ghl - 1

bghUa jik viy

KDiu
bghUa vgJ xU r_f ma. J kj Ugfis
g, mit iw bragLtJ g MuhwJ.
gntW gaghLfis cila gwh Fiwahd tsfis
gagL, xU rKjha ffhy kW vfhy Effhf
bghUfis vthW cg brwJ vgij g bghUshjhu
M brwJ.
bghUa, mua bghUshjhu vW miHf gLwJ.
gh (Polis) vw nuf brhYF `muR (State) vW bghU.
muR thfF bjhik vGjhsf `mua bghUshjhu
vw gjij gagLdhf. j xU kj jdJ FLg
tUkhdij wj Kiw gagLj ntL vW
vghfgLwJ. mnj nghW muR xU rKjhaF mf ey
ilf brantL. Mfnt J mua bghUshjhu
vdgLwJ.
vyh bghUshjhu eltoiffSF kj Ugfns
Jtf iyahF. Ka vLfho kj Ugfis iw
bra KoahJ. vdnt, Ug, Ka kW kdiw Matiw
ikakhf bfhlJ bghUshjhukhF. kj UgfnshL
bjhlila many bghUayhF. Mdh eilKiw kj
Ugfis iw br tsf tiuaiwFgld.
kj Ugfis iw br bghUf gwhFiwahf
(Scarcity) csd. j kjDF, muRF ilgUik
bghJthdnj. gwhFiw vgJ kjDila mwhl thif
yw mogil cik. Mfnt bghUa gwhFiw Fj
mayhF.
eKila Ugf vlyfhjit. Mdh mtiw
iw br tsf, gwhFiwahdit. J bjbrjYF
ttFwJ. ekJ Ugfis iw br bghUf m
1

msyhkUjh bj-brj vw uid vHhJ. kj

Ugf vzwit vgJ cik. Mdh midJ
UgfS rkkhd KaJt cilait my. Mifah eh
f Kakhd, f mtakhd Ugfis bj bra
ntosJ. vdnt bj brj vgJ bghUshjhu
eltoif rhuhrkhF. bghUa vgJ bj br
ma vW fUjgLwJ.
eilKiw eh U glfsidJ ilgUik
cilad my. aif ilF y glfshd fhW, Na
x nghwit Vuhskhf ilwd. it ekJ thF
aikahjdthf UD, mtiw eh iy bfhLJ
thFtJ iy. mit ytr glf (free goods) vdgL.
Mdh eh U glf bgUghikahdit ilgUik
fit. mitfis iy bfhLnj thf ntL. bghUa
glf iy vthW khfgLwJ vW gYnwh.
vdnt bghUa, xU iy khd ga ma.
ed bghUshjhu xU gza bghUshjhu. iyf,
gzkhf brYjgLwd. iwa rKjha bghUa
thif gz xU Ka gF twJ. glfis
thf f, thu, T tojfis brYj gz
gagLjgLwJ. mwhl thif gz Ka
gidg bghUa gYnwh.
ekJ Ugfis iw br gwhFiwahd glfis
eh brtkhf fUJnwh. vdnt bjhik fhyf bghUa
brtij ga xU many. kj eyij nkgLj brt
mta. Mifah bghUa, brtij g mjndhL
eyij g TWwJ.
nkY bghUa afis RUfkhf fhngh.
bghUa yfzf
bghUa jij Mj , M~u kh, yaduh, gh V. rhKntr Ma bghUa mPf mj
Ka yfzf tUkhW :
2

brt yfz : (Mj ) (Adam Smith)

Mj (1723-90) bghUa yfzij
tiuaWJsh. bghUa vgJ brtij ga X
ma. 1776 M Mo ``ehLf brt. vw jfij
mt vGsh. mt mua bghUa jij vdgLwh.
Vbd, tnu KjKj midJ bghUa fUJfis
Kiwahf xUizjt Mth. Mj JF wnf
bghUaiy eh KiwgLjgl mayhf gnwh.
bghUa brt wlij bgWwJ. bghJthf
brt vgJ gzij FF. bghUa kj Ugfis
iw br midJ glfS brt vdgL. Mdh,
kj Ugfis iw br midJ glfS brtkhf
fUjgl khlh vgij kd bfhs ntL. (v.fh.) fhW
Nax ekF mahtakhdit. mit eh thH
ayhJ. MdhY mit brtkhf fUjgLtiy. Vbd
mit mstw m bfhlit. Xus gwhFiw gzk
cs glf midJ brtkhf fUjgLwd.
eh brt Ef, cg, gkhw, g vgdtiw
gnwh. brt cg kW brt g rhj braKiw
ma vW n#.v. bghUaiy tiuaiw brwh.
brtij miltY, mjid gagLJtY VgL
uidf g mtnj `bghUa vD fUij Mj
bfhoUjh. midJ ehLfS brtij vbtt
bgU bfhtJ vgij g mt mt ehl
bfhoUjh.
FiwghLf
Mj brt yfz gy FiwghLf csd.
bghUaYF t yfz juiy. fhiy, u nghw
r_f mayhsf bghUaiy ktw ma vW
Ul ma vW miHjd. Mdh mJ ahakwJ.
Vbd bghUa jik, viy jtwhf czuglJ.
yfz brtF KaJt mjij mtf
gzij ga fUjhf v bfhlhf. kf gz
3

uLj kLnk jiyaha nehfbkd bghUa sajhf

u kW fhiy KoF tjd. brtjfshtijna
Fahf bfhoUj jh - bghUaiy tf xU `Raey
ma vW miHjd.

bghUa xU gf brtij g, mijl Kakhf

kbwhU gf kjid g M brw a. mtUila
ika fUJ kjid ganj. brtij g Muhtijl
kjid g Muhtnj aikahjjhf fUJwh.

nkTa FwrhLf jtwhdit. bghUa brt

vgJ gzij kL FgJ mW. J kj Ugfis iw
br gwhFiwahd glfis FF. mJ kL
bjhik bghUa mPf brt vw gjij ey vnw
bghU bfhld.

bghUa kj d midJ eltoif

fis Muhaiy. kjid thFgt-gtuhf,
cgahs-Efnthuhf, nrghs- Kjlhsuhf,
Kjyh-bjhyhahf bghUa Muhtjhf bfuh
(Caincross) TWwh.

brtF mf KaJtij Mj mjh

vgnj fbga bghUa brtij g mJbfhSj
mta vg rnjf VJiy. MD mijl
KakhdJ kjid g mJ bfhSjny! brtijl,
kj d eltoifia g gYw many bghUa.

kf tUkhdij vthW bgWwhf. mtiw vthW

ga gLJwhf, tsfis vthW f wj Kiw cgnahf
gLJwhf vgij g bghUa MuhwJ.

Mj bghUa yfzij g
thFnghJ mt thj fhyij eh fU bfhs
ntL. t, yh bjhu Vgl fhy iy
vGsh. yh bjhu bgUks KjodhY,
ngus auf gaghodhY, ngus brtij cg
bra ttFjJ. vdntjh Mj brtij
KaJtgL ehLf brtK mj a fhuzfS
(Causes) ga X M vw iy btlh.
M~uL kh (1842-1924) ey yfz
(Welfare Economics)
1890 M ML M~uL kh `bghUshjhu nfhghLf
vw iy btlh. m mt mwhl thif kj
dij g bghUa MuhwJ vW tiuaWJsh.
``rhjhuz kjDila thif mwhl eltoiffis g
bghUa MuhwJ.
bghUa brtij g MuhwJ vgij kh VW
bfhwh. Mdh bghUa brtij g kLnk MuhwJ
vgij VW bfhsiy.
4

bghUrh eyid vthW caJtJ vgij g

MuhwJ. bghUrh eyDF KaJt bfhLJsjh,
bghUrh ey ayhf bghUa MW.
wdh
Ml brt yfzijl kh ey
yfz wjJ vwh ifahfhJ. r_f uridfSF J
KaJt bfhLJsJ. bghUa vgJ xU r_f ma
MF. mJ kLk, brtJF bghUrh eyDF cs
bjhlig sFwJ. bghUa X ma. mJ bghUrh
eyid gaJ vw kh ika fUij yad uh
fLikahf Fiw Tdh. mua bghUshjhuij jtwhf
ifahLsjhf khiy uh Fiw TWwh.
1. Kjyhtjhf bghUrh eyid caJ eltoiffis
kL bghUa MuhwJ. Mdh gy eltoiff bghUrh
eyid caJtJ iy. Mdh mit bghUa eltoiffshf
fUjgLwd. cjhuzkhf, kJ, fbuL cl eyDF
fhdJ vgij eh mnth. Mdh mbghUf cg
bragL gid bragLwd. mbghUSfSF rij
cL, thFgtU, gtU cL. vdnt cg brtJ, g
brtJ bghUa eltoiffshf fUjgLwd.
5

kbwhU vLJfhlhf, `ngh, bghU rh eyid

caJtJ iy. Mdh nghiuga bghUshjhu ekJ a
cL . bghUa J xU Ka thF. nghUF gy
bghUshjhu uridf fhuzkhF. mua, r_f
fhuzfisl bghUa fhuznk f KakhdjhF.
Mfnt bghUa bghUrh eyid caJtJ vgJ bghUjhJ.

msLj fodkhd xW. y kf eyid caJ bghUshjhu

bfhiff gy kf eyid ghF.
nkfl FiwghLf UjnghJ, brt, kj,
kjey Mat bjhlfis kh saj_y
bghUa viyia gLsh vgij kwfnth
kWfnth KoahJ.

ulhtjhf y bghUa eltoiff eyid

caJwd. Mdh bghUrh eyid caJtJ iy.
vLJfhlhf kUJtf, tHfPf, eoff, ir
fiyPf nghnwh gf ekJ eyid caJwd.
Mdh mtfSila gf gUbghUfis cg brtJ
iy. bghUrh ey yfzgo tfSila eltoiff
bghUa eltoiffshf fUjgLtJ iy. Vbd
tfSila gf bghUrh eyid caJtJ iy.
tfSila gfis eh gagLJnwh. y rkaf mf
iy bfhLJ tfsJ gfis bgWnwh. tfsJ
gfSF bghUa k cL. bghUrh eyDfhd
fhuzfisg bghUa MuhwJ vW TWtJ jtwhd
tfhLjyhF. bghUshjhu vij rhJ UD cWahf,
gUbghU eyga brafis rhjJ mW vgJ uh
mirf Koahj fUjhF.

ed bghUa yfz

_whtjhf kh yfz gFf (classificatory)

mogil mikJsJ. J gFjh (analytical) mogil
mikaiy. gUbghUf cg vLJfhlhf ehfh,
nkir, to, C, U rfu thfd, ehF rfu thfd,
buho nghwit kLnk bghUa eltoiffshf fUjgLwJ.
Ma myJ g gf gUbghUfis cg brahjjh
tf gf bghUa eltoifahf fUjgLtJ iy.
J jtwhd fUjhF. cUisHF cg bghUa
eltoif vW, jJtgil bghUa eltoif my vW
eh TWtiy vW yad uhr TWwh.

1.

yFf gy tifgL. yFf vwh kj Ugf

vW bghUgL kj Ugf vzwit.

2.

tsf tiuaiwFglit. fhy, gz, tsf Mait

tiuaiwFglit.

3.

fhy, gz Matiw eh khW tf gagLjyh.

(c..) neu tiuaiwFgljhf UD mij eh gy
fhuzfSF gagLJ nwh. gz <Ltjfhfnth
myJ XbtLfnth neuij eh gagLjyh.

4.

vyh UgfS rk KaJt thjit my.

Wahf `ey vw fUid mKf gLJnghJ,

bghUa xU Jajikaw mayhF. bghUrh eyid

F y fUJf ftfgl ntL. iwa

Ugf bghUa mPfns Mt fhLtiy.

ilgUik myJ gwhFiw yfz (yad uh)

(Lionel Robbins Scarcity Definition):
yad uh mtf bghUaYF flthW
yfz tiuaWJsh.
UgfnshL, ilgUiks, khW tf
gagljf rhjdfnshL bjhls kj eltoif
fisg gYw many bghUayhF.
nguha yad uhr bghUshjhu ma
a mj w ga xU fLiu vw jkJ (1932)
nkflthW yfz jJsh.
uh yfz mogil af
flthW

cjhuzkhf Utifahd Ugfis iwntw njitahd

neuK, tsfS UFbghGJ mtiw eh mjhf gagLj
ntoaiy. tsf tiuaiwFljhf UD, mit khW
gaghL yhjitahf U eh mij mjhf gagLj
ntoaJ iy. nkY vyh UgfS rkKaJt
cilaitahf U vij eh mjhf gagLj ntoaJ
iy. fhy tiuaiwFglJ. xU ehisF 24 kneunk
csJ. bjhyh gzij bgw kLnk Udh, mf neu
ntiy brantL. XbtLgij Jwf ntL. xbtLf
Udh tUkhdij JwfntL uil xnu neu
bgwKoahJ.
kj Ugij iw br midJ tsfS
gwhFiwahdit my. (c.) fhW, Na x Mait f mf
ms ilwd. mitf ytr glf MF. Mdh
eh U glf ekJ UgfnshL bjhlgL
ghFbghGJ gwhFiwahf csd. vzw Ug fnshL,
gwh Fiwahd tsfnshL bjhlila kj eltoiffis
g bghUa MuhwJ vgJ bjthwJ. tsf
tiuaiwFgL Ugjh eh mtF xU iy bfhLf
ntosJ. gwhFiwahd glf iyf vthW
khfgLwd vgij bghUa eh gYnwh. gy
tifahd Ugf xiw bj brj ntL. Mfnt
gwhFiw, bj brjY bghUa ika fUjhF. vdnt
bghUa bjbr ma MF.
khWglfilna bj brj bghUa
mogil fUjhF. J KjyhJt, rkjk, fy
bghUshjhu Ma vyh bghUshjhu mikfSF
bghUjToajhF.
KjyhJt bghUshjhu mfho bghUshjhu vW
miHfgLwJ. F EfnthUF rkjk bghUshjhu myJ
flis bghUshjhuijl bj br thf mf. rkjk
bghUshjhu ll bghUshjhukhF. midJ mogil
fS murh khfgLtjh EfnthUF F bj
br th Fiwthf UF. mLJ fy bghUshjhu.
8

ah fy bghUshjhuF xU wj vLJfhL. fy
bghUshjhu muR/bghJ Jiw, jah Jiw Ka
gfhWwd. y Jiwf EfnthUF bj brt
thf mfkhf, muR mf fLghLfis bfhLs gy
Jiwf Efnth bj br thf Fiwthf csJ.
Mdh vyh tifahd mikfY lLj cL. Mdh
lLj jik khWghL csJ. lLj vgJ
FnfhSl njbjLjY, bj brjY bghUa
eltoiff rhuhrKkhF.
FiwghLf
kj eltoiffis bghUarhj eltoiff,
bghUa rhuh eltoiff vW Utifahf kh
yfz tifgLJwJ. bghUrh eyid caJ
eltoiff bghUa eltoiffshf kh fUJwh. Mdh
uhr yfz midJ eltoiffis KGikahf
MuhwJ. njitnahL xLnghJ xU bghU gwhFiwahf
U mJnt bghUa ghl bghUshF. mj tif,
tHFiuP, kUJt, eoff Mnahf ciH
bghUa ghlbghUshf vLJ bfhsgLwJ.
uhr yfzgo bghUa xU mayhF.
bghUa uridf mwbe fUJfis fU
vLJbfhsiy. ntW tif TWnthkhdh J
xGfbe fUJfis wfJlJ. bghUaYF,
rKjha eyF cs bjhlig cWgLj J Kafiy.
Mdh y bghUa mPf fUij Fiw Tsd.
mtf fUJgo, J r_f mayhf fUjgLtjh, kj
eyij caJtnj j nehfkhF. uh yfz
kjJt fhzgliy vW Fiw TWwd. iy
khd ga mayhfnt J bghUaiy fhwJ. Mdh
bghUayhdJ k nfhghL myJ tsf gil l
TLjyhdJ.
bghUa uridf gwhFiwdhnyna vGwJ vgJ
uhr fUjhF. Mdh uridf glf
9

Vuhskhd mdhY njhW. vLJfhlhf 1930 Vgl

bghUa kj Vuhskhd mdh njhanj m
gwhFiwdh my. vdntjh cyf bghUshjhu kj
`brGik tWik vW tUfgLwJ. nkfl FiwghLf
UD, uhr yfzij gy bghUa mPf
VW bfhLsd. Vbd J gwhFiw, bj Ma
thif U Ka fUJfis tWJwJ.
bjhEg nkghL fhuzkhf cg Kiwf Kndw
VgLsJ. Mdh vbghGJ gwhFiw elna csJ. vdnt
jh bghUa gwhFiw mayhf fUjgLwJ.
rhKbtr yfz
(ed bghUshjhu yfz)
rhKbtr yfz ed bghUshjhu yfzkhf
fUjgLwJ. khW gaghLila gwhFiwahd tsfis
gagL rKjha vthW njbjLwJ vgij g,
glfis, gfis jfhy, vfhy Effhf cg
brwdJ vgJ g gY xU r_f many
bghUayhF.
J xU bghJthd yfzkhF. uhr, rhKntr
yfzf gy bghJthd fUJf fhzgLwd. gntW
gaghLfisila gwhFiwahd tsfis rKjha vthW
gagLJwJ vgijg TW r_f many bghUa
MF vW rhKbtr yfz tFJsh. it midJ
uhr yfzY fhzgLwJ. kjfS, rKjhaK
gwhFiwahd tsfis gagL vthW jfhy, vfhy
Effhf glfis, gfis cg brwd
vgij g rhKntr (TLjyhf) TWwh. vthW rKjha
gzij gagLnah gagLjhknyh bjfis brwJ
vW t TWwh.

cUthF Ef, KjL glf, eho bkhj cg

(Gross National Product) xU gFahF.
eh brtjuhf khWnghJ tUkhdijl Xit mf
Unwh. Xfhf mf neuij xJFnghJ bkhj ehL
cg Fiw. Mdh ey caU. Mfnt bkhj ehL cgia
fzLnghJ X ilF kd iwit nrJ fzl
fu bghUshjhu ey (NEW) ilF.
bgf o br midJ ntiyf k bkhj
ehL cgia fzLbghGJ nrJ bfhsgliy.
Mdh mij nrJ bfhs ntL. mbghGJjh ekF
rahd fu-bghUshjhu ey ilF.
vyh rKjhaY y rlF wghd ff cL.
(c.. nghijbghU gid) it r_f nflhjyh tiw fu
bghUshjhu ey nrJ bfhsTlhJ.
y H (underground) eltoiff cL. mf tUkhd
<Lgtf (c..) (tHfPf, fzff, eoff, kUJtf)
tUkhd t brYJnghJ cikahd tUkhdij
fhLtiy. j fz tuhj (fWgz) gz bkhj ehL
cg nrfglntL. iyba bkhj ehL cg
Fiwthdjhfnt UF.
bghUshjhu ts fG fhyf RWNH khR VgL.
jF MF bryit bkhj ehL cgUJ ff ekF
fu bghUshjhu ey ilF.
ehL tUkhd, fu bghUshjhu ey g gYtJ f
aikahjjhF.
bghUa f (Main Divisions of Economics)

fu bghUshjhu ey

bghUa ehF cf cL. mit Ef, cg,

gkhw, g. ed fhy, bghUa mPf bghJ vw
a it TLjyhf nrJsd. itf xnwhL xW
bjhlilad. nkY mitf xiw xW rhJsd.

rhKntr fu bghUshjhu ey (Net Economic Welfare)

vw a fUij cUthsh. ehL bghUshjhu eyij

Ef (Consumption) : kj Ugfis iw brtJ Ef

vdgL. Ugf Ugjhnyna bghUa eltoiff

10

11

eilbgWwd. Ug iwntwgL brany Ef vW

miHfgLwJ. bghJthf, Ef vgJ gagLJjiy
FF. tHFiuPf gia gagLJtJ vgJ,
glf Ef nghwnj MF.
Ef ga c eh, Ugf jik (Nature of
wants), Ugf tiff, (Classification of wants) Ef
fshd, FiwJ br W gaghL (Law of Diminishing
Marginal Utility), Vr FLg bry (Engels Law of Family
Expenditure), njit (Law of Demand) Matiw
gaYnwh.
cg (Production) : cg vgJ brtij cUthFj
vW bghUgL. J gagho Mf vW bghUgL.
gaghL vgJ Ugij iw br gl Mw MF.
gaghL _W tifgL. mit tot gaghL (Form Utility),
lgaghL (Place Utility), fhy gaghL (Time Utility) vdgL.
kj Ugfis iw br glfis cg br
bghUa eltoiff midJ cg vdgL. y, ciH,
_yjd, bjh mik Ma ehF cg fhuf MF.
cg c eh, khj kf bjhifnfhghL, j
is (Returns to Scale), khW j is (Law of
variable proportions) Mait njhWwd. nkY bjh kakhj,
bjh mikf g gYnwh.
gkhw (Exchange)
iwa cy j kjndh, ehnlh xiw xW rhuk
thH KoahJ. J gkhwF tnfhYwJ; gkhwjh xiw
bfhLJ kbwhiw bgW bfhwhf. glf kw
glfSfhfnth myJ gzfhfnth kh bfhs
gLwd. glkhW Kiw glf glfSfhf gkh
bfhsgLwd. iwa bghUshjhu xU gz
bghUshjhukhF. glf gzfhf gkhwglh, eh
gz gfis g, tf gF g nkY, iy
khd g gYnwh. ma ehL thf gy nehF
FJ thfgLwJ.
12

g (Distribution)
y, ciH, _yjd, bjh Kid Ma cg
fhufis gagL brt cg bragLwJ.
brtkhdJ fhufSFa Cakhd thu, T, to, yhg
MatF gjfgLwJ. bghUa j kj g
gnah rKjha brt btntW kjfilna vthW
gjfgLwJ vgJ gnah MuhtJ iy. braKiw
gF eh KaJt mnwh. ehF cg fhufS,
btntW gfis nkbfhtjh mtF, fhu Ca
tHfgLwJ.
bghJ
bghJahdJ mu bghUshjhu gfis g
MuhwJ. eh mu tu - bry g gYnwh. vdnt,
eh, t, bghJ bry, bghJ fl Mad g
gonwh.
Koiu
eh FWa viyFnsh, tiuaiuFgLnah ij
ghf TlhJ. mitf xiw xW rhjJ, bjhlilaJ
MF (c.) cgyhk Ef iy. cg nehf
brtij cg brtnj MF. brtij brtfhf
cg brahk kj Ugfis iw brant cg
brnwh. ntW tifahf Tdh, Effhf glfis cg
brnwh. kj eyij nkgl brtnj cg Wahd
nehfkhF. cg vgJ bjhlf, Ef vgJ KothF.
bghJthf kf glfis gidfhf cg brwd.
vdnt gkhw eilbgWwJ. cgia Efit izgJ
gkhwkhF. brt vthW cg bragLwJ, vthW
gJ mfgLwJ vgij bghWnj eho bghUshjhu ey
mikwJ. rahf gJ mfglhlh tUkhd, brt
Mat Vwjhf VgL. it cgia, Efit
ghF. vdnt bghUa midJ fS xWbfhW
bjhlilait, rhjit MF.
13

bghUa aiu mayh? beiu mayh?

(Economics Positive Science or Normative Sciene)
bghUa aiu mayh myJ beiu mayh
vw nfna vHntoa mtaiy. mjFkhwhf, xU ghl
UgFfshf fUjntL. aiu ma vgJ csij
csthW fhQ xGFgLjgl m bjhFahF. khwhf
``beiu bghUa vJthf UfntL vw nfhghil
tFF a vW Mkhfhs (Asimakopulos) TWwh.
aiu bghUa vgJ bghUshjhu ffis
tF xU a, bghUa nfhghLfis sf J
KaYwJ. Mdh beiu bghUa be, xGfbe
fUJfSF KaJt bfhLwJ. beiu bghUa
ffis csthW Muhahk mit vthW UfntL vd
mWJwJ.
bghUshjhu TWf aiu TW vW beiu TW
vW UtifgL. fUJ ntWghL Vgo, gufis
rghJ, TW rah? jtwh? vgij mJ bfhsyh.
Mdh beiu T fUJ ntWghL Vgo tufis
rghJ uridfSF fhzKoahJ. ntiyikia
Fiwf muR vd bfhiffis nkbfhlJ? gzfij
Fiwf muR nkbfhl eltoiff ahit? nghw dhf
aiu bghUa njhW. gzfijl ntiyik
uridia f muR mf ftd brYj ntLkh? vW
nflh mJ beiuyhF. mua, be jJtf nghw
beiu dhfis jfntL vW uhr
TWwh. aiu TWfis kLnk eh MuhantL vW
TWwh. bghUshjhu ffisg be myJ
mt mogil mJ kL brtiy. beiu
ma mogil bghUa xU a ma my. Mdh
gy bghUa mPf fUUJ khWgLwhf.
mwbefUJfis fU bfhL. bghUa r_f
mayhf Ugjh kj eyij nkgLj btL vW
mPf TWwhf. UJ eh Mf ey bghUshjhu
(Welfare Economics) vW a it bgWnwh.
14

bghUshjhuK w r_f mafSl mj bjhl

(Relation of Economics to other Social Sciences)
bghUa, kj Ugfis iw brtij g Muh
xU r_f mayhF. J kw r_f mafshd r_fa,
mua , tuyhW, mwbea, bea, csa MatnwhL
bjhlilaJ. (c) xU eho bghUshjhu Kndw bghUshjhu
fhuzfsh kLk, mua, tuyhW, r_fa fhuzfshY
VgL. Mnya M fhy ekJ ehL tuyhW
fhuzfsh mf bghUshjhu ts milaiy. mua
iyahdjik Uj fhuzjh, bkJthd mnj neu
iyahd bghUshjhu tsia ekJ ehL milJsJ. mua
iyik fhuzkhf kw ehLf iyahd bghUshjhu
tsia milaiy. xU eho dK muR khdh mj
ehL bghUshjhu Kndwij milaKoahJ.
bghUaY rKjha aY (Economics and Sociology)
rKjha a xU rKjha ma. muaY, bghUaY
r_f a fbsd fUjglyh. r_fa vgJ bghJthd
r_f mayhF. r_f KGikF rKjha fis
gufis cUthf KawJ. rKjha midJ
gFfis sFwJ. Mdh bghUa rKjha bghUa
gFfis kLnk sFwJ. vdnt bghUa rKjha a
xU gFahF. vzw UgfSF gwhFiwahd
tsfSF ilnaahd bjhlig J sFwJ.
r_f a khztDF rKjha mikfshd Ukz, kj,
mua Uthf, bghUa NH Kjad Kakhd
ghlgFfshF. nkny Twgl af bghUa thifia
vj msF ghF vgijg kLnk eh fU
bfhnwh. r_fa gTWfis fUj bfhshk
xU rKjha bghUa iyghLfis eh rtu Jbfhs
ayhJ. (v.fh.) gRf Jfsh jkhditahf
fUjgLwd. fLikahd v fhuzkhf, gRf ujrJ
Fjitahf UD mtiw czfhf bfhyKoahJ.
15

bghUa r_fa vwhY mij eh jahd, ntWgl

thf fUjntL.
bghUaY muaY (Economics and Politics)

ff vyh KaJt thjit. Mdh fljfhy

bghUshjhu uridfis J bfhS msF kLnk eh
tuyh Mt fhLnwh.

bghUaY muaY r_f mafshF. mitfS

ilna beUa bjhl cL. mua vgJ ehL myJ
rKjha ga mayhF. J mua kjDFs cwit
g gYwJ.

fljfhyf kf thifju, t j,
tUthia uLj Madnt bghUa khztDF
KaJt thjjhF.

brt cgY gY mu brthF myJ gF

mf. bghUshjhu lliy eehL gWwJ. cgia
mfj _yK wj Kiw g brj _yK ehL
tUkhdij mff brtnj lLj Ka nehfkhF.
mu Kftuhf (Agency) bragL lFG Ka
gfhWwJ. nja ka khFj (Nationalisation), jah
kakhFj (Privatization), kJyF (Prohibition) Mait
bghUaY muaY f Kakhd gFfshF.
ntiyik, bjhyhs uidfS bghUa
uidfshF. (Issues) tWF muR rahd Kiw
fhzntL. bghUaYF muaYF mf bjhl Ugjh
bjhik bghUa mPf ij mua bghUshjhu vnw
miHjd. mndf ehLf, bghUshju uidfis ikahf itJ
njjiy rJsd.
y rkaf mua fUJfS mua mikfS
cUthf Ka fhuz bghUa Niyna MF. yh
bjhu fhy bghUa VwjhfS, bghUshjhu
RulfSjh rkjk bghUshjhu mik njhw fhuzkhf
mikjd. fhu kh (Karl Marx) rkjk bghUshjhu jij
vW miHfgLwh.
bghUaY tuyhW (Economics and History)
bghUa tuyhnwhL beUa bjhlilaJ. tuyhW
fljfhy ff gntlhF. fljfhy kf r_f,
bghUshjhu, mua iy gTWtJ tuyhW xU tuyhW
khztDF bkhfyha kdf kj bfhiff, mu
16

tuyhW gufis gagL bghUa fis

cUthFnwh. flj fhy kf bghUshjhu iyia mJ
bfhs tuyhW gagLwJ. jF tuyhW bghUa
(Economic History) vw j csJ. tuyhWF
bghUaYF cs bjhlig tUkhW Twyh. tuyhW yhj
bghUa ntuw ku nghwJ, bghUa yhj tuyhW faw
ku nghwJ (Economics without history has no root History without
Economics has no fruit.)
bghUaY mwaY (Economics and Ethics)
mwa xU r_f ma. J xGf befis g
TWwJ. vJ r, vJ jtW vW RofhLwJ. J kjdJ
ethit Fnfhshf bfhLsJ. bghUaYF
mwaYF beUa bjhl cL. kf gUbghU eyij
nkgLJtnj bghUa vW kh TWwh. Mdh kf
xGf befis nkgLJtJ mwayhF. bghUa
uridfis MuhbghGJ mwbe fUJfis fU
bfhnwh. muRF mf tUth Hig VgLoD, mw
xGffhf muR kJyif (Prohibition) mKgLJwJ.
bghUa uridfis MuhbghGJ xGfbe (myJ)
mwbefis g fU bfhsntoaJ iy vW
uhr TWwh. Mdh tUila fUij w bghUa
mPf VW bfhsiy. bghUaiy mwaUJ f
KoahJ vW fUJwd. bghUa, mwa ifghit
(Handmaid) vW kh fUJwh. kj thifia
nkgLJtnj bghUa vW fUJwh.
bghUaY rl aY (Economics and Jurisprudence)
17

rl a vgJ xU rl mayhF. bghUshjhu ts

eho rllfis bghWJ mik. ey rlf
bghUshjhu tsF t tFF. jtwhd rlf bghUshjhu
tsF CW isF. (c.) flj fhyf maehL
Kjlhsfis eh tuntwnghJ, ekJ eho t
fodkhdJ vW rahdJ my vW fUdhf. Mdh W
iwa khwf VgLsd. bghUshjhu ts nkghL mila
vjhd, bjthd t KiwfS bjhyhs ey rlfS
njit.
bghUaY csaY (Economics and Psychology)
csa vgJ kjdJ kd iyia Muh mayhF.
FHijf csa (Child Psychology), kf u (Mob
Psychology) csa, bjh rhj csa (Industrial Psychology)
Fwa csa (Criminal Psychology), vd csa gy fis
bgWsJ. bghUa gwhFiwahd tsfSF vzw
UgfSF ilnaahd kj eltoiffis g TWwJ.
bghUa uridfis Muha csa ga m
mtakhdJ. bjhyhs uridfis Muha, bjh rhj
csa m mtakhdJ. xU ey gidahs, jDila
glf iyia khw UnghJ thFgt kdiyia
eF mUj mtakhF. gy Kakhd bghUa f
csaiy mogilahf bfhnl mikJsd. (c) FiwJ br
W iy gaghL , xU gl U mff
mff, mij thF Ug FiwJ bfhnl brY vW
TWwJ.
bghUaY, fjaY, aY
(Economics, Mathematics and Statistics)

ms bghUshjhu (Econometrics) vw a ma
ghlgF bghUa csJ. aiy, fj
aiy gagLJnwh. 1930- msa cUthfglJ.
msa Kj nehg gR #h obg (Jan Tinbergen) kW
uhd ~Z (Ragnar Frisch) MnahUF, mtf Ma
gffhf tHfglJ.
aFiy afhiy
(Dynamic and Static Concepts)
bghUshjhu braghil mJ bfhtjF fhy gF
aikahjJ. uL tifahd mQFKiwf csd. 1. afh
iy (Static) 2. aF iy (Dynamic) afh iy, xU Fl
fhyfl bghUa uridfis g MuhwJ. FWa
fhy y khwf VgL vW eh mDkhnwh.
khwf Vglhj FWa fhyijg Muh mQFKiw xL
khwh rkiy (Compartive Static) MF. (c) xL khwh
rkiy, xU fhyfl cs bghUshjhu iyia ntW
xU fhyfl cs bghUshjhu iyia xL
ghnwh. kh `njit m nfhghL jF xU ey
vLJfhlhF.
aFiy, rKjha xU rkiyUJ kbwhU
rkiyF khW tKiwia g Muhnwh. aF iy
fhy gF aikahjJ. aF iy khw vgJ
ikafUjhF. (c) Kija fhy to jij bghWJ
iwa KjL mik tf RH (Trade Cycle) jF xU ey
vLJ fhlhF.
U bry buhfK (Stocks and Flows)

kw mafis nghynt, bghUa fjanyhL,

anyhL bjhlilaJ. a vgJ `ruhr ga,
`vif ga mayhF. bghUa eh gagLJ
mltizfS, tiuglfS aiy mogilahf
bfhlit. fja Kiwf ed bghUshjhu mf
ms gagLjgLwd.

U, bghUa mogil fUjikthF. Uig

xU fhyfl msl Ko. Flow vgJ Flgl
ilbt (Period of Time) msl Ko. ntW tif
Tdh, fhy gkhz KakhdJ. (c) brt UghF.
tUkhd, brythF.

18

19

Ea bghUa ( Micro Economics) nga

bghUa (Macro Economics)
bghUa nfhghLf EQ bghUa vW, nga
bghUa vW Utifahf fgLwd.
j xU gl iy, jgl Wtdf myJ
bjh, jFLgf, Matiw g MuhtJ Ea
bghUshjhu MF.
nga bghUa, eho bghUshjhuij KGikahf
MuhwJ. eho xLbkhj bghUshjhu braghLf ga
xU KGikahd fUij (gkhzij) mwJ KGntiyth,
nr, KjL Ma xLbkhj bghUa bjhFfSilna
cs bjhlig sFwJ. tUkhd nfhghL, ntiyth
nfhghL, iynfhghL, gznfhghLfis nga bghUa
vW Twyh.
bghUa xU ma
bghUa xU fiyayh? myJ mayh? vw
nfF liy. ma vgJ xGFgLjgl xU m
bjhFahF. aa, ntaiy nghnw bghUaY xU
mayhF. aa, nta nghw maf, cW
nehFj, M brj, nrhj Ma eilKiwfSF dnu
nfhghLf tiuaWfgLwd. nj ma Kiwfjh
bghUaY gwgLwd. kw mafis nghnw
fhuz kW is MatWilnaahd bjhlig
sFwJ.

r_f mafshd mua, tuyhiw l bghUa xU

ma vW TWtjF KG jF giljJ. Vbd
bghUa eh gaghil msgjF gzij xU fUahf
gagLJnwh. J xU njhuhakhd kLjh vwhY
bghUa f KGtot bgw J cjwJ. y neuf
bghUa TW fUJ eilKiw thif cikyhk
nghfyh. kw mafY nj nghW VgL. y bghUa
f cik eilbgwhk nghdhY, bghUa xU ma
iy vW TwKoahJ.
bghUa M Kiwf (Methods of Economic Analysis)
bghUa Utifahd M Kiwf csd.
1. gFjh Kiw (Deductive) 2. bjhFjh Kiw (Inductive
Method)gFjh Kiwia, gFj Kiw vW, (Analytical)
fUayhd Kiw (Abstract) vW TWtJL. J Kiy
rh Kiwia rhjJ. y mogil vLnfhfUJ Kof
bgwgLwd. nuffilna Kiw f ugykhdJ.
gFjh KiwahdJ. bghJfUUJ j fUij
bgWtJ MF. bjhik bghUa mPuhd fhnlh gFjh
Kiwia gdh.
bjhFjh KiwahdJ (Inductive Method) j
fUUJ bghJ fUij bgWtjhF. ma njLj
bjhFjh Kiwna wjJ vW uhR ngfh (France Bacon)
TWwh. bghUa uridfSF nkfl vj KiwfS
iw mf Toaitahf iy. gzhk nfhghoid
mj, fbgw ma mPuhd lh (Darwin) bjhFjh
Kiwia, gFjh Kiwia izJ a bghJ
sfnfhghil (Hypothesis) Fsh (cUthsh).

mayhdJ, aif ma (Physical Science) vW

r_f ma (Social Science). vW UtifgL. aaY
ntaY maYF cjhuzkhF. bghUa r_f
maYF cjhuzkhF. kj eltoiff xU Fl
gFia kLnk J TWwJ. kj eltoiff f
fyhdit. vjhf tiw ff ayhJ. vdnt bghUa kw
maiy (Physical Science) nghW bjthdJ, rahdJ,
JakhdJ mW.

lh bjhFjh, gFjh Kiwf Ka

fUJfshtd
1. uridfis mj (Identification)
2. mDkhdfis cUthFj
3. tufis nrfj, bjhFj, Muhj

20

21

4. Kofis bgWj.
5. rghj, Fj, myJ U mikj
gFjh Kiw wjjh? myJ bjhFjh Kiw wjjh?
vw fbga rir flj fhy vGjJ. jbghGJ mj
ntWghL fhzgliy. tyJ fhY lJ fhY elgjF vthW
mtankh mnj nghW bjhFjh Kiw, gFjh Kiw
ma MF mta vW iwa mPf fUJwd.
bghUa f a
kw r_f mafis nghW bghUaY mjFa
fis bfhLsJ. xU Fl Niy, bfhLfgl
gjidFgL, vd elfntL vW TW Tnw
ahF. eltoiff xbthW xU isit VgLJ.
p ir fhuzkhfnt xU bghU jiu GwJ
vgJ aa ahF. p ir vw xU nghFiu
TW Statement of Tendencies MF. mnjnghW bghUa
fS nghFiu TWf MF. (c..) njit go
glf iy Fiw bghGJ njit til. glf
iy Fiw bghGJ kf mij mfkhf thFthf vgnj
j bghUshF. mnj nghW glf iy caU bghGJ
Fiwthfnt thFthf. f y gjidFgnl fG
Niyf myJ gjidf khWglh braglhJ. J
vyh maYF bghUjToa xW.
aa f Jajik thjitahF. Mdh
bghUa f aa fis nghW Jajik
thjdty (c.) p ir. J rhjhuz Jajik
cila nghFiu TwhF. Mdh bghUa, kjid g,
bghUanyhL bjhlila eltoiffisg Muhnwh.
gnrhjid TlFnsh myyJ btnyh kjdJ
eltoiffis gnrhJ ma KoahJ. Mfnt bghUa
f aa fis nghW Jajik cilad my.
ruhr kj eltoiffis g eh Muhnwh vgij
fU bfhs ntL.
22

bghUa kjidg kj d eltoiff

g Muhtjh, bghUa f fyhdit Jajik
mwit MF. vdntjh kh bghUa fis va
Jakhd < ir fnshL xLtijl fl
miyf fnshL xlyh vW FLsh. Na ru
<dh miyf njhWwd vW ma TWwJ.
bgszaW miyf mf njhw th csJ. miyf
mf njhwhk UgjF th csJ. bghUa fY
jifa nghFf fhzgL. (c) gz ms mfF
bghGJ bghU iy kl (Price level) caU. Mdh vj
msF iy kl caU vgij Jakhf Tw ayhJ.
Mdh bghUa f mua, tuyhW fis l
Jajik thjitahF. Vbd eh gzij gaghil
msL msnfhshf gagLJnwh. gz xU njhuhakhd
kLjh vwhY mJ bghUa fSF KGtot
bfhLwJ.
bghUa f midJ y vLnfhfis rhJsd.
njit ia vLJbfhlh ``kwit khwhUF bghGJ
(ceteris paribus) xU gl iy Fiw nghJ kf
mbghUis mf ms thFthf vW TWwJ.
`kwit khwhUFnghJ vwh 1. kf tUkhd
iyahf UfntL. 2. Rit cz khwTlhJ. 3. kw
glf iy iyahf UfntL. 4. a gL
glf UjTlhJ. nkfl vLnfhf midJ khwhk
Ujhjh cikahF.
bghUa f gytifahd gjidFglit ahF.
Mfntjh y gjidfis eh nkbfhnwh. bghUa
tuf rghfgL, gnrhfgL, mJ cik vW mj
wnf J ahf cUthwJ. Mdh gy bghUa fis
gnrhjidF cgLjKoahJ. Mfnt bghUa f y
gjidFglit.
aa f midtuhY VW bfhsglit. Mdh
bghUa f midtUF Vilad my. UD y
23

yFf cL. Fiwj br is midtuhY

VWbfhsgl xwhF.
bghUa f KaJt
bghU f eilKiw thifF f KakhF. y
bghUa f midJ bghUshjhu mikfSF bghUj
Toad. (c..) FiwJ br is , FiwJ br W iy
gaghL , njit nghwit Kakhd fshF.
gz msnfhghL vyh bghUshjhu mikfSF
bghUjToaJ vW y bghUa mPf fUJwhf.
`FiwJ br W iy gaghL cik
mDgtfis rhjJ. U mff, mff mij
thfntL vw Ug FiwJ bfhnl brY. glf
iyF, mglfUJ ilF kdiwF cs
bjhlig mJ sFwJ. nfhil fhyf khgHf
m mfkhf csjh mj iy FiwJ brY. mUJ
ilF gaghL FiwJ brY vgJ bjthwJ.
iyahdJ W iy gaghnlhL bjhlilajh mj
iy FiwwJ. tsj t (Progressive Taxation) FiwJ br
gaghL mogil mikJsJ. xUtUila tUkhd
TLbghGJ t jij ca brtjf mf t
brYJgo brwJ. xUtl gz ms mff
mff, mtDF ilF gaghL FiwJ brY vW
eggLwJ. miy mt mfgzij bry brjhY,
mtUila ahf mfkhf UfhJ.
njit cik mDgtij mogilahf bfhlJ. iy
Fiw bghGJ njit mfgij eh eilKiw fhzyh.
m mfkhf Ujh iy Fiw. glf m
mfjh Wiy gaghL Fiw. gidahs js
iyia FiwJjh gidia mff Kath.
FiwJ br Wiy is midtU gagLJ
xU bghJ ahF. ntshik ciH, _yjdfis
UklF mfgj _y cgia UklF caj KoahJ.
bjhrhiyfSF bghUJ xU ahF.
24

cz cg mfgij l kf bjhif ntfkhf

mfwJ vW khj kf bjhif nfhghL TWwJ.
J xU Jakhd TW my. ViH ehLf gRiku VgL
tiu TW cikahF. gRiku ntshik cgia
mff brjJ. ViH ehLf mf kf bjhif csJ.
kf bjhif bgUfij fLgLj ViHehLf mf ms
gzij FLg fLghofhf bry brwd. Mfnt
bghUa f eilKiw mf KaJt thjjhf
fUjgLwd.
mogil fUJf (Basic Concepts)
xbthU maYF xU w jik cL.
bghUaYF xU j jik cL. y bghUa gjf
w fnzhl gagLjgLwd. brt, glf,
tUkhd, k, iy kW rij nghw mogil bghUa
gjf bghUis czJbfhs ntL. iybawh
FHgF ttFF.
brt (Wealth)
bghJthf brt vgJ gzij FF. Mdh
bghUa Ugij iw br gzks
gwhFiwahs glf midJ brtkhF. gz ks
midJ bghUa brtkhF. midJ bghUa
glfS khW k (Value in exchange) (gtjid)
cilajhF. xU Fl fhy U cs gz ks
glf midJ brtf vdgL. Mfnt bghUshjhu
glf midJ brtkhF.
brt gf
1.

glf gaghL cilajhf UjntL. Ugij

iw br ria cilajhf UfntL.
mglf UgToaitahf Uf ntL vW
kh TWwh.

