Oman, Qatar, Bahrain, & Saudi Arabia.
Hybrid: combination of elements of Islamic law, ottoman, French, british or
Egyptian legal codes.
Combination of secular & religious laws

Personal Status Laws or Family Codes:

Regulate matters such as marriage, divorce, & child custody
Generally these are based upon the states interpretation of Sharia law
Courts may be divided along:
- Sectarian lines: Lebanon, Bahrain & Kuwait have different courts for Shii &
Sunni Muslims
- Religious lines: Some states however have court systems for different religious
groups. E.g., Lebanon, Morocco & Sudan
Discrimination:
Saudi Arabia: has no codified personal status law which means judges in courts rule
based on their own interpretations of religious texts
Bahrain: the personal status code is only applicable to Sunni Muslims

Women & the Law:

The contest over personal status, or family, laws hasoften become a matter of high
politics:
-

Polygamy: how many partners may a man take in marriage?

Divorce: is the simple repudiation (talaq) sufficient or is there a need to consult

a court?

Intermarriage: may a Muslim woman marry a non-Muslim man?

Testimony: is the evidence of a woman in court worth half that of a mans

(2:282)?

Divorce rights:
In most MENA states, men can file for divorce unilaterally, whereas women can
only file for divorce on specific grounds which are specified in the personal status
code.
In most cases, a women can seek divorce without buden of evidence, however, she
then:
- Loses any right to compensation
- Is obligated to pay back her dowry
- Or pays an additional sum of money to her ex-spouse.
Inheritance Rights:
According to Islamic Law, women have the right to inherit yet its is usually a small
amount than their male counterparts.
Among minorities may vary per denomination.
Protection from child marriages:
In recent years most MENA states have introduced equal legisltation for the
minimum age of marriage (18-21) for both men and women
Exceptions include:
- Bahrain: (min. age 15 for girls/19 for boys);
- Iran (min. age 13 for girls/15 for boys).
Polygamy:
It is legal to varying degrees in most MENA states, except for Tunisa.
In recent decades there has been greater restrictions placed on the approval of
multiple marriages and more countries are debating the need to ban or impose the
restrictions on polygamy.
Nationality Rights:
In most MENA states women do not have the same right as men to pass on their
nationality to children born of a foreign father or to their foreign born husband.
Some MENA countries (Algeria, Egypt, Tunisa) have adjusted their nationality law
in recents to allow for women married to foreign spouse to pass on their nationality
to their children and in some cases, their spouse.
11 countries still maintain their reservations on CEDAW Article 9(2) related to
nationality rights and have not adjusted their legislation.
Guardianship & Custody Rights:
Usually the father is the guardian of the children & is responsible for financial
maintenance. In case of divorce, the mother might be granted custody of the
children to a specific age, while the father remains the legal guardian of the children
in most countries of the region.
Saudi Arabia has a guardianship (wilaya) system, under which adult women are
considered dependent of their male guardian (usually their husband or father).
Freedom of movement:

Many countries have adjusted their legislation in the past 10 years to allow women
to obtain passport & travel aboard without their husband or guardians permission.
Exceptions include: Iran, Iraq, Oman, OPT& Saudi Arabia. Customary practice may
still be require proof of consent.
In Saudi Arabia, womens freedom of movement is further confined due to the strict
sex segregation in public spaces and the ban on driving by women

Conventions:
Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination against Women:
- Sudan and Iran are the only two states in MENA region have not
ratified CEDAW
- With exception of Djibouti, all countries that ratified the CEDAW
did put several reservations, both in general and to specific articles
(2, 9,15 & 29).
- General reservation made by MENA countries is that accession to
the CEDAW cannot conflict with Islamic Sharia & country
legislation.

Convention on the Rights of the Child:

- All states are signatories of CROC
- Many states have general and specific resevations to CROC,
referring to the incompatibility with religious law &/or national
legislation.
- Majority of states have signed the optional proptocol on child
prostitution & pornography (OPCP) as well as the optional
protocols on the involvements of children in armed conflict (OPAC).
- UAE only state who has not ratified any optional protocols, while
Lebanon has not ratified OPAC, Syria & Oman have acceded to the
optional protocols with reservations

Iranian Women (Case study):

In IRAN, Muhammad Reza Shah, influenced largely by his sister, Princess Ashraf,
promulgated Irans Family Protection Act of 1967
This strengthened womens rights, especially those involving marriage. The act was
technically repealed and recast in even more liberal terms in 1975
Yet by then it had become a focal point of opposition. Ayatullah Khomeini targeted it as
symptomatic of the regimes decadence, and soon after he came to power it was
suspended
Ironically, some of the reforms first proposed by the Shah have been reintroduced by the
Islamic Republic since 1991a reinvigorated family planning program, statesponsored prenuptial contracts that give women the right to initiate divorce
proceedings, and greater opportunities in the workplace and in higher education
Article 20 of the constitution speaks of equality of men and women under the law
Article 21 (1) calls for the creation of an environment favourable to the personal

growth of women, and to the restoration of their material and spiritual

rights
But if Article 20 seems permissive, it is constrained by other provisions. The Preamble
also restates the traditional position that womens primary responsibility is to bear
children
The regime has supported idea of early marriages for girls, lowering the age of marriage
from 18 to 13
3. In employment, restrictive practices have been adopted; for instance, women have been
barred from serving as attorneys in court or as judges. They have also, at times,
been excluded from the media, entertainment, and sport. The Revolutionary
Guards have also practiced intimidation and harassment
4. The matter of womens rights has become subject to internal political wrangling, often
caught up in the fight between liberals and conservatives

Examples of reform:
Tunisia:
- Tunisias new Constitution enshrines many rights for women.
- The first in the Arab world to give all Tunisians the right to be presidential
candidates.
- It safeguards the rights won by Tunisian women by referring to the Personal
Status Code of 1959.
- The 1959 Code established a rights and freedoms panel unheard of in the Arab
world.
- This included: the right to divorce, to marriage by mutual consent and also the
banning of polygamy.
- Article 46 guarantees parity between men and women in all elected assemblies
- The state is obliged to take measures to eliminate all forms of violence against
women.
Concerns:
1. Article 34 sets out the representation of women in elected assemblies yet it
does not apply to the Government.
2. The majority of the rights stated refer to the public sphere and are associated
with citizenship
Political Participation:
Political Representation
- Womens political participation in MENA is low overall
- Oman, Qatar & Saudi have no female members of Parliament.
- Iraq & UAE have 25% and 23% respectively.
- Djibouti, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Morocco, OPT (local elections), Sudan and
Tunisia have all introduced quotas for women in parliament &/or elected
bodies.
Representation in legal system:
- Sharia courts do not allow for female judges, this is not the case in civil courts.

Education and economic participation

Most MENA states have achieved gender parity in primary education, except for
Iraq, Syria & Yemen.
Secondary education Djibouti, Iraq, Morocco & Yemen still show lower
enrolments for females whilst Lebanon, Qatar, Saudi & Tunisa show the opposite.
Data for some states reveal much higher literacy rates for men as compared to
women (15-24) in particular Algeria, Egypt, Iraq, Morocco, Syria & Yemen

Employment:
Except for Djibouti (62%) & Qatar (50%) all countries demonstrate much lower
female labour force participation rates
Female labour force participation rates are low in:
- Iraq: 48% for young men & 8% for young women
- Jordan: 41% men & 9% women
- OPT: 43% men; 10% women
Smaller gaps found in:
- Djibouti: 65% men; 46% women
- Iran: 51% men; 33% women
Subordination?
Although this is generally agreed to be a fact of life, we need a more complex
picture
Women exert informal influence:
- Women are often an indispensible instrument of male power, cementing the
social ties of, and serving as channels of communication for, their husbands
- They have served as spiritual leaders, especially in the Sf Tradition.
- They have used traditional institutions such as the diwaniyya gathering in
Kuwait to bridge public space and the home
We can find influence as well:
- Women have served as political and social leaders, despite the conservative
interpretation that a woman cannot lead the Muslim community; examples
include Indonesia (the most highly populated Muslim country) having a
female leader.
- Many womens civil society groups have emerged, such as the Democratic
League for Womens Rights in Morocco and the transnational Women
Living Under Muslim Laws
This mixture of roles undermines a simple public/private dichotomization, which
has assumed that women are restricted to the realm of the private harem &
family.

Reading summaries:
For gender & Ethnic Politics; work on them after getting through the slides

Ethnic Politics

Culture:
Is difficult to define and is imprecise
Shared history, notions of descent (genealogy), language, religion
Widely used definition is: an historically transmitted pattern of meanings embodied
in symbols by means of which people make sense of life (adapted from Clifford
Geertz)
Today we look less for cultural traits than for cultural functions
Culture provides social orientation and identity that is, much more than merely
serving interests
Cultural behavioral link: what we are has much to do with what we do
However, cultural determinism needs to be avoided: cultures are not uniform or
monolithic, and our action is explained by many factors.

Politics of Identity:
Challenges to nation building
Sub/trans-state loyalties
Tribal, Religious, National or Supra-national identities and loyalties
Ethnicity:
Kinship is a fact of life, but also a principle of social order: it is the basis of family,
ethnic, and at times national identities
Ibn Khaldn (d. 1406) placed it (`asabiyya) at the core of civilization
Ethnicity appears engrained, part of the character of a people, natural primordial
Ethnicity is the way individuals and groups characterise themselves on the basis of
language, race, place of origin, shared culture, values, and history (from Ali Banuazizi
and Myron Weiner)

Ethnicity Constructed:
But it is also cultural constructed:
1. Oppositional it is contrasted with something else
2. Variable the sense of identity may shift with circumstances, such as
repression or migration
3. Re-invented what constitutes the traditions upon which the identity
is based change over time: a sense of becoming

Divided lines between ethnic and other groups often hard to determine
- E.g., `Alawis in Syria: a religious, tribal, or ethnic group?

Ethnicity may intersect with class:

- E.g., Ashkenazi Jews in Israel, Maronite Christians

The Kurds:

15-20 million Kurds spread out across Iraq, Iran, Turkey, Syria & Armenia
Languages related to Persian
A diversely rich people divided primarily by language, religion, and tribal structure
(Harris, 1977)
Kurds are predominately Muslim, 75% of which are Sunni and adhere to the Legal
School of Imam al-Shafi`i (d. 820AD) (Harris, 1977; Patel, 2010; Koohi-Kamali, 2003).
Articles 62 & 64 of the 1920 Treaty of Sevres called for the establishment of an
independent Kurdistan in Turkish areas but this never came to fruition.
Fought for autonomy for decades and faced constatnt oppression and opposition
from ruling governments in the Middle East. Especially under Iraq (several uprisings
crushed) and in Turkey (referred to as Mountain Turks in official document papers).

Iraqi Kurds:
15-20% of Iraqi population
Saddam Hussein turned against them in the Iraq-Iran war (1980-88) when he
perceived they were supporting Iran
- Halabja gassing (march 1988)
- Promised Iraqi Kurds greater autonomy if they ceased supporting Iran in the
war
Kurdish North has been virtually autonomous since March 1991 when the allies
imposed a no-fly regime north of the 36th Parallel in the wake of Saddams defeat
in the Kuwait war (1990-1991)
1994 1998: conflict between Iraqi Kurdish factions led by Massoud Barzani & Jalal
Talabani
Today, particular difficulties between Kurdish region and central government
- Referendum over whether Kurdish regions in Diyala, Kirkuk, Salahuddin,
and Ninewa provinces will become part of Kurdistan
- This has implications for:
Oil policy: who controls the oil resources Baghdad or Kurdistan?
Turkey, which opposes Kurdish independence and supports
Turkomans in the region
Kinship in social & political practice:
Shared identity & loyalty may be valued more than efficiency
Ethnic or kinship groups can serve as interest groups hence they are political
1. They may become the basis of a regime
- e.g., the Tikritis under the Saddam Hussein regime in Iraq
- Latakia in Syria where the Assad lineage lies and is majority
`Alawite
2. They can often serve as opposition:
- al-Dulaim tribe in Iraq number about 100,000 with most of them in
western Anbar province; and several million bordering Syria, Kuwait
& Jordan

Summing Up
Culture helps to provide identity, but it is a work in progress neither monolithic nor
static

 Ethnic identity may be considered primordial or constructed

Ethnicity and kinship very often intersect with politics
Identity is not fixed yet fluid. It is influenced by socialand political experiences and
realities.
Survival, representation and accessibility dictate minorities decision making, politics and
identity.
Durability of the nation-state