2.

glf m - tiuaiwFgljhf Uf ntL.

Na x, fhW thifF aikahjJ. mit
25

yhk thHKoahJ. Mdh mit m Vuhskhf

csjh brtkhf fUjgLtiy. it ytr
glfshF.

kj Ugij iw br vJ bgUa glkh

fUjgLwJ. bghUa glf vgJ gUbghU, mUt
bghUfis FF. ehfh myJ M vgo xU glnkh,
mnjnghy eoff, Maf, irfiyPf tf
gfS glfshf fUjgLwd.

glf ytr glf vW bghUa glf vd

UtifgL aif bfhilfshd fhW, Na x
ytr glfshF. mit gwhFiwahdit my. mit
rij iy bgWtJ iy. Mfnt mJ ytr glfshf
fUjgLwd. bghUa glfSF rij iy bfhLf
ntL. ntW t TWnthnkahdh jF khW k (Value
in Exchange) cL. Vbdwh njitnahL xLnghJ mit
gwhFiwahd itnaahF. xU l ytr glkhf
fUjgLtJ, ntW xU l bghUa glkhf fUjgL.
glf njit mig bghWnj mik. (c) uhkf
wF xU ytr glkhF. efu gFf tF eh iy
bfhLJ bgw ntoUgjh J bghUa glkhwJ.
mnjnghW ytr glkha j, gwhFiw VgLnghJ
bghUa glkhwJ.
glfis Ef glf (Consumer Goods), cg
glf (Producers Goods) vW U tifahf fyh. Ef
glf ekJ Ugij neuoahf iw brgit. mit (1) mGF
glf (c.) fhf, , iw (2) mah bghUf (L,
fh, thbdh) uL tifgL. _yjd bghUf ekJ
Ugij kiwKfkhf iw brgit aufis cg bra
gagL auf _yjd glf vdgL (c.) fh xU
aukhF. J Ef bghU. Mdh fhiu cg bra
gagL auf _yjd glf myJ cg
glf vW miHfgLwd. xU gl xU l Ef
glkhf ntW xU l cg glkhf fUjgLwJ.
(c.) rhu Lf gagLJnghJ Ef glkhf,
Wtdf gagLJnghJ cg glkhf fUjgLwJ.
tUkhd
bghJthf tUkhd vgJ bghUa gz tUkhdij
FF. bghUa tUkhd vgJ bghUa glfUJ
ilfToa kdiwid FF vW brbk TWwh.
midJ bghUa glfS brtkhF vgJ ekF bj.
brtUJjh tUkhd ilwJ. (c) brhj L xU
brtkhF. mUJ bgW thlif tUkhdkhF.

26

27

3.

brt xUtlUJ kwtfSF khwgl Toajhf

UfntL.

4.

gzk cilajhf UfntL.

5.

w brtkhf Ufyh. (c.). xU Wtd ebga

(Good Will) mWtd wbrtkhF.

gaghL, gwhFiw, kW khwjf jik brt

Ka gfshF.
brt tiff (Classification of Wealth) :
1.

jah brt vgJ gUbghU kW mUt bghUis

cslaJ. L, y, kurhkhf, vuf nghwit
gUbghUfshF. gFguf itUgJ jah
brt mlF.

2.

rKjha brt (Social Wealth) : rKjha brt myJ

bghJ brt vgJ rKjha cs midtU
gagLJ bghUfshF. bghJrhiyf, fhf, bghJ
f Wtdf, bghJ yff, mUfhaff
nghwit rKjha brtkhF.

brtK eyK (Wealth and Welfare) :

brtF eyF beUa bjhl cL. xU ehL
kf eykhdJ meho brt msit bghWJ
kLkyhJ, brt vgo cg bragLwJ, mJ vthW
gjfgLwJ vgij bghWJ mik.
glf (Goods)

tUkhd U tifgL. 1. gz tUkhd (Money Income) 2.

cik tUkhd (Real Income) kf tUkhdij bghJthf
gzkhfnt <Lwhf.
gz tUkhd vgJ bgaus tUkhd MF. xU ehL
kf thifju mtfsJ cik tUkhdij bghWnj
mik. cik tUkhd gz thF ria bghWnj
mik. Mdh gz thF rahdJ glf iy
klij bghWJ mik . glf, gf J bfhLs
Mfij (Command) (w) bghWJ cik tUkhd mik.
gz t Ukhd mfgjh kLnk kf ewhf thtjhf
TWKoahJ. vts glfis thFwhf vgij bghWnj
mtfsJ thij ju mik.
vdJ gz tUkhd %.10/- vdbfhnth; xU nyh m
iy %.10/, nghJ vdJ tUkhd eh xU nyh m thf
Ko myJ vDila gz tUkhd k xU nyh
mahF. mLj khj vDila gz tUkhd %.15/- Mf
caUwJ; m iynah %.20/- Mf cawJ vdbfhnth.
nghJ vDila gz tUkhd k 3/4 nyh m kLnk
MF. vdnt, vDila gz tUkhd caj nghY iy
Vw fhuzkhf cik tUkhd FiwJ lJ. Mf,
``cik tUkhd vgJ iyah rbragL gz
tUkhd MF.
ehL tUkhd
xU tUl cg bragL glf kW gf
kng ehL tUkhd MF. xU eho ciH, KjY
meho aif tsfSl To XuhL fhy cg
bragL glf kW midJ tifahd gf Mat
bkhj fu k... meho cikahd fu ML tUkhd
(myJ) ehL tUkhd myJ ehL tUkhd < (Dividend) vW
kh ehL tUkhdij g yfz tFJsh.

KaJtij ehL tUkhd it mF gF

khwJ.
ehL tUkhdij meho kf bjhifah tFf `jyh
tUkhd (Per Capita Income) ilF (jeg ML
tUkhd).
jyh tUkhd

ehL tUkhd
kf bjhif

k (Value)
xU gl gtjid ju k vdgL. k
vgJ rh (Relative) jikilaJ. J xU Fl neu,
Fj l, uL bghUfSilnaahd bjhlfis
btgLJwJ.

xU eho tUkhdUJ mehL brtj ehlh? myJ

ViH ehlh? vW ma Ko. ntshik Jiw (Agriculture),
bjhJiw (Industry) gJiw (Service Sector) Mat

k, gaghL k (Value-in-use) gtjid myJ khW

k (Value-in-exchange) vd UtifgL. fhW, j, Na
x MatF gaghL k cL. gtjid ks
glfSF kLnk bghUa KaJt bfhLwJ. xU
gl gtjjid kigbgw mJ gaghL cilajhf,
gwhFiwahdjhf,
gkhw
braToajhf
UfntL. ntW tif Tdh midJ bghUa
glfSF gtjid k cL.
gz_y kig msLnwh. k rhjik
cilaJ. fhyij bghWJ, Niyia bghUJ gl
k-khWgL (c) ice cubes Ffhyijl nfhil mf
kilaJ.
iy
glf kig gzjh Flh mJ iy
vdgL. bghJthf bghUa mPf kF iyF
ilna vj ntWghL fhliy. vyh iyfS
xWbfhW bjhlilad. Jnt iy mikghF (Price
System). mfho bghUSF eh bfhLF iy yiu iy
(Retail) vdgL. y, ciH, _yjd MatF eh

28

29

bfhLF iy thu, T, toahF. KjyhJt

bghUshjhu `iy mik Ka gfhWwJ. thFgtf
jf Ugij iy _ykhf bjg. xU bghUSF eh
bfhLF iy, iy mikF eh mF MjuthF.
rKjha bghUa braghLfis iy mik
xGFgLJwJ.
rij (m) mfho ( Market)
bghUf thFtJ gJ eilbgW xU lnk
mfhoahF. bridYs nfhangL mfho, fhf-F
xU lkhF. bghUa mfho vgJ glfis thFF xU Fl l my. neuoahfnth myJ Kftf
_ykhfnth, thFgtU, gtU rF X lnk mfhoahF.
vLJfhlhf rij fis thF, F lkhF. F
thFnthU nghU beUa bjhl bfhLsd.
mfho xU gF bfhLfgL iyahdJ mj
kWgF bfhLfgL iyia ghF vW bgAh
TWwh.
bghJthf, glf mfhoia kLnk mfho vW
TWnwh. Mdh glf ju kw bghUfSF mfho
cL. mitahtd 1. bjhyhs mfho (Labour Market),
maehL bryht mfho (Foreign Exchange Market) _yjd
mfho (Capital Market).
mfho tiff
l, fhy, ngho jikia bghWJ mfhof
gytifgL. mfhoia mJ mikUF lij bghUJ 1.
cq mfho (Local Market) (c) fhf, kyf 2. nja mfho
(National Market) (c) litf 3. cyf mfho (World Market)
(c) U, gU rfiu vW gy tifgL.
ngho mogil mfhoia Utiffshf fyh.
1. iw ngho (Perfect Competition) 2. iwFiw ngho (Imperfect)
vgdthF.
fhyij bghUJ mfhoia, mfho fhy (Market Period),
FWa fhy mfho (Short Period) lfhy mfho (Long Period)

vW fgLwJ. fhy FWajhf U `njit Ka

gfhWwJ. fhy ljhf U `m Ka gfhWwJ.
bghUa KaJt
r_f ma bghUa xU Ka thF. ekJ
mwhl thifY J Ka gF twJ. ma
cikfUij mj bfhsnt Kidnwh. Mdh bghUa,
cik iy mJ bfhs kLyhk, r_f bghUshjhu
uridfSF fhz KawJ.
mit mfhf kLnk gtJ bghUa mP f
nehfky. uridfSF fhgnj bghUa Ka
FnfhshF. bghUa uridfSF cldo bghUa
mPfl ilahJ. Mdh bghUshjhu bfhiff _y
muRF mtf cj bra Ko.
bghUshjhu nfhghLf, bfhif KoF cldoahf
VfToa, khfgl Kofis TWtJ iy. J xU
tKiwna, J kdF xU rhjd. jidF xU Eg. jid
bgUgtf j_y xU y rahd Kofis bgw
cjwJ vW R TWwh.
ed mu gy uridf bghUa jikilad.
mu uridf bghUa mPf Ka
gfhUwd. ulh cyf nghKo b#k
bghUshjhu bgUghY FiyfglJ. F gzf,
glf gwhFiw, if ntiyik (Mass unemployment)
yaJ. Y vuh (Ludwig Erhard) vw bghUa mP
miuia gajh b#kha bghUshjhu ntfkhf
miljJ. b#k bghUshjhu xU bghUa
mrakhF. (Miracle)
mnj nghW 1930 Vgl cyf bghUshjhu kjUJ
mbkf muR bgw J.M. bghUshjhu bfhiff
Ka gfhd.
iy, thu, T, to, yhg, tf Kjait g bghUa
TWwJ. xbthUtiu J VjhtJ xU t ghwJ. vdnt
bghUa m jsntD yhj xUt cikahd
Fokfdhf UfKoahJ vW TwgLwJ.

30

31

II.
6.

g
gF - m
rahd ilia njbjLf
brt yfz Ma :
m. M~uL kh
M. yad uh
. Ml
<. rhKntr
ilgUik yfz Ma :
m. Ml
M. rhKntr
. M~uL kh
<. yad uh
fu bghUshjhu ey ga fUij vLJiujt
m. rhKntr
M. M~uL kh
. Ml
<. yad uh
bghUshjhu vgJ
m. aiu ma
M. beiu ma
. uLnk
<. vJiy
bghUshjhu eh gagLJtJ
m. gFjh Kiw
M. bjhFjh Kiw
. uLnk
<. vJiy
nfhol lfis uf
Ea vgJ ........... MF.

7.

cg vdgLtJ ...... cUthFtjhF.

8.

glfSF, glfis kh bfhtJ ........... MF.

9.

bghUshjhu vgJ ........... mayhF.

10.
III.
11.

gyjugl brtF vLJfhL ...........

bghUJf
bghUshjhu nfhghLf
m. U

12.

Kj nehg gR

I.
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

32

M. xl

13.
14.
15.
IV.

aF iy mQFKiw
. kh
brt

<. fhyfl
tUkhd

c. ogf kW ~Z
xU thijf ilaf

16.
17.
18.
19.
20.

bghUshjhu ntW bga vd?

vdhbk vdgLtJ vjj ghlfis cslaJ?
fhnlh vj Kiwia gagLdh?
ytr glfSF xuL vLJfhLf jUf.
gz tUkhdF ntW bga vd?

gF-M
tU dhfSF ehF myJ IJ tf
ilaf
21. bghUshjhu g Mu kh yfz ahJ?
22. bghUshjhu Ka f vd?
23. bghUshjhu, fj, a tF ilnaahd
bjhlid t.
24. ytr glf kW bghUshjhu glfis
ntWgLJf?
25. ga k kW gkhw k t ntWghLfis
sFf.
gF-
tU dhfSF xU gf ms ilaf
26. Ml brt yfzij ga FiwghLfis
Muhf?
27.

Ea kW nga bghUshjhu ntWghLfis

TWf

28.

bghUshjhu X aiu mayh (myJ) beiu

mayh?
33

29.
30.

iyahd kW aFiy fUJfis ga WF

tiuf
bghUshjhu M Kiwfis g tf.
gF - <

tU dhfSF _W gf ms ilaf
31.

bghUshjhuij g kh yfzij Muhf.

32.

bghUshjhuij g yanahd uh yfzij

Muhf.

33.

bghUshjhuK w r_f afSl cs bjhlid

thf.

34.

bghUshjhu f jik kW KaJtij

thf.

35.

bghUshjhu jik kW viyfis thf.

34

ghl - 2

mogil bghUa uidf

mogil bghUshjhu uidf
bghUa gwhFiwah (Scarcity) VgL bj (Choice)
brjiy rhj X ma MF. bjfis brLtjh vG
mogil uidf ahit? vj xU rKjhaK _W Ka
uidfis Kitnj bjfis nkbfhs ntL.
mitfshtd
1. vj bghUis cg brtJ, vts cg brtJ?
czth myJ gilfyfsh (weapons), mthbw,
vtsF?
mjhtJ mf cz kW Fiwthd gilfyfsh? myJ
mf gilfyf kW Fiwthd czbghUsh?
2. glf vthW jahfgl ntL?
rhuij btg Mw bfhL (from Thermal Power)
jahgjh myJ rah (Hydro Power) jahgjh?
3. glf ahUfhf jahfglntL?
xU y brtjf kW gy ViHfSfhfth? (myJ)
bgUthahd kf thifia brikahf thtjfhfth?
_W mogil uidfS xiw xW rhjit
MF. ts bgw, rKjha rahd bjfis nkbfhL
kdiwit bgwntL. nkfh _W dhfS midJ
tif bghUshjhuF (economies) bghUJ. Mdh gtif
bghUshjhu Kiwf jkJ brhj bjfis nkbfhs
Kawd. xU Fl rKjha bj a
bghUshjhu Kiwfis bghUnj mik.
bghUshjhu Kiwf (Economic Systems)
xU bghUshjhu Kiw vgJ fhQ mogil
dhfSF il gfj MF. gntW bghUshjhuKiwf,
35

ntWgl Kiwf nkfhQ dhfSF ilawd.

vd cg bra ntL; vthW cg bra ntL,
ahUF cg bra ntL vw ika uridfis gntW
bghUa TWf vthW J itwd vgnj bghUshjhu
Kiw vdgL. bghUa braghL fSilna, glf,
gf cg kW gidna J (bghUshjhu Kiw)
FLwJ.
bghUshjhuKiwf vgJ gntW jegf kW
mtf Wtdfshd t Wtdf, f Wtdf
kW bghUshjhu Wtdf Matiw bfhljhf UF.
bghJthd bghUshjhu Kiwfshtd
1.
2.
3.
4.

giHik bghUshjhu (Traditional Economy)

KjyhJt / mfho bghUshjhu (Capitalist Economy)
bghJilik/flis bghUshjhu (Socialist Economy)
fy bghUshjhu (Mixed Economy)

1. giHik bghUshjhu
giHik bghUshjhu, giHikf, gHf tHff
f, kW elij TWf Mad mogil uidfis
J itfgLwd. mj rahd Ef njitia, mJ
cg brJ bfhwJ. J xU th/iHghjhu bghUshjhu
MF. mnf ws cgna UFkhjyh ngus gidF
thiy. jiyKiw jiyKiwahf xnu bghUns cg
bragLwJ. cg Kiwf f gHikahdit.
II. KjyhJt / mfho bghUshjhu
KjyhJt/mfho bghUshjhu jilyh
rijf (Free Market) _ynk glf cg kW g
khfgLwJ. vdnt, J mfho bghUshjhu (myJ)
jilyh thg bghUshjhu vW miHfgLwJ.
cgahs, Efnth myJ ts bgUgt (resource owner)
jfSbfd jgl Rjuij bgWsd. jegf
njitahd glf kW gfis thFjF gjF jdJ
bjhiy (Occupation) njbjLJ bfhtjF jilnaJ
36

iy. jdJ braghLfSF tfhlToa xU ika

xUizghsiu mfho bghUshjhu bgUfiy. Mdh
mfho rfshd m, njit kW iyf Maitf
braghLf fhuzkhf Ra mik (Self-Organisation)
njhWwJ.
mfho bghUshjhu wgrf
(Sailent features of Capitalim)
1. jah brhJik
j egf brhJ thf, brhjkh bfhs cik
cL. tiuaiw vts brhJfis ntLkhdhY
itJ bfhsyh. nkY brhij rltkhf mtf
Uw tf gagL bfhsyh.
2. yhgnehf
yhgnehF kLnk mfho bghUshjhu Ka
braghlhF. bgUks yhgfis ulntLbkgjh j
kj mf lghLfis nkbfhL cg Kofis
nkbfhth. vdnt `yhgnehfnk mfho bghUshjhu
Ka rahf bragLwJ.
3. bj nkbfhS Rju
vd bghUis cg brtJ vgij cgahsnu
nkbfhwh. khg Rju bgWsh. jdJ
gfSfhd jFj iyia khJbfhs cg
fhufis Rjukhf vF ntLkhdhY gak
bfhsyh. mJ nghynt EfnthU jdJ njitfis
thbfhs KG Rju bgWsh.
4. mfho rf
mfho rfshd njit, m kW iy Mait,
Kiwia begLJ FpLf MF. bgUthahd
bghUshjhu braghLf iyafjh (Price Mechanism)
mikjjhF. cg, Ef kW g MatWfhd
dhf mfho rfis bghUnj khfgLwJ.
37

5. mu Fiwjgr braghL

6. bjhEg ts

bgUthahd bghUshjhu uidf mfho rfsh

(Market Forces) khfgLwd. Fiwjgr msthf mu
gfhdJ y Kakhd gfis brant tiuaWfgLsJ.
mjhtJ, mfhoia xGFgLJj, ghJfh, maehL
bfhif, gz (Currency) nghwitfns mgfshF.

mfho bghUshjhu Ka TW - ngho.

nghoahdJ (competition) cgahsiu jhf Kiwf _y
cgia bgU, gidia mfkhf brJ, tsia
JjgLJwJ.
mfho bghUshjhu ikf

mfho bghUshjhu eikf

1. Vwjhf (Inequalities)

1. cg bgUFwJ

tUth VwjhfS brhJf xU yl Fjiy

KjyhJt bga FiwghlhF. cgahsf, yHh,
tff, mfyhg <o bgU brt nrwd. jdh,
brtj bgU brtjuhf, ViHf f ViHfshf
Mwd. tiuaWfgl tfns csjh ViHf
brtjnuhL nghol ayiy. jdh, KjyhJt
brtjfSF ViHfSF ilna cs Vwjhfis nkY
mff brwJ.

mfho bghUshjhu xU trhnah, tfnuh,

bjhygnuh jdbfd brhid bgW, jh U t
gagLbfhsyh. mt jdyfhf cgia
bgUFwh. j isthf tUkhd, nr kW KjL
caUwJ.
2. eyij bgUFj
lLj, cg kW tsij gagLJj w
(efficiency) nkgLwJ. vW TwgLwJ xUtdJ jdy
rKjha eyij caJwJ.
3. beila mik Kiw
bghJthf bghUshjhu gwhFiw, cg `njit
kW m _y rbragLwJ. thW iy
afjh jhdhfnt mJ bragLwJ.
4. mu jiypoik
muR bghUshjhu braghLf Fiwthd gidna
bgWsJ. j eg UgF rKjha UgF KughL
VJ iy. bghUshjhu Wtdf, jhdhfnt mu jiypo
jirahf bragLwd.
5. Fiwj iy kW jukhd bghUf
Efnth kW cgahsfSF KG Rju Ugjh
jukhd bghUfis Fiwthd bry kW iy cg
braKowJ.
38

2. KWik ts
Vwjhf KWikia tsw brwd. bga
Tlhik myFf (Mega Corporate Units), a
cgahsfis btnaLwd. Wtdf xW nrJ
Tl mikj (Cartels), kW KWik TL Wtd (Trust)
mikgj_y, cg <LgLs Wtdf vif
FiwJ LwJ.
Wahf mit gdhL Wtdfshf (MNC) cUbgW
catilwd. mit mofo eho eyDbfuhf iyia
caJwd.
3. /kj ( Depression)
mf ngho fhuzkhf bghUf msffkhf
cg bragLwd. brtjf ViHfis RuLwhf.
ViHf cg eikfis bgw ayhjj fhuzkhf
RulgLwhf. ntbwhU iy msffkhd cg,
39

rij njfij VgLJtjh `kj VgLwJ. J

bghUshjhu iyikia (Economic Instability) VgLJwJ.
mfho bghUshjhu aukakhjiy (Mechanisation)
jha jikia (Automation) CFwJ. jdh
ciHig mfkhfbgWs bghUshjhu ehLf ntiyik
VgLwJ.

khwJ. vdnt bghJilik bghUshjhu llgl

bghUshjhu mik myJ flis bghUshjhu (Command
economy) vW miHfgLwJ. muR Ka gF twJ. r_f
eyDF KaJt mfgLtjh midtUF rkkhd th
mfgLwJ. tif eikfsh kjts ts nkghL
milwJ. bghJilik bghUshjhu btbgw ehLf
ytW dh, gh, aeh, nghwit mlF. fhgit
bghJilik y mogil wgrf MF.

5. ey wffgLj

1. r_f ey :

mfho bghUshjhu jah Wtdf brhFR /

Mlgu bghUfis cgbrJ mf yhg <LtJl Fiwthd
yhgjU mogil glf cg brtij wfwd.
jdh, bghJkf ey wff gLwJ.

bghJilik mogil Fnfh rKjha ey MF.

bghJilik bfhif Kof yhg nehfij bfhouhJ.
kf mfgr eyfis kd bfhnl bfhif Kof
nkbfhsgL. J mfho bghUshjhu mikF ne
vuhdjhF. thW kf rKjha eynd (Social wellbeing)
mogilahf mikwJ.

4. aukakhj (Mechanisation and Automation)

6. ciH RulgLj (Exploitation of Labour)

yhg
<Ltijna
Fahf
bfhoUF
KjyhfSbfuhf fLikahd rl bfhLtugLsJ.
bjhyhsfis njitbawh itJbfhtJ iyba
LjY (Fire&Hire Policy) rhjhuzkhd braghlhF.
tif rlf bjhyhsf Caij fFiwthfnt
itUgjh ciH RulgLwJ.

2. jah brhJikik
jah brhJik tiuaWfglJ. eho midJ
brhJfS muRnf brhjkhdJ. mjhtJ brhj vgJ xU
TlhdJ (collective). vdnt KjyhJt bghUshjhu
csJngh vj xU jegU mf ms brhJ nrf ayhJ.

7. mogil r_fnjitf wffgLj

3. ikal (Central Planning)

gntWtifahd mogil r_f njitf csd.

KGvGj, bghJ Rfhjhu, Vik, mfw: Fo, r_fey,
rKjha ghJfh nghwit MF. f yhggF Fiwthf
Ugjh Kjyhf (Capitast) KjL brtiy. vdnt,
bgUksyhd kj uidf KjyhsJt Kiw
wffgLwd.

bghUa bfhifKof eho ka (ika)

lFGth nkbfhsgLwJ. xbthU bghUshjhu
llgl mik Kiwah begLjgLwJ.

III. bghJilik / flis bghUshjhu

bghJilik bghUshjhu, cg fhufis (Means
of Production) munr VW, bragL tUwJ. cg kW
g rhj midJ Kofis ka lFGnt
40

4. mfho rf iy
ikagLjgl lL bghUshjhu nkghLKiw
mfho gfhdJ f Fiwj msnyna fhzgLwJ.
cg, gl kW fhu iyf (factor prices) Ef kW
g Mait r_f eyidna Fnfhshf bfhL l mik
bragLwJ.

41

bghJilik bghUshjhu eikf

1. tsfis wgl gagLJj
yhg msit fz bfhshk tsfis wgl
gagL rKjhaF gaDs glfis jahgjh
nghodh vij zhfhk cg TlgLwJ.
2. bghUshjhu iyjik
tf VgL VwjhUJ bghUshjhu
LgLwJ. muR eF lLtjhY, midJ ewhf
xUizfgljhY, msffkhd cg, ntiyik
jfgLwJ. glf kW gf cg kW g
eF KiwgLjgLsjh bghUshjhu iyjik VgLwJ.
3. rKjha ey
midJ FokfS eho eyDfhf ciHwhf.
xbthUtU mtut Caij bgWwhf. muR Mlgu
glfSF gyhf mogil Mjhu glfisna cg
brt fUjhf csJ. muR ytr fia, kthd Mdh
NHYF Vw L tria, bghJ Rfhjhu kW r_f
ghJfhig kfSfhf brJ jUwJ.
4. KWikik (Absence of Monopoly)
jah brhJik kWfgLtjh Tlhik kW
KDik TWf mfwgLwd. muR xU KWikahf
F braglnghY jukhd bghUfis nea iy
(reasonable price) cg brwJ.
5. mogil njitf iwntwgLwd
bghJilik bghUshjhu mogil kj njitfshd
j, f, cl ey, rKjha ghJfh Mait mf
gLwd. kjts nkghL bghJilik bghUshjhu
mfkhf fhzgLwJ.
6. Vwjhik (No Extreme Inequality)
rKjha eynd W nehfbkgjh brt nrF
thiy. bghJilik Kiw bgUks Vwjh
jLfgLwJ.
42

bghJilik ikf
1. Mahsf Mf (Bureaucratic Expansion)
bghJilik bghUshjhu xU ika Mf kW
fLghL Kiwdh afgLwJ. F kf ca
mfhutf ga ciHwhf. kf fodkhf
ciHfntL vgjfhf vjkhd w g F
bfhLfgLtiy.
2. Rjuik (No freedom)
bjh Rju ilahJ. cg fhuf xJL
ntfkhd Kiw eilbgWtiy. munr ntiyfis mwJ.
glK (Place of work) murhnyna mfgLwJ. Efnth
bj f tiuaWfglJ.
3. nghoik Kiwia bra
wdwjhLwJ
g xnu khahdJ (monotonous) vgjh Rju
UgjF thiy.
cg Kiw vj khw UjhY mJ midJ
lfis khwTL. vdnt vj jhfKiw (Innovation)
Vgl F thiy. betw (rigid). vdnt, bjhEg khw
tiuaiwFglJ.
4. fy bghUshjhu (Mixed Economy)
fy bghUshjhu muR (bghJ) kW jah
Wtdf bghUshjhu fLghofhf itfgLsd.
bghJJiw, bghJilik bfhifia filowJ. nkY
jah Jiw jilyh bjh Kid bfhifia gWwJ.
vd cg brtJ vgo? ahUfhf? vw midJ KofS
munr nkbfhwJ. glfis gfis jahJiw
(Private sector) cg brJ nahf (Distribution) brwJ.
bghJJiw, kf eyDfhf Ef kW _yjd bghUfis
cg brwJ. fy bghUshjhu, jah brhJfis
itJbfhs, yhg <l, Ef, cg, nahf
bra KG Rju mwJ. Mdh jifa Rjuf
43

kf eyDF vuhf mikaTL. itaidJ murh

xGF gLjgL fLgLjgLwd.
fy bghUshjhu wgrf
1. jahJiw bghJJiw clDiwj
fy bghUshjhu muRJiw jahJiw
KaW (Initiatives) bragLwd. mf iwj (Most
Strategic) kW nja KaJt bgW Jiwf muRJiwF
xJfgLwd. jKs Jiwf jahl xgilf
gLwd. bghJJiw kf eyidna Kjik Fnfhshf,
jah Jiw yhgijna Fnfhshf bfhL
bragLwd.
2. KjyhJt kW bghJilik eikf
xUiz
fy bghUshjhu KjyhJt kW bghJilik
mikf eikfis kLnk VW bragLwJ.
vLJfhlhf muRJiw jah Kjil mDkF mnj
neu muR KWikfis (monopolies) fLgLJwJ.
3. lLj
bghUshjhu lLj fy bghUshjhu kbwhU
wa MF. bghUshjhu ll muR kW jah
Jiw rlt mfhu tufis (Jurisdictions) mj
bjhlila tif begLJwJ.
fy bghUshjhu eikf
1. wikahd ts gaghL
bghJilik kW KjyhJt Kiwf wa f
izJ bragLtjh tsf KGtJ wikahd tif
gagLj gLwd. tsf rahd tif xJL bra
gliyba muR mjid fLgL xGFgLJwJ.
2. tfgl-iy :
njit kW m rf kLnk vnghJ iyia
zgJ iy. ilgUik (scarce) glfSF munr
iyia za brtnjhL myhk aha iy filf _y
mtiw tHFwJ.
44

3. r_f ey
fy bghUshjhu ll ikagLjgLtjh
xLbkhj r_f ey ywJ. jhffhf gahsfSF
btFk, Cf CaK tHfgLwJ. gahfSF rKjha
ghJfh mfgLwJ. tUkhd <Lt brt nrg
Vwjhf (inequalities) FiwgLwd.
fy bghUshjhu ikf
1. xUizik
fy bghUshjhu jah Jiw muRJiw
xUizJ bragLj mJ. cflikF (Infrastructure)
muRJiw mf ms bghJ tsfis bryl-neLwJ.
jahJiwnah muRJiwah VgLjgl cflikig
gagL mf yhg bgw KawJ. mjF rKjha
bghWyhjj fhuzkhf, bghJkf f, Rfhjhu
MatWF brytfUtiy. murh fgL
vjbthU fLghil jahJiw Utiy.
2. bkJthd ntiy kjjik fhyjhkjK
muRJiw, wikaw Kiw bragl thsJ.
ntiy Cfik, ifL (corruption), ftnjhL,
cgiag KobtLgjF, eilKiwgLJtjF
fhyjhkjF ttFwJ. jdh wikik btgLj
gLtjh cg ghfgLwJ.
3. bghUshjhu Vwjhf
fy bghUshjhu bghUshjhu Vwjhfis
rwJ. xUw, jah Jiw muR F vj
fLghLfis bragLJtiy. kWw bghJJiw
Wtdf Tl ll bghUshjhu F vj
fLghLfis VW bragLtiy. bfhif Kofis
jahJiw, bghJJiw xUizJ VW bfhshj
fhuzkhf bghUshjhu Vwjhf VgLwJ.
45

cg thf (Production Possibilities)

mogil bghUshjhu uid Kakhf vG dh
bghUshjhu eh bjfis (choice) vthW nkbfhtJ
vgjhF. j egfshf khWgl Ugf (Alternatives) eh
bjfis nkbfhsyh. bjhiyfh bf Ml
Ka ffis (Highlights) ghgjh? myJ TLjyhd neu
gogjh? 50 %ghia bfhL ghljf thFtjh? myJ
iugl ghgjF gzij brytgjh? jhl filF
brW cjtjh? myJ mneu tisgJ (Hockey)
isahLtjh?
ilgUik (scarcity) fhuzkhfnt bjfis (choice)
nkbfhs neLwJ vgij kwJlKoahJ. mJnghynt bj
vgJ khWgl glfilna (Alternatives) neLt jhF;
bry (cost) MjhaK (benefit) xlgLwJ.
th bry (Opportunity Cost)
eh xU Fl khWgl glij (Alternatives)
UnghJ mLj wj khWgl gl LgLj ntL.
vLJfhlhf bjhiyfh bf Ml Ka
ffis ghfntLbk TLjyhf goF neuij Hf
neL. bjhiyfh bf ghgjh mLj wj khWgl
bjthd (TLjyhf goF neuij) Hf neLwJ. thW,
bjhiyfh ghgjh njf TLjyhf IJ myJ gJ
kbgf bgW thig Hf neLwJ.
thW th bry vgJ y thfis Hgjh
VgL brythF. mjhtJ mj thf _y bgUfToa
eikf MF. ntW jkhf brhtjhdh th bry
vgJ mLj, jFj kila khWglf kigna
FLtjhF.
fzF brywF (Accounting Cost) bghUshjhu
bryF (Economic Cost) cs Kakhd ntWghnl th
brythF. bjf bgUghY th bry mogil
nkbfhsgLwd.
46

cg th tisnfhL
jegfis nghynt xU rKjhaK tiuaWfgl
tsfis bgWsJ. tiuaWfgl tsf tna vd
bghUis cg brtJ vgij rKjha khj ntL.
gntW glf cg msit rKjha bj brj
ntL. gwhFiwdh / ilgUikdh (scarcity) bj
brj vGwJ. thW ekJ bj vnghJ tiuaWfgl
tsfdh neLwJ. ekF nghJkhd ms tsf U
eh njitahd glf midij cg brJ bfhsyh.
thwhd midJ bjfis cg th
tisnfho thyhf nkbfhs aY. tsf Uig
bghUJ cg th tisnfhL rKjhaF cfjdtiw,
myhjtUJ vthW cg brtJ vgij
bjLwJ.
mnef kf, gy bjhrhiyf, mf rhu kW
aif tsf mla xU bghUshjhuij vLJ bfhnth.
vd cg brj ntL vthW brj ntL vgij
Ko brnghJ Mufzfhd gntWgl bghUfSilna
tsfis gjf (allocation) neLwJ. vjid
bjhrhiyf v~F cgia brantL? ntshikF
vts rhu mfgLwJ? bjhJiwF vts
rhu njit? cHtF ytr rhu mgjh? ntlhkh?
nghw uidf rW fyhdit. vdnt vikahd
vLJ fho _y jid J bfhnth. uL glf
kLnk cg bragl ntL. mit M kW MuRf.
mltiz 2.1 cg th mltiz
M ms
MuR ms
cg th
( vif)
( vif)
A
B
C
D
E

4
3
2
1
0
47

0
2
4
6
8

MuR

thW mf ms Muir eh bgw Udh eh mf

ms Mis Hf ntosJ. vLJfhlhf, th
BUJ C F brY nghJ bghUshjhu 2 myF TLjyhf
MuR cg brtjF 1 myF Mis Jwf neLwJ. xU
KG ntiy th bghUshjhu (A full employment economy)
vnghJ xU bghUis cg bra ntbwhU bghUis Hf
ntoUF. ygy tsf xU glUJ ntbwhU
glF khWtjF t tFgjhf vLJ bfhs neL.
thwhf xU khW gl bj kbwhiw Hgjh
VgL th bryFgljhF. vdnt, rKjha Kof
xbthU khW bghU bryit xneh mikUF.
thW brtjh gz kW rKjha bry Ma uL kW
gaD bj mogilahf mik. vdnt rKjhaF mf
eikfis Fiwj bry mF cgna wj bjthf
mik vgij cg th tisnfho _y mayh.
(gl 2.1)
Mu myFf gLilnfhlhf, M myFf,
brFjhd nfhlhf mikJsJ. A Kj E tiu gy
izf U glf cgia tisnfhL FwJ.
cg th tisnfhL (Production Possibility Curve) glkhW
tisnfhL (Transformation Curve) myJ cg th
viynfhL (Production Possibility Frontier) vd
miHfgLwJ. bghUshjhukhdJ xU th KidUJ ntW
thF brYnghJ tisnfhlhdJ xU cg
bghUUJ kbwhWF khW jij FwJ.
ilF tsUJ Uglf cg thfid
cg th tisnfho _y flayh. cg th
tisnfho cns vj iz (mjhtJ Uitngh)
eho tsfis KGikahf gagLJtiy cg th
tisnfho btna vj iz (mjhtJ L) mts
cg brtjF ngha tsfis bgUfiy vgij
FwJ. Mdh cg th viyF btna khw Vgo
mJ bghUshjhu tsia FF. bjhEg tsahY
cgfhuf m mfgjhY J rhakhwJ.

48

49

nkfhQ mltiz A Kj E tiu vyh thf

MF. mnf bghUshjhu 100 GfhL M kLnkh myJ
100 GfhL MuR kLnk cg brayh. Mdh cg
th tisnfhL gy izf (combination) U glf
cgia nkbfhtjhF (assumes) A, B, C, D, E Ma cg
thf izf tUkhW csd.
4 myF MS Muir A thY,
3 myF MS 2 myF MuR B thY,
2 myF MS 4 myF MuR C thY,
1 myF MS 6 myF MuR D thY
0 myF MS 8 myF MuR E thY
rKjha cg brwJ.
cg th tisnfhL
(Production Possibility Curve)
gl 2.1

B
C

E
0

g
I.
1.

gF - m
rahd ilia njbjLf
mogil bghUa uridf bghJthf fhzgL
r_f mik

4.

5.

fy bghUshjhu bghUshjhu eltoiffis

fLgLJtJ .............., .............. MF.

III. bghUJf
m. mLj wj khWgl
glij bfhLj

12.

th bry

M. rkjk

13.

jah brhJik

M. rij bghUshjhu
<. gza bghUshjhu

. m, njit kW
iy

14.

Mahs Mf

<. mfgr eik

KjyhJtij aF mogil rahf sFtJ

15.

rij rf

m. ll
. muR

c. jiylh bfhif
bghUshjhu

IV.

xU thijf ilaf

rkjk bghUshjhu, cg, g kW fis Ko

brtJ

16.

bghUshjhu Kiw vwh vd?

17.

KjyhJt cg V mffgLwJ?

m. rij
. gHftHfK, kufS

18.

msffkhd cg is ahJ?

19.

bghJilik bghUshjhu btbgw UehLfis

TWf.

20.

fy bghUshjhu vtifahd glf cg

bragLwd?

M. rkjk
<. midJ

gHik bghUshjhu vgJ

M. bjhEg
<. yhg

M. ka lFG
<. jah Jiw

bkJthd ntiy, ifL fltW vjF

fhuzkhf sFwJ.
m. cg wik Fiw
M. tUkhd kW brt Vw jh
. bjh Egik
<. tsfis wikahf gagLJj

II.
6.

10.

Fiwjgr cg bry

m. jiw bghUshjhu
. flis bghUshjhu
3.

rkjk bghUshjhu Ka nehf ................

11.

m. KjyhJt
. fy bghUshjhu
2.

9.

nfhol lfis uf
gHik bghUshjhu mogil bghUa uridfis
.............. kW .............. J itwJ.

7.

KjyhJt midJ tif bghUshjhu eltoiffS

.............. ikakhf bfhnl bragLwJ.

8.

cg th tisnfhL ............. vd miHfgLwJ.

50

21.
22.
23.
24.
25.

gF-M
tU dhfSF ehF myJ IJ tf
ilaf
vj xU rKjhaY fhzgL mogil uridf
ahit?
bghJthd bghUshjhu Kiwf bgafis TWf.
bghJilik mogil wgrfis TWf.
a bghUshjhu fy bghUshjhukh? t
th bry vwh vd?
51

gF -
tU dhfSF xU gf ms ilaf
26.

gHik bghUshjhu g WF tiuf.

27.

KjyhJt w gfis sFf.

28.

rkjk bghUshjhu eikfis sFf.

29.

fy bghUshjhu eik ikfis t.

30.

w th bryit cjhuzJl sFf.

gF - <
tU dhfSF _W
ilaf

gf

ms

31.

KjyhJt vwh vd? mj eikfis

ikfis sf.

32.

rkjk gfis, wfis, Fiwfis

sFf.

33.

fy bghUshjhuij sfkhf Tw.

34.

cg th tisnfhil glJl sf.

52

ghl - 3

Efnth bragho nfhghL

KDiu
kj Ugf njhwnk rKjha midJ
bghUshjhu eltoiffSF mogilahF. kjDila
midJ Mirf, Ritf, nehff bghUa `Ugf
(wants) vdgLwd.
1.
Ugf va csa fhuzfsh njhWwd.
cz, cil, Ul MatWfhd Ugf csa
jikilait.
2.
Ugf r_f fhuzfsh njhW. rKjha
cWdfSF Fl cz, cil njitgLwJ.
3.
gHfftHffsh Ugf njhW (c) nj
mUJj.
4.
sgufsh Ugf njhW.
ehff bjhlf fhy kj Ugf fythf
vadthf Ujd. ehff ts fhy Ugf
vylfhjjhf fyhdjhf khld. bghUa
eltoiffsh kj jDila Ugfis iw bra
iHwh. tsf viyF cgljhf Ugjh Kakhd
Ugf, f Kakhd UgfS ilna bj bra
ntosJ. tiuaWfgl bjhlahd fF Ef
vW bga. kjUgfis iw bra glfis
gfis gagLJj `Ef (Consumption) vW
miHfgLwJ. (Ugf jikF njit gF
ilna cs bjhlfis Ef sFwJ)
Ugf af
1. Ugf vzwit
xbthU kjU Ugf bjhFghf csh. kj
Ugf viyawitahF. (Wants are unlimited) xU Ug
53

iwtiljl kbwhU-Ug jhf njhW. Fj brt

giljtfSFTl iw brantoa Ugf goa
bgjhf UF.
2. Ugf iwntwToait: ( Wants are Satiable)
bghJthf Ugf vzwit. midJ UgfS
iwntw Toait. my Mdh xU jgl myJ Fl
Ug iw bgwToajhF. xU jgl Ugij KGtJkhf
iwbra Ko. g vLFnghJ, mtDF cz
njitgLwJ. js gzij bry brtj _y czit
bgWwh. g vD UgiwtilwJ.
3. Ugf nghoLgit

5. Ugf khW bghUsh iw bgWgit

uL myJ mjF nkgl glfshY, uL
myJ nkgl KiwfshY xU Ugij iw brayh. Nlhd
ghd mUj Udh fh myJ nj mUjyh eh U
lfSF bry, ngUJ myJ bjhlto myJ thlif
to bryyh. thW ekJ Ugij gy tf iw
brayh. j khWglf myJ khWKiwf `gf
(Substitutes) vW miHfgLwd.
6. Ugf neujh, ljh, kjDF
jFjhngh khwToait
Ugf iyahd jik cilad my. mit l, fhy,
kjfSF jFjhngh khwToait. Ffhy eh
Nlhd ghdK, nfhilfhy Fahd ghdK mUj
Unwh. yh cs kf fg Milf, kW
kiH fhj nkrilfis Uwhf. a kf gU
Milia ma Uwd. Mu unjr cs
uhkthf Ug Kig cs bjh mg
UgUJ khWglJ. giHa jiyKiwd Ug a
jiyKiwd Ug UJ ntWglJ. vdnt Ugf,
jiyKiw, gghL, rKjha, a mik, bghUshjhu
Kndw tiw bghUJ ntWgL.