MEAS1001 Revision:
Week 10: The Post 9/11 Landscape: 'Religious' Radicalism & Terrorism

Religion & Politics (Jill Schwedler)

- The politics of the ME has been viewed by those outside the region as
driven by religious differences
Historical Role of Religion in the Middle East
- ME is the birthplace of the three monotheist traditions
- Politics intertwined with religious differences
Judaism
The first of the three Monotheists Religions (Judaism, Christianity & Islam)

Judaism upholds and shares the traditional theistic belief in One Unique Divine
Being (God; YHWH; Allah) with Christianity & Islam.
Biblical tradition narrates Moses brought the Israelites out of slavery & oppression
in Egypt into the Holy Land to establish a Kingdom of God (roughly 1450-1250
B.C.E.)
70 C.E: Second Temple is destroyed; forced out of Judea & Jerusalem by the
Romans where they spread throughout the region but maintained strong identity as
a community.
Late 19th/20th cent. Violence against Jews increased emergence of national
movement Zionism to establish a Jewish homeland
Thousands migrated to the newly formed Israel (1948) over the next several
decades clashes with indigenous Muslim & Christian communities
Political left view Israeli state as a protector of Jewish community more so than a
religiously Jewish states; political right view Israel as the fulfillment of Gods
promise to the descendants of Abraham.
Today Judaism has roughly 14 m. adherents

Christianity:

Christianity: over 2 billion adherents

Regards Jesus of Nazareth as the Messiah & Son of God whose life and teachings
are narrated in the Gospels of Mark, Matthew, Luke & John in the New Testament.
Eventually spread through the Roman Empire
Crusades: 9 military invasions into the Middle East from the 11th to 13th centuries
European colonialism brought missionaries to the ME
Today, Christians make up significant populations in Lebanon, West bank & Gaza,
and have smaller communities in Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Jordan, & Syria.

Islam:
7th Cent. Arabia
The 3rd of the Abrahamic Faiths.
Based on the teachings and Muhammad Ibn `Abdullaah who preached a refined
version of Christianity & Judaism, claiming to revive the original message taught by
the prophets. Essentially, Islam is viewed as the fruition and final product of Divine
Guidance to humanity.
Caliphate of the Rashidn (Rightly guided successors Abu Bakr, `Umar b. alKhattab; `Uthmn b. Affan & `Al b. Ab Tlib)
Umayyed Dynesty
Abbassid Era
Theological & Legal (Fiqh) differences developed and different opinions and rulings
amongst the Scholars and people emerged as time progressed. The two most
significant branches of Islam is: Sunni Islam which comprises of 4 Legal Schools
(Maliki, Hanafi, Shafaee & Hanbali) & Sh Islam which comprises of Twelver Shiism
(al-Imamiyya); Ismailism (al-Ismailiyya); Zaydism (al-Zaydiyya).
The Sh tradition holds that the Prophet appointed `Al b. Ab Tlib as his successor
and established his family (ahl al-bayt) as the legal & spiritual guides of the Religion.
The Sunni tradition contends the Prophet did not designate a leader and accepts
the leadership of Abu Bakr, `Umar b. al-Khattab & `Uthmn b. Affan.

The Sacred Texts of Islam are the Qurn & the actions & utterances of the Prophet
(Hadth). Additionally, the Sha derive legal rulings and theology from the Leaders
(Imams) of the Ahl al-Bayt.
According to Jill Schwedler, Islam is the worlds fasting growing religion with an
estimated 1.8 billion adherents.

Religious States:
Most regimes in ME claim legitimacy at least in part based on religion.
State of Israel & Symbolism of Jerusalem:
Late 19th Cent. Growing desire to establish a Jewish homeland
Balfour Document 1917 called for creation of Jewish national home in Palestine
UN Resolution of 1947 Divided Palestine & called for creation of Israel
May 15, 1948 Israel declares independence forming a modern-nation state with an
overtly religious identity
Law of Return allows individuals of Jewish descent to return to Israel
Jerusalem has symbolic & religious significance to Muslims, Christians & Jews
Strongly Islamic States
Saudi Arabic & Iran created as religious states; described as strongly religious not
only because of their claims of ligitmacy is based on religious grounds but also
because of religious leaders holding high levels of power in government
Saudi Arabia formed alliance with conservative revival movement, Wahhabism;
ruling family al-Saud
1979 Revolution brought an Islamic regime to power in Iran under the leadership of
Ayatollah Khomeini who proposed a theocratic for of government (Wilaya al-Faqih)
Council of Guardians
Iran is the only state in the region ruled by the religious elite
The leader or Faqih is selected by an Assembly of Experts composed of 86
Scholars elected every 8 years, with the council of Gaurdians determining who may
run for seats
Nominally Islamic States:
Most ME states accord some formal status to religion often by stipulating Islam as
the official religion or requiring a president to be a Muslim
Exception includes Mustafa Kemal Attaurk (1923 Turkey)advocated secularism
and outlawing religious dress and practices (such as Hijab & the calling of prayer
(Adhan) in Arabic
Most ME states embrace Islamic identity
Monarchs & Amirs often claim legitimacy to rule based on bloodline of the Prophet
Egypt: the office of mufti is filled by a prominent scholar from al-Azhar University
judges whether state policies are in adherence to the Sharia
Religious Revivalism:
Contemporary ME has witnessed an expansion of religious revivalist groups,
inspired by anticolonial struggles & the desire for a politics that can be locally
recognsied as authentic
Spread of European colonisalism was the exchange of one foreign occupier
(Ottoman Empire) with another.
Lack of Arab autonomy gave rise many nationlist movements- majority of which
were Arab nationalism, socialism & Islamic revivalism

In regards to the latter, Muslims regarded their current condition as a result of their
lack of adherence to God and His Prophet, thus there was a huge emphasis on
returning to the core principles of the religion to restore the Communitys (Umma)
dignity and status.
Socialist & Arab nationalist movements failed to bring economic prosperity,
meaningful political participation, or restore a sense of pride & dignity
Islamic revivalist movements provided an alternative vision
Jewish religious revivalism was primarily framed in relation to Zionism and the need
to establish the State of Israel as a national homeland for Jews

Islamic Groups working within Existing Regimes:

Most Islamist revivalist movements worked alongside existing regimes to realize

their visions of a more Islamic society.
Hassan al-Banna (d.1949) founder of Muslim Brotherhood argued for a return to
Islamic values through education (reading and study groups) andby working with
the existing political structures
Muslim Brotherhood strives to participate in multiparty elections in Egypt, Jordan,
Tunisia & Yemen
Turkey: Justice & Development Party (AKP) moderate Islamist revivalist
movement. Commitment to EU membership & pluralism; dominates Turkish
politics and in control of Turkish Parliament.
These groups are working towards gradual change; but they were not only involved
in politics: Charity work and health are frequently funded by Islamist groups
Hezbollah is another example. Interests include: helping the poor and needy as well
as fighting against Israel.
Muslim brotherhood also provided earthquake relief in 1992

Islamists who entirely reject existing regime

Often labeled as extremist groups

Tend to emerge out of the most repressive contexts & aim to achieve political
change by directly opposing the ruling elite
Violence justified by Jihad (strangely translated by many as holy war)
Such lunatics include: al-Qa`eda, the Taliban and more recently the whack jobs
called ISIS/ISIL
Seyyid Qutb: Muslims are not obliged to obey the ruling elite if they are not ruling
according to the principles of Islam. Inspired emergence of Islamist groups in Egypt
& across the Muslim world.

Transnational Connections:

Complex transnational networks of Islamist groups

Groups with similar goals, agendas, ideological commits, etc routinely engage in
dialogue with each other and expand membership and ties with other Islamist
groups from other countries
Targets are not limited to a certain state examples of attacks carried out by the
likes of al-Qa`eda who are the most famous transitional extremist group who justify

attacking not only governments but foreigners and civilians who they deem
responsible for perpetuating the conditions that oppress Muslims
The concern: not confined to domestic attacks 9/11 attacks; Lebanons attacks on
foreign soil and Hezbollahs attacks on Israel, etc

Conclusion:
-

Religion has and still plays a vitally important role within ME politics
It has shaped political policies and been used to justify rule and acts of
terror throughout the last century up until this present day.

Lecture notes on Religion:

Post-1979 Iranian revolution saw the re-emergence of religion in politics.
Post 9/11 political extremists/terrorists have distorted religion for political purposes.
Increasingly, in the contemporary MENA region, faith and religion (moderate and radical)
are re-entering the public political realm.
Causes for Islamic Resurgence:
1. The defeat in the 1967 war with Israel shattered the morale of the Arabs, but also
Muslims who had lost the holy city of Jerusalem
- Some Muslims turned to secularism, but many Muslims concluded that they
needed to return to Islamic principles if they wanted to receive the Favor of
God and improve their condition
2. An uneven process of development has strained the social and political fabric
- This has exacerbated class, ethnic and sectarian divisions, and thereby
induced the turn Muslim symbols and institutions to organize and express
protest
3. The crisis of modernityloosening of the individuals dependence on the extended
family, unsettling new roles for women, alarming increases in divorce, crime, and
addictions
- Has generated a time of secular discontents and led Muslims, like others,
to search for what Daniel Bell called new rites of incorporation
4. The relatively closed political systems in the Middle East have encouraged both
rulers and opponents to emphasise Islam for legitimisation purposes
- Because the Islamic political vocabulary is familiar and ambiguous, it can be
manipulated for conservative and radical political ends
after the 6 day war, people realised nasserism and pan-arabism was shit so they turned to
religion and that grew during 70s, especially after 1979

Is Islam inherently violent?

Religion is used as a tool by various extremist groups to impose their own ideologies
These groups make up a splinter percentage of the 1.6 billion Muslims
This perception is not new: European orientalists (19th & 20th Cent.) emphasized the
contrast between rationalism of the Enlightenment in the west and the
backwardness in the east
Huntingtons thesis on the clash of civilisations reinforced these views

Muslim Brotherhood:

1928: founded by Hassan al-Banna as a response to the political immobility fostered

by the late British imperialism and infighting within Egyptian political circles.
Activism was the hallmark of Brotherhood ideology. Activities have ranged from
the building of educational, medical and social institutions and the establishment of
small industrial and commercial enterprises, to political agitation, such as
participation in the electoral process, and violence such as the assassination of the
Prime Minister in 1949
1954-1970: A period of confrontation when Nassers policies were thought to be
anti-Islamic. Thousands of Brothers were imprisoned, and, famously, Sayyid Qutb
was executed in 1966
1970-1978: Sadat used the Ikhwan to counter leftist opponents of his corrective
revolution
1984-1990:The Brotherhood was allowed to contest parliamentary elections,
indirectly, in this relatively liberal period
1990-2004:TheIkhwan was caught up in the spiral of Islamic radicalisation and
government repressionwhat some call a period of de-liberalisation
2004-July 2013: Lurching between reform working within the system and
criticism of it, with substantial internal debate over the proper strategy to follow
July 2013: Muslim Brotherhood are banned, political leaders jailed, gone
underground or sent into exile.

Revolution:

The Middle East Historically:

The region has historically been accustomed to occupation, colonisation, imperialism
and domination.
the region is the birthplace of the three major monotheistic religions: Judaism,
Christianity and Islam.
Its geo-stratigic location falls at the crossroads of the three continents Europe,
Asia and Africa which are rich with resources such as oil, natural gas, minerals
and fertile agricultural land.
the regions population is approx 432 million and its projected to rise in most
countries in the next few decades.

Islamic and Arab Empires

played significant role in the development of various advancements scientific
and technological advancements.
In contrast to the Dark Ages experienced by the British, this period saw a
flourishing of scientific and religious knowledge known now as the Islamic
Golden Age. Moreover, Islamic and Arab Empires laid the foundation of
modern science in various fields: chemistry; algebra and a multitude of
others.

Ottoman Occupation:
The expansion of the Ottoman Empire began in the mid-14th Cen. and by the
Mid-17th Cent. had occupied or controlled most of the Arab world with
ultimate decision making lying with the Ottoman Turks, not the Arab subjects
Collapse of Byzentines - their population diminished as a result of the
Crusades.
Ottomans Reigned from 1299 - 1923.
Spread into various parts of Europe by systematic conquests. > based on
Turkish interest
For example, Belgrade was captured in 1521 & parts of Hungary in 1526. They
failed to gain control of Vienna in 1963 & this saw the beginning of the demise
of the empires expansion into Europe.
Longest and lasted surviving Islamic Empire, founded by Osman the first. Was
a Sunni dominant Caliphate.
Limited local autonomous regions existed such as in Egypt and Syria, which
developed into territorial power groupings, and in some cases, saw the
emergence of influential Arab nationalist movements.