Ugf vzwit. tsfS, eilna cs neuK

FWait. vdnt eh midJ Ugfis iw bra
KoahJ. vdnt Ugfis iw bra KaY nghJ. mit
xnwhblhW nghoLwd. Kj bj bra nto, xU
iz Ugf kbwhU iz UgfnshL nghoLwd.
(c.) uh#& %. 20 itUgjhf bfhnth. j %.20I gagL,
khF brtjh, gif thFtjh, myJ fhff
thFtjh vgij mt bj brantosJ. vdnt,
Efnth f aikahj Ugfisna bj (nj)
brthf. nkY cr kdiwit bgW tif mtf j
tUkhdij gy glf J gjg.

7. Ugf snjhW ailait

4. Ugf xiw xW rhJsd

(Wants are Recurring in Nature)

y Ugf rh jik bfhlit. mjhtJ mtiw

xwhfnt iw bra ntL. Ug jgl xwhf
UjhY, mij iw bra gy glfS, gfS
njitgLwd. vGj ntL vw Ug, vGJ fhj, ngdh
kW ik tiw cslajhF y af, UgkhdJ
nghoLgitahf, Tlnt rhilaitahf UF. (c.)
ciH kW auf. ciHF gyhf aufis
gagLj Ko. Mdh ciH cj auij
gagLj KoahJ.

y Ugf L L njhw Toait. cz

ntL vw Ug cz cll iw bgWwJ. y k
neuf L Ug njhW. vdnt, Ugf
snjhW ailiaait vW TWnwh.

54

8. Ugf sguf _y njhwToait

jhfij VgLJ, kh, giff, thbdh,
bjhiyfhf njhW sguf _y a Ugf
njhWwd. Vfdnt cs Ugf khwkilwd.
55

sguf _y, wj gid ufS ahghfS,

jfSila glfSF a Ugij clhF whf.
9. Ugf gHffshf, tHffshf
khwToait
xU Fl Ug bjhlJ xU gljh
iwntwgLkhdh mJ gHfkhf khLwJ., (c.) fh, nj
mUJj nghw Ugf gHffshf khWwd. gHffS
Ug Vglfhuzkhwd.
Ugf tiff
bghUa Ugf _W tifahf fgLwd.
mitahtd
1. aikahj glf (Necessaries)
2. trglf (Comforts)
3. Mlguglf (Luxuries)
1. aikahj glf
kj thifF njitahd mogil glf
aikahj glfshF. kj thifF y mogil
glf njitgLwd. cz, cil, Ul Kjad kj
U mogil glfshF. it kj thHKoahJ.
2. trglf ( Comforts)
trglf vgJ kahd thifF njitgL
glfS gfSkhF. Mdh it thifF
aikahjit my. bjhiyfh, gLifl mikj
Uif (Sofa), RHY ehfh Kjad trglfshF.
caj cz tiff Efnthiu f kgLJ (c.)
gHfis cQj, gh Foj, nghwit trf wikia
CFwd.
3. Mlguglf
caj thif juij fhl cj glf. (c.) itu
eiff.
56

aikahj, tr, Mlgu glf

KaJt
glfis gfis nkflthW tifgL dhY
mit xWbfhW bjhlilaitna m jjik cilad
my. xUtUF trglkhf UgJ kwtUF aikah
glkhf, bdhUtUF Mlgu glkhf mik.
tffSF kUJt fSF, WJ vgJ mtakhd
xW. mJnt khztfSF MlguglkhF. efu
thgtUF mtakhd gl uhk thgtUF Mlgu
glkhF. Ugfis tifgLJj vgJ kjfSila
tUkhd, rKjha iy, Ritf ghFf Matiw bghWjJ.
kh Efnth njitnfhghL
nfhghL uL mQF Kiwfis bfhlJ.
J Efnth eltoifia Muha gaghil msf Ko
vw fUij bfhlJ. jF abg gaghL M
(Cardinal Approach)vW bga. njit nfhgho gaghL
mQFKiwia Kj Fat kh Mth. jF abg
gaghL M myJ Wiy gaghL M myJ kh
gaghL M vW bga. ulhtJ mQFKiw rknehF
tisnfhL M MF. J gaghLfis xL fUij
gagLJwJ. jF juth tir msit vW bga. ij
mKfgLatf n#.M. M..o. My Mt.
gaghL
bghJthf gaghL vgJ gagLJjiy FF.
bghUa kj Ugij iw br glf, gf
rna gaghL vdgL. gaghL vgJ csa fUij
mogilahf bfhlJ. xnu gl myJ g gntWgl
kfSF gntW jkhd gaghil FF. irt cz
cbfhgtUF ML iw gaghil bfhLfhJ. btgkhd
ehLf thG kfSF fg Milf Fiwj gaghilna
bfhLF. Mfnt gaghL vgJ Efnthiu mtuJ njitia
bghWjhF.
57

bkhj gaghL (Total Utility)

xU gl vyh myFfis Eftjh ilF
gagho TLjny bkhjgaghL MF. xU Efnth gJ
buhoJLfis EfUbghGJ ilF bkhj kdiwit
bkhjgaghL vW TWnwh. mjhtJ xU gl gy
myFfis bjhlJ, illhk EfUbghGJ, EfnthUF
ilfToa gaghLf TL bjhifna bkhj
gaghlhF.
Wiy gaghL
TLjyhf X myF glij Eftjh, bkhjgagho
VgL TLj myJ khwnk W iy gaghL MF. xU
Efnth, gJ buho JLfis Efjh, gjhtJ buho
JoUJ ilF gaghL Wiy gaghL MF. 10
myF buhoJLfUJ ilF gaghoUJ 9 myF
buhoJLfUJ ilF gaghoid fjh
ilgJ Wiy gaghlhF.
MUn = TUn - TU(n-1)

FiwJbr Wiy gaghL

(Law of Diminishing Marginal Utility)
FiwJbr Wiy gaghL Efnth rhjhuz
mDgtij sFwJ. Efnth nkY nkY xU glij
Eftjh, mUJ ilF TLj gaghL FiwJ bfhnl
brY. xU gl Ef mfF bghGJ
WiygaghL FiwJ brY vW TWwJ.
Wiy gaghL Fiw bghGJ bkhjgaghlhdJ
Fiwthd ntf mfF.
fhr (Gossen), bgj (Bentham) th (Jevons), fhkf
(Karl Menger) Kjyhndh fUJ njhWtjF Kj
fhuzfj Mt. Mdh Mu kh jh fUij xU
ahf khdh. F fhr vw bgaU cL.
``xUtl cs xU gl U TLw bghGJ xbthU
TLj myUJ ilF gaghL FiwwJ vW kh
ia sFwh.
vLnfhfshtd
1.

EfugL gl ms VWbfhsjf jukhd

myFfsh mslgoUfntL. xU Ftis nj, xU
myF Fghd.

2.

EfugL gl vyh myFfS xj jik

bfhlit, xnu khahdit. midJ xnu jukhditahf
Uf ntL.

3.

glfis EfU bghGJ fhy ilbt bjhlJ

EfuntL vgJ bragl mogilahF.

4.

EfU fhy EfnthuJ RitF ghF, gHftHff

khwhJ iyJ Uf ntL.

5.

EfnthuJ tUkhd khwhk iyahf UfntL.

6.

EfU glf kW mj gjLglf iyf

khwhJ iyahf Uf ntL.

MUn = nth glUJ ilF Wiy gaghL.

TUn = n myFf bkhjgaghL.
TUn-1 = n-1 myFf bkhjgaghL.
bkhj gaghoF Wiy gaghoF
cs bjhl
t.v.

Wiy gaghL

bkhj gaghL

1.

Fiw

mfF

2.

{a

cr iyia mil

3.

vkiw

Fiw

58

59

Efnth xU aghd gFjthsuhf fUjgLwh.

F gFjths vgj bghU bkhj gaghil
crkhf Ut, vgjhF.

8.

gaghil msl Ko.

sf:
Mr.x vgt gnahL Ugjh xw xwhf M
gHfis rhLwh. mt mf gnahL Ugjh Kj M
mf gaghil bfhLwJ. ulhtJ M mt
vLJbfhS bghGJ mtuJ g jikia FiwwJ.
Mfnt ulhtJ MUJ Fiwthd gaghilna bgWth.
mt bjhlJ _whtJ gHij vLJ bfhlh, mUJ
ilF gaghlhdJ ulhtJ gHUJ ilF
gaghill Fiwthf UF. nj ngh TLj
myFfUJ ilF Wiy gaghlhdJ FiwJ brY.
Efnth bjhlJ mf gHfis EfJ bfhnl brwh
Wiy gaghlhdJ {aF brY Efnth nkY
Efit bjhljh WiygaghL vkiwah bkhj
gaghL Fiwa bjhlF.
goa 3.1
bkhj, WiygaghL goa
ms

bkhj
gaghL

Wiy
gaghL

20

20

35

15

45

10

50

50

45

-5

35

-10
60

bkhj gaghL,
Wiy gaghL

7.

tiu
gl 3.1
tiugl

M
bkhj, Wiy gaghL nfhL:
3.1 goa bkhjgaghoF Wiy gaghoF
cs bjhlid sFwJ. goaUJ, Wiy
gaghlhdJ FiwJ bfhnl brwJ vgJ bjthwJ. Kj
gHij EftUJ 20 myFf gaghil Efnth bgWwh.
bjhlahf mt EfUbghGJ ehfhtJ gHUJ ilF
Wiy gaghlhdJ 5 myFfshf FiwwJ. wF IjhtJ
gHUJ ilF Wiy gaghL {aF brwJ.
MW, VG gHfis bjhlJ Efjh, WiygaghL
vfaF brwJ (Negative). thW Efnth bjhl
ahf glfis EfUbghGJ Wiy gaghL Kj
FiwJ, {aF brW, mj wF vfakhwJ.
bkhj gaghlhdJ mfJ bfhnl brY. xU
Fl iyF wF Fiwa bjhlF. Wiy gaghL
Fiw bghGJ {aijl mfkhf UF nghJ
bkhjgaghL mfF. Mfnt Kj ehF myF gHf,
bkhjgaghL 20 myUJ 50 myFfshf mfwJ.
Wiy gaghL {akhf UF bghGJ bkhjgaghL
crij milwJ (50 myF). Wiy gaghL
vfaF brY bghGJ (6, 7 myFf) bkhjga
ghlhdJ 50 myFfUJ 45 myFfshf, 35 myFfshf
FiwJ bfhnl brwJ.
61

KaJt
1.

bghUa gy fSF Wiy gaghL

mogilahdjhF. njit , WiygaghL
braghodh njhajhF. xU glij nkY nkY
bjhlahf EfU bghGJ mj xbthU myUJ
ilF Wiy gaghlhdJ FiwJ bfhnl brY.
J Wiyga ghL braghodh
njhWtjhF. gaghL Fiwtjh Efnth Fiwthd
iyiana bfhLf Uwh.

L mJ f ewhf csJ vW xUt Tdh

mUJ mt bgW gaghil mslKoahJ. UjhY
miuglij ghgjF mt bfhLj EiH
flzij itJ kiwKfkhf gaghil mslyh.
2.

`xU bghU Ef vw mogil vGjjhF. xU

Efnth xU neu xnu xU glij kLnk Eftjhf
fUJtjh eilKiw btLnfh bghUjhJ. eilKiw
thif xnu neu xWF nkgl glfis
Efnth EfUwd.

FiwJ br W iygaghL gzF bghUJ.

Vfdnt Vuhskhd gzij bgWs brtj xUt nkY
nkY tUkhdkhf gzij To bfhnl brwh,
gz Wiy gaghL Fiw Mdh gz
WiygaghL khwhJ iyahf UF vW kh
fUJwh.

3.

go, Efnth fhy ilbt bjhlahf

glfis Efu ntL. Mdh eilKiw thif J
rhakhfhJ.

4.

gz WiygaghL khwhk iyahf UF

vgJ vLnfhshF. eilKiw thif
gz Wiy gaghL iyahf UfhJ.

3.

gzfhufSF mf tf xU Mjkhf
mikrUF cjwJ.

5.

4.

cgahsfSF mtf mahknyna tfhoahf

bragLwJ. mtnghJ jhf cg brL
glf tot, nghwt khwfis brwd.
jdh mit Jglf nghy fh mJ Efnthiu
ftUwd. iyba Efnth giHa glijna
jhf EfUtjhf fUJt. jdh Niy
WiygaghL Efnth kd bragLwJ.
Mfnt mjifa glf njit Fiw.

gaghL vgJ kjDF kj khWgL. mjdh

glfis EfUtjh bgW Wiy gaghil
Jakhf msl KoahJ.

2.

wdh
Wiy gaghL FiwghLfshtd
1.

xU bghUis Eftjh ilF gaghL mtuJ csij

rhj mDgtkhF. X-vw gl xU myF 10 myF
gaghoid jUwJ vwh, gaghilJakhf
msl Ko vgJ bghUshF. Mdh eilKiw
gaghil mslKoahJ. (c.) xU iuglij ghJ
62

rk Wiy gaghL
(LAW OF EQUI-MARGINAL UTILITY)
W iy gaghil ga fUid H.H. fhr vw
b#k ehL bghUa tYe btlh. vdnt mJ fhr
mtf ulh vdgL. bghUa mP
M~u kh mtf Fljf khwfis jkJ
``bghUa nfhghLf vw tiuJsh.
xU Efnth, xU bghUSF nkyhf glfis EfUnghJ,
mEfnth elij g `rk Wiy gaghL
sFwJ. kj Ugf vzwd. Mdh mtiw
iwntwgagL tUkhd fFiwjjhf UwJ.
Efnth vthwhf jdJ Fiwj tUkhdij gy glf
Effhf bry brJ cr gaghil bgWwh. vW
sFwJ.
63

 gL vW (Law of Substitution), cr kd
iw jU vW (Law of Maximum Satisfaction) vD
Wiy gaghoF iyF ilna cs rjhrhu
bfhif vW miHfgLwJ.

Fpogo Efnth rkiyahdJ

tiuaiw

MUx = X gl Wiy gaghL

kh mtf tiuaiwgo xU kj gytifY

gagLjToa xU bghUis bgUjh, mj gytif
gafilna gutyhf gjFnghJ mj gaf
Wiy gaghL xnu ms rkkh UF tz
gjgh. vW ia sFwh.

MUy = Y gl Wiy gaghL.

vLnfhf
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

MUx
Px

MUy
= MUm vw iy VgL.

Py

Px = X gl iy
Py = Y gl iy
MUm = gz Wiy gaghL.
MUx kW MUy vgJ gzbry WiygaghL

Efgt gFj cstuhf Ugjdh cr kdiwit

mila iHwh.
xbthU bghU gaghL mslToaJ.
gz Wiy gaghL khwhk UwJ.
Efnth tUkhd khwhJ.
glf iyf khwhJ.
FiwJbr Wiy gaghL
mogil tiuaglJ.

sf:
jdJ Fl tUkhdij xU Efnth X kW Y vw
glf J brylntL. Efnth gFj w
thjt. mtuJ tUkhd Fl msthf Ugjdh X kW
Y glfis th xbthU glUJ cr ms gaghL
ilFgoahf bry brwh. mthW mt EfL kw
glf jjahd Wiy gaghLf rkkhf
UFnghJ kLnk Efnth rkiyia milth.
rk Wiy gaghL go Efnth,
Wahf bryl jdJ fil %ghUJ mtUF ilF
gagho ms uL bghUfUJ rkkhf UF nghJ
mt rkiyia milwh.
64

Px

Py vdgL. iy

X gl J brylgl xU %gh gz
Wiy gaghil Y gl J brylgl xU %gh
gz Wiy gaghil FwJ.
id fhQ mltiz vLJTwyh.
mltiz 3:2
X kW Y glf Wiy gaghL.
myFf X
Wiy gaghL Y
Wiy gaghL
myFf)
myFf)
(myFf)
(myFf)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15

36
32
28
24
20
16
12
8
65

X kW Y gl iy Kiwna %. 5 vW %. 4 vd
itJbfhnth. X kW Y glf jhd gz bry
Wiygaghil fzl mbghUf Wiy
gaghoid mbghUf iyah tFjh ilF.
mltiz 3.3
gz bry Wiy gaghL
myFf

MUx

(myFf)
myFf)

Px
1

MUy

(myFf)
myFf)

Py
10

gz W iy
gaghL bryd

jid mltiz thyhf sfyh

tiugl 3.2
Efnth rkiy

C
Muy

Py
Mux
Px

Mum

gz Wiy gaghlhdJ iyahdjhf khwhk

Rs.1 = 5 myFf vd vLJbfhlh mEfnth X gl
6 myFfis Y gl 5 myFfis thFth. mtDila
bkhj bry (Rs. 5 x6) + (Rs. 4 X 5) = %. 50.00 (uL X, Y
bghUfis thFtjh) j %. 50/- bry mtDila
kdiw crflij milwJ. vdnt mt rkiyia
milwh. j Efnth rkiyia tiuglij bfhL
sfyh.

66

C
X

Ef ms
Efnth rkiy nkfl tiugl sf gLsJ.
W iy gaghL tisnfhLf neh brY adh
Mux / Px kW Muy / Py Ma uL tisnfhLfS Tl
neh rJ brwd. Efnth tUkhd khwhjjhf
bfhl vLnfhdh mtdJ gz Wiy gaghlhdJ
OM myFf vd itJbfhlh gl 3.2 Mux / Px = OMC
(gz W iygaghL) mbghGJ mt OH msthd X
glij thbfhwh. Muy / Py = Om mbghGJ mt
OK msyhd Y bghUfis thFwh. thW mj Efnth
OH msth X bghUis OK msthd Y bghUfis EfJ
rkiy milwh.
MUx
Px

MUy
Py

= MUm

vdnt, OH msthd X glij OK msthd Y

glij EfJ rkiyia mil EfnthUF ntbwj
gz bry xJL crfl kdiwit, gaghil mfhJ.
xUntis Efnth gztUkhd ailjh gz a
Wiy gaghL OM msF rkkhf UF vdnt, Efnth
67

gl X gl Y Maitf Efhid Kiwna OH, OK

msfSF caJth.
FiwghLf
rk Wiy gaghL fl FiwghLfis
bfhLsJ.
1. bghUf gFgl ayhik:
tYHf fhuz y bghUf - fh, L
nghwtiw W fshf f, gFf ayhJ. tif
bghUf ia eilKiwgLj ayhJ.
2. gz Wiy gaghL iyahdJ my:
nfhghL, gz Wiy gaghL khwhJ vw
vLnfh mogil mikJsJ. Mdh, cik mJ
mthW khwhk Ugiy.
3. gaghil msl KoahJ:
Efnth xU glF mf U iyahdJ
mgl Wiy gaghoF rkkhf UF vd kh
TWwh. Mdh ed bghUayPf ij kWwhf.
UntW egf xU Fl bghUSF xnu iyia mf
Udh mtfUtU xnu ms gaghiljh
bgWwhf vW bghUsy. vdnt, ga ghL vgJ
mfrhjjhf Ugjh mjid msl KoahJ.
4. gaghLf xiw xW rhjit:

lfhykhf fU bfhsgL. Mdhy Fl bghUf

gy bjhlahd fzF it fhyflf tiu ilf
Toadthf csd. jifa bghUfSF Wiy
gaghil fzLj ukkhf csJ.
Kothf, gFj, ntf bfhl Efnthf
go czlndh czyhknyh braglTL
nrnk mtf FLwgo.
``kjf jfsJ tUkhdij gL gonah
myJ cr kdiw jU gonah g braglntL
vgJ flha my. J fh cau vagLw f vthW
ia neh Ug Gwnjh mtznk ehKTl gFj
iwjtf vw mogil cikdh y braghLfis
rhjhuz tif brJ Lnwh.
rk Wiy gaghL KaJt
M~u kh, eilKiwghLf VwFiwa
vyh bghUa eltoiffSF bghUJ vW TWwh.
bghUshjhu eltoiff kj elij g sFw
jiyahajhdjhF.
1. Ef bghUj
vyh kjfS gFj ftf. Fiwj tsfis
bfhL iwthd kd iwit bgw Uwhf. mtf jfsJ
brydfis

nguha K.E. ngho mtf sfgo, tugw l

fhy fil FiwghlhF. rhjhuzkhf xU tUlnk

Mux Muy Mu2 vw t tir

=
=
Px
Py
P2
gL cr ms kdiwit bgWwhf.
2. cg bghUj
cgahsf Fiwjgr cg fhuf bjhFig
bfhL mf ms cgia bgW nehfJl brayh
mtfsJ yhgij crkhf bragLt. jfhf xU fhuF
kw fhuia gL brthf cg fhuf Wiy
cgw rkkhF tiu.

68

69

bghUfS/ mt gaghLfS jir

ahdJ vd ffgLwJ. Mdh mwhl th bghUf
gL glfshfnth clDW glfshfnth xnwhblhW
cw bfhl bghUfshf UfTL. vdnt mt
gaghLfSbjhliladthF.
5. tugw l fhy (Indefinite Budget Period)

MP1
MPc
MPn vw iy
=
=
P1
Pc
Pn
cgahs cryhg milwh.
3. bry kW nr bghUj:
kh mtf sfgo, ntahd xU eg jdJ
tsfis jfhy njitfSF vfhy njitfSFilna
g br bghGJ nr mtuJ fil %gh Wiy
gaghil Ef mtuJ fil %gh Wiy
gaghnlhL rkgLj KgLth.
4. g bghUj
tUkhd g bfhif, gL mf <LghL
bfhLsJ. g fhuf Cakhd thu, T, to,
yhg nghwtiw khFnghJ xbthU fhu
WiyF Vg mt rk Wiy gaghL bfhif
gF VwthW khfgLwJ.

kW bghUa mP Mth. t fhy 1844 MF.

bfhif fUid fhy A.kh vgt vGa
(bghUshjhu mogil bfhiff 1890) vw jf thf
jJshf.
Efnth vr vgJ, glf, gagho
mDgtij rhjjhF. c, beU bgo, jgh guf bghUf ah bfhLf idF iyF, cik
bfhLJ thF iyF cs ntWghil rhj bghUfshF.
glf gLf iy. gl f _y
mfgrkhd Uiana Efnth vr vd miHg.
(c.) xU Efnth %.250F xU rilia thf
idwh. Mdh mt %. 200I bfhLJ thFwh. j
_y mtUF %. 50 rkhf csJ.ijna eh Efnth vr
vW FLnwh.
mjhtJ %. 250 - %.200 = %. 50
nf %. 50I eh Efnth vr vd FLnwh.

5. bghJ bghUj
nguha kW lhl ugygLa mfgr
rKjha eikf (Maximum Social Advantage) bfhifgo, gy
lfSF bryL fil myF brythdJ rkkhd eyij
bfhL tU tif mu tUth gjf ntL.
mnghJ jh r_f ey cr iyia mil.

yfz

6. fhy gagho bghUj

Efnth vr vw fUij KjKjyhf cgnahf

gLdt J.A.L (Dupuit). t uhR ehil nrj bghahs

vLnfhf
1.
glf gagho msid gz _y
mslKo.
2.
vghF UF, iwntwgL UF cs
ntWghil fhosh.
3.
gz Wiy gaghL khwhj iyilaJ.
4.
tUkhd, Rit, khf ahr (khw) iy.
5.
bghUfS, gaghLfS xiw xW rhJsd.
6.
glf njitahdJ, mt iyia bghWnj
mik.

70

71

nguha ngho mtf kh mtf rk W

iygaghL id 24 kneuij bryL tifnahL
rgjgLJwh. gntW gaghLfisila, Mdh
gwhFiwahd fhyij, thj, goj, njhlntiy
nghwt WiygaghL rkiy mil tif
brylglntL.
Efnth vr (CONSUMERS SURPLUS)

kh yfz tUkhW xU bghUis thfhk

Ugijl, thFtnj eyJ vW Ko brJ, bfhLf
idF iyF, Efgt cik bfhLj iyF cs
ntWghL Efnth vr vdgLvd yfz jJsh.

msLj
Efnth vrij fhQ Kiw mslyh, mjhtJ,
Efnth vr - jFiy - cikiy. jFiy vgJ,
Efnth thF bghUSF bfhLf U iyahF.
cikiy vgJ, mt bghUis thf bfhLj iyia
FLtjhF.
jFiy, xU bghUis thFnghJ ilF W iyia
gagho _y khfgLwJ. Mdh cikiy vgJ,
mfho iyiana FF. Mfnt Efnth vrkhdJ, gl
bkhj Wiy gaghoF bkhj gz brydF cs
ahrnk MF.

gaghlhdJ Fiw. jdh bfhLf idF iyahdJ

FiwwJ. Wiy gaghoF (jFiy) mfhoiyF
(cikiy) cs ntWghnl Efnth vr vd Fl
gLsJ. nkFl mltiz, xbthU my vrkhdJ
Wiy gaghL fj mfhoiy vgdthF. Efnth
vrkhdJ, vyh myFf _y ilF bkhj gaghoid
Ef glfSfhd bryddh fjh ekF Efnth
vr ilF; mjhtJ, Efnth vr = %. 150 - %.50 = %.100.
j Efnth vrij xU tiugl _y sfyh
tiugl X m glf myFfS, Y m gaghL
kW iy FlgLsJ.
tiugl 3.3
Efnth vr - tiugl

mltiz 3.4
Efnth vr msLj
msLf
(i)

Wiy
gaghL
(ii)

myFf
iy
(iii)

Efnth
vr
(iv) (ii-iii)

50

10

40

40

10

30

30

10

20

20

10

10

10

10

150

50

100

Wiy gaghL
kW iy

xU mltiz _y jid sfyh.

mfho iy

myFf

tiugl sf

nkFl mltiz glfhd mfho iy %.

10 MF. WiygaghL FlgLsJ. j Wiy
gaghlhdJ glfhd bfhLf idF iyia
FLwJ. iwa bghUfis thFnghJ, Wiy

nkny cs tiugl MU vgJ Wiy gagho

tnfhlhF. OP vgJ iyahF. OM vgJ thF bghU
msid FF. Efnth OM ms glij thFnghJ
OAEM ms iyia bfhLf UggLwh. Mdh Efnth
OPEM ms gzij bfhLnj mbghUis thFwh. vdnt
Efnth vr vgJ OAEM - OPEM = PAE (nfholgl gF)
MF.

72

73

mltiz sf

mfho iy VwkhdJ, EfnthuJ vrij FiwF.

mfho iy wfkhdJ, EfnthuJ vrij mfF.
FiwghLf
kh Efnth vrF vuhd 2 Ka FiwghLfis
Ro fho csh. mitahtd.
1. gaghL mslToaJ vgJ kh fUJ. Mdh
csa mogil gaghL Ugjh, gaghil msl
KoahJ.
2. gz WiygagLiyahdJ vw kh
fUJ cikwjhF.
Efnth vr KaJt
Efnth vrkhdJ, aikr t fSF
f cjahf csJ. nkY J Efnth, Ef vr
mogil KWik ngho mfho iy VwF
cjahf csJ. Efnth vrkhdJ, gntW gFf (m)
ehLf thG kf thif juij xL brtjF
fhuzkhf csJ. xlhdJ ViH, kW gzfhu ehLf
UF kf Ef iy cs ntWikfis fhz
cjwJ. cjhuzkhf ah ef thG eLju FLgij
rhj xUt brid thG eLju FLgij rhj xUtiu
fhoY mfkhd ms Ef vrij bgW mDgwh.
Mdh kh mtf, ehff ef thG xU eLju FLgij
nrjt, ilfhy (Medieval Period) thj xU murid
fhoY mf ms Ef vrij bgW mDgwh vd
FLwh.
Efnth vrnfhghL

2. EfnthfSFilna gagho ngjiy vW

kh fUdh. Mdh mit, KDik, iy nghwtiw
bghUJ khWglToaJ.
3. gz WiygaghL iyahdJ vW kh
bfhoUj vLnfh cikawjhF. gz U Fiwa
bjhldh, gz Wiy gaghL cawJ.
rknehF tisnfhLf
INDIFFERENCE CURVE APPROACH
kh njitgajhd gFgh KiwahdJ, jutir
gagho Kiw mslgLwJ. 2 tifahd FiwghLf
csd.
1. gaghlhdJ kda mogil mikJsJ.
2. gaghlhdJ mslKoahj xwhF.
vdnt, rknehF tnfhLf viff tir
mogilyhdjhF. u gnlh, O, kW y,
nghw bghUayhsf nfhghLfis tsjd. Fl
jf uL My bghUshjhu Mafshd nguha
J.R., kW nguha My nghnwh nfhghil kW
M brjhf. Ut fUJgo, gaghil msl
KoahJ. Mdh gaghoid tirgLjnt Ko. xU Efnth
j Ugij, KDik mogil Rygkhf
tirgLjyh.
j Ug KDik msnfh fUid rknehF
tisnfho cjnahL sfyh. rknehF tisnfhL vgJ
uL glf gntW izf _y ilF kd
iwthdJ rk msthf csJ.

kh bghUa nfhghoid gntW bghUa

mPf FiwTd.

yfz

1. gaghL mslToaJ vd kh fUdh. Mdh

cs mogil gaghL Ugjh ekh gaghil msl
ayhJ vwh J.R..

U glf btntW msf xUj Ef rk

ms iwitjU f Flnk rknehF tisnfhL
vdgL.

74

75

vLnfhf

mltiz sf

1.

Efnth gFj cst; Mfnt Fiwthd bghUfis

fhoY, Fahd bghUfSnf KDik mwh.

2.

mt X, Y vw U glfis kLnk thFwh.

3.

xU glF Efnth mF iyahdJ, mUJ

mt bgW gaghil FwJ.

4.

mtUila tUkhd khwhjjh UwJ.

5.

mtUila Ritf, KDikf, gHftHff

khwiy.

nkfl mltiz nfLf vif

mfJ, EfU thiHgHf vif FiwwJ. mj U
glf _y ilf bgWw UahdJ xnu khahf
csJ. vdnt xU Efnth A,B,C,D kW E vw izf
_y rkiy bgWwh.
rknehF tisnfho gl (Indiffence Curve)
rknehF mltiz cs tuf X m xU
glij, Y m bdhU gl ms
mslgLsJ.

rkiy tisnfho goa

xU Efnth uLjkhd glfsha thiHgH,

kW f thFtjhf itJbfhnth. itf _y
rkiy tis nfho goaiy fhngh.

thiHgH

rkiy tisnfho goa vgJ U glf

gntWtifahd izf rkiyia Efnth
VWbfhs Toajhf UF. j gntW tifahd
izf _y bgwToa UahdJ EfnthUF rkkhf
UwJ. Mfnt gntW izf mt rkneh csh.

tiugl 3.4
rknehF tisnfhL

mltiz 3.5
rkiy tisnfhL mltiz
izf

(glf X)
f

glf ((Y)
thiHgH

12

76

f
tiugl sf
gntW izfnshL Toa Ujkhd glf
nfholgLs nfhLfis xwhf izF nghJ, rkiy iy
tisnfhil cUthfKo. tiugl IC vgJ rknehF
tisnfhlhF. J goa Fl uL glf
izfis bjthf fhLwJ. j tis nfho fhQ
midJ f _y ilfbgW U msthdJ rk
iy csjhF. rknehF tisnfhoF ISO gagho
tis nfhL vw bgaU cL.
77

rknehF tisnfhL bjhF

rk nehF tisnfho bjhF vgJ uL
glfSfhd btntW iyahd gaghil sF gy
rknehF tisnfhLfis bfhljhF. F, nkiy
mikJs rknehF tisnfhL mf ms kdiwit,
iy cs rknehF tisnfhL Fiwj ms kdiwit
FF. Efnth gFjstuh vnghJ Ugjdh kwit
rkkhd iy UF nghJ Fiwj ms gagho UJ
caus gaghil bglnt Uth.
tiugl 3.5
rknehF tisnfhL bjhF gl

neh rJ brY rknehF tisnfhL, Efnth

X glF gyhf Y glid gL glkhf bj
brwh. Y glij mfJ X glij Fiwwh vd
bghUgL.
2. midJ rknehF tisnfhLfS njhWth neh
FJ fhzgL.
J Vbd, Wiy gL j (DMRS) nfhghL
bragho fhuzkhf MF. rknehF nehF tisnfhL
nfhghoid mogilahf bfhlJ. Wiy gL j
(DMRS) mfF nghJ rknehF tisnfhLf njhWth
neh Fahf (Concave) fhzgL. glf iw gL
glfshf Ujhy rknehF tisnfhLf nenfhL MfhJ.

gl

Wiy gL j vgJ (Marginal Rate of Substitution)

X kW Y glfSF ilna FLtJ X glfSF
gyhf Y glf vts mfgLwJ vgjhF. Efnth
Y glfSF gyhf X glf gL brJ bfhnl brY
nghJ Wiy gL j MRS FiwJ bfhnl brwJ.
tiugl 3.6

rknehF tisnfho gf
1.

vyh rknehF tisnfhLfS tywkhf, neh

brY.

2.

rknehF tisnfhLf Fj iy mik

3.

uL rknehF tisnfhLf xiw xW bto

bfhshJ.

I. vyh rknehF tisnfhLfS tywkhf neh brY.

78

gl

gl

gl

3. vj U rknehF tisnfhLfS xiw xW

btobfhshJ.
79

gl

tiugl 3.7

gl

_whtJ vLnfh uL rk nehF tisnfhLf

vnghJ xiw xW bto bfhshJ vgjhF. Mdh,
tiugl 3.8 uL rknehF tisnfhLf xiw xW
btoUgij fhnwh.
ulhtJ rknehF tisnfho (IC2) cs A
KjyhtJ tisnfho, (IC1) cs B ial mf kdiwit
EfnthUF jUwJ. Mdh C uL tisnfhLfSF
bghJthf csJ. j bghU, rkkw UntW kdiw f
rkkhlJ vgjhF. J VW bfhs KoahjJ. vdnt,
rknehF tisnfhLf vnghJ xiw xW btobfhshJ.
_W vLnfhfS rknehF tisnfhLf
totid FLtjhF.
rknehF tisnfhL tahf Efnth rkiy

tisnfhL Eg _yK eh siufyh. ekJ

gFghF eh fhQ vLnfhfis ifahSj ntL.
m.

rknehF tisnfhL gl xiw Efnth Muhwh (v.fh.) nj kW f izbghU. gl Efnt

Uglf jhd Ugij FgjhF. xU Fl
fhyF mt KDikf msnfh khwhk
Ugjhf bfhsntL.

M.

Efnth U glfSSilna bry bra xU

Fl bjhif kLnk bgWsh. mt bjhifia
bry brthnua nrfkhlh vd bfhs ntL.

U glf iyf mfho khwhk xnu iy

Ugjhf bfhs ntL.

<.

Efnth jdJ kdiwit criy bgWtjnfw

tif gFjl bragLtjhf bfhsntL.

xU Efnth rknehF iy gl X kW gl Y gl
3.6 bfhLfgLsJ. J Efnth UglfS ilna
ehF KDikf msfis (Scales of Preferences)
FLwJ. tyJ gf cs rknehF tisnfhLf mf kd
iwit FwJ. vdnt Efnth X kW Y glfS
ilnaahd nkneh brY rknehF tisnfhL J
fhzgL izbghUis njbjLgh. Mdh mtuJ bj
tUkhd kW U glf iyia bghUJ mik.
Efnth tUkhdij bghUJ, bfhLfgLs iy
glfis vts thF Ko vgij ma tu bry nfhL
(Budget Line) gagLwJ.

Efnth tiuaWfgl tUkhdijna bgUgjh mf

kdiwit bgwjf tif mt bryl Kagh. Efnth
gyglf bryd nkbfhtj _y mf kdiwit
bgWnghJ mt rkiyia bgWwh. nkTa gaghL
gFgh xU Efnth gy glfis thFtj _y bgW
Wiy gaghL rkkhf UFnghJ mt cr ms kd
iwit bgWwh. xU Efnth rkiyia rknehF

Efnth tu bry nfhL

Efnth %. 20/- itUgjhf bfhnth. nj kW
f (Biscuit) iy Kiwna 50 igrh kW 40 igrh MF.
Efnth _W khWgl bjfis nkbfhsyh.
m. mt O (Tea) kL thf Ko brayh. mgoba mt
40 f Oia thf Ko.

80

81

M.

mt f kL thf Ko brayh. mgoba mt

50 fLfis thfKo.

mt Uglfis Fl ms thf Ugyh.

vfh. 20 f O (%.10/-) kW 25 f (%.10/-) myJ 12 f O
(%. 6/-) kW 35 f (%.14/-) (bkhj bjhif
%. 20/-)

Efnth rkiy
tiugl 3.9

tiugl 3.8 tu bry nfhL

gl

(Budget Line)

gl

gl

gl

vW Twyh, Vbd U glf iy jij

Fgjh thW miHfgLwJ. mjhtJ OM ms
X glf = OL ms Y glf. Efnth. Fl tUkhd
ms mf ms kdiwit rknehF tisnfhL I3 cs C
bgWwh. gl X I OX1 msF
thFwh. Fl tUkhd Efnth U gl
filnaahd iz bjf Fiwthd kd iwitnah myJ
bgwKoahj jnghija iynynah UF.

LM nfhL tu brynfhL vdgLwJ. Efnth jdJ

tUkhd thF gntW bghUfis FgjhF. jid iy
jnfhL (Price Ratio Line) vwiHfyh. myJ iynfhL

rkiy ( C) iynfhL LM rknehF

tisnfhil (I3) bjhL brwJ. C rknehF
tisnfhL kW tisnfhL Wiy gL jijFwJ.
nkY tu brynfhL UglfSF ilnaahd iy
jij FwJ. C UglfSilnaahd
Wiy gL j rknehF tisnfhL I3 FLsJ
ngh kW Uglf iy jkhd iynfhL LM uL
rkkhF. , vdnt Efnth jdJ tiuaWfgl
tUkhd mfkdiwit bgwToa U glf f
wj iz bj vdyh. ( C) vdnt, Efnth
rkiy csh.

82

83

gl 3.9 _W bjfis FLwJ. Efnth jdJ

tUkhd (%. 20/-) mf ms f (50) kW mf ms O
(40) thf aY vgij nfhL LM fhwJ. nfhL LM
czJtJ vdbt Efnth nfhoF mgh (ghf
A ) vj iz glfis bj bra ayhJ. fhuz
mtuJ tUkhd mtiu mDkfhJ. khwhf nfhoF nH
bj bra ayhJ. (B ) mtUF mf kd iw ilfhJ.

rkiyfhd mogil af vdbt gl YF

gyhf gl X WiyggL jK kW
Uglf iyf ilna cs jK rkkhf Uf
ntL. vdnt rkiyfhd af Mtd.
MRSxy = Px / Py
g
gF-m

II.

nfhol lfis uf.

6.

............. vgJ glfis, gfis gagLJtjhF.

7.

njit vgJ ........... kW .......... MF.

8.

kh gaghL mQFKiw vgJ ........... gFghthF.

9.

Wiy gaghL akhFnghJ, bkhj gaghL ........

MF.
rknehF tisnfhL ikaij neh ........... fhzgL.

I.

rahd ilia njbjLf.

10.

1.

aikahj, tr, Mlgu glf vgJ

III. bghUJf.

m. glfis, gfis tifgLJtJ

M. Ugfis tifgLJtJ
. gaghoid gJ.
<. vJ iy.

11.

Ugf

12.

bghUShjhu nfhghLf- M. kW lhl

13.

mfgr r_f eikf

- . itu Mguzf

14.

rknehF tisnfhL

- <. sguf

rknehF tisnfho mQFKiwia mKf gLat

15.

Mlgu glf

- c. rhjhuz ju

m. kh
. J.R. kW R.G.D. My

IV.

xU thij ilaf

16.

gaghil tiuaW.

17.

rk-Wiy gaghoF, ntW bga vd?

18.

rknehF tisnfhL vwh vd?

19.

rknehF bjhF vwh vd?

20.

iy nfhoF kbwhU bga vd?

2.

3.

gaghL vgJ
m. r_f fUJ
. mu fUJ

4.

M. yad uh
<. Ml

M. bghU kW csa fUJ

<. ma fUJ

xiw gl Ef vij czJ

m. cg th tisnfhL
M. rk-W iy gaghL
. m
<. FiwJ br Wiy gaghL

5.

Efnth vr vgJ
m. cik iy - jFiy
. njit = m
84

M. MVn = TVn - TVn-1

<. iy

- m. kh

gF-M
tU dhfSF ehF myJ IJ tf
ilaf.
21.

UgfSfhd fhuzf ahit?

22.

glf tiff ahit?

23.

Wiy gaghL yfzij tiuaWf.

85

24.

rknehF tisnfho gf ahit?

25.

kh TWgo Efnth cg-ia TWf.

gF-
tU dhfSF xU gf ms ilaf.

26.

bkhj gaghL, Wiy gaghL ntWgLJf.

27.

FiwJ br gaghL vLnfhf ahit?

28.

FiwJ br gaghL KaJtij vGJf.

29.

rk-W iy gagho tiuaiwfis FLf.

30.

rknehF bjhF tiugl cjl Efnth rkiyia

sFf.
gF-<

tU dhfSF _W gf ms ilaf
31.

kj Ugf gf ahit?

32.

FiwJ br gaghL id gl tiuJ sf jUf.

33.

Efnth cgia gl tiuJ, mjDila KaJt kW

wdhfis sFf.

34.

rknehF tisnfho mQFKiwfis tf.

35.

rknehF Ftisnfho bjhFid tiuJ mjDila

gfis sFf.

86

ghl 4

njit m
xU bghUSfhd njit (Demand) vgJ - mbghUis
thFtjfhd Ugij, ngha thF ria, thl
ntL vw Koit FF. Mdh tWik nfhoF
UF xU va eg fh xiw thf ntL vW U
nghJ - mJ btW Ugnk m mJ njitbad fUjgl
khlhJ. Vbd mtuJ Ugij iw brJbfhs mtl
ngha thF r iy. mnj neu xU gzfhu fh jdF
thfntL vW UnghJ mJ njit vd bghUa
fUjgL. Vbd mtuh mj bghU iyia bfhLf
Ko. thW bghUSfhd UgnjhL thF r
ykhf UFnghJ bghUa mJ njit vW
miHfgLwJ.
vj xU bghUSF njit vgJ mbghU iyia
bghWUF. w khf vgd rgjgl w bghUf
iy, EfnthuJ tUkhd, mtuJ Ritf, njbjLj,
Efnth brt, nghwitfshF. vdnt njitia
flthW vGjyh.
Dx = F (Px, Ps, Y, T, W)
Dx vgJ X bghUSfhd njit
Px - X bghU iy
Ps - gf iy
Y - tUkhd
T - Rit kW njbjLj
W - Efnth brt iy MF.
87

njit

mltiz 4.1

tiuaiw
M~uL kh TWgo, ``iwa glfis f
ntLkh, iy Fiwthf Uf ntL. mthW iy
Fiwthf Ujhjh mglij gyU thFt. ntW
jkhf Tdh iy Fiwtjh njitgL gl ms
TLwJ. iy TLtjh njit FiwwJ ~bgTr vgt
TWgo, ``iy njit ms vfa bjhl
bfhLsd.
xU bghUSfhd iy Fiw nghJ kf mf
mbghUis thFt. iy VW nghJ Fiwthf thFt - kwit
khwhkUF nghJ - vgJ njit .
kwit khwhk UFnghJ vW FlgLtJ, njit
vLnfhfis FF.
vLnfhf
m)

Efnth tUkhd khw iy.

M)

EfnthuJ RitY njbjLjY khw iy.

w bghUf iy khw iy.

<)

w gfis fLofiy.

c)

jnghija iy wf iu TLj iy F
Kfiu vW kf czuhik MF.
njitgoa
xU gl gntW iyfis miyf
xbthF njit msit fhLw mltizna
njitgoa vgjhF.
88

iy (%)

njit ms ..