Ottoman Occupation models:

Various of types of occupation models: Direct control and indirect control.
Like European colonisation, Ottoman occupation varied: ranging from direct
control (the Syrian provinces of Aleppo, Damascus and Tripoli; Jerusalem
and Hebron in Israel, Sidon in Lebanon; the Iraqi provinces of Baghdad,
Basra and Mosul, and Egypt, particularly Cairo); to indirect control, which
was most notable in the early 16th century (Egypt, Hijaz and Jeddah, Yemen,
Tunis, Algiers, and in the latter years Tripoli, Kabylia mountains, Sahara,
Mzab oasis).
Their control varied from region to region. For instance, Ottoman occupation
was short-lived in Egypt but remained in al-Mashreq, excluding Baghdad, for
almost four centuries. Additionally, Algiers was absorbed in 1520, Tunis in
1574, Damascus in 1516, while Baghdad was not integrated into the Empire
until 1638.

Defining socio-political factors:

Were predominately based on primordial identification.
Legacy of primordialism:
- one aspect of primordialism adheres to communal politics and/or the
rule of notability that continues today.
Political Legitimacy:
- was gained within the Empire and from the Islamic world by
possessing all the holy sites of Islam (such as: Mecca, Medina,
Jerusalem, Karbala, Qum, Mashad).
- Ottomans were politically smart - occupied symbolic and religious
sites that would win over the inhabitants hearts and mind. Gained the
political legitimacy by majority of their subjects.
Funded the occupation/Empire:
- By maintaining boarders and collecting taxes (on produce, urbanindustrial activities, and individuals (Jizya) paid by religious minorities),
while chiefly leaving everyone to their own community identifications.
- Significant Jewish, Christian and non-Muslim minorities. Jizya
religious minorities. It is known historically, Jewish and Christian
Scholars were incorporated into the ruling elite of the Empires.
- Millet system allowed minorities to remain autonomous in their regions
- the attitude towards minorities various over the long period of Ottoman
Rule

Achievements and failures:

Political integration was not achieved:

Not everyone spoke the same language or practiced the same faith. The
Empire was created from a mixture of nationalities, languages, religions
and ethnicities, and was unable to achieve a coherent economic of national
policy. Eg., Tanzimat period (1839-1879).
6 centuries of Ottoman rule saw a plethora of changes, such as the inequalities
between the Muslims and minorities (pre-1800) to the enforcement of the doctrine
of equalities (post-1800).
The Tanzimat reform era was characterised by varied attempts to modernise the
Ottoman empire.
Tanzimat emerged among reformists sultans such as Mahmud II & Abdulmecid
(pictured).
Many internal critics emegred (Tanzimat Period) - advocating reform; influenced by
the likes of Rousseau.
Not everyone was happy with the Tanzimat movement. The Young Ottomans
established themselves as a secret society in 1865. They sought to transform
Ottoman society by preserving the empire, revitalizing Islam & modernising along
European traditions.
Another political development saw the transition of power from the sultans
monopoly to an oligarchy of civil officials which gave rise to extended levels of
competition for power and advancement. As well as, increased levels of corruption
and bureaucracy.
Introduction of the Bureaucracy - corruption developed during the Ottoman period.
More internal challenges faced by the ruling Elite: people not happy with the ruling
elite or the Tanzimat; Young Ottomans; Arab Intellectuals - equally and profoundly
moved by the work found in Europe (French Revoultion; Rousseau
These factors contributed to the internal decay of the Ottoman Empire, as did its failure
to win the Great Game rivalries, and blunderingly backing the wrong side in the
First World War.
The Empire became increasingly isolated internationally, which advanced its demise and
the European incursion of the Empire.
Lasting legacies:
Religious pluralism/Multiculturalism via the millet System. Religious pluralism
operated overall freely. Millet system allowed minorities to have self autonomous
regions.
Artistic developments
architectural wonders
Military techniques: Empire was quite dominant - new institutions and tactics
(cannons; and other military arsenal - eg: first to use muskets).

European Contact
Direct or indirect!
Based on strategic reasons: british were interested in defending their interest in the
south subcontinent. Maritime superiority needed to be maintained.

Forms of colonisation forms differed drastically from nation to nation.

Indirect: namely: commerce, contact with local powers and Christian communities, and
the establishment of consuls.
Direct: Napoleon was battling the British in Egypt in the 1790s, Franco-British rivalry,
while the British were initially primarily concerned with access to India and the
Mediterranean .

19th 20th Cen. formalised colonisation of the Middle East by Europeans.

McHahon-Husayn Correspondence:
Series of communication between British Foreign Ministrys office and the
Sharif of Mecca (it is said 10 letters were sent) between July 1915 and March
1916
T.E Lawrence to negotiate the terms of the revolt and coordinate attacks
McHanon was encouraging the Arabs to revolt against the Ottomans and if
their revolt is successful the British would give them independence.
Sykes-Picot Agreement:
A secret agreement between the government of the UK & France, redefining
their porposed spheres of influence with the exclusion of Russi, with the
mindset of a post-WW1 Middle East
Intentionally excluding Russia and plotting out their own geo-political interest in
the region post WW1.
focused on the Fertile Crescent and divided the countries between themselves.
Negotiation: Nov 1915-May1916
Agreement concluded on 16th May 1916
Balfour Declaration:
Letter written by British Foreign Secretrary: Arthur
First significant movement for a Jewish home.
letter has no mention of the word: state
and also mentions no infringements will take place on the rights of Palestinians
Purely providing Jews a safe-haven and does not stipulate the establishment of a
Jewish state

European Colonialism:
COSTS:
Overall result was a fundament change to the traditional, social ad political and
economic infrastructures.
Creation of most states and boarders were designed as political tools for
western powers to exploit strategic or physical resources
largely about the rivalry between the French and the British. Maritine power,
Wester interest in the region heightened in the region.
created ongoing problems for the newly established states: boarders of Iraq
and Kuwait. Iraq argued that Kuwait was its 19th Province. - 1990 invasion of
Kuwait.

BENEFITS:
such as infrastructure construction (in places),
Literacy,
improved health conditions, and
a taste of political liberalism

The New Middle East

splitting of Tribal and clan networks in the retile crescent.
Divided Ethnic groups such as the Kurds
Artificial boarder divisions and the creation of Israel:
Led to huge under-developments in the region as a direct result of their conflict with
Israel instead of building and developing Arab nations politically, economically &
socially.
The new state divisions divided former national groups such as the Kurds, and created
political territories with heterogenous mixtures, making it difficult for coherent
relations between state and national identity to develop (Iraq, Lebanon and the
Sudan).
The enforcement of unnatural boundaries upon the indigenous populations divided
traditional ethnic, racial, and tribal groups, making future national cohesion a
difficult and divisive task
The artificial border divisions and the creation of Israel in the Arab heartland were the
pre-cursors of ongoing tension and conflict.
For decades, the reality (as well as the pretext) of the creation of Israel in the land of
Palestine diverted scarce physical and human resources towards the Arab-Israeli
conflict rather than building and developing Arab nations politically, economically &
socially.
Colonialism exemplified the strong feelings of distrust towards both non-Arab and Arab
countries.
The distrust, in turn, contributed to the political instability brought by Western
intervention.
Impact of European Colonialism:
The intensity of European colonization of the Arab world different according to:
-

the colonizer & its foreign policies,

its patterns of control
the geographic location of the particular Arab state, and
the effect on social, economic & political infrastructures of Arab nations

Hisham Sharabis (1966) four typologies of European Domination:

1. Direct colonial domination (Algeria: French; Libya: Italians; Aden: British)
2. Indirect rule (Egypt, E & W Aden: British; France: Morocco & Tunisia; N Morocco:

Spain)
3. Mandate relationships (Syria & Palestine)4. Exclusive treaty relationships (British
among Gulf states)
Recap: Impact of colonisation
Artificial borders & the creation of Israel were pre-cursors to ongoing tension and conflict.
Disruptive to traditions, social cohesion and bought about a great deal of distrust.
Consequently, it also helped mold a new form of political identity, place, belonging and
nationalism to the inhabitants of the region.
Continued existence of colonial political and economic infrastructures
Little regard for existing ethnic & cultural entities, eg. Kurds
Inter-Arab tensions and distrust towards non-Arabs
Artificial borders which have been & continue to be challenged today.

Week 3: conflicts between 1948-2026

Zionism:
Zionist ideology holds that the Jews are a people or nation like any other, and should
gather together in a single homeland.
Zionism is the equivalent of the Italian and German national liberation movements of the
nineteenth century.
This movement gets its name from Mount Zion, the hill in ancient Jerusalem where King
Davids palace once stood, and has come to mean the Jewish homeland.
The doctrine took root in the 19th century under such Jewish thinkers as AustroHungarian Theodor Herzl.
The ideological and cultural foundations of Zionism have always been present in Jewish
tradition.
Jews always thought of themselves as a nation or people e.g. the concept of "am Yisrael"

- the "people of Israel" or "nation of Israel," has been inherent in Jewish culture from
ancient times.

WW1 Major Changes to the Region:

McMahon-Hussein agreement European promise to give Arabs independence if they
assist in bringing down the collapse of the Ottoman Empire.
The Ottoman Empire fell sevres treaty
New States were formed: Saudi Arabia, Trans Jordan and Turkey.
The Treaty of Sevre enacted three changes after the war:
1. Dissolved the Ottoman Empire
2. Gave Syria & Lebanon to France in the French Mandate
3. Awarded Palestine to Britain in the British Mandate

British Mandate:

In 1920 Palestine had a population of about 650,000 Muslim and Christian Arabs or
about 90% and a little under 85,000 Jews or about 10%.

Jewish acquisition of land largely via purchases by its financial arm the Jewish
National Fundincreasing Jewish land-holdings from about 60,000 hectares in 1922
to about 155,000 hectares in 1939.

From 1929-1939 a series of violent struggles erupted between local inhabitants and
incoming Jewish migrants.

The Peel Commission published its report in July 1937. The report admitted that
the mandate was unworkable because Jewish and Arab objectives in Palestine were
incompatible, and it proposed that Palestine be partitioned into three zones: an
Arab state, a Jewish state, and a neutral territory containing the holy places.
Although the British government initially accepted these proposals, by 1938 it had
recognized that such partitioning would be infeasible, and it ultimately rejected the
commissions report
In order to stem the stream of Jewish immigration & to appease Arab discontent,
the British limited immigration & recognised the Arab Higher Committee as a legal
political body representing Palestinians through a declaration called the White
Paper of May 1939.
The Holocaust created a wave of sympathy for European Jewish survivors.
Jews worldwide agreed that the only way to prevent a future holocaust was to
create an independent Jewish state that protected its people & fulfilled the Zionist
dream.
When the war ended in 1945, the steady stream of Jewish immigration to Palestine
increased manifold.
Violence between the Arabs and Jews once again erupted.

UN General Assembly
Unable to contain the violence, the British decided to withdraw from Palestine.
A series of key developments determined the formation of the modern state of Israel:
1. On Nov 29, 1947 UN GA Res 181 resolves to partition Palestine into two states one
Jewish and one Arab.

The Jews (32% of the population) would get 56.5% of Palestine.

The Palestinians would get 42.9% of Palestine

Jerusalem area was to become a Corpus Separatum to be administered by

the UN.

Jews accept but Arabs reject resolution

Events which lead to the formation of Israel:

May 14 1948 British Mandate ends as the last British high commission withdraws
from palestine
May 14 1948 Jewish National Council declares Israel and independent state
May 1948-48 First Arab-Israeli war erupts, resulting in Israel gaining nearly half of
the Palestinian share of the Land
1949 After the war, Palestinians accept UN Res 181 and ask for confiscated
territory to be returned. Israel declines LOL

al-Nakba (Catastrophe)

Conflict left approximately 60000 Israelis in charge of nearly three quarters of the
territory and 1.2 millions palestinains living on the remaining quaterof the territory
In addition some 700 000 of those Palestinians became refugees, mainly in transjordan

The response of neighboring Arab countries was immediate.

Five armies from Egypt, Jordan, Iraq, Syria and Lebanon invaded the new Jewish
state, but were defeated.