10

20

30

40

50

60

mltiz 4 .1 njitgoa MF. jbahU Efnth

gntW iyf thf U xU gl gntW msfis
J RofhLwJ. iy njit vkiwahf khwToaJ.
J jbahU Efnth njitgoayhF.
njit tisnfhL
j mltizia tiugl 4.1 njit tisnfhlhf
tiuayh. njit tisnfhL vgJ njit mltiz
tiuglkhF.
tiugl 4.1

iy

iy njit vkiw bjhlilad vgij njit

TWwJ. J xU bghUSfhd iyia, xU Fl fhy
ms mj bghUSfhd njitia FF.

njit ms
89

nkfl tiugl 4:1 DD vgJ njitnfhL MF.

njit nfhL lUJ tykhf neh rJ brwJ.
iy khwfS mjnfg njit ms VgL
khwfS Ro fhlgLsd. iy wtUnghJ
njit ms mfgij nfhL fhLwJ. thW iy
njit vkiw myJ vfa bjhl bfhLsd
kwit khwhkUFnghJ (ceteris paribus).
njit tis nfhL neh rJ brtJ V?
njit nfhL rtjfhd fhuz, FiwJ br W iy
gaghL . ahdJ, glf TLjyhf Eftjdh,
gaghlhdJ FiwJ brwJ. Mfnt Efnth xU bghUis
Fiwj iy bfhLnj thfntosJ. njit nfhlhJ
rtjF fhuz, Wiy gaghLnfhL FiwJ
brtnjahF.
jbahU EfnthuJ njitgoa, kW mfho
njitgoa
j eg njitgoayhdJ, xU gl gntW
iyf thf U gntW msit Ro fhL mltiz.
mltiz 4.2
j eg njitgoa
iy MuR
(%gh)

njit ms
MuR)
(MuR)

5
1
4
2
3
3
2
4
1
5
mltiz sf :
mltiz MuR gH iy %.5jhf UFnghJ xU
gHijna thFwh. mgH iy %.4-fhf Fiw nghJ, U
90

gHf thFwh. nkY iyahdJ %.3 Mf FiwnghJ,

_W gHfis thFwh. thW iyahdJ Fiwa, Fiwa
njit msthdJ mfJ brwJ vbu khwhf.
mfho njit mltiz
mfho njitgoa vgJ, mfho cs Efnth
midt njit msfis xW Todh ilgjhF. MuR
gH mfho U Efnth Ugjhf itJ bfhlh,
mfho njitahdJ fhQ tif fzlgLwJ.
mltiz 4.3
uL EfnthuJ njitgoa kW
mfho njitgoa
njit ms
iy
MuR)
(MuR)

Efnth 1

Efnth 2

mfho njit

mfho njit tisnfhL

mfho iy FiwnghJ njit TLwJ.
tiugl 4.2

91

mfho njit nfho sf

nkfl tiugl Efnth 1, Efnth 2 Ma U
Efnth njitasf X mY, mfho y iy Y
mY FlgLsJ. U Efnth bkhj njit,
mjhtJ D1 + D2 = DD vw mfho njitnfhL, j Ef
njit nfhil nghnw neh rJ brwd. DD vw
njitnfhL njhWth neh FJsJ. J iyF,
njit msF cs bjhlig sFwJ.
njit yFf
bghJthf njit ahdJ iy kW gl msF
cs jiy Hhd cwit vLJ TWwJ. y yfhd
Niy aghf bragLtiy. iyf iy
VWnghJ, glfhd njit mfF, iy FiwnghJ,
gl njit ms Fiw. thwhf njitnfhLf
nk neh rJ brW njit, m neuo bjhl
bfhldthf fhQ tiu gl njhWtJ nghW mik.
P

tiugl 4.3
D

ce
iy

P1
D

P
D
0

Q1

gl njit

khwhf) DD vgJ yF njitnfhL myJ mrhjhuz

njitnfhL vdgL.
njit yFf y nH bfhLfgLsd.
(i) bts is
jho bts vD bghUayP, xU y
bghUfis, gzfhuf rKjha jfsJ mjJ kW
btW kfhfnt iyajhY thFwhf vW
sFwh. tifahd bghUf iy mfF nghJ,
ftfhf bgWks bghUf thfgLwd.
gzfhuf ituf iy caUnghJ, mfkhf itufis
thFwd. mnj rka j bghUf iy FiwnghJ,
mj bghUfis gzfhuf thfkhlhf.
~g (Giffen) KughL
r uhg ~g vgt ViH, va kf iy
glf iy, mfjh, mjDila njit ms mfF
vW, iy Fiwjh njit ms Fiw vW sFwh.
kf tWikUFnghJ mf ms thfgLtJ,
brGikUFnghJ Fiwj ms thfgLtJkha
glf iy glf vwiHfgLwd.
ViH kf tUkhd bgUgid catifaw (f,
nftuF, nrhs nghwit) jhafis thf, Fiwj msnt
m thf bryLwhf. catifaw jhaf iy
caU nghJ ViH kf Fiwj ms mia thFthf.
jdh vG ilbtia ug catifaw jhafis mf
ms thf ntL. vdnt, catifaw jhaf iy
caUnghJ mtiw mf ms thFwhf. Jnt ~g
KughL vwiHf gLwJ. tif KughLf njitF
yfhf csd.

tiugl sf

njit khw (njit bgUf, njit RUf)

gl iyahdJ OP-UJ OP1, Mf caUnghJ,

njit msthdJ 0Q-UJ 0Q1 Mf caUwJ. (v v

njit tisnfho iy vjjkhd khwK

fHiy. xU bghU iy ms Fiw nghJ,

92

93

tiugl 4.5

D2

D
D

iy

mbghUSfhd njit ms TLwJ. ij njit bgUf

vW miHfgL. mnj rka bghU iy mfF nghJ,
mjDila njit FiwwJ. J njit RUf vd miHfgL.
it uLnk mnj njit tnfho nkY Gkhf eftijna
njit bgUf, kW njit RUf vd TWnwh. jid
tiugl _y sfyh.

tiugl 4.4

D2

P1

iy

D
0

D1
Q

Q1

Q2

njit ms

P2

tiugl sf

D
0

Q2

D
Q

Q1

gl njit
tiugl sf

nkny tiuagl tiugl njitahdJ DD- UJ

D2, D2F mfJ brwJ. ij njit ca vg. mnj rka
njitahdJ DDUJ DD1 Mf efJ brwJ. ij njit
Fiw vg.
njitia khF fhuf

nkny cs tiugl OP vgJ bghU iy OQ vgJ

njit ms. iyahdJ OP2 ms FiwnghJ, njit ms
OQ1 msthf mfwJ. J njit bgUf vdgL. khwhf
iyahJ OP1 msF mfFnghJ, njit msthJ OQ
msF FiwwJ J njit RUf vdgL.
njit khw (njit ca, njit Fiw)
kwit khwhUwd, vw bghUshjhu vLnfh
mogil mikJsJ. j kwit vw brhyhdJ tUkhd,
Rit, kf bjhif, mu bfhiff, bjhEg, iynahL
bjhlila kw fhufis FF. jkhd fhuf _y
VgL khw njit ca, njit Fiwit VgLJwJ
jid gl 4.5- fhzyh.
94

njitia khF fhuf tUkhW

1. Efnth RitfS kW nj brjY
2. Efnth tUkhd
3. gL gl iy
4. Efnth vif
5. tUfhy iygW vgh
6. tUkhd g
7. gUtfhy khwf
8. tf iy
9. Efnth jhf idj
95

1. Efnth RitfS / nj brjY

Ritf, nj brj, etehfff Ma fhuf
njit msit khw mila br (v.fh) ntofSila
njitahdJ FiwJ Jtif Milfis Mat njit
mfwJ. fhuz etehff khwnk.
2. Efnth tUkhd
Efnth tUkhd mfFnghJ, njitahdJ
mfF. vdnt tUkhd mfFnghJ bghUf njit
mfF. tr kW Mlgu bghUf tifia rhjjhF.
3. gL glf iy
xU Ugij iw bra cj xU khW glnk
gL gl vdgL. (v.fh.) njU, fh, wj gf.
fh iy caUnghJ, nj iy khwhk Ugjh kf
njiu mfkhf U thFtjh, fh njit FiwwJ.
gL glfhd njitf vkhwhf bragLwJ.

kWg bra Kawh Mlgu bghUf njit FiwJ,

mahta bghUf njit mfF.
7. gUtfhy khwf
xU bghUSfhd njit fhy njhd iyfSnfg khw
bgW (v.f.) nfhil fhy F ghdf, gU Milf kW
F rhjd bgof njit caU. Mdh F fhy fg
MilfSfhd njit caU.
8. thg iy
thg braghLf f brghf UFnghJ, glf,
gfSfhd njit Fahf UF. khwhf thl (m) kj
VgLnghJ glf, gfSfhd njit FiwwJ.
9. Efnth jhf idj
nfhJik kh iynah, rhu iynah Fiwjh
Efnth mbghUfSF a gaghLfis fLoJ
Lwhf. vdnt bghUfSfhd a njit cUthwJ.

4. Efnth vif

njit be (Elasticity of Demand)

xU eho kf bjhifahdJ njitia khF xU

Ka fhu (v.fh.) bgUks kf bjhif, cz tiff, jha
tiff nghw Fl bghUSfhd njitia mfF.
EfnthuhJ vif mfFnghJ bghUfSfhd
njit mfF.

njit ahdJ, iy khwdh njit khWwJ vW

saJ. Mdh iy khw isthf, njit VgLw
khw msid msliy. njit be, njit
VgL khwij msLwJ.

5. tUfhy iyga vgh

vfhy xU bghU iy mfF vw
vghdh, xU Efnth jfhy mf bghUfis thf
KgLth. xU ntis iy Fiwig vghjh, jnghija
mtuJ njitia FiwJ bfhth.

njit be fUij Mu kh mKf

gLdh. tuJ fUJgo, njit beahdJ. ``xU Fl
iy ca fhuzkhf mfho xU glfhd njit
mfkhf, myJ Fiwthf khWtij njit be ifahdJ,
myJ FiwthdJ vdyh vd TWwh.
njit be tiff

tUkhd g Ef jikia kh mikwJ vdnt

gntW glf njitahdJ tUkhd git bghUJ
mikwJ. rkuhF nehfJl, mehL muR tUkhd

njit beia 3 tifahf fyh

m. iy njit be
M. tUkhd njit be
. FWF njit be (m) a njit be.

96

97

6. tUkhd g

jid fhQ rk ghlh sfyh.

iynjit be =
fj FpL =

njit khw GfhL

gl iy khw GfhL
q/q
p/p

q
q

p
p

iy njit beia msLj

J ehF Kiwf mslgLwJ
1. GfhL Kiw
2. Kiw (or) r Kiw
3. bkhj bry Kiw
4. Kiw vgitahF.
I. GfhL Kiw
xls njitkhwij xls iy khwjh
tFgj thyhf myJ Gfhls njit khwij
Gfhls iy khwjh tFgj thyhf njit
beia mslyh.
j thghL ahbj

eP = 15 = 1.5 =
10

tiugl 4.8
myF njit be

tiugl 4.9
KG iwthd
beaw njit

P1

P
P1

D
0

98

njit ms

njit ms

i
y
Price

% q
% p
(v.fh.) m iy 10 rjj caUnghJ m njit
15 rjjkhf Fiwjh iy njit be (eP) vgJ
eP =

iy

iynjit be vgJ, xU gl njit

njhW khw Gfoid, mgl iykhw
Gfhlh tFf ilF < iy njit be vnwh.

i
y
Price

iy khwdh, njit VgLtjhd khw msnt iy

njit be MF.

j bghU, m iy njit, beilajhf

UwJ. mJngh, 10% msF m iy caUnghJ
mj njit 5% ms kLnk Fiwjh m njit
beawjhf csJ vW bghUshF.
iy njit be tiff
iy njit beia 5 tifgLjyh.
1. if njit be (ed > 1)
2. Fiwthd njit cs be (ed < 1)
3. myF njit be (ed = 1)
4. KG iwthd beaw njit (ed = 0)
5. KGiwthd bes njit (ed = x)
tiugl 4.7
tiugl 4.6
ifnjit be Fiwthd njits be

iy

m. iy njit be

Q1

njit
ms
Quantity
Demanded
99

Q
njit
ms
Quantity
Demanded

tiugl 4.10
KG iwthd bes njit

rahf AB vw njitnfho (ika) eL

1. mjhtJ E vw iynjit beahdJ

Price
iy

At E, ep = EB/EA = 2/2 = 1 ~ ep = 1

2. iynjit be D vw = DB/DA
= 1/3 = 0.3 ep<1
(njit nfho EB vw gF ika
aha D )

3. iy njit be C vw = ep = CB/CA
= 3/1 = 3 ep>1

Q1

njit ms
2. Kiw (Point Method)
neuhf mikJs njitnfho J cs xU Fl
, iy njit beia fzlyh.
Kiw
iynjit be NukhtJ :
iy njit be = njitnfho gF
njitnfho nkgF
vLJfhlhf : tiugl 4:11 njitnfho s AB = 4cm.
tiugl 4.11

iPrice
y

4. iy njit be B
vw = 0/AB = 0/4 = 0
({aij vj vzh tFjhY {ank <thF)
Ep = 0
5. iy njit be `A
vw = AB/0 = 4/0 =
(vj viz {ajh tFF nghJ mJ viyaW
bgU brwJ)
3. bkhj bry Kiw :(Total Expenditure/Total Outlay Method)

e ep==

(njit nfho EA gF ika aha C )

C
e p =1

= nkgF
AE AE
- Upper
Segment
EB EB
- Lower
Segment
= gF

xU gl iy khwdh, VgL khwid

bfhL iynjit beia fzlyh.
1.

xU gl iy FiwnghJ, mij EfU Efnth

mglfhd bkhj xJL myJ mj bkhj bry
mjh mJ if bes njit vdgL. Ep > 1.

2.

xU gl iy FiwnghJ mjid Efnth

mglfhd bkhj xJL myJ mj bkhj bry
Fiwjh mJ Fiw bes njit vdgL. Ep < 1.

E
D

e p =0
0

njit Quantity
ms
100

101

xU gl iy FiwnghJ mEfnth
mglfhd bkhj xJL myJ mj bkhj
bry khw VglhUjh mJ xUik njit be
vdgL. Ep = 1

P2

iy njit be tiff
ep = 1

ep < 1

ep>1

iy wf bkhj xJL bkhj xJL bkhj xJL

khwhkUj
FiwwJ
mfwJ
iy Vw

P1

btntwhd isfis fhQkhW mltiz

gLjyh.
mltiz 4.6
iykhw

tiugl 4.12

Price
iy

3.

bkhj xJL bkhj xJL bkhj xJL

khwhkUj
mfwJ
FiwwJ

4. Kiw (Arc Method)

Q2

Q1

njit ms
nkfl tiugl, beia A & B vw njit
nfho uL fSilna fzlyh. jF OP1 kW
OP2-j uL iyfSilnaahd ruhria fzL
kW uL njit msf ruhria fzl ntL.
Jnt beahF.

xU njit tisnfho uL fSilna cs

gFna vdgL.

M. tUkhd njit be :

Kiw iy njit beia fhQ Kiw

fzlyh.

tUkhd VgL khw njit ms vjifa

khwij VgLJwJ vgnj tUkhd njit be vdgL.

Q = njit ms khw ep
P = gl iy khw
P1 = gl Kjiaa iy
P2 = a iy

= Q 1-Q 2
Q 1+ Q
=
=

Q1 = gl Kija njit ms
=

Q2 = a njit ms

Q x
Q 1+ Q2
x

P
P 1+ P2
P 1+P 2
P
P 1+P 2
Q1+ Q2

xU gl, iy khw bgUks Ujh

iynjit beia fzl Kiwia ifahsyh.
Kiwia tiugl 4:12 _y sfyh.
102

gl njit ms khw GfhL

Efnth tUkhd khw GfhL

Ey =

P 1+ P2

Q 1+ Q2

Q
P

P 1 -P 2

Fpo
ey =

q
q

q
q

y
y
x y
y

q = njit ms
y = tUkhd
= khw
103

. FWF njit be myJ

a njit be
cwila glfsha, gL glf (Substitutes)iynyh myJ clDW glf (complementary goods)
iyfnyh VgL iy khw gl njit vts
khwij VgLJwJ vgnj FWFnjit myJ a
njit be vdgL. J Y gl iykhwdh X
gl njit ms VgL khwij FF.
ec = X vD gl njit ms khw GfhL
y vD gl iykhw GfhL
ec =

qx
P y

Py
Px

x kW y glfSFilnaahd cw gL
glfshd nj kW fh nghwjhfnth clDW
glfsha ngdh kW ik nghnwh UfTL.
FWF myJ a njit beit flthW
fzlyh.
viyaw be = x gl y glF xU iwthd
gahF. (perfect substitute)
{a be = x glK y glK cwtwit.
vkiwahd
be = x glK y glK clDW glfshF.
njit beia khF fhuf
xU gl njit beia fhQ fhuf
khwd.
1. gl jik 2. glf gagLms 3. gL
glf Uj 4. njitia jnghLj 5. brylgL
gz ms 6. gHff 7. bghU iy kl
104

njit be KaJt
1. iy ghFghL
xU gl njitahdJ gntW rijf gntW
befis cilajhf U, KWikahs gntW iyfis
gntW rijf zgh. j iy ghFghL iynjit
beah clhtjhF.
2. t
njit betw glfJ t jh mJ muRF
mf tUth bgW jU. mjF khwhf mf bes
glfJ t jh muRF Fiwthd tUth ilF.
3. maehL thg
ehLfSilnaahd thg iyf cehL bghU
fSF maehL bghUfSF ilna yw njit
beia mogilahf bfhoUF. cyf mfho, U
ehoF rhjfkhd thg iy yt ntLkhdh, meho
VWkfSF be mw njit Uf ntL.
4. cg msid khj
bghUf njitF Vg glf kW gfis cg
bra ntL. njit beawhf UFnghJ cgahs
mf iy bgWbfhSjiy gagL j cgia
mfgL bfhSth. vdnt njit be kW
betw jikf cg msit khf gagLwJ.
5. ciHghsUfhd Tia khj
ciHghfSfhd njit beawjhf Ujh, bjh
rff T jij caJ mtfsJ Ka bt
milt. mjF khwhf ciHghsfSfhd njit be
ilajhf Ujh T jij caj nfhU bjhrf
eltoiff btfhd ayhJ.
6. br Vik
njit beahdJ br Vik vw iu,
Kughil sf bgJ cjwJ. vLJfhlhf rhFgo
105

Fj cz tiff cg ntshik Jiw brig

VgLj ntL. Mdh g tiffSF njit be mwjhf
U trhf jf g tiffSF ey iy ilfhj
fhuzjh (iy Fiwdh) bgU HF Mshthf.

m mltiz 4.7
fhQ goa _y m ia sfyh
iy
(%gh)
%gh)

cg ms
l#)
(l#)

10

12

m
(LAW OF SUPPLY)
sf
xU Fl fhy, Fl iy gid
bragL glf msnt m vd bghUgL. xU
cgahs jh cg brj glf / kW gfis xU
Fl iy gid brtjidna m vg.

tiugl 4.13

m ahdJ, iyF, mF cs neuoahd

bjhlid sFwJ. xU WtdkhdJ iy FiwnghJ
Fiwthf cg brwJ. mnj rka iy caUnghJ, mfkhd
ms cgia nkbfhwJ. kwit khwhj iy, xU
gl iy cath mghdJ mfF. mnj rka iy
Fiwjh m Fiw.
m mltiz, kW m nfhL
xU Fl fhy ms gntW iyf gntW ms
glf gidF mfgLtij fhL mltizna m
goayhF. m mltiz_y, m nfhil tiuayh.
jeg m mltiz kW mnfhL
jeg m goa vgJ iyf kW fgL
glf msid fhLwJ.
106

S
10

P rice (In R up ees)

xU bghUSfhd m vgJ xU Fl iy xU
gidahs vts f KtUwh vgij FF.

iy (%gh)

12

yfz

8
6
4
2

12

m (l#
)
(l#

Q u a n tity S u p p lie d in D o ze n s

tiugl sf
iy %gh 4 Mf UFnghJ, 3 l# gid
bragLwJ. iy Vw nghJ, m ms Vw
VgLwJ.
m goa cjnahL, m tisnfhil tiuayh.
m mltiz _y SS vw m tisnfhL
tiuagLsJ. J tykhf l bgaJ nk neh brY
tisnfhlhF. bghU iy, m ms xbwhW
neuo bjhlilajhF.
107

mfho m goa kW tisnfhL

m msid gntW iyf mfho gid
brt TL bkhjnk mfho m goayhF.
mfho m nfhlhdJ. rij/mfho cs bkhj
cgahsf m tisnfho xL bkhjnkahF.
m ms khw - m bgUf kW m
RUf

msF FiwJ bfhwh. fF m RUf vg.

mjhtJ m msthdJ (OA to OC) msthf FiwwJ.
m tisnfho lbga - m ca
(mf) m Fiw
m tisnfho lbgadh, m mf,
Fiw VgLwJ. kw fhuf khwdh j l
bga eilbgWwJ. jid fhQ tiugl _y sfyh.
tiugl 4.15

iy

tiugl 4.14

gl m
tiugl sf
iyahdJ OP msthf UFnghJ, gl m
msthdJ OA msthf csJ. iyahdJ OPUJ OP1 Mf
mfFnghJ, cg msthdJ OB Mf mfwJ.
F gl mghdJ OA- UJ OBF mfgij
fhwJ. ijna m bgUf vd fhzyh.
iyahdJ OP ms, OA ms cg bragLwJ.
iyahdJ OP2 msF FiwnghJ, cg msit OC
108

iy

mfkhd iy, mfkhd glfis gid brtJ

m bgUf vW TwgL. Fiwthd iy, Fiwthd
glf gid br nghJ, jF `m RUf vW
bga. jid fhQ tiugl _y vLJ Twyh.

gl m
tiugl sf
kw fhuf khw fHh Kd, OP iy, SS vgJ
mnfhL. mnj PO ms iy ynghJ, gid
msthd OT1 vW mfwJ. mj m tisnfhL S1S1
vdgL. J m cait FF. mnj OP iy,
gid msthd OT2 vd FiwfgLnghJ. gid
m FiwwJ. mj m tisnfhL S 2S 2 vdgL. J
m Fiwit FF.
S2S2 vgJ Fiwthd m nfhlhf csJ. F
iyahdJ mnj OP msthf UFnghJ, OT2 ms gid
ms Fiwthfnt mik.
mig zF fhuf
1. cg bjhEg
cg Kiwf bjhEgf, mig khF
fhuahF. xU eho mf Kndwkhd bjhEg Kiwfis
109

gagLJnghJ, ngus cg Vgl thsJ. jdh cg

mfF. gHikahd bjh EgKiwf _y cg
msthdJ mffhJ.

m be
(Elasticity of Supply)

cg fhuf iyahdJ mfFnghJ, cg

brythdJ bgUfTL. jdh cg msthdJ Fiw.

m ahdJ, m ms, iy khwij

bghWJsJ vd TWwJ. m be vgJ iy VgL
khw isthf m ms VgL khw vW Twyh.
fhQ thgho _y m beia mslyh.

3. w glf iyf

m be =

2. fhuf iyf

VjhtJ xU gl iy khw fGnghJ, mJ

m khwij VgLJ. xU bghU iy mfdh,
cgahs jdF njitahd bghU cg bra KgLth.
j isthf Kjik bghU m Fiw.
4. cgahs (m) Wtdf vif
iwa cgahsf jfSila cg msid
mfFnghJ, mfho bghUf cg ms mf
VgL.
5. tUfhy iy ga vghf
cgahsf tUfhy iyf khw (mf)
VgL vd vghjh ffhy mtf cg ms
fHhJ (VglhJ)
6. tf kW rYiff
mu tf cg glf J RkjgLnghJ,
cg bry mfF. j _y m ms Fiw. mnj
rka mu rYiff cgahsUF bfhLfgL nghJ,
mtfsJ cg msthdJ mfF. rYiff vgJ
glf bry xU gFia munr VW bfhtjhF.
7. bghUshjhu rhuhj fhuf
bghUshjhu rhuhj w fhufshd nghf, mu
khwf, aif rf khwf itf cg
ilgUikia VgLJ.
110

m ms VgL jhrhu khw

iy VgL jhrhu khw
ep

q s / q s
p / p

F q vgJ, cg ms, p vgJ iy, vgJ

khwij FF.
m be vgJ iy khwF Vg m VgL
khw ghF vW sfyh.
m be tiff
IJ tifahd m bef csd. mit tUkhW:
1. KGik beW m
md be bfGiy Koyhj iy
UF. iy jsnth (or) khwnkh yhj nghJ, m
bgajhd khw fG (S S1 vgJ tiugl tiuagLsJ)
2. if be m
m bethdJ, xiw fhoY bgjhdjhf csJ.
(ES >1). m msthdJ, iyia fhoY bgjhdjhf
csJ (SS1 vw mnfhL tiugl fhlgLsJ).
3. xUik be m
m bethdJ xWF rkkhdjhf mik mjhtJ
(e s =1) iy Vgl khwK, m Vgll khwK
xWbfhW rkkhf UF. (SS3 vw tiugl fhL).
111

4. Fiwthd be m ( Es=1)
m bethdJ xWF Fiwthfnt mik. mjhtJ
(es <1) iy msit fhoY m msthdJ
Fiwthdjhfnt csJ (SS4 - tiugl _y mJ bfhsyh).
5. KY beaw m (Es=0)
m be iyahdJ {aF rkkhf csJ.
(ES=0) iy khwdh m ms vjjkhd
khwij VgLjhJ. (SS5 vw tiugl _y mJ
bfhsyh)

g
gF-m
I.
1.

2.

tiugl 4.16

iy

3.

4.

5.

m ms
m beia khF fhuf
fhQ fhuf m beia kh wd.
mit
1. cg bry khw
2. cgahsf gHf, tHff
3. cgia bgUf, ilfToa trf, thf
4. FWa kW lfhy m
112

II.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
III.
11.
12.

rahd ilia njbjLf

glfhd njit jid rhjJ
m. gl iy
M. rhj glf iy
. tUkhd
<. nkFa midJ
njit czJtJ
m. iy, glfSF cs jiy cw
M. iy, glfSF cs neuo cw
. uL
<. vJiy
njit mfig j_y fhzyh
m. njit tisnfhL l bgatJ
M. xnu njit tisnfho efJ brYj
. njit tisnfho cr
<. njit tisnfho
iy VgL khwF Vg njit khwij
njhWF ms
m. tUkhd njit be
M. FWF njit be
. iy njit be
<. nkFa midJ
mig khF fhuf
m. cg bjhEg M. cg fhuf iyf
. tfS rYiffS <. nkFa midJ
nfhol lfis uf.
njitnfhL neh tUtjF fhuz ...........
jeg Ef mltizfis xW nrFnghJ ........... MF.
rKjha mjJfhf njitgL glf .......... isthF.
njit be vw fUij mKfgLat ................
iy khwjh VgL, m khw j ......... vdgL.
bghUJf
iy, njit neuoahd cw
- m. gL glf
nj kW fh
- M. betw njit
113

13.

UfSilna cs

- . x kW y bjhl
ilad my
14. Ed>1
- <. bts is
15. FWFnjit be a - c. tis
IV. xU thijf ilaf
16. bghUshjhu nfhgho mogil vLnfhf ahit?
17. brGik nghJ, kj nghJ njit vthW khWgLwJ?
18. Kiw thghLf vd?
19. tUkhd njit be vwh vd?
20. ciH njit betwjhf UFnghJ, xU bjhrf
Caij caj Kokh?
gF-M
tU
dhfSF
ehF
myJ
IJ
tf
ilaf
21. njit vgJ vd?
22. njitia khF fhufis tifgLJf.
23. njitnfhlhdJ V neh tUwJ?
24. ~g iug - W F vGJf?
25. njit be tiff ahit?
gF-
tU dhfSF xU gf ms ilaf
26. njit khw, kW njit l bgaia sFf.
27. njit be tiffis - g.
28. njit be KaJtij TWf.
29. m ia gl tiuJ sf jUf.
30. m be vwh vd? mjDila tiffis glJl
tf.
gF-<
tU dhfSF _W gf ms ilaf
31. njit id - tukhf vGJf.
32. iy njit be Kiwfis tukhf vGJ.
114

ghl - 5

rkiy iy
(EQUILIBRIUM PRICE)
njit, m Matiw g flj ghl ghnjh.
glf iyF njitF cs bjhlig njitnfhL
ugwJ. gy iyf Efnth U njit msit
J sFwJ. mnjnghy gy iyf gidahsf mf
U m msit mnfhL bt gLJwJ.
EfnthU, WtdK myJ thFgtU gtU
xUtUbfhUt v vuhf Ugfis bfhltf. njit,
m tisnfhLf ij bjgLJwd. nfhL xU
Fl mfho cik iy vts glf
thfgLwd myJ fgLwd vgij bj
gLJwJ.
xU Fl iy thFgtf UgK (ms)
gtf UgK (ms) rkkhF. iy thFgtf
thf U ms, gt f U ms rkkhF.
iyna ``rkiy iy vW miHfgLwJ. iy njit
tisnfhL m tisnfhL xiw xW btL (rF)
UJ njhWwJ. ntW tif TWnthnkahdh,
`rkiy vgJ xU Fl iz cs iy kW msit
FgjhF. rkiy njit m rkkhf UF. gy
mfhof njit, m rkiyna bghUshjhu rkiyahF.
khwfhd NH fhzglhj iyia bghJthf `rkiy
vnwh. bghUa rkiy vgJ rhjhuzkhf mfho
y rkiy vdyh.
VjhtJ khw fjhY w cgKiwfshd ntshik,
bjh ts, kW g MatF rkiy bghUj
ToajhF.

115

tiu
gl 5.1
tiugl
rkiy iy

ifm

rkiy iyF nk cs vj iyY (PE) mghdJ

njitia l mf (S>D). Mfnt, if m fhzgLwJ.
iy cathf UFbghGJ thFgtf Fiwthf thf
Ut. Mdh gtf mf f Ut. J rij
if mig njhWF. J mF njitF ilna
cs ntWghlhF. gtf midtU mf iy midJ
glfis f Koahjjh y iyia FiwJ `if
mig f Ka brt.
vLJfhlhf tUl W glf njfij
Wf jSgoia gidahsf mghf. jSgoia
xU gidahs mjl kwtfS mijg
iyia Fiwg. if m W J rij rkiyia
(D = S) mil tiu iy FiwJ bfhnl tU.

ifnjit

P - iy
Q - glf ms
S - m
D - njit
PE - rkiy iy
D>S - ifnjit
S>D - ifm
nkfl gl (5.1) rkiyia sFwJ. PE vgJ
rkiyiy PE vD iy njit ms m ms
rkkhF. D=S kw iyf, njit ms m ms
rkkhf iy. UiyfY Efnthnuh myJ Wtdnkh
kdiw milahjjh iy khwij VgLJt.
116

mnjngh, iyahdJ rkiy iyia (PE) l Fiwthf

UF bghGJ if njit (D>S) fhzgL. m Fiwthf
UFbghGJ thFgtfilna VgL nghoahdJ, iyia
caJ. J gidahsf mig mff CfgLJ.
cjhuzkhf iu muF btna fhfhd Lfis mf
iy bfhLJ thf KgLnwh.
j U iyfY, thFgt gtfilna VgL
ngho eltoiff iyia Tlnth myJ Fiwfnth brJ
if mig, if njitia kiwa brwJ. j
eltoiff, njitia mig rkgL rij rkiy
mila brwJ. rij rkiy, iyianah, msitna
khwntoa nghF (njit) VglhJ.
gl 5.1 njit m ilnaahd rkiy VgL rij
rkiyia sFwJ. rij rkiy iy VjhtJ khw
Vgo, iy khw nghif mF _y fhlgLsJ.
if m fhzgLbghGJ iy nehF brY nghF
fhzgLwJ. ifnjit fhzgLbghGJ iynk neh
brY nghF fhzgLwJ. rkiy iy iyahdJ.
Mfnt mF khw VgLtjfhd th iy. (D = S)
117

iy

nji
t kW m khw
njit
nkTa rij rkiy jfhfkhdnj. lfhyF
iyUf bra KoahJ. Vbd njitia khF
fhufS mig khF fhufS mofo bjhlJ
khW jik bfhlit. iy ju w fhuf khwij
VgLJwd.
khwf iy ju w fhuf jirahd
nghdh VgLgit. njit mig khW fhufis g
mj jikfis g F fhngh.
kwitf khwhUF vw gjid njitia
mig khF Ka fhu iy vgij Vfdnt
ghJnsh.
kw fhuf vgit ahit? kw fhuf iyahf
yhk khdh njit msY, m msY vd
khw VgL? njitia mig khF fhuf
VgL vj khwK njitnfhil m nfhil l
bgau br. j lbga a rkiyia cUthF.
njit khw
njitia ghF kw fhufis njitia khF
fhuf vW Twyh. mitahtd Efnth tUkhd, Rit,
tiugl 5.2
njitkhw

ms
118

Ug, g glf iyf nghwit MF.

fhuf khw iy vj khw yhlhY
njitia khW jikilaJ. Efnth tUkhd mfjh,
iyia g mf ms glfis thFthf. mnj nghy
iykhw yhlhY, tUkhd FiwnghJ njit
Fiw.
gl 5.2 DD vgJ njitnfhL. OP vw iy rkiy
milwJ. gtU thFnthU. OQ ms rkiy
milwd. njitia khF fhufshd tUkhd,
Rit VgL khw njitnfhil l bgau br. (c)
Efnth tUkhd FiwbghGJ njit nfhL DDUJ
D1D1F l bgWwJ. a rkiy E1 MF. mnjnghy
Efnth tUkhd mfFbghGJ njitnfhL
D1D1UJ D2D2F l bgaUwJ. jbghGJ a rkiy
E1UJ E2F bgaUwJ.
njit khwF njit ms VgL khwF
cs ntWghil F czUj Ka. iy khWgLbghGJ
jh njit ms khW. iy khwK mjF Vg khW
njit msit bfhl njitgoa njitnfhonk
cs lbgaia FF. Mdh tUkhd, Rit, g
glf iy nghw njitia khF fhu f
VgL khw njitnfhil l bgau br.
m khw ((Shift in Supply )
kwit khwhUFbghGJ iyF, m msF
cs bjhlig mnfhL sFwJ vW ghnjh.
rij mgt myJ ngh vif cg
fhuf iy nghwit mig ghF fhuf
mlF. fhuf iy khw VglhlhY m
khwij VgLJ.
iyjh mig khF Ka fhuahF.
MdhY, cg fhufshd y, ciH Mat iy
FiwbghGJ cg bry Fiw J Wtdf mig
mff CfkF. J m nfhil SSUJ S1S1F
119

iy

tiugl 5.3

ms
l bgau br. mjF khwhf cg fhuf iy Vw
cg bryit mfJ mnfhil SSUJ S2S2F
l bgau br uL iyfY rkiy EUJ, Kiwna
E1 myJ E2F l bgaUwJ.
njitia nghynt, m khwF, m ms
khwF cs ntWghil czUj mta. iy
khwdhjh m ms khw VgLwJ. Mdh
mig khF fhuf VgL khw m nfhil
l bgau brJ a rkiyia milwJ. j lbga
iy ju w fhu khwjh VgLwJ.
fhyfl kW iy za
fhyfl
bghUa fhy xU Ka gid twJ. ed
bghUa mPf fhy flij FWa fhy lfhy vd
tifgLJwd. nkfl rkiy iyahdJ xU Fl
fhyflF kL bghUJ. xU fhy flF nk njit
kW m VgLw khw, njit m nfhLfis kh
mikJ ntbwhU rkiyia mil.
(v.fh.) xU Wtd be jikahdJ (njitnfg
jdJ cgia r brJbfhs) mWtd cL
120

bghUf jik rhjJ. cL bghUf UtifgL (1)

khwh cL bghUf 2. khW cL bghUf
khwh cL vgJ xU Fl fhy flF
mjdsit khw ayhJ. fduf auf, fllf, KjL
fUf nghw jifa khwh cL mikgjF lfhy
njitgL.
vD khW cL bghUfsha ciH, frh
bghUf, rhu nghwit KG bjh w bgWtiu
khaikfyh.
bghGJ FWa kW lfhyfis btbtwhf
tifgLj Ko. xU Wtd FWa fhy vgJ cL
bghUf VnjD xiw khwhj clhf itJ bfhS fhy
msit FF.
lfhy vdgLtJ midJ cL bghUfis
kh bfhsToa fhy flij FF.
FWa kW l fhy Fl msthdJ
WtdF Wtd ntWgL. rhiynahuf xU a nghlh
fil xnu eh cL bghUf ntoa khwij
VgL bfhsyh. Vbd cL bghUf midJ
v khwToait. gidahs ntbwhU filia Jt,
mf vbz kW njitahd bghUfis gagL Obud
mfF njitia thW brtj _y rfyh. vdnt
mtDF lfhy ms vgJ xnu xU ehis FF. jF
khwhf unafkhd fUfis brid mzh rhiyYs
bks nuho rutz gt Xl WtjF gy tUlf MF.
Vbd cg JtFtjF lfhy njitgL.
FWa fhy - iy za
Mu kh rkiyia khj fhy gid
vLJiujh. mt fhyij _W fshf tifgLdh.
mit
1. mfho fhy
2. FWa fhy
3. lfhy vdgL.
121

mfho fhy :
mfho fhy vgJ, njit VgLw khwfSnfg,
m vj khwK bra ayhj iyia FF. mfho
fhy m ms khw fHhJ. fhy njit
khw VglTL. tfho fhy rkiy iyahdJ
njit khwdhY, iyahd mdhY zfgLwJ.

iy

iy

fhQ tiugl 5.4 mfhofhy rkiy iyid

sFwJ.
tiugl 5.4

FWafhy
FWafhy vgJ Vbfdnt FLsgo, xU cg
fhu cL kL khwhk UF. khwToa cLf
khwF Vg mghdJ r brJ bfhwJ. F rkiy
iyia khd brtJ m khwnkahF. (khw
bjhrhiy wik rhJcsJ) J njit khwij
bghWJ csJ. jid tiugl 5.5 fhz.
tiugl 5.5

ms
mfho fhy m iyahdjhf Ugjh mJ SMP
vw brFJ nfhlhf mikJsJ. jid befaw m
tis nfhL vdyh. njit mfFnghJ (DD to DD)
iyahdJ PUJ P1 Mf mfwJ. mnj nghW
njitahdJ DD-UJ D2D2 Mf FiwnghJ, iyahdJ
PUJ P2 Mf FiwwJ. fhff, gHf, kyf, nghw
mGF bghUf mfho fhyF wj vLJ fhLfshF.
goif fhyf thiHgHfhd njit mfFnghJ,
mj iy mfF. Vbd mid cldoahf
mff KoahJ. vdnt mfho fhy njitna, rkiy
iyia khwJ.
122

ms
SSP vw nfhlhdJ KY besJ vgij
fhwJ. mghdJ, khW fhuf co
khwdh mfwJ. iy mfghdJ PUJ P1
msF mfFnghJ bfhLfgLs njit msthdJ
DUJ D1dhf mfwJ. J mfho fhyijl rW
Fiwj msntahF. fhuz, mfF m msit mjhtJ
(qUJ q1 Mf mf) njitahdJ xU gFia kLnk
rwJ. vdnt j FWa fhy njit m
iyJ jfS ila Mfij brY, rkiy iyia
khwJ.
l fhy
fhy, vyh cLf (khW kW khwh cL)
khwF Vg m ms khW. fhy m
123

khwkhdJ, njit vj xU khwij rF. khwf

bjhrhiyiana khW, auf kW bjhEgf
khwfis VgLJ. l fhyij fhQ tiugl 5.6 _y
sfyh.
tiugl 5.6

g
gF-m
I.

rahd ilia njbjLf

1.

rkiy
m. xnu iy y / iy iyahdJ
M. njit m rk
. m njitnfhL m nfhil btL
<. nkTa midJ
rkiy iyF nk
m. S < D
M. S > D
. S = D
<. VJiy
njit ms khw VgL
m. iy kL khW bghGJ
M. Rit khw VgL bghGJ
. nkTa uL
<. vJiy
rkiy iy fhy gif mKfgLat
m. J.R.
M. J.M.
. Mu kh
<. J.S.
l fhy
m. vyh fhufS khW
M. khW fhu kL khW
. khwh fhu kL khW
<. khW kW khwh fhuf iyahf UF
nfhol lij uf
.............. mig khF Ka fhuahF.
ntshik, bjh, ts kW g nghwit w ..........
MF.
............. iy, vj r iyianah msitnah khw
KoahJ.
ed bghUa tYe fhyij ............ kW .......... jd.
mfho fhy mnfhL ...........

iy

2.

3.

4.

ms
SMP - mfhofhy mnfhL
SSP - FWafhy mnfhL
SLP - lfhy mnfhL
nkfl tiugl 5.6 lfhy m nfhL (SLP)
KY be jik cilaJ. J SSP-ial rW jilahf
rwJ. J, mWtd jdJ mid vjhf kh bfhs
Toa bgjsthd be jikia fhLwJ. mfgjdh
(D1 to D3), iyahdJ PUJ P3-Mf caUwJ. mj iy
mfho fhy iyaha P1id l, FWa fhy iyaha
P2-ial Fiwthfnt csJ. Vbd njit mfig KY
rgjfhf njitahd mf mgh VgLwJ. vdnt
lfhy rkiy iyia khg m Fljf gif
twJ.
124

5.