The War itself proceeded through all of 1948 with a series of truces, to the
negotiated agreements that ended the war in 1949.

Fighting ended with a cease-fire January 7, 1949 and the War of Independence was
formally terminated on July 20, 1949 with the signing of the Israel-Syria armistice
agreement.

Outcomes & consequences:

Israel expanded
Two edge sword for Israelis

 Creation of the Palestinian problem. This nakba/catastrophe left a resounding impact on

Palestinians.
The nakba also had a psychological effect on neighboring Arab states and the broader
Arab and Islamic realm

The conflict created vast numbers of internally displaced Palestinian refugees as well as a
large number who moved into make shift camps in neighboring countries.
The humiliating Arab defeat led to recriminations within the region.
Arab nationalism gained a popular following through Gamal Abdel Nasser, Pres of Egypt.

1956 Suez Crisis

Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal a vital waterway connecting Europe & Asian
that was largely owned by the French & caused British concerns.

France and Britain responded by striking a deal with Israelwhose ships were barred
from using the canal and whose southern port of Elat had been blockaded by
Egyptwherein Israel would invade Egypt; France and Britain would then
intervene, ostensibly as peacemakers, and take control of the canal.
Outcomes & consequences:

Egypt maintained it sovereignty

Egypts position within the Arab and Third World grew

Caused Anglo-British rivalry.

Caused public humiliation to the French, British and Israel

Rare case of the US and the USSR working in unison during the Cold War

A good example of what the UN can do, although the result could have been very
different if the USSR-US werent in agreement.

First Arab victory

1967 Second Arab-Israeli War, 1967 War, Six Day War, June War

Nassers contacts with the Arab world alarmed Israel and when in May 1967, he
moved troops into Sinai and demanded that the UN force withdraw, it looked
to Israel as if an attack was about to take place.
Israel pre-empted a possible Arab attack by staging a sudden air assault,
destroying Egypts airforce on the ground June 5th 1967.
The Israeli victory on the ground was also overwhelming.

Israeli Gains & Losses

Occupation of East Jerusalem & free access to their religious sites
Occupation of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip
Occupation of the Syrian Golan Heights
Demonstrated its military might & air superiority, eg. it is estimated that Israel destroyed
416 Arab aircraft, while losing 26 of its own in the first two days of the war
Demonstrated its ability to impact of regional balance
Up to 900 losses and over 4000 wounded

Arab Military and Human losses

On November 23, 1967 Nasser admitted that his countrys direct losses (at
the hands of a state with one-tenth Egypts population) were 11,500
killed and 5,500 captured, 80% of the Egyptian armor and 286 of the
countrys 340 combat aircraft destroyed.
Another 10 000 Arab troops were said to be killed and approx 6000 troops
captured
Significant loss of Arab land

Outcomes and Consequences

The Arab losses in 1967 were humiliating and caused further anger and
resentment towards Israel and foreign powers who supported Israels
actions post-67 war.
Major victory for the Israelis

UNSC 242
The main articles of UN Security Council Resolution 242 (11/67) call for:
Withdrawal of Israeli armed forces from territories occupied in the 1967 war.
Termination of the state of belligerency.
Mutual "acknowledgement of the sovereignty, territorial integrity and political
independence of every State in the area, and their right to live in peace within
secure and recognized boundaries free from threats or acts of force."
Achieving a just settlement of the refugee problem.

The war of Attrition (1968-70)

The War of Attrition (Al-Istinsaf) was a limited war fought between Egypt and Israel from
1968 to 1970. It was initiated by Egypt as a way to recapture the Sinai from Israel, which had
controlled it since the Six-Day War. The war ended with a ceasefire signed between the
countries in 1970 with frontiers at the same place as when the war started.

Yom Kipper War 1973

The sporadic fighting that followed the Six-Day War again developed into full-scale war in
1973. On October 6, the Jewish holy day of Yom Kippur (thus Yom Kippur War), Israel was
attacked by Egypt across the Suez Canal and by Syria on the Golan Heights. The Arab
armies showed greater aggressiveness and fighting ability than in the previous wars, and the
Israeli forces suffered heavy casualties. The Israeli army, however, reversed early losses and
pushed its way into Syrian territory and encircled the Egyptian Third Army by crossing the
Suez Canal and establishing forces on its west bank.

Israel and Egypt signed a cease-fire agreement in November and peace agreements on
January 18, 1974.

The impact of the Yom Kippur war on the Palestinians & Israelis

Israel moved away from Socialism/Kibbutz ideologies and towards the free market
economic rationalist policies

Rise of settlements

Annexation of the West Bank (Judea and Samaria)

Impact more broadly: Economic implications- OPEC Oil Embargo

Resolution 338 (1973) of 22 October 1973

The Security Council
1. Calls upon all parties to the present fighting to cease all firing and terminate all military
activity immediately, no later than 12 hours after the moment of the adoption of this
decision, in the positions they now occupy;
2. Calls upon the parties concerned to start immediately after the cease-fire the
implementation of Security Council Resolution 242 (1967) in all of its parts;
3. Decides that, immediately and concurrently with the cease-fire, negotiations shall start
between the parties concerned under appropriate auspices aimed at establishing a just and
durable peace in the Middle East.

Sadats Jerusalem Speech

Nov 20, 1977
Four essential points for achieving peace:
1.

Ending the occupation of the Arab territories occupied since 1967

2.

The right to self determination for the Palestinians, including statehood

3.

The right of all states in the area to live in peace within internationally guaranteed secure
boundaries

4.

Commitment of these states to the objectives and principles of the UN Charter, particularly
the solution of differences among them by peaceful means

Essentially, Sadats speech presented nothing new; it was largely a re-iteration of UN resolution 242.
What was significant, however, was that it was made by an Arab leader in the Israeli parliament.

Come back and do rest of shizzzz on the wars

Week 5 nationlism and shit (post colonialism)

1.

The pre-Ottoman & Ottoman periodsPhase

2.

European colonisation & the creation of the modern Middle EastPhase

3.
4.
5.

The Period of Disillusionment

Phase 4: Post-September 11
Arab uprisings Dec 2010 to the present

Jewish identity & Zionism:

The main goal of Zionism was, and had always been, the establishment of a Jewish state, a safe haven for Jews
from all over the world.
Heavy reliance on the Jewish Diaspora to ensure this goal was achieved.
Mistreatment of Jews often used to gain support Zionism founded by Theodor Herzl in 1897
"Zionism" has many schools of thought:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Labor/Socialist Zionists (A.D. Gordon/Ber Borochov)

Religious Zionists (Rabbi Kook) Revisionist nationalists (Jabotinsky)
Cultural Zionists (Asher Ginsberg)
Political Zionists (Herzl)

Arab nationalism / Pan-Arabism:

Nationalism in the Arab world-An Overview

Nationalism amongst the regions indigenous inhabitants largely developed via the spread of print
media after the arrival of first Arab printing press in the late 18th century, Christian missionaries,
secularisation, travel and the intelligentsia.

Arab nationalism is broadly defined as the promotion of the Arabic language, culture, history, customs,
geography and peoples within a geo-political construct.

By the mid-1940s when the Arab fight for independence was at its greatest, the ideological conflict
between supra-nationalists (secular versus religious) & state nationalists emerged causing prolonged
friction between the three factions.

Generally during this period, nationalism was considered as an avenue for:

Overcoming primordial divisions

Confronting the colonial experience, and
To work towards bridging the gap between the Occident and the Orient.

Grappled with 3 levels of Identity:

1.
2.
3.

Regional (Arab, Turkic, Persian),

State (Lebanese, Egyptian, Israeli, Turkish, Algerian, Kuwaiti etc
Primordial (ethnicity, race, language, culture, religion, sect, tribe, clan, family etc.).

Thus it can be broadly noted that three phases in the development of contemporary Arab nationalism exist and
can broadly be divided into:
-

Phase One (Ottoman period - 1850s onwards),

Phase Two (European colonisation 1914-1940s), and Phase Three (Independence era 1940s-1970).

Development of Arab Nationalism: Nasserism

During the 1950-60s Palestinian national identity was concretized in pan-Arab ideology.
Consequently, the Palestinian question was Arabized, losing the quintessential dominance of its Palestinian
character & identity.
Combined a program of socialist reform with an affirmation of Egypts place at the heart of the Arab world.
It held the belief that the combined Arab worlds resources would unify all Arabs and restore their power.
Nasser gave priority to Egypts Arab character, although he portrayed Egypt variously as Muslim, African, or
Afro-Asian, dependent upon which served his particular purpose.

Development of Arab Nationalism: Baathism

The founders of Baathism were Sorbonne-educated Syrians, originating from minority sects.

Al Baath believed that all differences among Arabs were "accidental and unimportant and would
"disappear with the awakening of Arab consciousness. By contrast, socialism was regarded as "a
necessity which emanates from the depth of Arab nationalism itself. (Kramer)

They chose to call themselves Al Baath, meaning resurrection; their ideas were revolutionary in
principle.

Both Nasserism and Baathism sought to restructure Arab societies from the bottom up and to totally
transform the Arab condition -- economically, politically and socially.

Arab Nationalism
Was able to confer a sense of legitimacy on the Arab polity;
Transform political identity in the Arab world and successfully mobilise support;
Encapsulate political instability in the short-term; and
Enhance state survival and legitimacy with varying degrees of success.

Problems with pan-arabism:

One, the ideological conflict between the Western concept of secularism and state, which Arab nationalists
were espousing, and the Islamic belief that politics and religion are inseparable.
Second, the role of external players opposing Arab unity.
Third, the role of Islam.
Fourth, Consequence on non-Muslim minorities
Fifth, its ability to inflict exclusiveness and subordination on its potential support base.
Sixth, the militarisation, autocratisation, corruption and bureacratisation of pan-Arabist regimes
Seventh, conflicting nature of pan-Arab policies with their personal and traditional interests

Rewards of Arab nationlist policies:

1.

First and foremost, it gave the Arabs an identity shaped by shared time, space and history, collective
memory, territory and civilisation

2.

Second, through the spread of literacy, the growth of the Arabic press and reliance on radio and
television to broadcast the message of Arab nationalism

3.

Third, in the early years, pan-Arab socialist policies reflected more equality in the distribution of
wealth and social reform

Practice of pan-Arab principles:

Arab League
United Arab Republic (1958-61) Egypt and Syria
The Arab Federation (1958) Iraq and Jordan
United Arab Emirates
Arab Maghreb Union

Gulf Cooperation Council

Demise of pan-Arabism & socialist principles

The defeat of the Arabs in the Arab-Israeli War of 1967 and the death (1970) of Nasser set back the
cause of Pan-Arabism.

Iran-Iraq war

Camp David Agreement between Egypt and Israel

First Gulf War (invasion of Kuwait August 1990)

Rise of Islamic Nationlism:

1.

It can be argued that Islamic revivalism has been born out of the crisis of modernisation.

2.

Poor have little hope of a better life, and could not look to the secular state for salvation.

3.

Islam remains a powerful cultural force in the Muslim world. Islam has begun to re- establish
itself at the heart of political culture

4.

Since the 1980s Soviet invasion of Afghanistan an international brigade of Islamic militants
has emerged.
Notion that a conflict exists between the West (secularism, globalisation etc.)and Islam.
Most Islamic violence, however, has remained directed into Muslim societies themselves.
Islamists have different perspectives; & divided over the means to achieve an Islamic
order.

5.
6.
7.

Factors Promoting nationalism:

Shared prosperity; Economic integration; Migration; Travel and tourism; Employment abroad; Global threats; World wide communications; End
of belief in economic sovereignty
Factors Opposing nationalism:
Loss of control to foreign investors; Hostility to immigration; Fears of unemployment; Resentment at supranational institutions; Dislike of alien
cultures; Fears of terrorism and subversion; Hostility to global media; Attractions of secession

Post-Arab spring
According to Juergensmeyer, three different futures for religious and ethnic nationalism exist in a global world:
Where religious and ethnic politics ignore globalisation
Where they rally against it
Another where they envision their own transnational futures.
Today the vocal minority seem to be playing out scenario three: religious nationalism would be the precursor of
religious transnationalism.

Notes:
Possible essay topics

Consequences of colonialism
-

cover in 3:00 session

will certainly be a question

Cover nationalism indepth

Identity
Islamic resurgence
Arab Spring
Palestine Israel

Conflicts:
-

Nakbar conflict 1948:

Suez Crisis - 56