II.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

125

III.
11.
12.
13.

bghUJf
rkiy
- a. ML Uig W f
ifnjit
- b. mf beilaJ
jSgo iy (myJ)
f iy
- c. iy kW ms iz
14. lfhy mnfhL - d. D>S
15. FWa fhy iy
- e. njit m
IV. XU thijf ilaf
16. bghJ rkiy vwh vd?
17. njitnfhoid l bgau br fhuf ahit?
18. fhy giz mKfgLat ah?
19. iyahd KjoF xU cjhuz bfhL.
20. mfho fhy m iyahdjh?
gF-M
tU
dhfSF
ehF
myJ
IJ
tf
ilaf
21. rkiy iy vwh vd?
22. njit khw, njitnfhL l bgaj ntWikgLJf.
23. mnfhL lbgajYfhd fhuf ahit?
24. lfhy, FWa fhy ntWgLJf.
25. mfho fhy WF tiuf.
gF-
tU dhfSF xU gf ms ilaf
26. njitnfhL l bgajiy tiuglJl sFf.
27. mnfhL l bgajiy tiuglJl sFf.
28. mfho fhy rkiy iy vthW khfgLwJ?
29. FWa fhy njitnfhL mnfhL vthW iyia
khwJ vgij tiuglJl sFf.
30. lfhy jil m nfhil sFf.
gF-<
tU dhfSF _W gf ms ilaf
31. rkiy iy vthW khfgLwJ vgij tiuglJl
sFf.
32. tiuglJl sFf.
a. rijfhy iy
b. FWafhy iy
c. lfhy iy
126

ghl - 6

cg
(Production)
`cg vgj bghU
bghUa cg vgJ khW kila glf kW
gf Mat cgia bgUFtJ MF. cg vgJ
gaghil cUthFtjhF. itfshtd; tot gaghL, fhy
gaghL kW l gaghL vd _tifgL. jifa _tif
gaghLfis cUthFtjh cg mfJ glfS
gfS kW g bragLwd. xU bghU gaghL gy
fhuzfsh mff TL.
tot gaghL
xU bghU mikig khW nghJ mj gaghL
mffTL. vLJfhlhf gU gaghL mjid
Jahf khWnghJ mffTL. ntWy vLJ
fhLfshtd: beyhdJ mahf, nfhJik khthf,
btbz beahf khwgLj.
l gaghL
xU glkhdJ xU lUJ ntbwhU lF bfhL
brtjh mj gaghL mfF. vLJfhlhf m
jehoUJ nfushF vLJ bryglh mj gaghL
mfF.
fhy gaghL
glkhdJ vfhy gaghofhf nrJ itf
gLnghJ mj gaghL cawJ. kiHfhy jiu
njf nrJ itJ mjid tU fhyF
gagLJnwh. njitj j gaghL jdh
TLwJ. ntsh glfshd m, be, nfhJik, vbz
Jf, gU tiff nghwit Efnth mwhl
gaghofhf ML KGtJ ghJfhfgLwJ.
127

cilik gaghL
glf thf eltoif bghUL xUtlUJ
ntbwhUtUF khWwJ. glf cgahsflUF nghJ
mjbfd bfhr gaghL cL. nkY mJnt EfnthUF
tff _ykhf brwilnghJ mt gaghL cawJ.
cilik myJ glf cilik xUtlUJ
kbwhUtUF khWtJ cilik gaghL MF. vLJfhlhf
cgahsfshd cHtfl be UFnghJ cs
gaghlhdJ Efnthl m UFnghJ cs gaghil l
Fiwthf UF.
cg fhuf
kj braghLfis, cg brj kW Efj vd
Utifahf fyh. cg br nghJ glf cUkhw
VgLwJ. cLglf btpL glfshf
khwgLwd. cL (Input) glf y, ciH kW
_yjd vW tifgL czjgLwJ. bkhj cLf
cg fhuf vd miHf gLwJ. VnjD xiw cg
brtjF cg fhufis xizFnghJ ehfhtJ xU
fhu njitgLwJ. glfS gfS mtWF jhdhfnt
cg brahJ. Mdh cztkhd jid tna cg
lL eilKiwgLjgLwJ. Jnt bjh Kid myJ
bjhyik (entrepreneurship) vwiHf gLwJ.
cg tKiwF cjaToa glf kW gf
cg fhuf vwiHfgLwJ.
cg fhuf tiff
bghJthf cg fhuf Kjik fhuf (Primary)
kW jUfgl (Derived) fhuf vd UtifgL
glf, gf kW brt Matiw cg brtjfhf
kj aif tsfis gagLJwh. y, ciH Ma
UfhufS (Land and Labour) aifahf gilfglit.
it glfis cg bra ayhJ. tiw Kjik
128

fhuf vwiHnwh _yjd kW bjh mik

Kjik fhuflUJ jUfgljh mtiw
jUfgl cg fhuf vwiHfnwh. jifa
jUfgl cg fhufnshL Kjik fhuf
izJ bragL nghJ bkhj cg mfwJ.
giHa go cg fhuf ehF tifgL.
mitahtd y, ciH, _yjd kW bjhyik vdgL.
y
cg fhuahd y aif tsf midij
myJ aif kjDF ytrkhf bfhLUF bfhil
midij FgjhF. ygu, , fhW, fktsf,
fhLf, MWf, Vf, flf, kiyf, njhZz kW fhyiy
Ma midJ `y vgj bghU MF. vdnt, kjdh
cUthfglhj midJ bghUfS y mlF.
y waf
i)

y aif bfhil MF

ii)

y m iyahdJ

iii)

y myhjJ

iv) y mirtwJ
v)

y brjik kW ltikf khWgL

jikilaJ

vi) y braghL (Passive) cg fhuahF

aif bfhilahf y Ugjh y miy
{a MF. vD, cgF gagLnghJ m gwhFiw
VgLwJ. vdnt, Vw xU iyia mJ bgWwJ.
ciH (Labour)
cg ghij ciH vgJ kj LbghU MF. xU
gia xUt brLtjh, mtUF ilF kdiwnthL
kL mjid brtjfhf ifkhW vghJ kj j cl
129

myJ mit KGikahfnth gFahfnth gagL,

nkbfhS fL Kana ciHghF vd Mu kh
TWwh.
ciH waf
i)

ciH maToaJ

ii)

ciH cg Ka fhuahF. ynkh myJ

_yjdnkh ciH mf cgia isf ayhJ.

iii)

ciH xnu uhdjy (not homogeneous) wik nj

egUF eg khWgLwJ.

iv)

ciHig ciHghslUJ f ayhJ.

v)

ciH l bgauToaJ . Fiwthd Ca bgW

bjhUJ mfkhd Ca bgW bjhYF kjf xU
lUJ kbwhU lF l bgawhf.

vi)

j ciHghs ngu ngR Mw Fiw. bjhygl

(employer) mf Cafhfnth myJ ey nkgl
giyfhfnth mt nghuhl ayhJ. vD gahsf
jfSF xUizJ bjh rf mikJ
nghuhLtj _y mtf ngu ngR Mw mfwJ.

ciH gyjuglJ. rhjhuz ciH vgJ ia

njhLj, f cilj, RikFj nghwit. Mdh ciH,
mf wbgw, nkyhsf, bghahsf, bjh Eg
tYef nghwtfis cslajhF.
ntiy gF Kiw
Mj ntiy gF Kiwia jdJ ehLf brt
vw _y mKfgLsh.
ntiy gF Kiw bghU
xU cgKiwia eF tiuaWfgl btntW
cfshf J mj cf xbthiw xbthU
jgl ciHgh myJ ciHghs FGdl xgiljny
ntiy gF Kiw vdgL.
130

vLJfhlhf xU ijafhu xU rilidna

KGikahf ijwh. `Maj Milf br VWkahs
Jfis btLj, cl gFfSfhd Jfis ijj,
ifgFfis ijj, fGJ gFfis ijj vW xbthU
g jj ciHghsfsh nkbfhsgLwJ. Wahf
midij izJ xU y ijwd. iyf
KotilnghJ mJahdJ, xU Milahf cUthwJ.
xU rilia xnu xU ijafhu ijf Kglh xU
ehisF ehF rilf kLnk ijf Ko. VWk Mil
cg br x Wtd, xU ehisF 100 rilf Tl
ijl aY. j _y `ntiy gF Kiw
Kiw, cgid
caJ vgJ bjthwJ.
ntiygF Kiw mfho
X mfho ntiygF Kiw msit
khwJ. xU glJfhd mfho cq
mfhoUJ nja mfhoahf, gdhL mfhoahf
tilwJ. mjdh cg tKiwahdJ gy W W
Kiwfshf fgLwJ. xbthU W tKiw, mbjh
KiwFa w nj bgw x ciHghF mfgLwJ.
jdh, cg f mfkhf caUwJ.
ntiygF Kiw eikf
1. xU bjhyh L L xiw kL brtjh,
mbjh Kiw mtUila wik mfwJ.
2. ntiy gF Kiw ed aufis cg mfkhf
gagLJtjF t tFwJ. cjhuzkhf fyh
j fLo.
3. fhyK, _ybghUfS f wikahf gagLj
gLwd.
ntiygF Kiw ikf
1. xnu ntiyia Ug Ug brtjh Ritaw, fgw
ntiy jikia jh, mt milwh. J kj
jikia mwJ.
131

2.

xU gF gia kL brt f njbgw bjhyh

cik xU FWa njia kL bgwtdh Lwh.
j isthf, ntiy thik bgUL iy VgLwJ.

3.

ifid bghUf tsid, ntiy gFKiw

mwJ. xU bghUis KGikahf cUtha kdiwid,
xU bjhyh miltiy.

3.

cg gUk bghU _yjdij <LgLJtjh,

xbthU ML tUkhdij bjhlahf jUwJ.
jid ML bjhif (annuities) vW TWnwh.
gUk bghU _yjdij, nkY nkY cg brJ, mj
bkhj mid mfkhLtnj, gUk bghU _yjd
MfkhF.

2. gz _yjd

_yjd
_yjd vgJ ntW gy glfis cg brl kj
Kafsh cUthfglJ. rhjhuzkhf _yjd vgJ
brtij FF. brtij nkY cg brtjbfd
xJfgl brt vW _yjdij Twyh. aif bfhil
jj tUkhd mfToa w tif brtfns _yjd vd
kh yfz Tsh. _yjdK brtK xnu bghU
cilajy. UJ vyh brtfS _yjd mW, Mdh,
vyh _yjdK brt vW TwgLwJ.
_yjd totf
1. gUk bghU _yjd (m) bghUrh _yjd
2. gz_yjd (m) gza tsf/Mjhuf
3. kj _yjd (m) kj w tsf
1. gUk bghU _yjd
auf, fUf, folf, rhiyf, mizfLf,
br bjhl rhjdf Mait kjdh cUthfgl
gUkbghU _yjdkhF.
gUk bghU _yjd jikf

gz to myJ gzkhW gufshf midJ

KjLfS nkbfhsgLwd. xU FLgkhdJ,
jDila tUkhd xU gFid, t Ughf, gF
gufshf (m) ntW gz khW guf _ykhf
nrwJ. Jnt `gz _yjd vW TwgLwJ.
3. kj _yjd
kj _yjd vgJ ciH ts juij FF. mJ
fahY, gahY cl eyfhf bfhLfgL KjL
MF. kj _yjd Kjoid mfFnghJ, cg
nkgLwJ.
_yjd waf
1.

_yjd xU brayw cg fhu MF.

2.

_yjd kj Kaah cUthfglJ.

3.

_yjd xU aikahj cg fhu iy. _yjd

yhk cg eilbgW.

4.

_yjd mf aF jik bfhlJ.

5.

_yjd m beGjiksJ.

6.

_yjd MfKilaJ.

1.

gUk bghU _yjd vgJ xU brhJ. J Fl

MLf tiu kLnk theh bfhljhF.

7.

_yjd gy MLf oF. xU cg Wtd gy

MLf cg <Lglyh.

2.

gUk bghU _yjdij cgF L L

gagLJtjh, njkhd VgLwJ.

8.

_yjdij uLtj nehf vfhy tUkhd bgw

ntL bkgnjahF.

132

133

bjhyik (myJ) bjh Kidnth

bjhKidnth vdgLgt gntW cg fhufis
xUizJ, bragLgt Mth. (y, ciH, _yjd). nkY,
mfhufis rahd msY, rahd KiwY bjhl
lghLfis VW cgia bgUf bragLgtnu bjh
Kidnth Mth. bjh Kidnth bjh mikghs vd
`bjh J vgJ lghLfis VW
miHf gLwh.`bjh
glf kW gfis cg brtjF thf kW mik
Mw bgWtj_y yhg <LtjhF. bjh Kidnth
rKjha khw fhQ Kft vd miHfgLwh. mt rKjha
UgKs cgia bfhLgnjhL kLkyhk rKjha ey
nkgl fhuzkhdt Mth.
bjh Kidnth gf
1. yhgfukhd KjL thfis milahs
fL njbjLj
bjh Kidnth Kjik gahdJ mfho
yL a fUJfis rthfis VW yhgfukhf
gagL bfhtJ vthW? vgij MuhtjhF. Jnt
yhgfukhd KjL thfis milahs fL njbjLj
MF.
2. cg my msit khj
xU bjh Kidnth cg my msit
khwh - rij ngho msitbghUJ, cg
aig bghUJ bgajhfnth ajhfnth csjhf
khgh.
3. cg my lij njbjLj
xU wj bjh Kidnth jdJ cg br lij
fhu rijF (factor market) W iy rijF (end-use
market) mUnyna njbjLgh. cg kW g fhyjhkj
VgLtij jf, Uiy kW nghFtuJ bryit
Fiwf J mtakhwJ.
134

4. cg fhuf cjk xUizig

flj
bjh Kanth xU J bjhiy bjhlf khj
iy, mt cg fhufis cg <LgLJ
gid bjhlFwh. nkY fhufis vj j
izJ Fiwj bry mf cgia bgw aY vd
khwh.
5. jhfg
mogil J mfhofis fljY, J bjh
Egfis ifahtJnk bjh Kidnth jhf g vd
nguha ]l TWwh. xU J mfho gid msit
TLtnjhL, a cg bryit FiwF , bghUis
kthf ilf br. jdh gid TL, yhg
mfF.
6. btFk bryit khj
cgF gagL fhufshtJ mj cgF Vg
btFkia bgWwJ. cg fhuf cgia
msLjY kW mj btFka bjh Kanth
Fa gahF.
7. lghLfis Vw, raikia
vbfhs
thg vgJ lghLf fL (bundle of risks)
vwh Ahny. bghUf vfhy njitF cg
bragLwd. vfhy raJtyhjJ. KjLf
ffhy lgLwd. cg J fbgU lghL.
lghLfis VF xUt btfukhd bjh Kidnth
Mth. xU ntfKs bjhKidnth, ma vfhy
lghLfis VW, mjfhd rahd f _y
lghLfUJ tJ MF. ie Knight vw mP
TWgho thg cWawjikfis bghWJbfhs xU
bjhKanth jiyaha g vgjhF.
135

cg rh (Production Function)

vLnfhf

cg rh vgJ xU Wtd cL btpLfSF

ilnacs aghd bjhlghF. cL vgJ cgF
gagL y, ciH, _yjd, bjhyik Ma Mf
gfshF. btpL vgJ cg bkhj msit FwJ.
bfhLfgl gjid cg rh vgJ bfhr
cLfis gagL mj isthf cg bragL
btpLfns MF. cg rh vgJ Q = f (x1, x2, x3.... xn)
Q vgJ Fl fhy cg bragl msthF.
x1, x2, 3.... xn Mait cg gagLjgl gntW
fhuf MF.

1.

xnu xU cg fhukL khWnghJ Vida cg

fhuf khwhk UF.

2.

xUntis vyh cg fhufS xnu j

khWglh bghUjhJ. mjhtJ xU bghU
cgia bgWtjF cg fhufis khwhj j
gagLjgLj ntL.

3.

khW cg fhuf xnu jik cilait. khW

cg fhuf midJ myFfS xnu msthd
wid bfhoUF.

xU Fl ms gtif cL bghUfis
gagLdh vts btpL bghUf ilF vgnj
cg rh vdyh. cg rh vgij Utiffshf
fyh.

4.

cLf iyf khwhk UF.

5.

xU Fl fhyfl bjh Egiy khwhJ. (m) xnu

iyahf UF.

1.

FWa fhy cg rh khW j is vgj

_y mayh.

6.

2.

lfhy cg rh vgJ khwh is vgj _y

mayh.

j KGikahd braKiw FWafhy cg rh

cilajhF. l fhy cg cLf khW jik
cilajhF. vdnt, braghLf midJ FWa
fhynf bghUJ.

FWa fhy cg rh
khW j is
x cg fhu iyahf UF nghJ, Vida cg
fhuf msit khdh khW j is VgLwJ.

_W iyf
x cg fhu iyahf UFnghJ, kw cg
fhuf msit khdh _W tifahd isf VgL.
mitf
1. tsJ br is

yfz

2. FiwJ br is

X cg fhu khwhkUF nghJ kiwa cg

fhuf ms khdh Mug Wiy is
mfF. khwhkUF, W cg FiwJ brY.

3. vfa cg

136

j _W tifahd isfis mltiz v.6.1 kW

tiugl 6.1 _ykhf J bfhsyh.
137

mltiz 6.1 khW j is iyf

khwh
fhu

khW
fhu

bkhj
cg

ruhr Wiy
cg cg iyf

1+

10

10

10

1+

22

11

12

1+

36

12

16

1+

52

13

16

1+

66

13.2

14

1+

76

12.6

10

1+

80

11.4

1+

82

10.2

1+

82

9.1

1+

10

78

7.8

-4

tiugl 6.1

ciH

STAGE
II

khW fhu ms
138

vkiw
is

tsJ br is
Kj iy Kotil nghJ, ruhr cg criyia
milwJ. bkhj cg, ruhr cg kW Wiy
cg mfJ bfhnl brwJ. W iy cg
caJ brwJ. Mdh gF Fiwwd. Wiy
cg FiwJ brwhY, ruhr cg catij l mfkhf
csJ. V v ruhr cg mfJ bfhnl brwJ.
ulh iy : Fiwj br is
j Ko W iy cg w {akhF. j
iy, bkhj cg FiwJ brY j caUwJ.
ruhr cg Wiy cg Fiwwd. Mdh uo
aghditna MF.
W iy cg {aij bkhj cg criyia
miljl ulhtJ fl KW bgWwJ.
_wh iy
vfa cg: Wiy cg vkiwahdJ.
bkhj cg kW ruhr cg uL ra bjhlFwd.
iyf af

khW j is

STAGE
I

FiwJ br
is

tsJ br
is

(au) (kj) (myFf) (myFf) (myFf)

myFf) (myFf)
myFf)

Kjiy

STAGE
III

Kj iy, khW fhufisl khwh fhuf mfkhf

csd. Mjyh Kj iy, khwh fhuf W iy
cg vkiwahdJ. mjF mLjgoahf, _whtJ iyf
khW fhuf Wiy cg vkiwahdJ. Mjyh,
gFjs cgahs Kj iyia _wh iyia
njbjLfkhlh. mt ulh iyia kLnk njbjLgh.
Vbd khW kW khwh fhuf W iy cg
aghditna MF. j iy bkhj cg cr iyia
milwJ. j iy cgahs xU nrkhd iy
cg fhu iyia bghUJ cgia nkbfhth.
ulhtJ iy ahakhd cgahs Kofis FgjhF.
139

t.
v.

ms

bkhj W iy
cg
cg

iyf

1.

1 au + 1 ciH

2.

2 au + 2 ciH

10

3.

3 au + 3 ciH

18

4.

4 au + 4 ciH

28

10

tsJ br
j/
is

5.

5 au + 5 ciH

38

10

6.

6 au + 6 ciH

48

10

7.

7 au + 7 ciH

56

8.

8 au + 8 ciH

62

II

khwh j
is
III

FiwJ
br j
is

tiugl 6.2 j ms is
Y

J
br
Y

Wiy cg
myFf
ts

J
br
Y

khwhJ UF
w

140

mltiz 6.2 j ms is

MP

Fi

lfhy cg rh - j ms is
l fhy midJ cg fhufS khwToaJ.
midJ cg fhufS myJ cLfS (Inputs)
khWnghJ btpo VgL khwnk j ms is ahF.
caU ms (an increase in scale) vgJ midJ cLfS
myJ fhufS xU-nru mfgnjahF.
j ms is _W iyf
j ms VgL khwfdh btpLf VgL
khwij btpil _W iyfshf Twyh. mitahtd.
(i) tsJ br j ms is
(ii) khwhj j ms is
(iii) FiwJbr j ms is
tsJbr j ms is
midJ cg fhufis caJnghJ mj j
msF nkyhf cg bgUFwJ. Jnt, tsJ br j
ms is ahF. vLJfhlhf midJ cLfS 5
GfhL caUnghJ btpLf 5 GfhLfSF nk cawJ.
mjhtJ 10 GfhlhF. iy Wiy cg mfF.
khwh j ms is :
bfhLfgl j ms midJ fhufis
caJnghJ, btpL mnj j caU. mjhtJ 5
GfhL midJ cg fhufS caUnghJ mnj ms 5
GfhL rkj ms btpLfS caU. nf W iy
cg khwhjjhF.
FiwJ br j ms is
midJ cg fhufis caJnghJ mnj j
msitl Fiwthf cg bgUdh, mJnt FiwJ br j
ms is ahF. mjhtJ midJ cg fhufS 5
GfhL caUnghJ btpLf 5 GfhoF Fiwthf
cawJ mjhtJ 3 GfhL. j fl W iy cg
Fiw.

ms
141

gl 6.2 j ms is gy iyfis sFwJ.

Wiy cg caUnghJ (AB) bkhj cg TLjyhd
j caUwJ. vdnt mnf caJ br is
bragLwJ. Wiy cg khwhj iy csJ. (BC),
bkhj cg khwhj j caUnghJ cs iy khwhj j
ms is vd miHfgLwJ.
Wiy cg Fiw nghJ (CMP), bkhj cg
Fiwthd j mfwJ. Jnt FiwJ br is
vwiHfgLwJ.
khwh j ms
is

khW j ms
is
1. Fiwjfhy cg rh.

lfhy cg rh

2. vyh fhufS
khwhUF nghJ xnu xU
fhu kL khwToaJ.

midJ fhufS
khwToad

3. cg fhuf cg
fhuf jf.

FWa fhy khW j is (Laws of Returns)F

lfhy khwh j ms is F cs ntWghLf
cg rh, rk ms cg nfhLfS
rk ms cg nfhLf gFgh, unlh myJ
mjF nkgl cgfhufis gytif xUizJ xU
Fl ms btpL cg brtjF gagLtjhF. U
cg fhufis fUbfhL (_yjd kW ciH) xU
Wtd 1000 myF cg brtjF gy tif _yjd kW
ciH fyit vtif cj wJ vgjid mltiz
6.3 fhzyh.
mltiz 6.3
U khW cLf cg
iz
_yjd
ciH
btpL
fyit
myF
myF
(myFf)
A

12

1000

1000

jf khwToaJ khw
ToajW. mj ms khW

1000

1000

4. cg fhuf xU
Fl j xU c g
bghUis cg br tjF
bghUjhJ.

cg fhuf jf
khwToajW. mj ms
khW.

1000

5. caJ br j ms
is, cg fhu f
gFglh jikahY, ciH
waghY V gLwJ.
FiwJ br is cjk
jikaw fhu j jhY
gL fhuf iwFiw
be ahY VgLwJ.

tsJbr j ms is
, is fdjh
(economics of scale) VgLwJ.
mnj neu fd ikah
FiwJ br is
VgLwJ.

cg

nkfh mltid _y gntW msyhd ciH kW

_yjd midJ fyitfS xnu msyhd 1000 myFf
cgia jUwJ vgJ eF ygLwJ.
tiugl 6.3 : rk ms cgnfhL

_yjd

142

143

Units of
Units of
Combination
Capital
fyit
_yjd
myF

MRTS
Labour
ciH
myF

CL
r.m.c.nfh.
c.K.)
(c.K.)

3.

rkms cgnfhL canu bry bry cg btpL

caJ bfhnl brY. gntW cg btpLfis
FF rkms cg nfhLf bjhF rkms
cg nfhL (Isoquant maps) tiugl vd miHnwh.
rkms cg cg nfhL tiugl. tyJ gf
cs rkms cg nfhL mf ms btLfis
FwJ.

4.

rkms cgnfhLf xiw xW btobfhshj

jhf, xiw xW bjhL bryhjjhf csJ.
thWsnghJ xnu rkms cg nfhoYs midJ
tif fyitfS xnu msyhd btpLfis FlhJ.

tiugl 6.4
rkcg tisnfhLf

tiugl 6.5
rkcg bry nfhLf

ciH

MRTS nkfh ia (formula) gagL fzlyh.

j_y Wiy bjhEg gL j vnghJ

FiwwJ. vdnt rk ms cg nfhL vnghJ njhWthia
neh FJ fhzgLwJ. rkms cg nfho r
Wiy bjhEg gL jij FwJ.

ciH

rk ms cg nfhLf (Isoquant Curves)

uL mRfS _yjd kW ciH msit
FLwJ. (IQ) tisnfhL gntW msyhd fyit 1000
myFf cg brtij (Output) sFwJ. tisnfho nk
R1, R2, R3, R4, R5 Ma f _yjd-ciH fyit
_y 1000 myFf cg brtij fhLwJ. vdnt, nkfh
tisnfhL rk ms cg nfhL vW miHfgLwJ.
jdh, rkms cg nfhL vgJ U cg
fhufis gntW fyitf gagL xnu ms cg
brtij FF.
rkms cgnfho af
1. rkms cgnfhLf lUJ tykhf nkUJ
neh brY. mjhtJ vkiwahf rJsJ,
2. Wiy bjhEg gL jjh rkms
cgnfhL njhWthia neh FJ fhzgLwJ.
Wiy bjhEg gL j (MRTS) fhu
X(_yjd)F gyhf Y(ciH) vgJ xU myF fhu XF
(_yjd) gyhf bragLtjh btpo ms khwhknyna
UF.
MRTS CL = L / C

_yjd

_yjd

12

rkcg brynfhL

xU Wtd jdJ cgia bj brtjF gntW

cgfhuf fyitia khJ bragl rkcg
bry nfhLf bgU gF twJ. xU Wtd Fl
ms gz bry thfToa Ufhuf gy

144

145

bjhFfis FLtnj rk cg brynfhL MF. ca

rkcg brynfhLf mf gz bry thf Toaij,
Fiwj rkcg brynfhLf Fiwthd gz bry thf
Toaij Ff brwJ.
rkcg bry nfhLf Uj
khfgLwd
1. cg fhuf iyf
2. Wtd cg fhufJ bgW bkhj gzbry.
nkFl uil bghUnj rk cg bry nfhL
tiuagLwJ. U fhuf iy jnk rkcg
brynfho rtF rkkhF. jdh, rkcg
rnfho bry vgJ
fhu X iy (_yjd)
rkcg brynfho r =
fhuY iy (ciH)
cgahs rkiy
xU wj cgahs, bfhLfgl fhuf cg
bry, mf ms cgia bgw Kath. Fiwj ms
fhu fyitfis gagL xU Fl ms btpo
cryhgij cgahs bgWwh.
ts fhuf bry fyit cgahsUF
cjkhdbjhwhF.
tiugl 6.6 cgahs rkiy

gl 6.5 E rkiy MF. rkcg brynfhL AB

rkms cgnfhL 1Q2F bjhLnfhlhf csJ.
bfhLfgLs tu brynfhL AB P, N, F f
cgahs mila Koahj iy csJ. IQ2 cs `E
ial rk ms cgnfhL IQ2 cs R kW S f
Fiwj ms cgiana jU. fhuz fyit R, E, S
brylgl bjhif xnu khahdJ. Mdh E cg
btpL mf Vbd E ca rkms cg nfho csJ.
rkms brynfhL kW rkms cgnfhL bjhL brY
E vw bjhLia cgahs cg brtjF
njbjLgh.
thW. cgahs E rkiy milwh.
m E rkms cg nfhoid rkms brynfhL
bjhL brY. rkms cg nfhL, rkms.
brynfhL rk ms rwd. thW rkiy
Wiy bjhEg gL jK cg fhuf
iyjK rk. vdnt, cgahs rkiy gjid vgJ
MRTs xy = Px
Py
j rkiy E fyitna (mjhtJ OL ciH,
OQ _yjd) Fiwj bry vwiHfgLwJ.
fh-ly cg rh :

ciH

bghUa vikahdJ, gutyhf gagLjgL

cg rh fh-ly cg rh MF. a cg
rhig mjtf nguhaf C.W. fh kW P.H. ly
Mthf.
fh-ly cg rh tUkhW
Q = bLa C1-a
Q = cik btpL
_yjd
146

L = ciH
147

C = _yjd
b = ciH vif ms
a = mLF j ms ciH (exponent of labour)
1-a = mLF j ms _yjd (exponent of capital)
nkfhQ cg rhgo U cg fhufS
(ciH kW _yjd) xU GfhL mfFnghJ btpL
(bkhj cg) mfF. xU GfhL cLf
mfFnghJ btpLfS xU GfhL caUwJ. j_y
fh-ly cg rh khwhj j ms is ia kL
sFwJ. j Ka fhuz vdbtwh mLF j ms
_yjdkhdJ. mLF j ms ciHig rhJsJ. J
vbghGJ xW vd MF. vLJfhlhf mLF ms
ciH 0.2 v mLF j ms _yjd 0.8 Mf UF;
mJngh mLF j ms ciH 0.3 v mLF j ms
_yjd 0.7 MF.
mLF j msit Rjukhf braglLtjdh
rkghL thW vGjgLwJ Q = bLaCb.
nkfh, cg rh mLFj ms TLj khwh
j ms is juij FwJ

bryd Tl FiwwJ. midJ eikfS ngus

cgdh ilgjdh jid bghUshjhu fdf vd
miHnwh.
bghUshjhu fdf UtifgL
(m) mf fdf (M) wfdf
mf fdf
WtdDnsna bgwgL eikf mf fdf
vwiHfgL. mit clhdit (endogenous) w
Wtdf braghLfdh myhk xU j Wtd
braghodh kLnk J VgLwJ. vLJfhlhf xU
Wtd ey nkyhik _y eikf gybgW; kbwhW ed
aufis bgUgjdh mf eikfis milayh. mf
fdf IJ tifgL. mit ahtd.
1. bjhEg fdf
Wtd ms bga ms Ugjh, ilF
_yjdK mfkhf UF. jdh, xU Wtd ed bjh
Egfis FjKo; vdnt j _y cgia mff
bra Ko. nkY Muh kW tsdh cg juij
caj Ko.

a + b > 1 : tsJ br j is

2. fdf

a + b = 1 : khwhj j is

bga Wtdf rij gF gid _y _yjd

bgUfij VgLjyh. W Wtdf _yjdfhf fl
thFnghJ, bga Wtdf _yjdij bgwKo.

a + b < 1 : FiwJ br j is
ngus cg - bghUshjhu fd tiff
(bghUshjhu
bghUshjhu fdf) (Economies of Scale)
fd vgJ eikf. ms vgJ myFf msit
FF. bghUshjhu fdf vgJ ngus cg VgL
bry rhj eikf MF. cg ms mfFnghJ
fLkhd bryf Fiwa bjhlF. cLfis bkhjkhf
thFnghJ cgahs ngu ng thFtjhd ruhr khW
148

3. nkyhik fdf
ngus cg isjh ntiy gF Kiw. ntiy
gFKiw Ujh rahd kjf rahd Jiw Ughf.
xbthU JiwFkhd bghWzit VgLj nkyhsUF J
cj; j_y cg mfF. bkhj cg cr iyia
vL.
149

4. ciH fdf

mf fdikf

ngus cg ntiygFKiwF ttFjJ. jid w

ciH vdyh. J ciH ju kW wid mfF.
Wtd cg w jdh mfF.

xU Wtd bjhlJ cjk iyF nkY tilJ

brYnghJ bghUshjhu fdf kiwtJl fdikf
bjhlFwJ. vLJfhlhf Wtd ms mfFnghJ
xU Fl iy nkyhik lghLf Fl
WtdF VgLtjh, ruhr cg bry mfF. Jnt
mffdik vdgL.

5. rij rhj fdf

cg, Kj _ybghU thFgt cgahs.
Wtd ngus Mf UFnghJ tha bghUS mfkhF. J
cgahsUF wj thF ria jUwJ. nkY mt fl
triaia bgw aY. ngus cg fhuzkhfnt nkfh
midJ rhakhF. rij thFj Kj eltoif vdyh.
6. rij bjhlUgj fdf
bga Wtdf gntW cgfis bfhoU fyh. xU
bghU cg rij njhW el nkglhY ntbwhU
bghUf yhgdh jid <Lbra Ko.
7. w fdf
mf Wtdf xU Fl gF tilJ
bfhoUF nghJ mjhtJ bjh tsUnghJ mit mf
eikfis bgWwJ. jid w fdf vnwh. J xU
Wtd kLnk bgW eikayhJ mik khwjh midJ
WtdfS bgW gadhF. mitfshtd.
m) nkgl nghFtuJ trf

wfdikf
xU Fl iyF wF msffkhd Wtdf
Xl FJ fhzgLjyhY bjhiy cq kakhFtjhY
cg fdik VgLwJ. mgF cs midJ
WtdfSF J bghJthdJ. vLJfhlhf Fl
gF bjhrhiyfis thFtjh mf thu kW mf
bry VgLwJ. vdnt xU Fl gF mikJs
bjhrhiyah (industry) mFsmidJ WtdfS (firm)
nkfh wfdikah ghfgLwJ.
g
gF-M
I.

rahd ilia njbjLf.

1.

cg vgJ

M) t braghL rhj trf

) ehff ts
<) jft kW bjhiybjhl ts

2.

ngus cgdh xU Wtdnfh, FG Wtd

fSnfh vG ikna fdikf.
150

M. gaghil cUthFj

. khW k

<. VJiy

y Mug m iy
m. {a
M. xWF mfkhdJ
. xWF FiwthdJ <. xWF rkkhdJ

bjhrh gFf nkfh trf midJ v

ilwJ.
fdikf (Diseconomies of Scale)

m. gagho m

3.

ciHig .............. UJ f KoahJ.

m. Kj
M. ciHghsl
. yhg

<. cg mik
151

4.

KjYF mfgL Ca

IV.

XU thijf ila

m. to

16.

rKjha khw fhQ Kft ah?

17.

mffdf vthW njhWwJ?

18.

rkms cg nfhoF ntW bga ahJ?

19.

cgahs rkiyia mila gjid ahJ?

20.

fh-ly cg rhid TW.

M. yhg

II.

. T
<. thlif
.............. VF xUtnu btfukhd bjh Kidnth
Mth.
m. jhf idj
M. lghLfis
. cg my lij njbjLj
<. VJiy
nfhol lfis uf.

6.

yK, ciH ........... cg fhuf MF.

tU dhfSF
ilaf.

7.

ehLf brtK mij cUthFw fhufis ga

M vw iy vGat .........

21.

gagho tiffis TW.

8.

x mfho .............. Kiw msit khwJ.

22.

ciH vwh vd?

9.

.............. vgJ ntW gy glfis cg brl kj

Kafsh cUthfglJ.

23.

ntiygF Kiw vgj bghU ahJ?

24.

_yjd totf ahit?

25.

cg rh vwh vd? tifgLJf.

5.

10.

............ vgJ xU Wtd cL btpLfSF

ilna cs aghd bjhlghF.

III. bghUJf
11.

bjhKidnth X,

gF-M
ehF

myJ

IJ

tf

gF-
tU dhfSF xU gf ms ilaf.

- fhly

jhfg brgt
12.

ntiy gFKiw

- Ahny

13.

cg rh

- nguha Rl

14.

lghLf bjhF

- kh

15.

cl ciH myJ

- Ml R
152

26.

ntiygF Kiw wfis, Fiwfis sFf.

27.

_yjdj gfis tirgL sFf.

28.

bjh Kidnth gf ahit?

29.

j ms is ia khW j ms is
ia xWikfis, ntWikfis sFf.

30.

cgahs rkiyia rkms cg nfhLfis

bfhL sFf.
153

gF-<
tU dhfSF _W gf ms ilaf
31.

y vwh vd? y wafis sFf.

32.

ciH vwh vd? ciH afis sFf.

33.

j ms cg _W iyfis sFf.

34.

fh-ly cg rhig sFf.

35.

khW j is ia T sFf.

36.

rkms cg nfhLf vwh vd? mj afis

sFf.

37.

bghUshjhu fdf tiffis sFf.

154

ghl - 7

bry tUth
bry
xU bghUis cg br nghJ VgLw gytifahd
brydf cg bry (Cost of Production) vW
miHfgL. J mbghUis cg br bghGJ bry
bragL gzij FF. j cg bryid - bjh
ms, cg iy, bjh Eg jik, cL bghUf
ms, ciH kW nkyhik w nghw fhuf
khwd. thW xU bghU cg bry vgJ
cg fhufSF brYjgLw `bkhj iyna (aggregate
price) MF.
bry rh
bry rh vgJ bkhj brydfSF kW
cgF ilna cs bjhlid (functional relationship)
btgLJwJ. FpLUthf bry rh vgJ :
C = f (Q) MF.
F C vgJ bryF rk [C = Cost]
Q vgJ cgF rk [Q = Output]
bry kW brydf
gzbry kW cik bry : (Money cost and Real Cost)
xU bjh Wtd xU bghUis cg bra gzkhf
bryLw midJ bjhifiank gzbry vW
miHnwh. J,
i) _ybghUSfhd bry,
ii) ciHfhd T, kW rgs
iii) aufSF fUfSfhF bry
iv) auf, fllf nghw _yjd bghUfis
gGJghF bry
155

v) _yjdfhd to

bghUshjhu bry (Economic Cost)

vi) sgu bry, fhL bry

btW bryf, (Explicit cost) kL cshj

bryfis nrj bkhj bjhifna bghUshjhu brythF.
jDila Ra ciH, Ka, jid kW jdF brhjkhd
fhufis xU bjh Kidnth cg gagLJtjh
mRa nritfhd btFkna cshj brythF. jF
kiwUF bry (Imputed Cost) vw bgaU cL. j brhj
bjh jdJ gzijna Kjlhf nghL, jdJ Ra cg
gfSfhf T kW rgsij bgW, jdF brhjkhd
yij lij gagL mjfhd thuij bgW
bfhlh mtiwna cshj bryf vW fzlgL.
thwhf

vii) bjh KidnthUfhd yhg nghw brydfis

cslF.
cik bry vgJ j cSz rhj fUjhF.
(Subjective Concept) xU bghUis cg brt VgL Jg
kW ahfij J FF. cg fhufis bgW mtiw
cg <LgLj MF Caf bkhj gzbry
vdgL. Mdh cik bry vgJ gzij nrJ KjL
brt VgLwjhd Kaia ahfij, ciHghf
LbfhLF mtfsJ X neuij, fL Ka ia,
clYiHig ycikahsf Cfij kdiw,
iwtw kdiyfis FF.
wth bry
xU gl wj gaghL njbjLfgLtjh
mjDila mLj wj gaghL L bfhLfgl ntosJ.
vLJfhlhf nfhJikia gaL cHt jlKs mnj
cg fhufis gagL cUisHif rhFgo brayh.
xU Flh nfhJik wth bryahbj Ljj
cUisH cg msntahF.
ngnuL bry / btW bry
(Accounting Cost or Explicit Cost)
xU glij cg bra xU bjhKidnth cg
fhufSF mF Caf kW flzfSnk cshj
bryf vdgL. fzL bry (fzL bry) vgJ
cgahs neuoahf brYJ (m) mtnu fzL afgl ciHghs T, bgwgl KjL glf
iyf, vbghU kW rhu bryf, cg ntiyfSfhf
thlifF bfhsgl folfhd thlif, fl thfgl
_yjd fhd toj kW brYjgl tf Matiw
cslajhF.
156

bghUshjhu bry = btW bryf + cshj bryf

bjh Wtd yhg <l ntLkh jh <L tUth
cg bryitl TLjyhf UF ntL vgJ
FljfJ.
bghUshjhu yhg = bkhj tUth - bkhj bry.
jah bry kW r_f bry
jah Jiw Wtd cgfhF bry jah bry
MF. Wtd btW bryf kW cshj
bryf TL bjhifna jah brythF.
r_f bry vgJ cg Wtd cg bry
mW. mJ rKjha UF kw kfSF Vgl brythF.
vLJfhlhf xU vbz Rf Miy btnaW f
bghUf MW Ul fyJ m ik nfL VgL, mj
isthf r_f Rf ey ghfgL. mJ mr_f xU
brydij VgLJ. mrKjha m bryid nkbfhs
KgL.
khwh bry khW bry
U bryfS, fhyngh gntW cg iyf
brydf eltoifis Jbfhs bgJ gagLwJ.
157

khwh fhuf kW khW fhuf FWafhy cg

kLnk rhUfToait. FWafhy y cg
fhufis khw ayhJ. fhuf khwh fhuf (Fixed
Factors) vW miHfgLwd. khwh cg fhufSF
MF bry khwh bry (Fixed Cost) vW miHfgLwJ.
FWa fhy cg fhuf msit kh mikf Ko
v mjid khW fhuf vW, mjdh VgL bry khW
bry (Variable Cost) vd miHfgLwJ. khwh bry
gntW cg iyfY khwhjjhfnt UF. Mdh khW
bryf gntW cg iyfY khbfhnl UF.
FWa fhy, khwh bry vgJ cgia bghWjJ
mW, mjhtJ cg btponfg mit khWglhjit. cg
Fiwthf myJ cathf UjhY y bryf khwhjitahf
iyahdjhf UF. vLfh: Fjif (thu), _yjdfhf to
j, uju gahsUfhd Caf, fhL flz, tf
y.
khW bryf vgd FWa fhy khwToa
fhufis ntiyF mk mitfSfhf Vgl brythF.
bkhj khW bry (TVC) vgJ cg msnthL khwToaJ.
bry cg mfF nghJ mfJ, cg Fiw
nghJ FiwaToaJ. cg VJ iyba khW bry
{akhf UF. khW bry ciHF mF T,
_ybghU vbghU, rhu nghwtfhd iyia
nghFtuJ bryit cgLaJ.
bkhj bry (Total Cost)
bkhj bry vgJ bkhj khwh bryit bkhj khW
bryit Toa bkhj bjhifahF.
TC = TFC + TVC
TC bkhj bry = bkhj khwh bry + bkhj khW bry
l bkhj khwh bry vgJ iyahdJ. mJ
cg msnthL khw ToaJ my. vdnt bkhj bry
158

VgL khw, khW bry kLnk Vgl khw gh vgJ

fU bfhs ntoajhF.
bkhj khwh bry, bkhj khW bry kW bkhj bry
vgdt bjhlid mj sfij tiugl 7.1
fhzyh.
tiugl 7.1

bry

khwh fhuf khW fhuf kW bryf

cg
FWa fhy ruhr bry tisnfhLf
ruhr khwh bry ((AFC)
ruhr khwh bry vgJ cg xU myfhd khwh
brythF. J bkhj khwh bryid cg myFfsh
tFFnghJ ilF <thF.
(ruhr khwh bry)AFC =

bkhj khwh bry (TFC)

cg (Q)

vLJfhlhf xU cg Wtd bkhj khwh bry

%.2000. mj cg ms 100 myFf. ruhr khwh bry =
%.2000/100 = %.20. nkY 200 myFf cgahFnghJ %.2000/
200 = %.10. bkhj khwh bry khwhkUgjh ruhr khwh bry,
cg mfFnghJ xnu uhd tif Fiw. nkY cg
f mfkhFnghJ ruhr khwh bry {akhL.
159

ruhr khW bry ((AVC)

mltiz 7.1

ruhr khW bry vgJ cg xU myfhd khW

brythF. J bkhj khW bryid cg myFfsh
tFFnghJ ilF <thF.
AVC = ruhr khW bry

ruhr khwh bry, ruhr khW bry kW ruhr bkhj

bry
bkhj
myFf

bkhj
khwh
bry
TFC

bkhj
khW
bry
TVC

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

120
120
120
120
120
120
120
120

0
100
160
210
240
400
540
700

120

880

TVC = bkhj khW bry

Q = cg ms
ruhr khW bry U () totkhdJ. cg mfF
nghJ, ruhr khW bry, rhjhuz cg msit (mil) vL
tiu FiwJ brY. Vbd (tsJbr is iy
miltjh) Mdh j cg msit jho, nkY cg
mfFnghJ ruhr khW bry FiwJ br is iyia
milwJ.
ruhr bkhj bry (m) ruhr bry
ATC or AC
ruhr bkhj bry, ruhr bry vW miHfgLwJ.
J TC/Q vW bkhj bryit cg myFfsh tFFnghJ
ilF <thF.
AC = TC/Q ruhr bry = bkhj bry / cg
AC = ruhr bry
TC = bkhj bry
Q = cg ms

bkhj ruhr
bry khwh
(2 + 3) bry
TC
(21)AFC

ruhr
khW
bry

ruhr

(31)AVC

(AC)

(5)

(6)

(7)

120
220
280
330
360
520
660
820

120
60
40
30
24
20
17.14

0
100
80
70
60
80
90
100

220
140
110
90
104
110
117.14

1000

15

110

125

cg ms xU myfhd brythf - ruhr bry

fzLtjh J xU myfhd bry UnitCost vW
miHfgLwJ. fl tiugl ruhr khwh bry, ruhr
khW bry kW ruhr bry Ma tisnfho totij
sFwJ.
FWa fhy ruhr bry tisnfhLf
tiugl 7.2

AC = AFC + AVC

bry

ATC

ruhr bry vgJ ruhr khwh bry kW ruhr khW

bryf TLbjhifahF.
ruhr bry = ruhr khwh bry + ruhr khW bry

cg
160

(5 + 6)

161

nkfl tiugl 7:2UJ. ruhr bry tisnfhL, ruhr

khwh bry tisnfho jikia kW ruhr khW bry
tisnfho jik (behaviour)ia rhJsJ. Jtf,
ruhr khwh bry kW ruhr khW bry FiwJ brY.
Mfnt ruhr bry rJ brwJ. ruhr khW bry canu
mff MuF nghJ ruhr khwh bry brFjhf
rwJ. mjhtJ ruhr khwh bry tisnfho r ruhr
khW bry tisnfho bry ritl mfkhf UF.
vdnt ruhr bry tisnfhL bjhlJ rJbfhnl UF.
Mdh cg nkY mfFnghJ ruhr khW bry iuthf
(Sharp) mfwJ. mJ ruhr khwh bry ritl mfkh
UF. vdntjh ruhr bkhj tisnfhL xU Fl
UJ mfgij fhzyh. ruhr bkhj bry
tisnfhL ruhr khW bry tisnfhil ngh Kj FiwJ
, Fiwjgr kig milJ, ca milwJ.
vdntjh mJ U tot mikJsJ.
Wiy bry (Marginal Cost)

MCn = Wiy bry

TCn-1 = n-1 myFf cg bra MF bkhj bry.

Wiy
bry (%)
%)

200

300

100

390

90

470

80

570

100

690

120

820

130

955

135

1100

145

162

MCn = TCn - TCn-1

tiugl 7.3

Wiy
bry

bkhj bry (%)

Vfdnt cs cg ms, xU myF cg

mfdh, bkhj bry VgL TLw fu ms brynt
Wiy bry vW tiuaiw bragLwJ. vLJfhlhf xU
Wtd 100 myFf cg brwJ. Wiy bry vgJ 100
myFf cg bra MF bkhj bryUJ 99 myFf
cg bra MF bryid fjh ilgnj MF.
mWtd 99 myFfis cg bra %.9000/= bkhj
brythwJ vW itJ bfhlh 100 myFf cg bra
%.10,000 brythF nghJ %.1000/= Wiy brythF. mWtd
xU myF bghU TLj cg bra %.1000/= bry brJsJ.
FpLf

TCn = n myFf cg bra MF bkhj bry

mltiz 7.2 Wiy bry fzL

cg myFf

Wiy bry tisnfhL fl tiugl bfhLf

gLsJ.

cg

163

Wiy tisnfhL U totij bfhLsJ.

totij khW j is khwJ. (Law of variable
proportions)

3.

tsJ br is (Law of increasing returns)

afdh W iy tisnfhL rJL. Vbd cg
myFf TLbghGJ bry FiwJtU. FiwJ br is
(Law of decreasing returns) aFtjhY cg ms
fdikahY (Diseconomics of scale), Wiy tisnfhL
mfwJ. Vbd tsJ br bry fhuzkhf VgLwJ.

lfhy ruhr bry tisnfhL :- (LAC)

l fhy midJ fhufS khwhToait. vdnt
njit khwnfg, _yjd fUf kW auf
msit mWtd khbfhsTL. lfhy ruhr bry
tisnfhL - btL cgF, lfhy cg
bryFilna cs bjhlid sFwJ.

FWafhy ruhr tisnfhoF FWafhy Wiy

bry tisnfhoF ilna cs bjhl : (Relationship between
SAC & SMC) :

tiugl 7.6
Y

ruhr bry

tiugl 7.4

tiugl 7.5

ruhr bry

itfSilnacs bjhl fj sFj

vjhf mikJsJ.

W iy bry tisnfhL ruhr tisnfho jhj

(Fiwj) UJ btl ntL. thW ruhr
bry (AC) Fiwj MC, ACF rkkhf UF.

cg

AC kW MC

cg

cg

t bjhlid flthW mfyh

1.

Wiy bry ruhr bryitl Fiwthf UFnghJ

nghJ, ruhr bry FiwwJ.

2.

Wiy bry ruhr bryitl mfkhf UFnghJ,

ruhr bry mfwJ.
164

l fhy cg ms xU Wtd gntW gfis

bfhLsJ vw vLnfh mogil l fhy ruhr
tisnfhL mikJsJ. xbthU cg msF myJ
Wtd msF, mWtdnf cjhd FWa fhy
ruhr bry tisnfhil (SAC) bfhLsJ. tis
nfhLf tot tiugl 7.5 fhlgLsJ. bjh Eg
_W msyhd, wa, eLju, kW bga Wtdf
Ugjhf eh vLJbfhnth. SAC, vgJ a msyhd
WtdF SAC2 eLju msthd WtdF, SAC3 bga
msthd WtdF bghUJ. FWa fhy, njitgL
cg OA Mf UFbghGJ, mWtd, FWa msyhd
cgia bj br, Mdh, cg ms OB ia fhoY
mf msthf UF bghGJ mWtd eLju cgia bj
brJ, ruhr brythdJ FWafhy msitl mfkhf UF.
165

(mnj msthd btpoF) OD ia fhoY mf ms cg

brtjF mWtdkhJ, bgUks cgia bj br.
(SAC3) FWa fhy WtdkhdJ bfhLfgl xU bjhnyhL
izfgLsJ. Mdh lfhy mWtd xU bjh
rhiyUJ kbwhF khWwJ. cg ms khWgL
bghGJ, xU a Wtd nrfgLwJ. Wtd ms cgl
midJ cLfS khW bghGJ, xU Fl ms cg
iyF, lfhy cg brythdJ Fiwjgl cg brythf
UF.
lfhy ruhr bry tisnfhL l tisnfhL (planning
curve) vW miHfgLwJ. Vbd tisnfhL xU
WtdF btntwhd cg msit ll gagLwJ.
J ciw tot tisnfhL vd miHf gLwJ. Vbd J
gy FWa fhy bry nfhLfis cslsJ.
nkfl tiuglUJ, lfhy ruhr tisnfhL
Kj xbthU myF mf cgl FiwJ xU Fl
F wF mfJ xU glF tot tisnfhil VgLJwJ.
tUth (Revenue)
jh cg brj glij, xU Fl iy
mfho gid brtj _y xU Wtd bgWw
tUkhdnk Wtd tUth vdgL.
bkhj tUth (Total Revenue)
bkhj tUth vgJ, jh cg brj glfis W
mjdh ilw bkhj tUkhdnk bkhj tUth vW
FlgLwJ. fjthyhf TR = PQ. F TR vgJ bkhj
tUth P vgJ iy Q vgJ gid ms. xU Wtd 1000
myF bghUfis gjhf vLJbfhL mj iy %.10 vd
bfhSnghJ bkhj tUth, 1000 x %.10 = %.10,000/= vW
fzlgLwJ.
ruhr tUth (Average Revenue)
ruhr tUth vgJ xU bghUis gid brtdh
ilF tUthahF. bkhj tUthid gid bragl
myFf vifah tFJ ruhr tUth fzl
gLwJ. AR = TR / Q
166

AR = ruhr tUth
TR= bkhj tUth
Q = fgl ms
vLfh. ruhr tUth = %.10,000/100 = %.100 thW ruhr
tUth vgJ x yF bghU iyahF.
Wiy tUth (Marginal Revenue)
W iy tUth vgJ bkhj tUth Vgl TLj
tUthahF. J xU bghUis TLjyhf gdh (ca) Vgl tUth ca. (Algebraically).
vLJfhlhf xU bghU 10 myFf %.15 vw iy
FnghJ 11tJ myFbghU %.14/ vw iy fglh
MRn = TRn TRn-1
= %. (11 x 14) - %. (10 x 15)
= %.154 - %.150
= %.4/=
ruhr tUth (AR) Wiy tUth (MR)
tisnfhLfSF ilna cs bjhl
ruhr tUth (iy) iyahf UFnghJ Wiy
tUth iyahf UJ uL xnu tisnfho nrJ L.
mltiz 7.3
.br.
TR
iy
m y F f (m) ruhr b k h . t
tUth (AR)
%.
%.

MR

.t.
%.

10

10

10

10

20

10

10

30

10

10

40

10

10

50

10

10

60

10

167

tiugl 7.7

AR = MR

ruhr kW
Wiy tUth

tiugl 7.8

AR

kW MR

ms
Fiwj iy kLnk xU Wtd mf gr bghUfis
fTL. miy ruhr tUth (iy) Fiwj bfhnl
brY. AR FiwnghJ MR Fiw. Mdh Wiy tUth
ruhr tUthial TLjyhf Fiw. jdh Wiy tUth
ruhr tUthF mikJL.
mltiz 7.4

ms
yhg kL
xU Wtd yhg vgJ bkhj tUthF bkhj
bryF ilna cs ntWghL MF. yhg = bkhj tUth bkhj bry cr yhg bgWtnj xU Wtd nehf MF.
mY bkhj tUthF bkhj bryF ilna cs
nefk bjhl crkhFjny. mj Fl
mWtdkhdJ rkiy UF.
mltiz 7.5

neh rJ brY AR kW MR

yhgij crkakhFj
.br.
TR
iy
m y F f (m) ruhr b k h . t
tUth (AR)
%.
%.

MR

.t.
%.

10

10

10

18

24

28

30

30

168

cg
(myFf)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

bkhj
tUth (%)
40
80
130
175
210
240
165
285
290
300

bkhj
bry (%)
45
70
90
105
130
155
200
255
270
310

169

bkhj
yhg (%)
-5
10
40
70
80
85
65
30
20
-10

yhgij crkakhf tltizUJ %.85/-I

mWtd crfl yhg <l 6tJ myF bghUtiu cg
br. thW 6tJ myF bghUis cg brJ Wtd rkiy
mil.

g
I.
1.

tiugl 7.9

bkhj tUth kW
bkhj bry

2.

3.

4.

5.

cg
yhg crkakhFj
xU Wtd btntW msyhd cg <oa yhij
tiugl 7.9 sFwJ j yhg OM msyhd cg cr
msthf UF. F TR tisnfhoF TC tisnfhoF
cs ilbt mfgrkhf UF. Wtd OM ms
cgia OH ms cgia br bghGJ bkhj
tUthahdJ bkhj bryF rkkhf UF (TR=TC)
f WtdF yhgK iy eZlK iy. vdnt
S+Q f rkK f vwiHfgL.
170

II.
6.
7.
8.
10.
III.
11.
12.
13.

gF-m
rahd ilfis njbjLf.
cik bry vgJ
m. Jg kW ahfK M. cSz
. Ka ahfK
<. gz bry
gz bry cslfkhdJ btnaW bry kW
m. cshj bry
M. r_f bry
. khwh bry
<. gz bry
r_f bry vgit
m. Wtdf VW bfhtiy
M. rKjha VF bry
. cleyF F isgJ
<. nkfhQ midJ
ruhr bry jdh tFFnghJ ilF
m. TC / Q
M. TFC / Q
. TVC / Q
<. vJ iy
Wiy tUth vgJ jDl nrjh ilgJ.
m. ruhr tUth
M. bkhj cg
. bkhj tUth
<. vJ iy.
nfhol lfis uf.
gzbryid ............ vW miHfyh.
bghUshjhu yhg vgJ, bkhj tUthF ......... cs
ntWghlhF.
bkhj bry vgJ ...........
Wiy bry tisnfhlhdJ ......... tot UF.
bghUJf.
ruhr bry
- m. l tisnfhL
bkhj bry
- M. TCn - TC-1
lfhy ruhr bry
- . TR - TC
171

14.
15.
IV.
16.

MCn
- <. X myF bry
yhg
- <. TFC + TVC
xU brh ilaf.
ruhr tUth khwhk UFnghJ, Wiy tUth iy
vd?
17. Wiy tUth vgJ vd?
18. rkK vwh vd?
19. ciw tot tisnfhL vgJ vd?
20. ruhr bryit vthW fzLLth?
gF-M
tU dhfSF ehF myJ IJ tf
ilaf
21. FWa kW lfhyF cs ntWghL ahJ?
22. th bry vwh vd?
23. bghUshjhu bry vwh vd?
24. Wiy bry vwh vd?
25. MC kW AC-F ilnas cwfis TWf.
gF-
tU dhfSF xU gf ms ilaf
26. lfhy ruhr bry tisnfhL g F tiuf.
27. AR kW MR nfhLf ilnaahd cwf vGJf.
28. FWafhy ruhr tisnfhil tf.
29. Wiy bryid rahd sfJl TWf.
30. SAC kW SMC-F cs cwid TWf.
gF-<
tU dhfSF _W gf ms ilaf
31. xU Wtd nkbfhS gntW bryfis sFf.
32. TC, AC kW MC nfhLf g sFf.
33. TR, AR kW MR nfhLf g sFf.
34. yhg crkhFj msLjiy gl tiuJ sf jUf.
172

ghl 8

mfho mik, iy zaK

mfho vgj bghU kW yfz
mfho vgJ xU lijnah (myJ) a gFianah
FF. F if gzJl glf thf jah iy
UF thFnthU, glfis nghW, gl gkhwfhf
xUtiubahUt rghf. bghUa mfho vgJ
glfis gfis gkhw brl thFnthU,
nghU iz lij FF.
mfho gf
1.

glfis thFnthU, nghU Ughf.

2.

thFnthU, nghU jfSFns neuo bjhl bfhs

ntoaiy. Uw bjhiy bjhl fUfshd
bjhiyngf, Kftf, foj nghFtuJ kW
izajs (Internet) nghwt thyhf tjf
gkhwf nkbfhsglyh.

3.

thFnthU, nghU xnu tifahd glijnah (m)

gytifahd glijnah fnth (m) thfnth brthf.
bghUa mfho vgJ gkhw bragL bghUis
rhJ milahs bragLtjh, glf xnu khahd
jik ciladthf Uj f mtakhdJ.

4.

mfho fgL kW thfgL bghUfSF xU

iy Uj ntL.

mfho tiff
m. lij bghWj mfho
mfhoia mJ mikUF lij bghWJ cq,
tlhu, nja kW gdhL mfho vW tifgLjyh.
173

cq mfho

FWafhy

cSnyna ilfToa bghUfis thFnthU,

nghU tjf gkhw brJ bfhthf. mJ xU
gFnyh (or) uhknyh eilbgwTL. tfho m,
njit cq Niynfg mik. (v.fh.) m
glfsha gh kW fhff

fhy njitkhwF Vg xU Fl msF

kL m ms khw milwJ. FWa fhy khW
fhuf khw mil. FWa fhy mghdJ
beilaJ. FWa fhy iyahdJ njit, m
tisnfhLf rkgL nghJ zfgLwJ.

tlhu mfho

lfhy

xU tlhuF njitgL kW mfgL

bghUf msit FgJ tlhu mfho MF.

lfhy mghdJ jhf VgL njitfis

brwJ. fhyfl khW kW khwhj fhuf ah
khw mil. m tisnfhL KY besJ. fhy
fl iyia njitna za brwJ.

nja mfho
xU ehL KGtY njitgL kW mfgL
bghUf msit FgJ nja mfho MF. (c..) nfhJik,
m.
gdhL mfho
cyf KGtJ xU gl W thfgLkhdh mJ cyf
mfho vdgL. (v.fh.) bgh, bt, brnghf. njit,
mig bghWJ j a rhj tifgLJj
mikJsJ. nghFtuJtr kW bjhiy bjhl
Kndwdh cq mfhof fgL bghUfS
gdhL mfho gid bghUfshf TL.
M. neurh mfho
fhyid mogilahf bfhL nguha kh
mfhoia tifgLsh. fhyij f FWafhy,
FWafhy, lfhy vW _W fshf tif gLsh.
f FWafhy
FWa fhy xU bghU / gl mig khw
ayhJ. vdnt FWa fhy mfho m beawJ, bghU
iyahdJ njitiana rhJsJ. (c) m glfsha
f, gHf.
174

() ngho mogil mfhof

tifahd mfhof gt vifia,
bghU jikiaia bghWJ / rhJ tifgLj gLsJ.
ngho mogil mfho tiffis fhQkhW
tifgLjyh.
mfho
iwngho mfho
iw Fiwngho mfho
(vzw gidahsf
xUgojhd glfis gid brj)
KWik
(xUt)

Ut KWik nyh KWik

(Ut)
(y)

KWik ngho
(gy)

iwngho
iwngho vgJ vzw gidahsfis bfhl
xU mikghF. vj xU gidahsU iy J Mf
brYj KoahJ.
afS, gjidfS
175

1. vzw thFnth, ngh

5. cg fhuf l bgaU

tif mfho thFnthU nghU vzw

ms csd. F iy J vtU Mf brYj
KoahJ. iyahdJ mfho uL rfsha njit kW
mdh khfgLwJ. F xnu khahd iy y.
iyia gidahsf VW bfhwd. mf yhg
bgw cg msit VwthW mikJ bfhwd. thW
iwngho gidahs iy Vgtuhf Uwh.

cg fhuf XlUJ kbwhU lF f

vjhf l bgaWwd. mfkhd tUkhd ilFnghJ xU
bjhrhiyUJ kbwhU bjhrhiyF l khW.

2. xj jikila glf
vyh gidahsfS, cg bragL midJ
glfS xjjhf, xUik jik, juK bfhlitahf
UfntL. mjhtJ bghU ju, ms, Rit xnu
jikilajhf Uj ntL. mWtdf cg br
glf xWbfhW KGikahd gL glfshf
csd.
3. mfho iy g KGikahf mUj
gidahsU EfnthU mfho y, iyia
KYkhf mUghf. Mfnt Efnth TLj iyia
mfnth (myJ) gidahs Fiwj iyia bgW
bfhsnthkhlhf.
4. cFjY, btnaWjY - jiliy
bjhrhiyF a Wtdf cFjYF, Uw
Wtdf, btnaWjYF jilnaJiy. mf yhg bgW
th UFnghJ J Wtdf cg bra cns
EiHwd. H VgLnghJ Vbfdnt atj Wtdf
bjhrhiyia L btnaWwd. jifa jilaw
cFjY, btnaWjY lfhy kL Vgl ToajhF.
Vbd FWa fhy bjh Wtdf msid khw
ayhJ.

176

6. nghFtuJ bry iy
mfho KGtY xnu iy ytjh, F nghFtuJ
bry iy. bjhiy cs Wtdfisl mfho
mUfhik cs WtdfSF nghFtuJ bry iy.
7. mu jiypL iy/ kjd Toik
cg kW iyia, muR jiyL fLgLj ayhJ.
Efnth, nghilna TLjik iy. mfho y
iyahdJ njit, mF Vg jhdhfnt kh bfhS.
tUth tisnfho jik
iwngho mfho iyahdJ njit, m Ma
uL mfho rfsh khfgLwJ. vdnt mfho
xnu khahd iy ywJ. midJ cg myFfS xnu
iy fgLwd. j isthf ruhr tUth
tisnfhL KYkhf beilaJ. Mfnt ruhr
tisnfhlhdJ X mF izahf mikJsJ. ruhr tUth
tisnfhL iyahf Ugjh Wiy tUth tisnfhL
iyahdjhf, ruhr tUth tis nfhnlhL izJ
brwJ. ruhr tUth tisnfhL Wtd njitnfhil
FwJ.
iw ngho FWa fhy iy, gl
cg za.
1.

iw ngho xU Wtd iy Vgtuhf csjh,

jdJ cg btpil mjF Vwh nghy r brJ cr
yhgij milwh. vj xU cgahsDF cr yhg
miltnj mtdJ nehfkhF.
177

2.

FWa fhy Wtd vif kW

bjhrhiy ms khwhk UF. fhy khW
cLfis bgU Wtdmfkhf cg br.

3.

FWa fhy a Wtdf cns EiHtnjh myJ

giHa Wtdf btnaWtnjh rhaiy. FWa
fhy iw ngho WtdkhdJ cr yhgijnah
myJ a yhgijnah myJ Hignah Vf neL.

cr yhg
xU wtd ruhr tUth, ruhr bryid l
TLjyhF nghJ mWtd cr yhgij milwJ. jid
tU tiugl 8.1 _y sfyh.
tiugl sf 8.1
FWa fhy rkiy

btLwJ. iy mWtd OM ms cgia

nkbfhS. OM ms cg, ME vgJ ruhr tUth, MF
vgJ ruhr brythF. yhg vgJ tUthF bryF
cs ntWghL (ME - MF = FE) xU bghUSfhd yhg vgJ
FE Mf fzlgLwJ. bkhj yhg vgJ xU bghUSfhd
yhgij, mj Wtd bkhj cg bgUFnghJ
ilwJ mjhtJ = bkhj yhg vgJ = xU bghUSfhd
yhg X bkhj cg
(Total Profit) = (E.F.) x (O.M. or HF) (bkhj cg) (HF,
OM F izahdJ)
F bkhj yhgkhdJ HFEP. mjhtJ nfhoLs brtf
gFahF.
HFEP vgJ Wtd <L cr yhgkhF.

tUth, iy kW
bry

lfhy iy, gl cg zj

cg
tiugl 8.1 cg x mY, iy/tUth/bry y
mY FfgLsJ. OP vgJ mfho y iyahF.
PL vgJ ruhr tUth myJ njit tisnfhL kW Wiy
tUth tisnfhlhF. SAC, SMC it FWafhy ruhr bry,
kW Wiy bry tisnfhLfshF. E vw
Wiy tUth = Wiy bry. mnghJ Wiy bry
tisnfhL, Wiy tUth nfhil UJ mokl
178

l fhy midJ fhufS khw Toad. xU

Wtd jdJ cgia mff, Wtdf
vifia, bjh msit Tlyh. nkY a
Wtdf bjhHrhiyf EiH. Vfdnt cg
<LgLs Wtdf bjhrhiyia L btnaw TL.
j isthf af cs Wtdf, l fhy,
a yhgnk ilF. j isthf cg bgUFwJ.
cg bgUf fhuzkhf cg fhufSfhd njit
mfwJ. jdh cg fhufSfhd iy
mfwJ. jdh ruhr bry mfwJ.
kWgf, cg ms mfF nghJ, bghU
m mfwJ. njit khwhk UFnghJ, m
mfgjh bghU iy FiwwJ. vdnt ruhr iy
uf VgLwJ. ruhr tUth Fiw, ruhr bry VwK
uL xnwhblhW rkkhFtiu mnj iy VgL.
iy midJ WtdfS, lfhy, aghd
yhgijna mil.
179

tUth, iy kW
bry

tiugl 8.2
lfhy rkiy

cg
tiugl sf
tiugl 8.2 lfhy rkiy sfgLsJ. Wtd
S vw rkiy milwJ. m (LMC) lfhy
Wiy bry = Wiy tUth = ruhr tUth = lfhy
ruhr bry.
(LMC = MR = AR = LAC) ON vgJ lfhy rkiy
cg. mWtd a yhgijna bgWwJ. OP vgJ
rkiy iyahF. Wtd iy OP-ial mfFnghJ
cr yhg ilgjdh a Wtdf ftugLwd. Mdh
OPial iy FiwnghJ, Wtd H miltjh Vfdnt
cs y Wtdf bjh UJ yFwd. Mfnt l
fhy OP vgnj iy. j iy Wiy bry, ruhr
bry, kW ruhr tUth Mad rkiy UF.
lfhy mWtd a yhgijna mil.
nghoL Wtdf l fhy ruhr tisnfho (LAC)
mokl nyna rkiy bgW. j mWtdkhdJ
ON ms cg bra f Fiwj gr bryidna
nkbfhwJ.
180

iw ngho eikf
1.

iw ngho Efnthnu muruhth. mEfnth

gFjh w giljt. mfhoiag mfkhd
brf mjtuhf Uwh. Mifah xU glij
mf iy bfhLJ thfkhlh.

2.

ngho iyF rkkhf, ruhr bry Ugjh

Efnth gadilwh.

3.

glf xUik jikahdjhf csjh mfho

cUthF iyia VW bfhtjhf Wtd csJ. jdh
gidia caj sgunkh, w bryfnsh vbfhs
ntoaiy. jdh tsf zhtij jLf KowJ.

4.

l fhy iwngho xU Wtd cjk iy

bragLwJ. jdh, cg w caUwJ. cjk cg
iy VgLtjh gagLjhknyh, ntiy mkjglhknyh,
cg cg w zhf gLtiy.

KWik
xU glij xUtnu cg brJ, gid brjh mJ
KWik vdgL. j cg glF f beUfkhd
gL glf iy. jdh a Wtdf cns
EiHtjF jilf csd.
KWik af / gf
1. xnu gidahs
F xnu xU gidahs Ugjh mt bghU
mig (myJ) iyia fLgLj KowJ. thFgtf
gyuhf Ugjh jfSila glfhd njitia mtuh
fLgLj KoahJ.
2. beUa gL glf iy
cg glfSF r rkkhd gL glf
KWik iy. jdh thFgtUF bj br th
181

iy. jdh fgL glij mt thfntL (myJ)

thfhk UfntL.
3. iy
KWikahs mig fLgL iyia caJwh. y
neuf iyngj cia ifahSwh. gntW tif
EfnthUF, gntW iyf glfis wh.
KWikahs iy myJ cg bragL gl ms Ma
uo xiwjh zfKo.
4. Fjik
KWik `ck bgWsjh w cgahsf mfho
EiHtjF thiy. fhuz jilf bgajhf
tiksjhf csjh bjh Ftij jLf rlf,
bjhEg, bghUshjhu kW aif jilf nghwit
Vuhskhf csJ.
5. Wtd, bjhrhiy
KWik WtdF, bjhrhiyF ntWghL
iy. xnu Wtd csjh mWtdnk bkhj bjhrhiyF
rkkhf fUjgLwJ. jdh Wtd cg br
glF, w Wtdf cg glfSF ilna
a njit be, {akhf csJ.
KWikfhd fhuzf
1. aif
y aif fhuzfsh KWik njhWwJ. y
mik gFfjh y fk tsf ilwd.
(v.fh.) itu cg bj Mfh KWik bgWwJ.
f cg fdlh, vbz cg ka HF
ehLfS KWik bgW fwd.
182

2. bjhEg
bjhEg fhuzfsh KWik rid xU Wtd
bgwTL. _y bghUf, bjhEg m, w nj,
ma ufaf kW N Kiwf nghwt J xU
Wtd bfhLs fLghL KWik WtdF Mwiy
bgW jUwJ.
(v.fh.) bfhnfh nfhyh
3. rl
bghUis totikF cik, tf tHfhW bga, tf
cik milahsf thyhf cgahsUF KWik r
ilwJ. J rl KWik vdgL.
4. ngus KjL
y glf cg bra ngus KjL njitgLwJ.
midJ WtdfshY, j ngus Kjil bra
aYtiy. iy ngus KjL vgJ KWik njhw
thgwJ.
(v.fh.) 1. U v~F bjhrhiy, U ghij.
5. muR
y glfis cg brJ, F jgl cik muR
kLnk bgWsJ. j cik mu KWik vdgLwJ. (v.fh.)
rhu cg, U ghij, nghFtuJ, rika vth Kja
bghJ gaghLfshF.
KWik iy, cg khd
iw nghoia nghnw KWikahsU yhgij
crkhf Uwh.
xU KWik WtdkhdJ neh r njit
tisnfhil vbfhwJ. J mWtd ruhr
tUth tisnfhlhF. iyia Fiwjh kLnk xU
183

bry kW
tUth

KWikahs mf fKo vgij njit tisnfhL

bjwJ. Wiy tUth tisnfhL, ruhr tUth
tisnfhoF nH mikJsJ.
KWik Wtd ruhr bry tisnfhL U
tot UF. Wiy bry, Wiy tUth
rkdil nghJ mjhtJ (MC = MR, mWtd rkiy mil.
mnghJ Wiy bry nfhlhdJ (MC), W iy tUth
nfhil (MR) UJ nkneh brY nghJ mo kl
btLwJ.
tiugl 8.3

MS - vgJ ruhr tUth

MT - vgJ ruhr bry
xU bghUSfhd yhg vgJ
MS - MT = TS
TS vgJ xU bghUSfhd yhg. j xU bghUSfhd
yhgij OM ms cg msdh bgUF bghJ mj
Wtd bkhj yhg ilwJ. Jnt HTSP MF. mjhtJ
nfholgl brtf gFna Wtd yhgkhF. nkY
KWikahs iyahdJ W iy tUth, kW W iy
bryit l mfkhf csJ.
KWik gaf

cg
tiugl sf
nkfhQ tiugl 8.3 AR vgJ ruhr tUth
tisnfhlhF. MR vgJ Wiy tUth tisnfhlhF.
ruhr tUth tisnfhL (AR) neh brwJ. Wiy
tUth tisnfhL neh brwJ. Mdh J ruhr
bry nfhoF mikJsJ. E vw Wtd
rkiy milwJ. F Wiy bry, Wiy tUth
rkkhf csJ. KWikah OM ms cg brJ, OP
ms iyia zwh. j OM ms cg ruhr
tUth MS Mf ruhr bry MP Mf VgLwJ. xU
bghUSfhd yhg vgJ ruhr tUthF, ruhr bryF
cs ntWghlhF. Mfnt
184

1.

KWik Wtdf ngus cg th bgWsjh,

mf fdfS, wfdfS njhsd. j
isthf cg bry FiwwJ. cg glfis
Fiwthd iy gid brayh. j isthf
Efnth ga bgWt.

2.

KWik Wtdf mf tr bfhlitahf

Ugjdh, Muh, ts kW jhf idtjF
cjwJ.

3.

bjhrhiy mfkhd etilj Wtdf csd.

mit xW nrJ KWikahf cUth nghoia
vbfhsyh. j _y mfho til.

KWik ikf
1.

KWikahs vnghJ mf iyna zwd.

jdh Efnth RulgLwhf.

2.

KWikahs mf yhg bgWtijna Kjik nehfkhf

bfhLshf. j fhuzkhf cg msit
fLgL, iyia caJwh. j thyhf jdJ
185

glF `braif ilgUikia (Artifical Scarcity)

cUthFwh.
3.

4.

5.

KWikahs xnu khahd glfSF - ntbtW

EfnthUF, btntW iy wh. iy ngj fho
Efnth thF wikia bghWJ mfgr iyia
tNwh.
KWikahs ngus cgia, mf ms tsfis
gagL jdyij cal kLnk Kawh.
jDila KGikahd ria iy ehl jtwhd
tKiwfis ifahSwh.
KWikahs Mf iwj eho, brt
(brhJ) xU ylnk FJ fhzgLwJ. J tUkhd
VwjhF tFwJ. J bghJ clik bfhifF
KugljhF.

KWikia fLgLJ tKiwf

1.

rl aWj: KWikia fLgLj muR rlfis

wyh. KWik j rlf awgL, KWik
tsia fLgLjyh. ah 1969- MRTP vw
tf rl awglJ. rldh KWik rf
xU yl Ftij jLfgLwJ.

2.

iy, cgas fLgLJj : aif KWikfis

Kaof j Kiw ifahsgLwJ. jdh iyianah,
gl msitianah myJ uilnkh muR Ko br.

3.

t j : KWik ria Fiwgjnfh, jLgjnfh

t jY Tl xU fLgLJ KiwahF. KWikahs
J muR frkhd bjhifia tahf fyh. j
isthf yhg FiwJ mj bghUshjhu tik Fiw.

4.

ehLilikahFj : bga KWik Wtdfis

ehLilikahF tjh, Efnthiu Ruo thG
Wtdfis munr VW eljyh.
186

Efnth rff : Efnth rffis mikf

CFgj thyhf EfnthuJ nguria mfgL
mtuJ cikia ghJfhJ KWik tsia fLgLjyh.
KWik iwngho - xik
uL mfhofSnk mfgr yhg <Ltijna Ka
nehfkhf bfhLsJ. uL mfhofSnk rij rkiy
milnghJ Wiy bry, Wiy tUth rkkhfnt
UF. (mjhtJ MC = MR)
flthW ntWikfis mltizgLjyh.
5.

KWik

iw ngho
1. ruhr tUth tisnfhL
(AR) X mRF izahd
gLif nfhlhf mik
JsJ. F tUth
(MR), ruhr tUth iyF
rkkhf UF.
MR = AR = P

2. rkiy nghJ, Wiy

bry, Wiy tUthF
rkkhf, nkY mJ ruhr
tUthaha iyF rkkhf
mikJsJ. Mfnt iy,
Wiy cg bryF
rkkhf csJ.

ruhr tUth tisnfhL

Wiy tUth tis
nfhL neh rJ
brwd. W iy
tUth, ruhr tUth kW
iyial kl
csJ.
rkiy Wiy bry,
Wiy tUthF rkkhf
csJ. Mdh Wiy
tUth, ruhr tUthaha
iyial
Fiwthf
csJ. mjhtJ MC = MR <
AR. iyahdJ, Wiy
bryitl mfkhf csJ.

3. iw ngho xU Wtd, KWik, xU Wtd

lfhy rkiyia l fhy rkiyia
mila lfhy ruhr bry mila ruhr bry?
tis nfho mokl
187

KWik

iw ngho
4. iw ngho rkiy
ahdJ cg bry mf
FnghJ kLnk mila Konk
m bry Fiw nghnj
iyahdjhf UF nghnj
my.

rkiy
iy,
bry
mfF nghJ, Fiw
nghJ, iyahd jhf
UF nghJ milayh.

5. iw ngho Wtd cr yhgkhdJ, FWa

a
yhgij
l fhyY kW l
fhy
mil.
cr fhyY mil.
yhgij FWa fhy
mil.
6. cgas mfkhf iy cg Fiwthf iy
Fiwthf UF. mik. mfkhf UF.
iy ngj
iy ngj vgJ ngj fhL KWik vW
tHfgLwJ. xU KWikahs xnu glij gntW
EfnthUF gntW iyf wh. j braYF iyngj
fhLj vW bga.
yfz
bjhEg mogil, xnu jik cila glij, mj
Wiy bryidl, TLjyhd iy gnj iyngj
vW Twyh.
(v.fh.) xnu iuglF, gntW iumuFf, gntW
iy kfis fU bfhL gntW flzfis tNgjhF.
iy ngj gjidf
fhQ U iyf braglh iy ngj VgL.
1.

njitia, iy mfkhd mfhoUJ iy Fiwthd

mfhoF khw ayhJ. brtjf, mf iys
188

Mlgukhd jf gig thfhk ugykhd Fiwj

iys jf g bttU tiu fhUghfshdh
jah ngj fhLj njhail.
2. KWikahs uL mfhofis myJ ntWgl
mfhofis jjahf itUghf mjdh, glf
xU mfhoUJ kbwhU mfhoF khw ayhJ. iy
kthd mfho bghUfis th iy mfkhd
mfho bghUfis f Kokhdh, xU glF U
iyf UgjF thiy. bjh mg mtUF
ilF kthd rhuij L cgnahfF
gagLdh, thf ngj fhLj njhail.
KWik ngho
nguha E.H. nrg vgt KWik nghoid
mKfgLdh. ngho vwj gidahsf
xWbfhW beUfkhd glhf fUjgL glfis cg
brwd. glf xWngh UjhY, mit xnu
jikilad my. Mdh mit xWl xW nghoL
glfshF.
KWik nghoF vLJfhLf tUkhW :
1. h - r, s, gh, , btt, bA
mL nAhl, ghO, thofh, uh, fha
2. ggirf - nfhnf, Fnshr, dhfh, uh,
bgnrhl, nfh tuj, m#jh, mf, gh
af : 1. Wtdf vif KWik ngho
gy Wtdf csd. mf ms cg br xbthU
WtdK, kw Wtdf bragho mfiw fhlhk
jJ bragL. mitf cgas, iy, nghwtiw jhnk
khwd. xU Wtd braghL kw Wtdf
braghoid ghfhJ.
2. gl ntWghL : glfis ntWgLJtJ KWik
ngho ikafUjhF. Wtdf glf xWngh
njhdhY, cik mit xW my. xW myJ mjF
nkgl jf glf khWghLf UF. vdnt mit
xWbfhW gL glfshf csd.
189

3. gid bry : KWik ngho jdJ glij

gutyhF tjfhf, aEfnthiu ftU tzK cg
bryf yhk, sgu bryfis nkbfhs ntosJ.
Jnt gid brythF. gid bryit g nguha
nrg yfz tFJsh. t xU gl njit
tisnfho totij kh mikf bryL gz msnt
gid brythF. vwh. gid brythdJ sgu
bry, fh bghU mikj, glf khfis mj
nghw gntW totf mikUF.
4. Wtdf cFj, btnaWj
KWik ngho mLj Kakhd a, vj xU a
WtdK cg FjY btnaWjY vjhdjhF. tf
milahs jha jdJ glij ma Wtd v jahf
aY. F vjj jilfS iy.
KWik ngho rkiy iy kW gl msit
zj
KWik ngho Wtd rkiy mila Wiy
tUth, W iy bry rkkhf Uj ntL. mjhtJ E =
MR = MC. KWik ngho xbthU WtdK vj xU
iy, cg iy mfgr yhg ilFnkh mjidna
bj brJ bfhth. tiugl 8.4 xU Fl Wtd vthW
rkiy mil vgij sFwJ.

bry kW
tUth

tiugl 8.4

tiugl sf
nkfl tiugl MC, AC vgd FWafhy Wiy
bry kW ruhr bry tisnfhLfshF. AR vw ruhr
tUth tisnfhL, MR vw Wiy tUth tisnfhL
neh rJ brwJ. E vw rkiy MR = MC Mf
mik. F OM vgJ rkiy cgasthF. j cg
OP vgJ rkiy iyahf khfgLwJ. yhg vgJ
ruhr tUthF, ruhr bryF cs ntWghlhF. MQ vgJ
ruhr tUth, MS vgJ ruhr bry. mjhtJ QM - MS = SQ.
SQ vgJ xU bghUSfhd yhgkhF. j xU bghUSfhd
yhgij OM vw gl cg msdh bgUdh
mWtdF PQSR vw nfholgl brtf totyhd yhg
ilF. thwhf FWa fhy mWtd OM ms
cg brJ mtiw OP iyF W mfgr ygij
bgWwJ.
KWik ngho cs btntW Wtdf FWa
fhy mrhjhuz yhgijna myJ eZlijnah jkJ bry
kW tUthtis nfhil bghUJ bgWbfhS.
lfhy bjhrhiy cs Wtdf cr
yhgij <odh a Wtdf bjh EiHJ, yhg
msit FiwF. ruhr tUth jdh Fiw. cg
fhuf njit mfghdJ cg bryit mfF.
vdnt yhg ms FiwJL. l fhy
bjhrhiyF UF Wtdf eZlij miljh y
Wtdf bjhiy L btnaW. jdh mfho
j gF mfF. cg fhuf njit Fiwtjh,
cg fhuf iy Fiwa neL. j isthf cg
bry Fiwa neL. J Uw Wtdf yhgij
mfF. KWik ngho Uw Wtdf a
yhgijna lfhy <L.

cg
190

191

lfhy

nyh KWik

KWik ngho bryf

iwFiw ngho f FljfJ nyh

KWikahF. f y Wtdfns xU glij cg
brnghJ, mJ nyh KWik vdgL. Wtdf
vif uLF nkgljhf UF. xnu khahd
bghUisnah, myJ ntWgLjgl glijnah cg
braTL.

1. ntiyik : KWikahs ngho Wtdf,

cjk cg msidl Fiwthf cg brtjh, tsfis
KGikahf gaLJ tiy. jdh ntiy yh urid
VgLwJ.
2. cg r : cg r vgJ cjk ms cgF cik cgF cs ntWghlhF. l fhy
Wtdf cjk ms cgial Fiwj ms
cgiana brwd. j cg Fiwjgl ruhr brynthL
rkjgljhF. j cg r zhfgLtjhf F
fUjgLwJ.

af
1.

xiwbahW rhUj : w Wtdfis rhJ

KobtLJ vgJ nyh KWik f aikahj
j gghF. F Wtdf vif f
Fiwthf Ugjh x braghoid kbwhU Wtd
TJ ffhwJ. iy, cg gl ms
nghwt VjhtJ xU khwij brjhY mJ w v
Wtdfis neuoahf ghwJ. Mfnt Kiw
ngho mfho njitia kL fU bfhshk w
Wtdf braghLfis TJ ftj ntL.

2.

FG braghL : j mfho Kiw Wtdf

midJ jkF xWikl TLwthf bragl ntoa
flhaij czUF. mitf kjz clgoif
brJ bfhs Kid, mnj neu xbthU WtdKnk
cr yhg mila Jogjh mitfSl ngho kdghik
nknyh csJ.

3.

khwhj iy : (price rigidity) khwhj iy vgJ kbwhU

waghF. iyahdJ khw Koahj jik
bfhljhF. xU Wtd jDila iyia Fiwjh
vuhf ghfgLthf. jdJ yhgij Wtd
Hf neL; nj nghW iy Vwij gdh jdJ
thoifahsfis Hf neL. vdnt nyh
KWik iykhw KY iflgLtjh iy
khwhk UwJ.

3. sgu : KWik mfho ngho cs sgu

bry brythf fUjgLwJ. Wtdf jkJ glij
thFtjfhf Efnthiu CFF tif gzij
brytwd. jdh iy caUwJ. jifa bryf
zhditahF.
4. gntW jkhd glf : KWik ngho gntW
glf mKfgLjgLwd. jahfgL glf
ms, kh, tz, kd, Matiw khW nghJ, xnu
Ugij iwntw gntW tifahd bghUf cg
bragLtjh gL glf cg bry zhf
fUjgLwJ. xU y tiff jahj kLnk nghJkhdjhf
UF.
5. braw Fiwj Wtdf : KWik
ngho braw Fiwj Wtdf, W iy bryit
fhoY, TLjyhd iyia wd. jif Wtdf
bjh UJ mfwgl ntL. Mdh Wtd
bghUfis thFnth, mfho U wikaw Wtdf
bjhlJ bjh Uf th VgLwJ.
192

193

g
gF-m
I.

rahd ilia njbjLf

1.

iw ngho mfho fhzgL iy

m. xnu gidahs
M. uL gidahs
. vifyh gidahs
<. y gidahs

2.

3.

4.

viy xU Wtd rkiy bgW

m. MC = MR

M. MC = AC

. MR = AR

<. MR = AC

Wtd kW bjhrhiy xnu iy UgJ

m. iw ngho

M. Ugidahs

. nyh

<. KWik

gid bry f Kakhd tot vJ

m. sguf

M. gid

. xnu khahd glf

5.

194

<. vJ iy

iw ngho njitnfhL thW UF

m. nkneh rJ brY

M. ilklkhf UF

. neh rJ brY

<. brFjhf UF

II.

nfhol lfis uf:

6.

iw ngho Wtdf ............ bghUisna cg

brwJ.

7.

Wtd ruhr tUthahdJ, ruhr bryitl mfkhf

U mWtd ........... <L.

8.

iw ngho xU Wtd ............

195

9.

KWik r _y bghUis totikF cik

............... vwiHfgL.

10.

nyh KWik mfho cs Wtdf

jfSFns Kakhd ........... czUF.

III. bghUJf

gF-
tU dhfSF xU gf ms ilaf.
26.

mfho tiffis RUfkhf sf.

27.

iw ngho afis sf.

28.

KWikia fLgLJ tKiwf ahit?

11.

cyf mfho

m. E.M. nrg

29.

glfis ntWgLJj - W F vGJf.

12.

Efnth nfhyr

M. nfhnfh-nfhyh

30.

KWikahs ngho bryfis g sFf?

13.

bj Mfh

. jf kW bt

14.

bjhEg KWik

<. KWik ngho

15.

KWikahs ngho

c. itu

IV.

xU brh ilaf

31.

FWa fhy, iw ngho, iy, gl ms

vthW zfgLwd.

16.

bjhrhiy vwh vd?

32.

17.

bghJ gaghLfis mDggt ah?

KWikia tf. nkY KWik gf kW

fhuzfis TWf.

18.

murhf, KWikia vthW fLgLJ.

33.

19.

KWik ngho Kakhd waf vit?

KWik iy, kW gl vthW khfgLwJ

vgij tf.

20.

MRTP rl vj ML awglJ?

34.

KWik eik, kW ikfis Muhf.

35.

iw ngho kW KWikia ntWgLJf.

36.

KWik ngho iy, glf khfgLtJ

vthW vgij sFf.

gF-<
tU dhfSF _W gf ms ilaf

gF-M
tU dhfSF
ilaf

ehF

myJ

IJ

tf

21.

mfho gf ahit?

22.

mfho mogil nghofis tifgLJf.

23.

iw ngho mfho _W eikfis vGJf.

24.

iy ngj uL gjidf ahit?

25.

iy ngjid vLJfho _y sFf.

196

197

ghl - 9

Wiy cg w g nfhghL
(MARGINAL PRODUCTIVITY THEORY OF
DISTRIBUTION)
Wiy cg w g nfhghL vgJ cg
fhuf bghJ g nfhghlhF. iw ngho, cg
fhuf Ca vthW khfgLwJ (za
bragLwJ) vgij nfhghL sFwJ. vyh cg
fhufS mit cg br W iy cgF rkkhfnt
Ca bgW vgij tWJwJ.
glf iy khdF, fhuf iy
khdF mogil ntWghLf VJiy. fhuf iy,
rij mitf njit kW mfdh khfgL.
glf njit neuo njit Mdh fhuf njit
bgwgl njit. (c) LfSF njitUjhjh L fL
bjh bjhyhsfSF njit UF.
Wiy cg w g nfhghogo, iw
ngho rij xbthU fhu mJ cg br
glf kF rkkhf Ca bgW. midJ
cg fhufSF bghUJtjhf UjhY Kj ciH
g eh fhngh.
cg fhuf iy Wiy cg glf
kF rkkhF tiu xU Wtd cg fhuf msit
Tobfhnl brY. Wiy cg kF rkkhfnt
xbthU cg fhuF CakfgL vgnj j
bghUshF. cgahs TLj cg fhuia agjh
ilF TLj cg glf kF rkkhf Wiy
cg UF. eh kw cg fhuf mig iyahf
bfhnwh.
198

ciHig bfhL, Wiy cg w g

nfhghil g va cjhuz thyhf ghngh.
yhgij crkhFtnj xbthU Wtd nehfkhF.
cg bryitl tUth mfkhf UF tiu fhu
akdij Wtd mfJ bfhnl brY. (bkhj
bryitl bkhj tUth mfJ brY tiu cg
fhu (..) akdij xU Wtd mfJ bfhnl
UF) xU Wtd, W akd br Wiy
fhudh MF, bkhj cg bry bkhj tUth rkkhF
tiu cg fhuia To bfhnl brY. jFnk
bkhj yhgij mff KoahJ.
ciH rij rkiy MC1 = VMPL mik
MCL = VMPL
MCL = ciH Wiy bry.
VMPL = Wiy cg k (ciH)
or W = VMPL (W = ciH T)
F : ciH m, ngho rij msF
mfkhsJ (gwhFiw yhk) vdnt bfhLfgl T
j vts ciHig ntLbkwhY xU Wtd
mk bfhsyh.
iw ngho rij T za
tiugl 9.1

tiugl 9.2

199

MPPL = Wiy glf cg tisnfhL (ciH)

1.

iwngho ywJ.

VMPL = Wiy glf cg k

2.

VMPL = MPPL .Px {VMPL = Wiy ciH cg

gUbghU x iy ciH Wiy gl k

cg fhuf midJ xnu jikilad myJ xnu

khahdit.

3.

F : P (iw ngho iy iyahf khwhJ UF

vW mDkfgLwJ.

xU fhuF gyhf kbwhU fhuia gagLjyh.

midJ xWbfhW khwgl Toait.

4.

nfhghL FiwJ br is ia mogilahf

bfhlJ. J thgF bghUJ. xU fhuia nkY
nkY gagLJnghJ mUJ ilF Wiy
cg Fiw vW FiwJ br is TWwJ. xU
WtdF xU fhuia mfgLJtjh mj _y
ilF cg Fiw vW bjbghGJ, mfhuF
gyhf ntW fhuia gL brJ cg bryit
Fiwf KaY.

gl 9.2 Wtd E rkiy miltjhf fhlgLsJ.

LF lJw, xU myF ciHF bfhLfgL Ca mJ
cg br glf kig l Fiwthf csJ. (VMPL
> W). Mfnt Wtd mf ciHig gagL mfkhf
yhgij bgW L tyJw VMPL < W. ciHF mfgL
Ca (Wiy myF) mjdh cg bragL glf
kig l mfkhf csJ. Mfnt yhg FiwwJ. Mfnt
VMPL = W UFbghGJ yhg crkhf UF.
nkfl sfgo, xU Wtd vj xU khW cg
fhu (ciH) njitnfhL mfhu Wiy cg
k tisnfhlhF.

FiwJ br Wiy g nfhgho

FiwghLf tUkhW :
1.

midJ glfS TL glf mglf

kig, jjahf ciHnfh myJ KjYnfh
J fhl ayhJ. y tifahd gf (kUJt,
tHfP, Maf Mnah gf) cg kig
msLj fodkhd xW.

2.

j nfhghL fhuf njit gfij kLnk fz

vLJ bfhL m gFia wfJlJ. (c)
fhuf gwhFiwahf UFbghGJ rhjhuz
iyial mf ms iy mfgLwJ.

3.

nfhghL, iwngho kW KGntiyiy Ma

vLnfhfis mogilahf bfhlJ. Mdh eilKiw
iwFiw nghona csJ.

vLnfhf

4.

Wiy cg w g nfhghL fl
vLnfhf mogil cUthdjhF.

eilKiw cg fhufis khWgl tf

gagLJj fod.

5.

nfhghL mwbe fUJfis gwiy.

nfhghil VWbfhlh, xU fhu mJ cg

Mfnt Wiy cg fhu cg w,

mfhuf midF mfgL Caij zF.
cgahs y, ciH, KjL Matiw xU Fj j
izJ cg bry f Fiwj iy UFgo
ghJbfhth. xbthU cg fhuF mjDila
Wiy cg wDF Vg Ca za bragL.
Wiy cg w g nfhghL, cg fhuf
Ca, thu, to kW yhgij khgij g
sFwJ. Mfnt J bghJ g nfhghL vW
miHfgLwJ.

200

201

brj glf kF rkkhf Ca bgW vgJ j

fUjhF. (c) Wtd cs Ca Fiwj Tia
bgWtJ mtfsJ cg Fiwth my. Mdh ciH
Rulny jF fhuzkhF. eilKiw fhzgL
Vwjhthd git ahagLj nfhghil gagLj
KoahJ.
nkfl FiwghLf UD, fhuf iyia
khg cg w gid nfhghL sFwJ.
nfhghL Caij khF xU fhuia bt
bfhzJsJ vW kh TWwh.
thu (Rent)
xU glij gagLj khjh khj eh brYJ bjhifna
thu vdgL. (c) thlif o FoUF bghGJ mjF eh
thlif brYJnwh. j thuF `xgj brYJif vW
bga. bjhif, yij gagLJtjF eh brYJ iy
ju L fl KjL brj KjoF brYJ to, T, yhg
Kjad mlF. ntshik yij gagLJtjF
eh bfhLF iyna thu vW bjhik bghUa mPuhd
fhnlh fUJwh. y w jikF thu
mfgLwJ. y m beawJ. y brGik
ntWgL. y brGik ntWgLtjh thu njhWwJ. kw
yfisl brGikf y mf thuij bgW.

brjik ntWghodhnyna thu njhWwJ vW

fhnlh ewh. cagfis bfhl ynk thuij bgW.
thu vgJ vr cgahF (Rent is a differential surplus).
nkY y mikJs l w jikia bghWJ
thu vG (c) rijF mUfhik y yf mikJsJ.
cgahs jdh nghFtuJ bryit rgLj Ko. vyh
yfS rkkhd brGikilajhf UjhY, mikUF
l wdh thuij bgW.
nfhghil Fonaw (Colonization) _y fhnlh
sFwh. kf a l FonaW bghGJ, Kj
brGikahd ey ynyna g brt. mf kf ml
FonaW bghGJ y njit mfF. mjdh ulh
ju yijna mtf g brt. Mfnt cg bry
mfF. mfho jha iy cg bryF
cgL UfntL. iy Kjju y thuij bgW.
D y fhy brw wF, kf bjhif mfgjh _wh
ju yK g bragL. jbghGJ ulh ju yK thuij
bgW. nkY Kjju y mf thuij bgW. _wh ju y
vj thuij bgwhJ. J thuyh y vW miHfgL.
tiugl 9.3

fhnlh thu nfhghL gHikahd nfhghLf

xwhF. 19- whil nrj bjhik bghUa
mPuhd fhnlh bgauh nfhghL miHfgLwJ.
thu vgJ y cikahdJ mf KoahjJkhd
rfis gagL bfhtjfhf y isrUJ xU
gFia y cikahsUF bfhLgnj MF vW fhnlh
thuij tiuaWJsh. y cik rfis
gagL bfhtjF bfhLfgLtJ thukhF. y
202

cg

fhnlh thu nfhghL

thu yh y
(m)
Wiy y

thu

y ju
203

fhnlh thu nfhghL ga tiugl

9.3 X-m y juK, Y-m y cg
fhlgLsJ. Hl gF thuij FF. Kjju yK,
ulh ju yK thuij bgWwd. _wh ju y thu
bgwiy. Mfnt J thuyh y vW Wiy y vW
miHfgLwJ.
wdh
Kj jukhd ynyna Kj g bragLtjhf fhnlh
fUJwh. Mdh jF vjjkhd rhW iy.
1.

y cikahdJ mf KoahjJkhd rfis

bfhLsjhf fhnlh fUJwh. my bjhlJ g
braglh y fhyF y brGik Fiw.

2.

yF kLnk thu csjhf fhnlh fUJwh.

Mdh ciH, Kj Ma fhufSF thu csjhf
ed bghUa mPf fUJwd. njitnahL xL
bghGJ m ms beawjhf U thu
njhW.

3.

thu iy nruhJ vW fhnlh fUJwh. xU

Wtdij bghWj tiu thu iynahL mlF.

4.

fhnlh y thunfhghL gwhFiw thuij g

vJ Twiy.

5.

iw ngho mogil fhnlh thu nfhghL

mikJsJ. y eilKiw vF iwFiw nghona
ywJ.

fhnlh ythu nfhgho gy Fiwf

fhzglhY, kf bjhif mGj ynk mfgjh
juFiwthd yid eh g bra ntosJ.
ed thu nfhghL
Fiwghlhd bes m bfhl cg
fhufSF. tHfgL Cank thu vW ed thu nfhghL
204

TWwJ. nfhghogo, kw fhufshd ciH, _yjd

MatF J bghUj ToaJ. ntWtif Tdh, thu
vgJ yF kLnk bghUjToaJ my. y brGik
ntWgLtij nghynt kjDila wik khWgL. (c) jwik
bfhl mWit ir kUJt mf tUkhdij <Lth.
thu vw fUJ fhzgLwJ. j mogil yhg nfhghL,
yhg thu nfhghL vW miHfgL.
kh `ngh thu vw fUij auf kW
kjdh cUthfgl fUfnshL bjhlgL TWwh.
thu vgJ vyh cg fhufSF
bghUjToaJ vW ed thu nfhghL fUJwJ.
njitnahL xL bghGJ m ms beawjhf
U thu njhW.
ed bghUa mPf thuij sf, `khW tUth
vw gjij gagLJwd. khW tUth vgJ xU cg
fhuia, mLj wj cg <LgLJbghGJ ilF
tUthahF. J jnghija g wth bryit FF.
jnghJ gahW Wtdny U bfhs xU fhuF
tHf ntoa Cank w th brythF.
Mfnt khW ga tUthial mfkhf brYJ
bjhifna bghUshjhu thukhF. xU ugykhd bja kh
eof rhjhuzkhf uL nfho %gh tUkhd bgWwh.
gl eof _W nfho %gh tUkhd bgwh mtUila khW
ga tUth xU nfhoahF. gl eogjF mt bgW
TLj tUthahd xU nfho %gh bghUshjhu thukhF. ed
thu nfhghogo, thu vgJ yF kL
bfhLfgLtjy. kw cg fhuf tUkhdY thu
fhzgL.
ngh thu (Quasi-rent)
aufUJ, cgfhf kjdh cUthfgl
fUfUJ bgwgL tUkhd ngh thu vdgL vW
kh TWwh.
205

y aufS, kjdh cUthfgl fUfS

FWa fhy njitnahL xLnghJ m be
mwit. cjhuzkhf xU Fl gUt fhy, fSfhd
njit mfF bghGJ glFfSfhd njit mfF.
Mdh glFf mig fFWa fhy - Fghf Xu
- mff KoahJ. Mfnt, glF itUngh rhjhuz
tUkhdijl mf tUkhdij <Lthf. ijna ngh thu
vW kh fUJwh. glFf m mffgLbghGJ
j ngh thu kiwJL.
T (Wages)
T vgJ ciHF bfhLfgL btFkahF. T U
tifgL. 1. gzT (Money wages) 2. cik T (Real wages).
gzT vgJ bgaus T myJ a T (Nominal wages)
vW miHfgL. cikT vgJ gzjh bgwToa
glf kW gfis FF. J gz thF ria
bghUJ mik. gz thF r, iy klij bghWJ
mik. xU eho cs bjhyhsf thif ju mtfsJ
cik Tia bghWJ mik. giz bjhyh f
Fiwthd gz Tiana bgWth. Mdh cz, jFlK
ytrkhf bgwh mJ cik T mlF.

nfhghL (The Market Theory of Wages) and

3. ngu wik (m) ngur TnfhghL (The Bargaining Theory
of Wages).
giHa T nfhghLf
(Early Theories of wages)
1. iH kl T nfhghL : nfhghogo
bjhyhF bfhLfgL TahdJ mtuJ mogil
njitia kLnk brtjhf UF. iH kl Tia
l Fiwthf tHdh, goah wf neL. mJ ciH
mig FiwF.
FiwghL
j Ka FiwghL ahbj, Tia mfgLJbghGJ
kf bjhif mfF vw vLnfhis rhJsJ.
kjf yFfUJ khWgltf. vdnt mogil njit
ju, kjUF y trfS njitgLwJ. nfhghL, ij
fz vLJbfhsiy. J xU jiygrkhdJ. njit
gf bragL fhufis J jJlJ. nfhghL
jtwhd mwbe fUJfis mogilahf bfhlJ.

(Theories of Wages)

2. thif ju TnfhghL : (The Standard of living

theory) TahdJ bjhyhsf thif juij
mogilahf bfhlJ vW TWwJ.

T nfhghLf gy tifgL. mitfshtd.

wdh :

1. iH kl TnfhghL. (The Subsistence Theory of Wages.)

3. T nfhghL (Wage Fund Theory)

thifju
TnfhghlhdJ
iH
kl
Tnfhghil l wjJ vg Iaiy. thif
juF TF beUa bjhl cL vgJ cik. Mdh
vJ fhu, vJ is vW TWtJ J fodkhF.

4. vr cik T nfhghL (The Residual Claimant Theory)

3. T nfhghL

y Ka jfhy TnfhghLfshtd.

(The Wage Fund Theory)

1. W iy cg w TnfhghL. (The Marginal

Productivity Theory of Wages) 2. mfho myJ rij T

TahdJ kf bjhifF _yjdF ilna cs

jij bghWJ mik vW nfhghL TWwJ.

TnfhghLf

2. thif ju T nfhghL (The Standard of Living Theory)

206

207

_yjd vgJ Tia tHFtjfhf xJfgl vW

bghU. kf bjhif vgJ bjhyhsfis FF
bjhyhsf m mfjh T Fiw. bjhyhsf
m Fiwjh, T mfF.

mtuh cg bragl W iy glf kF rkkhf

UF.

T mfjh kf bjhif mfF vW

nfhghL fUJwJ. Mdh jilna vj neuo bjhl
iy. nkY T caUbghGJ yhg Fiw vW nfhghL
fUJwJ. J cikay. Vbd ey thg iy T
yhgK caU.

xU cg mik, nkY nkY ciH myif mff

mff, Wiy cg FiwJ bfhnl brY. jF
FiwJ br is na fhuzkhF. Mfnt, T, Wiy
cg glf kF rkkhF tiu cgahs, ciHig
mfJ bfhnl brth. ciH myFf midJ xnu
khahf Uf ntL vW fUjgLwJ. Mfnt Wiy
my cg w, vj j T mfgL vgij
khwJ.

4. vr cik TnfhghL

wdh :

wdh :

(The Residual Claimant Theory)

T vgJ bkhj cgUJ, thu, to, kW
yhgij fj vRtjF rkkhF vW thf (Walker).
TWwh. w cg fhufSFa Cakhd thu, to,
yhg Matiw tHa wF vanj Tahf
bfhLfgLwJ.
wdh :
nfhghogo, vanj TahF vW TWwJ.
Mdh cik T vgJ KTona bfhLfgL jik
thjjhF. Mfnt TahdJ Kj bfhLgjhF. yhgkhdJ
W ilgjhF.
ed T nfhghL :
1. Wiy cg w TnfhghL (The Marginal
Productivity theory of wages)
Wiy cg w TnfhghL vgJ Wiy
cg w g nfhghil (bghJ g nfhghL)
gagL cUthfglnj MF. iw ngho ynghJ T
vthW khfgLwJ vgij nfhghL sFwJ.
Wiy cg w nfhghogo, bjhyh T
208

xbthU glK xU TL bghUshF (Joint Product).

xbthU cg fhu cg br glf msit
msf KoahJ. mY y ciHghsf (kUJt, eof, kW
tHFiuP nghnwh) W iy cg wid msgJ vgJ
f fodkhF.
2. nfhghL iw nghoia mogilahf bfhlJ.
Mdh eilKiw iwFiw nghona ywJ.
3. KWik TahdJ Wiy cg widl
Fiwthf csJ. ciHig RuLjny jF fhuzkhF.
4. T vgJ Kgzkhf tHfgLwJ KjYF
toahf xU Fl bjhifia fj wF Wiy cg
wid l Fiwthfnt T tHfgLwJ. Mfnt T vgJ f
(Discount) bragl Wiy cg MF.
5. bghUshjhu y Fiwj Tia tUkhd
Vwjhfis
ahagLj
nfhghoid
gagLjTlhJ. Ruodhnyna T Fiwthf csJ.
nkfl FiwghLf UD, Tia khF xU
fhuia btbfhzwJ vW kh TWwh.
209

mfho T nfhghL
nfhghL, Tia ciHfhd iyahf fUJwJ.
kw iyfis nghnw T mfhorfshd njit, m
Matwh khf gLwJ.
bghJthf ciH m, ntiy bra jahuhf cs
kf bkhj vifia FF. y tifahd ciHF
mf myJ lfhy g njitgLwJ. g fhy
ciHghsf jfSila tUkhdij ahf bra ntosJ.
ciH bryit fzL bghGJ ahf brj tUkhdij
ftd bfhSj ntL.
ciH njit : ciH njitahdJ xU jUfgl
njitahF. glf njitia vghnj ed cg
eilbgWwJ. thg ey iy eilbgW bghGJ,
ciHfhd njit mfkhf UF _yjd, kthf ilF
bghGJ ciHF _yjdij gL bra Ka brth. KjL
mfFbghGJ ciHfhd njit mfF.
ciHfhd mfho ngho, TahdJ ciHfhd
njit m rkkhFnghJ rkiy cUthwJ.
tiugl 9.4

PICTURE INSERT

gl 9.4 DL tisnfhL ciHfhd njitia FF.

SL tisnfhL ciHfhd mig FF. ciHfhd
njit m X-m FfgLsJ. TahdJ Y-m
FfgLsJ. ciHfhd njit (OQ) mj mF OQ
rkkhF (E) TahdJ (OW) khfgLwJ.
mig l njit mfkhf Ujh T mfkhf
UF. mnj ngh mig l njit Fiwthf Ujh T
Fiwthf UF. m gf, iwa FiwghLf
(imperfections) fhzgLwd. bjhyhsf l bgaj
fodkhd xW. y tifahd ciH gwhFiw fhzgLwJ.
(c.. kUJtf, bghahsf) y bjhf ciH
mghdJ bjh rffsh fLgLjgLwJ.
ngur TnfhghL
(The Bargaining Theory of Wages)
TL ngu r _ykhf Tia khg
bjhrff brthif nfhghL tWJwJ.
nfhghogo, T msthdJ bjhrff ngu
ngR ria bghWJ mik. bjhrff cWdf
vif, rf iy, ntiy Wjf _y bjh
lghLfis VgLJ r Matiw bghWJ
bjhrff r (wik) mik. wj thg iy,
KGntiy iyfhyf bjhrff tik thjjhf
UF. thg kj iy, ntiyyh lhl Ma
fhyf bjhrff tikawjhf UF.

njit kW
ciH
ciH))
m ((ciH

ciH mig fLgLJj _ykhf mit Tia

mff br. (c) bjhrff cWdfis kLnk
ntiy af ntL vW mWJ. jF iulgl
bfhif (closed shop policy) vW bga. Fiwjgr Ca
tHfgliyba, ntiy Wjfis nkbfhtjhf
bjhrff uL.

210

211

to (Interest)
_yjdij gagLJtjfhf bfhLfgL iy to
vdgL. jF fu to myJ a to vW bga. muR
guf _y <lgL tona jF xU wj
vLJfhlhF. fu to ju, lghLfSfhd btFk,
trFiwfhd Ca, gfhd Ca Mait bkhj
to mlF. lghLf vgJ tf lghLf kW
brhj lghLfS mlF. (c) a trhF
bfhLfgL flfis Ug bgWt cs lghL
fhuzkhf gzij flbfhLgt mf to tNgh.
bghJthf gzij kf buhfkhf itUf Ut. jF
ikjikyhd brhJ vW bga (Liquidity Preference).
xUtUF fl bfhLfglh, mgz y fhyF Ug
bgw KoahJ. Jnt trFiw (inconvenience) vdgL.
trFiwit <Lbra mfgoahd tUkhdij bfhLf
ntL. Mfnt bkhj to vgJ fu tol nkTait
midJ mlF.
tonfhghLf
(Theories of interest)
1.

J j myJ fhUj tonfhghL (The

abstinence or waiting theory of interest.)

2.

fhy Ug nfhghL (The agiotheory and time preference

theory).

3.

Wiy cg nfhghL (The Marginal production theory)

4.

bjhik nr - KjL nfhghL (Classical theory of Saving

& investment)

5.

fl nfhghL (Loanable funds theory)

6.

to ga iknfhghL

ehrh a Ef j nfhghogo, to vgJ

brtij cldoahf EftUJ yUF myJ
212

fhUF braYF bfhLfgL btFkahF. kf

nrwhf vwh cldo Efit jwhf vgJ
bghUshF. J J ahfij FwJ. nrig
Ltjfhf bfhLfgL btFkna toahF. Mdh
jjYF (Abstinence) gyhf fhUj (waiting) vW kh
TWwh.
vnah nfhghL kW fhy UgnfhghL
vfhyfhd ffhy Cfbjhif kW vfhy
Efitl ffhy Efitna kf Ut vW mjF
<Lbra bfhLfgL iyna to vW TWwJ.
fhy Ug nfhghL Agio nfhghL nghwnj MF.
Wiy cg w nfhghL, Wiy cg w
g nfhghoUJ bgwgl xwhF. toahdJ
_yjd Wiy cgwDF rkkhf UF vW
TWwJ.
bjhik to nfhoghogo, to jkhdJ
_yjdfhd njit, m Ma rah zfgLwJ.
nfhghL, to j, nr, KjL tilnaahd neuo
bjhl csJ vw vLnfhis rhjJ. toj caUbghGJ
nr caU. to j Fiw bghGJ KjL mfF vW
bjhik bghUa mPf edhf. nr KjL
rkiyia to j khwJ.
fl nfhghL:
K. br kW bl uhgr kW gy
nfhghil mJsd. bjhik tonfhghil l
fl nfhgho viy thdjhF. ffhy
tUkhdUJ nr kLkyhJ, tfl, gJfgl
Kjil btbfhzj kW KjL brjij l Ma
midij cslaJ fl ahF. nr vgJ ffhy
tUkhdUJ nrfglijjh FF vW bjhik
bghUa mPf fUJwd. t flD KjLF
Ka fl fUahF vgJ ekF bj.
213

bjhik nfhghogo, KjLF kLnk nr njit

vW fUjglJ. Mdh fl nfhghogo KjLF
kLkyhk brtij gJFtjF njitgLwJ vW
fUJwJ.
to vgJ Kjil nrig rhjJ vW bjhik
nfhghL fUJwJ r=f (S,I). Mdh fl nfhghogo to
jkhdJ ehF khfis rhjJ.
r = f (I,S,M,L)
r - vgJ toj
I - vgJ KjL
S - vgJ nr
M - vgJ tfl
L - vgJ gJf myJ buhfkhf itUf U gz.
tiugl 9.5
fl tonfhghL

gl 9.5 S - tisnfhL nrig, M tisnfhL

tflid (gJf, KjL Kjat UJ fgl
brt FwJ.
S + M tisnfhL, ntWgl tl j mfgL bkhj
flia FF.
njitgf I-tisnfhL Kjofhd njitia
FF. L tisnfhL gadw buhf U myJ gJFtjfhd
gz njitia FF. I + L tisnfhL gntW to j
njitgL bkhj fl ia FF. rij to jkhd rm,
S + M tisnfhL, I + L tisnfhL rF
khfgLwJ. toj fl fhd bkhj
njit m xWbfhW rkkhf UF. bjhik
nfhgho rn rhjhuz to j, I kW S tisnfhLf xiw
xW btL khfgLwJ. mjhtJ to j rnMf UFbghGJ Kjofhd njit nr msF
(mF) rkkhf UF.
wdh
1. fl nfhghL bjhik to j nfhghil l
nkglJ vg Iaiy. nr tojij rhjJ vw
vLnfhis mogilahf bfhljh nfhghLFiw
TwgLsJ.

2. Kjo msdh, ntiyiy, tUkhd, nr

Mat VgL khwij nfhghL wfJlJ.
ik Ug nfhghL
(Keynesian Liquidity Preference theory of interest)

fl njit / m

214

bghJthf, kf jfsJ brh xU gFia buhfkhf

itUf Ut. buhf vgJ ik jikila brhJ
MF. xU Fl fhyF buhfkhf itUgij
jgjfhf bfhLfgL btFkna to vW R
TWwh.
215

to vgJ gzij gJfhk Ugjfhf bfhLfgL

btFkahF.
_W nehffSfhf kf gzij buhfkhf itUf
Ut vW R TWwh. mitf
1. gkhw nehf (Transaction motive)
2. Kbdrif nehf (Precautionary Motive)
3. Cf thg nehf (Speculative Motive)
gkhw nehf vgJ mwhl bryfis nkbfhs
itUF buhf gzkhF. vghuh bryfis rkhf kf
buhfkhf gzij itUf Ut. Jnt Kbdrif
nehf gzkhF. rij vfhy, vd elF vgij
CjJ, yhg nehffhf bragLtJ Cf nehfkhF
vW R TWwh. to jij khg Cf nehfnk
KaJt thjJ. Cf nehffhf itUF gznjit
to jnjhL vfa bjhl csJ.
xUw ik UgK, kWw gz m to jij
khwJ vW R fUJwh.
tiugl 9.6
ik Ug

gl 9.6 L vgJ ik jik bfhl gzij, M

vgJ gz mig FF. r vgJ to jij FF.
L tisnfhL M tisnfhL btL to j
khfgLwJ. gznjit L1F mfF nghJ myJ gz
m M1F Fiw bghGJ toj r1, Mf mfF.
wdh
nfhghL, bghJ to nfhghL MF. kw to
nfhghLfisl f wjjhF. nfhgho ik
jikF mf KaJt bfhLJsh vW kw mPf
Fiw TWwd. nr UF bghGJjh ikjik
cilajhf Uf ntLkh? vw nf vG. nr yhk
ik jikF gzij mf KoahJ. ik jikaw
nrF bfhLfgL iyna tojkhF vW n#f itd
(Jacob Viner) fUJwh.
yhg (Profits)
bjh mikF ilF btFkna yhg MF.
bjh Wtdij cUthFgt bjh Kidnth. lghLfis
VWbfhtJ iyaw jikia, jh bfhtJ bjh
Kidnth Ka gahF. Mfnt nkfl gfSfhf
ilF btFkna yhg MF.
bkhj yhg (Gross Profit)

toj

glfis cg brtjF MF bkhj bryF

mglfis gjh ilF bkhj tUthF cs
ntWghnl bghJthf yhg vW eh TWnwh. J bkhj yhg
MF.
bkhj yhgK fu yhgK

gz
216

bkhj yhg vgJ fu yhgJl KjYfhd to,

yJfhd thu, nkyhikF ilF Ca, KWik
fhuzkhf WtdF ilF cg yhgK nrjjhF.
ObuW njhW thdh ilF tUkhdK mlF
(Windfall Profit)
217

fu myJ a yhgij bgWtjF, nkfl

tUkhdij bkhj yhgUJ ff ntL. lghLfis
VgjF, rakw jikia jh bfhtjF bfhLfgL
btFkna fu yhg MF. bjh KidnthUF Jnt Ka
gahF. gL glf yhj xU glij gid
br xnu gidahsnu KWikahs Mth. mig mt
fLgLj Kotjh if yhgij mt bgwKo. Jnt
KWik yhg vW miHfgLwJ.
a yhg (m) fu yhg
ij a yhg (Normal Profit), if yhg (Super Normal
Profit) vW ulhf fyh. rakw jikia VW
Wtdij bjhlJ elj cjuthjij jU Fiwjgr
yhgnk a yhgkhF. a yhgij l mfkhf myJ
cgahf myJ ifahf ilF yhg, a yhg xU
gFahF. iw ngho xU Wtd FWa fhy cg
yhgij bgwhY, lfhy J kiwJL. KWik
kLnk if yhgij bjhlahf bgwKo.
KjlhsU, bjh KidnthU xUtnu vW fUJtjh,
giHik bghUa mPf toia, yhgij
ntWgLjiy. bjh Kidnth KjLF brhjfhuuhf
Uf ntLbkw mtaiy. bjh Kidnth KjLF
brhjfhuuhf Ugijl, bjhYF jiyik jhFtnj
Ka gahF. bjh mik jfuw cg fhuahf
W sFwJ. kw tUkhdfis l yhg _W tf
ntWgLwJ. 1. J vr tUkhd (residual income) 2. yhg guj
Vwjhfis bfhlJ. y neuf J vkiwahf
UF. mjhtJ elf Vgl th cL. T vkiwahf
Ugij idJ ghf KoahJ. 3. yhg iyawJ.
yhg nfhghLf :
Ka yhgnfhghLfshtd : 1. yhg thu nfhghL
(Rent Theory of Profit) 2. W iy cg w yhg nfhghL
(The Marginal Productivity theory of profit.) 3. yhgT nfhghL
218

(Wages theory of profit). 4. aFiy yhg nfhghL (The

Dynamic theory of profits). 5. jhf yhg nfhghL
(The innovation theory of profits).6. lghL yhg nfhghL (The
risk theory of profits) 7. iyaw jikia jhF yhg nfhghL
(Uncertainity bearing theory of profit).
1. yhg thu nfhghL
nfhghoid cUthat nguha thf (Prof.
Walker) Mth. tuJ fUJgo yhg vgJ wikfhd thu
(rent of ability) MF. yhg thuij nghwnj. y
brGikah VgL ntWgho fhuzkhf thu njhWwJ. mnj
nghy wik ntWghlh njhWtJ yhgkhF. Mfntjh
J wikfhd thu vW miHfgLwJ.
nfhgho Ka FiwghL vdbt J
yhg cs ntWghLfis kLnk sFwJ. yhg V
VgLwJ? vw nfF J g Twiy.
2. Wiy cg w yhg nfhghL :
nfhghL, Wiy cg w g nfhgho
mogilnyna mikJsJ. iw ngho, bjh mik
Wiy cg kF rkkhdnj yhg vW
nfhghL TWwJ.
Wiy cg w
FiwghLfS jF bghUJ.

nfhgho

midJ

3. T yhg nfhghL
yhgkhdJ TUJ ntWglJ my vW nguha
lh TWwh. bjh mikghs jwikfhd Tna
yhg MF. jDila Fiwghlhf vkiw yhgij g eh
Twyh. Mdh vkiw Tia g eh Tw KoahJ. bjh
mik vgJ jjik thj cg fhuahF. Mdh
J ciHUJ khWglJ.
219

4. aFiy yhg nfhghL

nguha sh (Prof. Clark) nfhgho Ma
Mth. rKjha VgL Ka khw (dynamic changes)
isthf njhWtnj yhg MF. glf cg
bryitl TLjyhf thF iyna yhg MF. kf bjhif
ms, _yjd m ms, bjhEg, bjh mik
kW Ugf Mat VgL khwf isthf
njhWtnj yhg MF. ed nfhghLf xwhd J FWa
fhy vghF kW vghf Koahj khwf
ntWghil wfJlJ.
5. jhf yhg nfhghL
jhf idtjfhd btFkna yhg vW Rl
(Schumpeter) fUJwd. jhf idj vgJ a
fLoig l wjjhF. a fLof bjh
eltoiff FjgL bghGJ jhfkhf khWwJ. a
bghUfis mKfgLJj, myJ a cg Kiwfis
mKfgLJj, a rijia cUthFj Kjad
jhf mlF. bjhKidnthjh jhfij
mKfgLJwh. tUila jhf eltoiffsh,
bghUshjhu KndwK rKjha khwfS VgLwd. vdnt
jhfF yhgij bgWwh.
yhg njhWtjF jhf xU Ka fhuzkhf
UjhY, J xW kLnk fhuzky. J ljhF gia
wfJlJ. Jnt j Ka FiwghL.

(c..) UL, gJ fhL brJ bfhs Ko. bjahj

lfis VW bfhtjF ilF btFkna yhg.
lghLf mf iyaw jik bfhlitahF.
7. iyaw jikia jhF yhg nfhghL:
nguha ie (Prof. Knight) vgt nfhgho Ma
Mth. tUila fUJgo, yhg vgJ l jhF gfhf
bfhLfgLtiy. iyaw jikia VF gfhf
tHfgL btFkna MF vW nguha ie TWwh.
vfhy iyawjhf Ugjh lghLfis
VfntosJ vgJ tuJ Ka fUjhF. iyaw
jikia Vgnj bjh Kidnth Ka gahF.
bj lghLfSF fhL bra Ko. Mdh bjahj
lghLfis (ngho lghLf, muR jiypL lghLf)
fhL bra KoahJ. bjh Kidnth j iyaw jikia
Vgjh yhg <Lwh. j iyaw jikia VgJ kLnk
bjh Kidnth g mW vgJ Ka FiwghlhF.
Koiu
nkny Twgl nfhghLf Ka FiwghL ahbj,
it midJ bjh Kidnth XU gfSF kLnk
KaJt bfhLJsd. l jhF g, iyaw jikia
jhF gfSl kW gy gfis bjh Kanth
nkbfhSwh. vdnt yhg vw btFkia Vf
jFilatuhwh.

6. ljhF yhg nfhghL

bjh Kidnth ljhF wikfhf mfgL
btFkna yhg vW nguha (Prof. Hawley) TWwh. l
jhFj vgJ bjh Kidnth Ka gahF. l
jhFjY yhg <LjY xUizJ brY. nfhgho
Ka FiwghL, bjj lghLf, bjahj lghLfS
ilnaahd bjhlig J ntWgLjiy. bjj lfSF
220

221

I.
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

g
gF-m
rahd ilia njbjLf :

8.

khW Ca vgJ ......... bryit FgJ.

9.

gzT vgJ ......... T vW miHfyh.

10.

mikig VgLJgt ...........

thu vgJ jD xiw gagLajfhf

bfhLfgl iy

III.

bghUJf :

11.

vr cik TnfhghL

- m. kh

12.

fhUj tonfhghL

- M. thf

13.

fl nfhghL

- . Ahny

14.

aFiy yhg nfhghL

- <. jfhy nfhghL

15.

l jhF yhg nfhghL

- c. sh

IV.

fhQ
dhfSF
ilaf

16.

fhnlh TWgo vyh yfS ts

bgWwd.

17.

midJ yfS rkms ts bghUa ykhf

UjhY, thu vGkh?

18.

Vnah to nfhgho Ma ah?

ik Ugnfhgho Ma

19.

yhg-thu nfho Ma ah?

m. J.M.

M. kh

20.

Rl yhg nfho bga vd?

. rhKntr

<. ie

m. _yjd

M. mik

. ciH

<. y

yhg jfhd btFk

m. y

M. _yjd

. ciH

<. mik

ciH V njitgLwJ
m. cW njit

M neuo njit

. bgwgl njit

<. be njit

ngh thu vw fU Ma
m. Ml

M. kh

. fhnlh

<. rhKntr

II. nfhol lfis uf :

6.

Wiy cg w nfhghL vgJ .......... g

nfhghL.

7.

Wiy cg w nfhghL .......... ngho rij

vLnfhiy mogilahf bfhlJ.
222

xU

brh

gF-M
tU dhfSF ehF myJ IJ tf
ilaf
21.

Wiy cg w nfhgho vLnfhf

ahit?

22.

khW Ca vgJ ahJ?

223

23.

cik TF, gzTF cs ntWghL ahJ?

24.

thif ju T nfhghL vgJ ahJ?

25.

ik Ug nfhgho _W nehff ahit?

gF-

tU dhfSF xU gf ms ilaf
26.

kh nghthu nfhghoid t.

27.

iH kl T nfhghil g W F tiuf.

28.

J j myJ fhUj to nfhghL g

thf.

29.

aF iy yhg nfhghoid RUfkhf TWf.

30.

Rl yhg nfhghoid t.
gF-<

tU dhfSF _W gf ms ilaf
31.

W iy cg w g nfhghoid
tf.

32.

fhnlh thu nfhghoid Muhf.

33.

fl to nfhghoid t.

34.

to nfhghoid thf.

35.

to vgJ lghLfis Vw kW yhg <Ltjfhf

mfgl btFk - t.

224

ghl - 10

tUkhd
za - va nfhghL
tUkhdza
Ml (1723 - 90), jhk uhg khj (1766-1834), nl
fhnlh (1772 - 1823) kW J. B. nr tf f ugykhd
bjhikahd bghUshjhu mPf (tYef) Mthf. 18,
kW 19 whLf ya nga uridfSF (tUkhd
kW ntiyik) KGtot bfhLjhf. Mdh tfSila
fUJfis ed bghUshjhu tYefS gd.
ntiyyh uridF jilyh thg mF
Fj tfSila fUJf 1930 bgU bghUshjhu kj
Vgl tiu vW bfhsgld. `bgUkj fhuzkhf jilyh
thg bghUshjhu ehLfshd mbkfh kW yhJ Ma
ehLf mf ntiy ikdhY (unemployment) kW mf
cgdhY (Glut) rijf Kl nghd. n#.v. R (1883
- 1964) cyf bgUkjij M brJ mtuJ fLiuf /
jff _ykhf nga bghUshjhu xU uia
VgLdh. mtuJ fUJf ntiyikia nghf muRF
bgU cjahf Ujd. jfhy nga bghUa nfhghLf
midJ tuJ fUJfisna mogilahf bfhLsd.
bjhik bghUshjhu KG ntiyth
nfhghL (Classical Theory of Full employment)
vts cg bragl ntL vgij xU eho
cg w khgjhf bjhik bghUayPf
fUdhf. xU eho bghUshjhu mjdh vts Konkh
mtsF cg brwJ. mF KG ntiy th
ytjhf fUjgLwJ. vj xU cgfhu (Fghf
ciH) ntiy UfhJ vW nfhghL fUJwJ.
mfkhfnth, Fiwthfnth cg branth myJ fnth n#..
`nr vw bghUayP go rij cg brj
glf midij gid brJLwJ. n#..nr mfho
225

go, xU jilyh bghUshjhu mf cgnah, bgUks

ntiyiknah, xLbkhj njit
gwhFiwnah
fhzglhJ.
n#..nr mfho :
buR eho bghUayPuhd n#..nr. vgt 1803 M
ML vGa mua bghUshjhu MfLiu (Treatise on
political economy) vw mtuJ mfho fis, g
vLJiuJsh. mjhtJ, `m mjfhd njitia jhnd
VgLbfhwJ. (Supply creates its own demand), xbthU
gl cg ngha ms tUkhdij bgU mj_y
mglf gidia cW brwJ vgJ j
bghUshF. xbthU cg glK rijF bfhLtugL
fhuz mtF gyhf ntbwhiw (glij) bgWtjnf
MF.
cg btpL vts UD, mjdh cUthfgl
tUkhd bryF rkkhf U bkhj njit gwhFiw
vHhJ. vdnt, mf cgnah, ntiyikna UF vw
Tiw nr VWbfhsiy. bghUshjhu KG ntiy
th iy UF. jF fhQ vLnfhfis mt
ifahlh.
1.
2.

3.

yf midJ tUkhdfS glf kW

gf Efnf brylgLwJ.
mnf mu braghLf VJ iy (t iy,
mu brydnkJiy, iyfLghL nghwit
iy).
mJ xU milfgl bghUshjhu (Closed economy).
mjhtJ ntW bghUshjhufSilna vj bjhl
iy.
226

cg vJthD ntbwhU gl njitia mJ

czJwJ. TLj m TLj njitahF. thW nr
gFgh Kiw glkhW (barter) Kiw bragLwJ. MD
gz mKf tKiwia ghfhJ. cik gl
khWKiwia fhoY gz mogilyhd bghUshjhu
f w thjJ. jtwhd t brYjgl cg,
jfhfkhf xU Fl bjh, Fl bghU mf
mig VgLJ vgij kWgjiy. bghUayP nr
ikia VW bfhLsh. MD, rkik
(disequilibrium) rij rf (jhnd rbrJ bfhS) jik
fhuzkhf kiwJLwJ. Mdh nr TWgo mf cg (over
production) myJ ntiyik F Uf KoahJ
bghUayP nr Ka TWfis flthW
bjhFjayh.
1.

bghUshjhu jidjhnd r brJ bfhwJ

2.

bghJthd mf cgnah myJ ntiyiknah Uf

thiy

3.

midJ tsfS KGikikahf

ntiyfkjgLwd.

4.

ehLfilna bghUshjhu xiw xW rhUF.

5.

bghUshjhu beahd T j y.

6.

bghUshjhu beahd to j y.

7.

gz btW bgh fhuz / kiw iu (Veil).

8.

gdhL thgF cjwJ.

9.

mu jiypL mtaiy.

bghUayP nr FiwghL (Criticism of Says Law)

nr FiwghLfis n#.v. R bt bfhzjh.
1936 M ML nr ia Fiw T R ufukhd
227

bghUshjhu nfhghoid btlh. 1930 bghUshjhu

bgUkj, kW mj isf ntiyth ga bjhik
bghUshjhu nfhghLf jtbwW, vdnt mj mogilyhd
nr VW bfhsjfjy, vW R, nr ia
fLikahf rhodh. nr Ka FiwghLfshtd.
1.

cyf bgUkjdh nr f k nghdJ

2.

<oa tUkhd midJ

brylgLtiy

vnghJ

Efnf

3.

J nghynt, nr midJ KjL bragLtiy.

4.

mfho ga jtwhd Mid mogilahf

bfhLsJ.

5.

xLbkhj (aggregation) vw jtwhd fUjh J

ghfgLwJ.

6.

xL bkhj m, xL bkhj njit vnghJ rkkhf

Ugiy.

7.

toj rkgLJ fhuay.

8.

KjyhJt Kiw vnghJ jidjhnd rbrJ

bfhshJ.

9.

iw ngho vgJ cikaw xU vLnfh MF.

10.

bghUshjhu gz xU Ka rahF.

11.

l fhyF kLnk bghUJ.

12.

gl khW bghUshjhuF kLnk nr bghUJ.

jnghJ nr bryjfnjh myJ gaDsnjh my

vd wdhthsf FLwhf. m jdFjhnd
njitia VgLbfhS vgJ vj bghUS
228

czjiy. vD, xLbkhj njit kW xLbkhj

m rkgho fhuzkhf KGntiy th ytjh nr
ia bjhik bghUshjhu nfhghL VW bfhwJ. RUf
TWtjdh xLbkhj njitF gwhFiw uhJ. VnjD
ntiyik UD rij (Mechanism) KGntiy thig
bgW.
tUkhd nfhghL
(Keynesian Theory of Income determination)
20-M who fwj bghUayPuhf R
fUjgLwh. mt gy fis vGsh. vD 1936
bttj mtuJ ntiyth, to kW gz ga xU bghJ
nfhghL (The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money)
vD mtUF bghUa mahfiH bgW jjJ.
mtuJ nga bghUshjhu xU uia
``
u
VgLaJ.

bghUshjhu
vwiHfgLwJ.
eho tUkhd kW ntiythig khgnj nga
bghUa ika uidahF. vdntjh jfhy
bghUayPf nga bghUaiy tUkhdij khF
nfhghL vwiHwhf tUkhd kW ntiyth khd
ga Ka TWfis Fljdh, bghUa
``ngus bghUa vd miHfgLwJ. R ehL
tUkhdF mf KaJt mjh. mt bjhik
bghUayPfis FiwTaJl nr ia kWjh.
FWa fhy tUkhd ms ntiy thgsit bghUJsJ
vd edh. ntiy th ms mff tUkhd ms
mfF.

229

tUkhd kW ntiythig ga jft gl

(Flow Chart)
cW njit = btpL = tUkhd = ntiy th
xL bkhj m
rh g

xL bkhj njit rh
g

KjL rh g

Ef rh g

tUkhd
ms

W iy Ef
ehl (MPC)

_yjd W to j
iy w (MEC)

_yjd thyhf
bgW isr

_yjd
m iy
bghJkf ik
Ug

ngunehf

bghUshjhu
gz m

Kvrif
nehf

Cf thf nehf

nkny FLs jft m gl (Flow Chart) _y

mogil fUJfis maKo. bkhj tUkhd bkhj
ntiy thig bghUjJ, bkhj ntiyth cW
njitia bghUjJ, J Ef bryit KjL bryit
230

bghUJsJ. Ef, tUkhdij Ef ehlij bghUJ

(Propensity to consume) mik. KjL, _yjd W iy
wid bghUJ to jij bghUJ mik.
cW njit jJt : (The principle of effective demand)
ntiyth nfhgho cW njit jJt
f Kakhd lij bgWsJ. cW njit vgJ thF
w kW brytj ehl bfhl j kjf, Wtdf
kW murhf gajhF. glf cg bragL ms
mj fhuzkhf njhwToa ntiy th rKjha bkhj
bryL wid rhJ csd vd Flyh.
jdJ tUkhd za ga va nfhghil xL
bkhj njit kW xL bkhj m mQFKiwia gagL
vLJ Tsh. xU eho bghUshjhu mik vyh jkhd
glfSF gfSF VgL njitna xLbkhj njit
vdgL. xL bkhj m vgJ xU eho mfgl bkhj
glfshF.
xL bkhj m, bkhj njit rh kW bkhj m
rh vW nkny Ta fhufis miHJsh.
TWgo gntW ntiy th msf, vgd
mJl bjhlbfhl gntW ms xL bkhj njit kW
xL bkhj mig bghUJ mik. xLbkhj njit
tisnfhL kW xL bkhj m tisnfhL t cwit
bghUnj rkiy tUkhd myJ cg mik. cldo
FWafhy uridfis gna ehl bfhoUjh,
vdnt xLbkhj m rh g mt fU bfhsiy.
Mdh xLbkhj njitF KaJt mjh. xL bkhj
njit gwhFiwF ntiyikna fhuz vwh.
vyh njitfS cW njitay. TWgo bkhj
njit (ADF) bkhj m (ASF) cW njit msit
zwJ. bkhj m rh (ASF) bryit FwJ. bkhj
njit rh (ADF) tUthia FwJ. bry tUthF
TLjyhf UfyhfhJ. bjh Kanth, tUth, bryitl
231

nkny Flgo UtisnfhLfS xiw xW bto

bfhS na mf ms ntiythig jU ahF.
TWgo bkhj njit kW ntiyik bghUJ
ntiyiy mikwJ. jdh bkhj njit VgLwJ.
xLbkhj njit mfgjdh ntiyik jLfgLwJ.
xLbkhj njit
(Aggregate Demand)
bkhj bghUshjhu bryf ehF tiffshf
fgLwd. mitf Ef bry (C) KjL bry (I);
muR bry (G) fu tf bry (X-M). xL bkhj bry
vgJ nkny TwgLs midJ bryfis FF. vdnt
xLbkhj njit rh thW FlgLwJ.
AD = C + I + G + (X - M) ..... (1)
rh xLbkhj njit vgJ Ef (C), KjL (1), muR
bry (G) kW fu tf bry(x-m) t TLjYF
rkkhF xLbkhj njit vgJ bghUshjhu thFnth
midt ll bry bkhj kng MF. xU Fl
fhy glf kW gf bkhj njitia J FwJ.
nkY xLbkhj njit vgJ kf thf U xLbkhj
glf msnt MF.
bghUa xUtuJ bry kwtUF tUkhdkhF.
bghUshjhu bkhj bry bkhj tUkhdF rkkhF.
mjhtJ bkhj tUkhd (Y) = bkhj bry (AD).

midJ KaJtij xLbkhj cg

rhnf bfhLjh. bghUayPf 100 MLfSF nkyhf
TWfis wfjd. xLbkhj bry rh khwhjJ vd
itJbfhnthnkahdh; nfhghL vdbt ntiy
th vgJ xLbkhj njitia bghUJsJ. mJ fhQ
U fhufis bghUJsJ.
1. Ef ehl (Propensity to Consume)
2. KjL l (Inducement to Invest)
Ef rh :
kf bgUthahd tUkhdij gl EffSF
bryLwd. y tUkhdij KGtJkhf bry brwd,
ntW y xU gFia bry brJ jij nrwd.
bkhj rKjha vts bry brwJ? vts nrwJ?
J tUkhdF EfF ilna cs bjhlghF. Ef
rh vgJ tUkhdF EftF ilna cs bjhlid
sFwJ. Ef rh vgJ uL myJ mjFnk cs
kh (Variables)f bjhlig FF.
tiugl 10.1

Ef rh

bry

Fiwthf UF nghJ, J ntiyahfis agij

WLwd. tUth bryitl TLjyhf UFnghJ
mtf nknkY ntiy thig mfJ, mj _y mf
yhg <Lthf.

~ Y = AD rkghL 1 thW vGjyh.

Y = AD = C + I + G + (X-M)
or Y = C + I + G + (X-M) .... (2)
232

tUkhd
233

gntW tUkhd iyf Effhf brylgl

tUkhd Ef ehl (Prospersity to consume) MF.
tUkhdF, EfF neuo bjhlsJ vwh
. Ef rh myJ Ef ehl vgJ tUkhdF
EfF ilna cs rhj jhrhunk (functional
relationship) MF. fjKiwgo bjhlKiw flthW
FlgLwJ.
C = a + by
C = 4 + 0.8 Y ......
nkgo rkghL TWtbjdbtwh Ef vgJ
tUkhdij (Y) bghUjJ. + FpL FLtJ tUkhd cau
Ef catilwJ vgJ bj. Mdh, tUkhd
catilj msF Ef ca j mffhJ. Vbd,
brytfglhj tUkhd xU gF nrfgL. TWf
Ef nfhgho sfgLsJ. csa ahf
rKjha cik tUkhd caUnghJ xLbkhj Ef
mfF, Mdh tUkhd caj msF my vwh
.
FWa fhy kf Ef gHftHff Xus
khwhk Ugjh Ef rh iyahf UwJ vgij
R bjgLdh.
tUkhd kW EfF ilna cs bjhlig nkny cs
tiugl _y czjKo. iy myJ brFJ mR
Ef bryit C vw FpL _y czJwJ, ilkl mR
tUkhd myJ cgia Y FpL _y FLwJ. Ef
bry CC rkgho _y thW Twyh.
C = 4 + 0.8 Y
Ef tisnfhL CC FWa fhy tisnfhlhF. tUkhd
(O) {akhf UjhY Ef eilbgWwJ. tUkhd {akhf
UFnghJ Kjfl Ef 4 MF. J tUkhdjh
ghfglhJ. tUkhd {akhf UD, fl bgnwh myJ
234

btFkahfnth kf Fiwj gr ms bry brwd.

tUkhdnjhL bjhlyhj Ef jir Ef
(Autonomous Consumption) vd miHfgLwJ vdntjh
brFJ m tisnfhL `C, `4' bjhlFwJ.
rkgho FLtJ 80 GfhL TLj tUkhd
EfF brytf gLwJ. jF Wiy Ef ehl
(Marginal Propensity to Consume) vd bga. Wiy Ef ehl
vgJ tUkhd khwdh Vgl Ef khw j MF.
vdnt W iy Ef ehl vgJ (MPC) Ef khw
Vgl j ms MF.
Wiy Ef ehl =
(MPC)

Ef khw
tUkhd khw

myJ
Wiy Ef ehl =

C
Y

C vgJ Ef VgL khw

Y vgJ tUkhd VgL khw
Ef rh r nfhL myJ VnjD xU nenfhL
fzlgLtJ vthW v brFJ khwij ilkl
khwjh tFj _y ilf bgWtjhF. FpL khwij
FwJ. myJ rnfhL thW fzlyh.
rnfhL =

brFJ khw
ilkl khw

FWa fhy Ef ehl iyahf Ugjhf

bfhnth. tisnfho rit bghUJ, bfhLfgl
tUkhd vts brylgLwJ vd bjatUwJ. thW,
Ef rh bghJthf nfhL rkgho _y czjgLwJ.
mjhtJ Y = a + by F a vgJ jir Efid FF.
r nfhL b vgJ Wiy Ef ehl (MPC) MF.
235

Wiy Ef ehl tUkhd khwdh VgL Ef

khw j MF.
nf 0.8 FLtJ TLjyhf <oa tUkhd 80
GfhL EfF brylgLwJ, j csbjhif
nrfgLwJ. RUf T Efrh vgJ tUkhd
Effhf MF bryit FF. jdh, bghUshjhu
Ef vgJ tUkhd msit bghUjJ MF.
bghUshjhu tUkhd mfFnghJ Ef
mfF. tUkhdF jFjhngh kf mfkhf bry
brtjhf itJbfhlh mtf Wiy Ef ehl
(MPC) mfkhf UF. Ef fhQ _W
w TWfis mogilahf bfhlJ. Ef rh
tUkhd za Ka gF twJ.
1. tUkhd mf, Ef mf xnu j
Ugiy.
2. tUkhd mfig Ef kW nr gJ
bfhwd.
3. tUkhd mf, Ef kW nr mfig xnu
neu VgLJtiy. nr j mfF nghJ Ef j
Fiw.
nr rh (Saving Function)
tUkhd EfF brlglJnghf j csJ nr
vdgL. nr vgJ iflgl Ef MF (Consumption
foregone). nr mfFnghJ Ef Fiw. TWgo
xU bghUshjhu nr msthdJ Ef nghW
tUkhdij bghUJsJ. nrF tUkhdF ilna
cs bjhl fj rkghogo Twglh mjid nr
rh vd miHfyh.
S = -a + by
S = -4 + 2y
236

F S vgJ nr, Y vgJ tUkhd, a vgJ

nrgyhjJ (dissaving), Wiy nr ehl (MPS) vgJ
tUkhd VgL khwjh nr VgL khw j ms.
Jnt, W iy nr ehl khwj MF.
(myJ)
Wiy nr ehl (MPS) =

S
Y

F S vgJ nr khw; Y vgJ tUkhd

khw. tUkhd mfFnghJ W iy Ef ehl (MPC)
Fiwa bjhldh, Wiy nr ehl (MPS)
mffTL. Wiy Ef ehl (MPC) khwhk UF.
vdnt, tUkhd vgJ Ef kW nrid cslaJ.
vdnt Y = C + S
MPC + MPS = 1
MPS = 1 - MPC myJ
MPC = 1 - MPS
myJ MPC + MPS = 1
xU bghUshjhu jhf bgW TLj tUkhd
Fiwthf bry brjh Wiy Ef ehl (MPC) Fiwthf
UF kW CC tisnfhL rW Fiwthd rl fhzgL.
kh (constant) `a vgJ nrgyhjJ, (dissaving). Vbd J
tUkhdF bjhlyhj jir Ef (autonomous
consumption) MF. l fhy jdh Ef {a MF.
l fhy tUkhd FLgd Ef bra KoahJ.
vdnt l fhy Ef KY tUkhdij bghUnj
csJ, C tisnfhL bjhlfUJ MuwJ.
237

Efit zF w fhuf
Ef brtjF tUkhd f Kakhd fhuahf
UD, ntW y fhufS Ef ehlij khwkila
bratyd. mitahtd.
1. tUkhd g
2. brt g ms kW a
3. kf bjhif taJ ghFghL
4. gzf myJ iy ms
5. mu bfhiff
6. to j

TWgo KjL vgJ KjL my. Mdh

cik KjL MF. KjL vgJ cik TLj KjL
brhij FF. KjLfshd guf myJ gFf
thFtJ mlfhJ. Kjo jjikiana jdJ
nfhghoF mojskhf bfhLsh. xLbkhj njit
mff fhuz Kjo KaJt. J kbwhU Ka
fhuahf UwJ.
Ef, tUkhd iyahd rh MF. Ef bry
khwij VgLJtj xLbkhj njit khw VglhJ,
Vbd Ef bry vgJ tUkhdij bghUJsJ. tUkhd
msit bghUJ jdh brythd KjL khfgLwJ.
J tUkhd kW ntiyth iyjikaw kW
khWghoF fhuzbkd fljh.
KjL 1930 cyf bgUkjF fhuzkhf
mikjJ.

7. vghf
8. sguf

Kjil zaF fhuf

9. thifju ts
10. fyhrhu khw
Kdnk thjgo xLbkhj njit (Aggregate Demand)
Ef rh kW cg rh vd UgFfis bfhlJ.
vD FWa fhy Ef rh myJ Wiy Ef
ehl (MPC) khwhUF. vdnt, KjL rhF
KaJ bfhLJsh.
KjL rh
bghUshjhu KjL w bghUis bfhLsJ.
mjhtJ Vfdnt cs cg wfSF TLj bghU
nrgJ. (uju KjLf U uju rhjdf, auf,
fllf, _ybghUf, njkhdjh VgL khw bryf
nghwitfshF. J tUfhy cgF mogilahF. KjL
vgJ bkhj bry myJ xLbkhj bryF Ka
mogil TW (Component) MF.
238

ntiy th Kjil rhjJ vwh . Kjo

Vwjhf Ugjh ntiy thY VwjhsJ. vdnt
KjL msit khgij eh thngh. KjL bry
tUtdtwh khf gLwJ.
1.

tUfhy yhg <Ltj vgh (myJ) ahghu

eif.

2.

to j

Wtdf jf yhgUnjh myJ fl

thnah KjL brwd. nrfis bgUF Fokf
(Households) jf gzij yhg bgWtjfhf KjL brtjh
myJ it _y to bgWtjh vgij khwhf.
vghF yhg to jij l cathf Ujh Fokf
KjL brt. iyba jf gzij tofhf it
brYJthf. Wtdf jf brhj yhgij
KjL brtij thnw khwd. Wtdf
239

Kjofhf fl bgWtjhf itJbfhlh mit, mjfhd

toid mf ntoUF. vdnt, toia Mug
Kjo bryit l vghF yhg mfkhf Ujh
Wtdf fl th gzij KjL br.
thW nkfhgtW KjL bra KobtLj toj
kW ahghu eifia bghUnj csJ. uo
tUfhy yhg <Lj vgh (myJ) ahghu eifna
tojij fhoY KaJt bgWwJ. J Vbd to
j FWa fhy khwhkUjny MF. yhg rhj
vghf midJ vfhy rJtyhj gy
khfis bfhLsd. jah KjLf jid bghUnj
csJ. rakw (Bleak) ts, Kjo ia VgL
ntiythig ghF.
nr KjL
nr kWbkhU Ka fUbghU MF. J KjnlhL
neuo bjhlilaJ. bghUshjhu nr KjL mogil
braghLf MF. KjL mik kW bghUshjhu tsF
nr mtakhdJ. nr rahd tif ulgL,
gffgL, _yjd Uig mff KjL bragL
cg bgUf _y bghUshjhu brt tsbgWjny
nrdh VgL bghUshjhu nkghL vdyh.
vdnt bkhj nr, KjL rkkhF.
Mdh, mit vnghJ rkiy UfhJ. nr
jdFjhnd KjL brJ bfhwJ vd bjhik bghUa
mPf fUdhf. nrF Ko, KjL br Ko xU
eguhnyna nkbfhsgLwJ vd idjhf. Mdh nr
KjL btntW egfsh btntW fhuzfSfhf, btntW
fhufsh khfgLwJ vd thlh. jdh, y
neuf nr Kjill mfFnghJ, xLbkhj
njit gwhFiw VgL ntiyikF t tFF.
nr (S) kW KjLF (I) ilnaahd ilbt, tf
kW muR bryf nghw neuo Kiwnyh myJ kiwKf
240

tahd gz mig lToa braghLf _ykhfnth

mu brydfis TLtj _y r bragLwJ vwh
.
jdh S = I
vdnt Y = C + I
myJ Y = C + S
to j : (ik Ug nfhghL)
vj xU ahghu nehfK gz jnghijia mig
L fhuahd toia mogilahf bfhlJ. xLbkhj
Kjil khF kWbkhU fhuahf toj csJ.
cik ntiyth nfhghL tojJl
bjhlFwJ. to, Kjil ntiy thig ghwJ.
jdJ `ik Ug nfhgho to mta, KaJt g
sdh. `ik Ug nfhghL khbgU rhjidahf
fUjglJ. TWgo to j vgJ, Fl fhy
msF gzij L bfhLgjfhd btFk MF.
ik Ug vgJ (Liquidity Preference) kf ifU
(buhf) gz MF. k vgJ buhf gzij FF.
kf V buhf gz itJsd. Vbd, buhf gz xU
k brhJ vdnt kf mjid buhf gzkhf itJbfhs
Uwd. ik Ugfhd _W fhuzfshf
TWtJ tUkhW.
1. gkhw nehf (Transaction Motive)
2. Kbdrif nehf (Precautionary Motive)
3. Cf thf nehf (Speculative Motive)
mwhl bryfis nkbfhs itUF buhf gznk
gkhw nehfbkdgL. kUJt brynghy vghuhj
bryfis rkhf buhfkhf gzij itUg. Jnt
Kbdrif eltoif vdgL. rij eikfshd
guf, gFf Kjatiw yhg nehffhf thF
241

242

3.

4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

ntWtif brhtjhdh mu bry `{a MF.

tf VJ yhjjh j eg tUkhd midJ bryl
Toa tUkhdnkahF.
bghUshjhu _lgl (Closed one) bghUshjhu MF.
maehL thgjh Lj VJ iy. (X-M).
mjhtJ X-M= {a MF.
T kW iy khw VJ iy. (iyahf UF)
ntiyF mkjglhj tsf Ugjh KGntiy th
iyia l Fiwthd iyna ywJ.
to j vjkhd khwK iy.
KjL jirahdJ, vdnt iy klij bghUnjh
tojij bghUnjh mJ miktiy.
Ef bry xnu iyahdJ.
Kj _W vLnfhf fhuzkhf mogil rkghL
Y = C + I + G + (X - M) vw rkghL RUfgL
Y = C + I MwJ.
tiugl : 10.2
tUkhd za

xLbkhj bry

bghUL buhf gzij bgWsij Cf thg nehf

vwiHnwh. rij vfhy vd elF vgij
CjJ yhg nehffhf bragLtij Cf thg
nehf vwh .
ik Ug vgJ to jij bghUjJ. toj
mfkhf UFnghJ kf mj gaid bgw buhf gzij
Lf (KjL bra) Ut. vdnt to j cathf
Ujh ik Ug Fiwthf UF. mnj neu toj
Fiwthf Ujh ik Ug mfkhf UF.
kj gHf tHff xnu khahf Ugjh ik
UgK xnu khahdit vwh R. ik Ug gz
njitia bghUjJ. _yjd iyia khgJ gz
njitia bghUjJ. kWw gz mghdJ mu gz
bfhif kW tf tfdhyhd fl vGia (Credit
Creation) bghUJ mikwJ.
RUf T KjL rh tojF mf
KaJt mwJ. to j khwhk xnu iy Ujh
KjL mfgj fhuz vfhy ahghu eifahF.
va tUkhd za nfhghLf
FWa fhy eho tUkhd ms, ntiy th
VgL khwij bghUJ khWtjhf FLwh.
xLbkhj njit kW xLbkhj mig bghUnj ntiy
thgs mikwJ. xLbkhj njit kW xL bkhj
mF ilna cs xL tUkhd rkiy ms MF.
uL rkkhf UFnghJ KGntiy th ywJ.
thW, tUkhd za, cg za kW ntiyth
za MatWF J gagLwJ.
vLnfhf
tUkhd zaij sf fhQ vLnfhfis R
gagLJwh.
1. U dnu csd. Efnth (C) kW Wtdf (I).
2. bghUshjhu mu Lj VJ iy (G)

tUkhd
243

gl 10.2 brFJ mR xLbkhj myJ bkhj njitia

FwJ. (myJ xLbkhj bry) ilkl mR tUkhd
kW cgia FwJ. xL bkhj bghUshjhu
tUkhd, bry kW cg Mait rk. vdnt mitf xnu
m mslgLwd.
xLbkhj m vgJ Wtd mf UF midJ
glf bkhj iyahF. J, ilF bjh Eg,
tsf (au, kj) ciH w Matiw bghWJ
mik. mnef fhuf lfhy (Longrun)
khwkilToad. FWa fhy iyahdJ. xLbkhj m
tisnfhL (AS) bkhj tUkhd (Y) kW cg (E)
rkiyia FwJ. bjhlf iyUJ 45 0 tiuagl
nfhlhdJ xLbkhj m tisnfhL (AS) MF. 450 nfhL Kj
gFia rahf U rk msf rku uL mRfilna
wJ. nfho (AS) xbthU rkkhd tUkhd,
cg kW bry (Y = E) Matiw FwJ. j
KaJt vdbt VnjD xU nfhL 450 nfhoid (AS)
btodh, btL ahdJ rkkhd tUkhd, cg kW
bry Matiw FwJ.
xLbkhj njit Ef bkhj bry kW Kjil
(bkhj bry) FwJ. xLbkhj njit (bry) tisnfhL
Ef kW KjL rh izghF (Combination) gl 10.2
C Ef rh MF. KjL nrUnghJ J C + I vd kh
tUwJ. Kjo k C kW C + I tF ilna cs
brFJ m _y FlgLwJ.

ntiy th rkiy (equilibrium level of employment)

KGntiy thig xUfntoa mta iy. xbthU
tUkhd iyY xLbkhj njit mfFnghJ AD
nfhL nkneh brY. vLJfhlhf muR jdJ bryfis
mfFnghJ iy VgLwJ. J rkiy tUkhd kW
cgia caJwJ. Jnghynt, AD nfhL neh brY
vdnt rkiy cg Fiw.
bgU (Multiplier)
J tUkhd kW ntiy thig khF fhu
MF.
tUkhd kW ntiy thig khF fhufshd
Ef bry kW `KjL bryfisg Jtiu
ghnjh. (C + I) mtW jdh Ef (Autonomous
Consumption) kW KjL tUkhdJl bjhlilajy.
tUkhd kW ntiy thig khF fhu `bgU MF.
`Kjo VnjD ca Ujh, mJ `bgU isthf
tUkhdij gklfhf caJwJ.
bgU (Multiplier) vgj fUJ Mug KjL kW ehL
tUkhd (GNP) W ca Matilna cs cwit
czJwJ. mjhtJ Mug Kjlh tUkhd Vgl
thf VgL isnt bgU is MF. J
tUkhd rkiydh VgL khwF bry khwF
ilna cs j MF.
bgU (K) =

vdnt xL bkhj bry (AD) = C + I

rkiy xL bkhj njit kW xLbkhj m,
uo FWL r VgLwJ. E
Efnth (C) kW Kjlhsf (I) llgl bkhj
bry myJ xLbkhj njit, eho bkhj tUkhdF
rk. (Y = C + I). cg rkiy rkiy ntiy thgsit
(equilibrium rate of employment) khwJ. E eh
bgWtJ tUkhd, cg kW ntiy th rkiy MF.
244

(myJ) K =

rkiy iy VgL khw

bry VgL khw
Y
I

F Y vgJ rkiy iy VgL khw MF.

I vgJ bry VgL khwij FF.
vdnt K vgJ Kjo Vgl cadh vjid Kiw
tUkhd cajJ vgj bfG (Co-efficient) MF.
245

ntbwhU Kiw KI fzLtjhdh K = I/MPS F

MPS = Wiy nr ehl MF.
(myJ)
K = 1/1-MPC F MPC = Wiy Ef ehl MF.
muR bry
va tUkhd zaij Utifahd bry _y
thnjh. xW Ef glfis cg brtjfhf MF,
Ef bry (C) ulhtJ _yjd glfis cg
brtjF MF bry, KjL bry (I)
_whtJ, bghJ bry (G) murh bragLtjhF. J
bghJ gfshd vGj, bghJ Rfhjhu, rJz, r_f ey
kW Jnghy gy rKjha eyDfhf brylgLtjhF.
muR gl cg VJ brtiy vw fUij
bjhik bghUayPf bfhoUjd. Tiw
kWjnjhL myhk bghUshjhu muR braghLf (t
kW bryf) bgUj khwij VgLJwJ vd thlh.
nga nehffshd ts kW bghUshjhu iyghL
(Economy Stability) MatF t kW bghJ bry
tiw gagL bfhsKo vwh. ga a
bfhif (Fiscal policy) vdgL.
UJ (Depression) bghUshjhuij Lbfhzu
a bfhif gagLwJ vgij Ugz brjh.
nghJ cW njitia TLtjF bghJ bryit
gagL bfhsyh. bghUshjhu Fjgl gz
njitia bgU mj_y Kjil, ntiy thig
bgUFwJ. thW bghJ bry L bghUshjhuij
ts ghijF bfhL brY.
gy ehLf bfhiffis g 1930 cyf
bgUkjUJ jfis L bfhld. J Kj mu
a bfhif nga bghUshjhu KaJt bgwJ.
246

KL nfhghLf
bgU nfhghogo KjL mfgjh tUkhd
gklfhf cawJ.
thW tUkhd ca VgLjth Ef catilwJ
njit ca ey cjij jUwJ. ilF cg rf
KGtJ gagLj gLwd. J, njit mfig
<Lbrtjfhf mf Kjoid CFwJ. jnghJ cs
cg rf bgUF njitia <Lbr tif UfhJ
vgjh a KjL _y cg rf gLjgL.
vdnt, Kjo ms Ef khwjh Vgl tUkhd
khw jij bghUjJ Jnt KL (accelerator)
nfhghL MF. nfhghogo fu KjL tUkhd
khwnjhL neuo bjhl cilaJ MF.
bgU nfhghL FLtJ tUkhd ms J
Kjo isit bghUjJ. KL nfhghL KjL
msJ tUkhd isit bghUjJ MF.
gz kW to
to ga gznfhghL xiw gagLdh. Jnt
to ga ik UgnfhghL vdgL. (Liquidity Preference
Theory of Interest). R TWgo to vgJ gzij
gagLbfhs bfhLfgL bjhif vdyh. gz njit
(ik Ug) kW gz m to jij khwJ.
nfhghlhd ik jik nfhgho rhuhr
vdbt gz ms kW mj ik jik iy to
jij khwJ.
bjhik bghUa mPf fUaJngh to vgJ
nrF mfgL btFk my vgij
bjgLdh. toj ik jikia Fl fhy
msF LjYF mfgL btFkna MF; ntW
jkhf brhtbj to j kf ik jik, mtf
ik Ugdh (Liquidity Preference) VgL kdkhwij
bghUjjhF.
247

II.

nfhol lij uf

gF-m

6.

Ef rh vgJ ......... Ma uLF ilna cs

bjhlig sFwJ.

7.

.............. vgJ tUkhd khwdh nr VgL khw

jij FF.

8.

.............. 1930 cyf bgUkjF fhuzkhf

mikjJ.

bjhik bghUa nfhghL ............ ytjhf fUJwJ.

9.

............... vgJ kf ifU (buhf) gz MF.

m. ntiyyh iy

M. kiwKf ntiyik

10.

. KGntiy iy

<. Fiwntiyik

Mug Kjodh tUkhd VgL thf is

............... is MF.

I.

rahd ilia njbjLf

1.

nga bghUa jid xU uia VgLat

2.

3.

m. nl fhnlh

M. J.M. R

. Ml R

<. khj

nga bghUshjhu ika uid

11.

xLbkhj njit

- brFJ khw/ilkhw

12.

r nfhL

-C+S

13.

- C + I + G + (X-M)

14.

- ik Ug

15.

- 1/1-MPC

IV.

XU thijf ila

16.

yhJ kW mbkfh jilyh thf

bghUshjhuij KlaJ ahJ?

<. midJ

17.

J.B. nr rij ia TWf.

W iy Ef ehl

18.

ntiyth, to kW gz ga xU bghJ nfhghil

cUthat ah?

19.

xLbkhj njit, xLbkhj m rF F

vd bga?

20.

bgU thghil vGJf.

m. tUkhdK ntiyth
. to gzK
4.

III. bghUJf

M. iy btpL

<. VJiy

tUkhd za ga va nfhghil sf R .............

gagLdh.
m. Efit Kjil
M. xLbkhj njitia, xLbkhj mig
. cgia bryit

5.

m.
.

S
Y

M. C
Y

P
Q

<.

248

C
Y

249

gF-M
tU dhfSF
ilaf.

ehF

myJ

IJ

tf

21.

rij vLnfhfis TWf.

22.

cW njit vwh vd?

23.

xLbkhj njit vj U fhufis rhjJ?

24.

ik Ug nfhgho _W nehffis TWf.

25.

bgU F tiuf.
gF-

tU dhfSF xU gf ms ilaf.
26.

nr mfho FiwghLfis TWf.

27.

R nfhgho rhuhrij gl tiuJ sFf.

28.

Ef rhig tiuglJl sFf.

29.

Efit khF tUkhd ju w fhufis TWf.

30.

tUkhd za ga va nfhgho
vLnfhfis sFf.
gF-<

tU dhfSF _W gf ms ilaf
31.

nr mfho Fiwfis Muhf.

32.

F tiuf : 1. xLbkhj njit 2. xLbkhj m

33.

tUkhd khd ga va nfhghoid tiuglJl

sFf.

250

ghl - 11

gz bfhif
KDiu
gz bfhifia gogjF K gz jik kW mj
gfis fhngh. jfhy bghUshjhuij gz bghUshjhu
vW miHF msF gz KaJt thjJ. jfhy
bghUshjhu gz braglhJ. bghUshjhu Kndw
bjhlf fhynyna gkhwfhd njit vGjJ. gkhw
Kj glkhW tot VglJ. gl khW Kiw vgJ
glfis bfhLJ glfis thFj MF. gzij
gagLjhk eilbgW thg MF. Kfhy kjf
Ugf vikahdjhf f ythf Ujjh glkhW
wghf braglJ. fhyngh J bghUjhj xwhf
fUjglJ. J gy ffis bfhlJ. (1) uil njit
bghUj glkhW KiwF njitglJ. xU eg kbwhU eg
Utij bgUf ntL. vLJfhlhf gR itUF
xU eg Fiu ntLbkd idjh ntW xU eg Fiuia
bfhLJ gRit bgWgtuhf Uf ntL. iy v
glkhW eilbgwhJ. J vnghJ rhakhd xW my.
bghUfis U itUgJ vgJ fodkhd xW. gz
nr bfhfy MF. gz yhlh brtij
glf totjh U itUf ntL. mitfis
l fhyF U itUf KoahJ. y glf mGf
Toait. nkY y glf mj kig HJL.
gz gf
glkhW Kiw fhzgl FiwghLfis (ffis)
gz lJ. gz glkhW Kiw ffis F
xU fUahf bragLwJ.
gl gkhw midtuhY VW bfhsglJ, ms
nfhyhf gagLtJ, k iyfydhf gagLtJ gzkhF
vW busj (Crowther) TWwh. bghJthf midtuhY
251

VW bfhsgl vJ gzkhF vgnj yfz

ika fUjhF. ehzaf, %gh nehLf, fhnrhiyf,
coaf (Bills of Exchange), fl milf (Credit Cards)
Kjad gzJ mlF.
nguha thf (Walker) gz vgJ ``vijbayh bra
tynjh, mJnt gz vd TWwh. j_y gz
gfis FwLwh. jfhy bghUshjhu gz gy
gfis brwJ. gz Ka gfis flthW
Flyh,
gz gf ehF.
ilpLfU, msnfh, iy k, U iyfy.
gz, gkhw fUahf, k msnfhyhf,
k iyfydhf, fhy brYJiffhd iy kghf
bragLwJ.
1. gkhw fU (Medium of Exchange)
gz xU gkhw fUahfbragLtJ Ka gahF.
vyh glfis gkhw bra bghJthf vnyhuhY VW
bfhsglJ gzkhF. gl khWKiw f fyhdJ.
gz mKf, glkhw cs dfis f
cjaJ.
2. k msnfh (Measure of Value)
gz xU bghJthd msnfhyhf gagLwJ. J xU
fzo myF (Unit of Account) kW iy k ms (Standard
of Measurement) MF. rij xU glij thFbghGJ
mj iyia eh gzkhf brYJnwh. iy vgJ gzjh
klgL.
Mfnt gl kig mjF bfhLfgL iy vw
gzjh msf Ko. s, mfyij msgjF liu,
vilia msf nyh uhik gagLJtJ nghy gl
kig msl gzij gagLJnwh. J bghUshjhu
fzil vjhFwJ.
252

3. k iyfy (Store of Value)

jdJ brhJfis nrJ itf UgtDF gz va,
trahd fUahF. J k iyfydhf sFwJ.
xUt brhJ Mu fheilfhshf U mtiw
fheilfshfnt nrJ itj fodkhF. Mdh gzUjh
fheilfis W mbrhij gzkhf nrJ itfyh.
4. vfhy brYJiffhd iyk (Standard of
Deferred Payments)
vfhy brYJifF gz xU fUahf gagLwJ.
flgW fUF (Credit transactions) J mogilahF. jfhy
thg flgiw mogilahf bfhnl bragLwJ.
gznk flgiw CFwJ. fl g brYJif
(Payment) vfhy eilbgWtjh, ffhy UgJ
nghnw vfhyY mnj gkhw ria bfhl xU
ilpL fU UgJ mta. fl gkhwij glf
_y nkbfhlh mJ gy uridfis VgLJ. mJ
thgij ghF.
gz ilpL fUahf gagLj ntLbkwh mJ
vnyhuhY VWbfhsgl xwhf UfntL. xU bghU
midtuhY gzkhf VW bfhsglntL. myJ muR mjF
rltkhd mfhuij tHfntL. mLj uL
gfshd k iyfy, vfhy brYJiffhd iy
k Matiw bra gz k iyahf UfntL.
gz KaJt
kjf fLof xW gzkhF. xbthU
ghlY xU mogil fLo cL. ``vua
rfuK, ma , mua thF L UgJ nghy
bghUa, kj rKjha thif, thf gz xU
Ka fLoghF. kwitf midJ mijrhnj
csJ vW busj TWwh.
KjyhJt rKjhakhf UjhY, rkjk rKjhakhf
UjhY gz vgJ jf Koahj xwhF. KjyhJt
253

iy Ka gF twJ. cg, g, Ef Matiw

khg iy brthF mf. iyahdJ gzjh
mslgLwJ. iy mik Ka gfhwhj rkjk
rKjhaY, gz vJ eilbgwhJ. rkjk thjd
gzijna rKjha eltoifUJ f ntL vW
Ud. gz vgJ KjyhJ tduh fLofgl
xW vgnj jF fhuzkhF. Mdh, fhy ll
bghUshjhu mikY, gz cjyhk bghUshjhu
fzL bra ayhJ vgij czjd.
ehff bjhlf fhy gyU, gyjkhd bghUfis
gzkhf gagLd. fheilf, ifiy, rf,
nfhJik, nj, c- f, njh, yFfshd-ML, Fiu kW
vUJf, nkY cnyhffshd - U, <a, kW jhu
Matiw gzkhf gagLd. fhy ngh iy ks
cnyhffshd-jf, bt Kjad, U, jhu, btfy
nghw cnyhffis yad. jbghGJ fhjij gzkhf
gagLJnwh. gz bdhU totij F fhngh.
xU kjlUJ bdhU kjUF fhnrhiy _ykhf brY
t it bjhif g eh F fhngh.
gz m
a r t ekJ eho ika tahF. J ekJ
eho gz mikig (monetary system) fLgLJwJ. ekJ
eho gz mig ehF gotfshf tifgLJwJ.
mitahtd
M1 = bghJ kfl cs bryht (ehzaf + %gh
nehLf + kf nf itf) Mad mlF. J M1 FWa gz vW miHfgLwJ.
M2 = M1 + mryf nr itf
M3 = M2 + t cs bghJkf fhyitf. M3
thd gz myJ guJgl gz (Broad Money) vW
miHfgLwJ.
254

M4 = M3 + mryf bkhj itfS + gntW

mikf nr itf (F : mryf nr itf
ju gntW K fhyfis bfhl w uju itf)
U gz
U gz muR gzkhf fUjgL. rjg a
r t murhf fUjgLwJ. U gz vgJ bghJ
kfl cs Ufis kW tf buhffis
FF. buhf U cTWfshtd:
C = bghJkfl cs gz bryht
OD = a r tl cs w itf (bghJ kf
r tl cs itfis buhfkhf, gzkhf
fUJwd).
CR = tf buhf K Uf buhf K Ufis
uL thf fyh 1) tflnk cs buhf U, 2)
r tl itfgl tf buhf U.
thwhf U gz (RM) = C + OD + CR
gz m ga va nfhghogo, gz mghdJ (M)
buhf gz br mf gfis bghUjjhF. ntWtif
Tdh buhf gz khwkiljh gz m khwkil.
flis gz (Fiat Money)
HfYs %gh nehLf flis gz vd
FlgLwJ. v.fh. a murh btlgL xU %gh
nehLf flis gzkhF. r tah btlgL
nehLf t nehLf vdgL. itf fl cWgu
(Promissory Note) aig bfhljhF.
gz bfhif (Monetary Policy)
KDiu
bgUghyhd ehLf, nga bghUshjhu bfhif
Ka mogil nehff KGntiy th , (Full employment),
iyahd iy, iuthd bghUshjhu ts, brYJ rkiy
255

bghUshjhu . Mait MF. bghUshjhu vgJ

Vwjhtw tUkhd git FF. nga bghUshjhu
bfhiff _ykhf muR Fnfhfis mila Ka
brwJ. nga bghUshjhu bfhiff gza bfhif,
a bfhif vd U tifahf fgLwd. bjh
bfhif, ntshik bfhif fht myJ Rft bfhif
nghw bfhiffis muR gWwJ. Mdh eh, gza
bfhif kW a bfhiffis kLnk F fhngh.
ghl ekJ eho gza bfhif g fhngh.
gz bfhif vgJ bghUshjhu bfhif nehffis
mila gz m kW gzij cg bra MF bryfis
fLgLj ika t nkbfhS eltoiffshF vW
vtL rhnuh Tsh. (Edward Shapiro)
gzbfhif fUf :
gz m fLghL bfhif (Credit Control Policy)
vgij gzbfhif vnw bghJthf TWnwh. ij
Utifahf fyh. 1. fl ms fLghL Kiwf
(Quantitative Credit Control Measures) 2. njbjLj fl
fLghL Kiwf (Selective Credit Control Measures).
fl ms fLghL Kiwf (t) to j, buhf
U j, btrij eltoiff Mad mlF.
1. t to j (Bank Rate)
kw tf tfSF ika t tHF flDF F
to jkhF. bghUshjhu mfgoahd gzHf
VgLkh ika t gzHfUJ gz msit
Fiwf ntL. t to jij mfg_y ij
brayh. ika t to jij mfFbghGJ, tf
tf tNF to jK mfF. thW to j
mfgjh (Kjlhsf) flbgW Mt tffilna
FiwJ LwJ. nkY cgahsfS Kjofhf bgW
fl bjhif msit Fiwg. bghJthf gz fij
Fiwf ika tahdJ t to jij caJ.
256

2. buhf U jij khWj

(Cash Reserve Ratio)
tf tf cUthF fl ms mjDila buhf U
jij bghWJ mik. buhf U jij khW mfhu
ika tF kLnk cL. gzf fhy bghUf iy
cait jLf fl msit fLgLj fUia
gagLJwJ.
3. btrij eltoiff
(Open Market Operations)
ika, khy muRf flgufis th gj _y
btrij eltoif eilbgWwJ. fl mig fLgLJ
fUahf btrij eltoif bt fltiw
bghWJ mik.
1.

nghJkhd ms muR flgufis (Securities) ika t

itUj.

2.

ey Kndwkilj gz coa mfho (Bill Market

(Securities).

3.

tf tf buhf U jij iyahf itUF

wik.

ah mf ms iy fhzgliy. vdnt
btrij eltoiff xU ey flmsit fLgLJ
fUahf bragliy. fl msit fLgLJtijl, muR
flbgW eltoiffSF J mfkhf gagLjgLwJ.
njbjLfgl fl fLghL Kiwf
ll bghUshjhu, tsJ tU ehLf,
njbjLfgl flfLghL Kiwf (fUf) Ka gF
twd. fl ms fLghL Kiwfisl njbjLfgl
fl fLghL fUahdJ, tf tf vyh tifahd
flfis fLgLJwJ. J njitaw df fl
257

msit FiwJ gaDs df fl ms brYkhW t

elJwJ. 1955 Kj ika tahdJ Kiwia gagLJwJ.
njbjLfgl
flitf mlF.

fl

fLghL

fUf

a) fl gufis thf mfgL fl ms

Fiwjgr cr tuig zj. (c) gwhFiwahf cs
gFf kW cz jhafS frh bghUfS mjhtJ
flgufis thFbghGJ brYJ iy xU Fl
jij buhfkhf brYJj.
bghJ gzfLghL nghy myhJ, njbjLfgl fl
fLghlhdJ Ugjfhj fl thfij (fl Vwij)
jLf ika t cjwJ. (c) fl gufis myJ thfd
aufis (Automobiles) thf mj
b. fl thf viyia khj
c. y Jiwfis CfgLj. y Jiwf Mtij
Fiwf, gy jkhd to jf fgLwJ. ekJ eho,
fil fUahf J gagLwJ. (c) VWkia CfgLj,
ntshik cgia, Wbjh Foir bjh cgia
CfgLj J gagLwJ.
d) ika tahdJ y fis myJ bfhiffis
gWkhW tf tfis nfL bfhSj myJ
mWJj.
Ko
gzfij fLgLj gza bfhif gaDsjhf
UF. 1930- Vgl bghUshjhu kj fhy bfhif
gaDsjhf iy.
R, ntiyyh lhlij, iy ia
gwhFiwahd bkhj njitia bfhl nkhrkhd thg
iyia r bra (tackle) afToa tikahd xU iy
258

bfhifia gJiu brjh. 1970UJ njfiy gzf

(stagflation) fhzglJ. xUw njfK, njitFiw kWw
gzfK fhzglJ. j njf iy gzf fhy
gzbfhif, bfhif Ma uLnk ij fLgLj
gadwjhf fUjglJ. bjhyhsf Tia jhnd KtJ
FiwJ bfhSj, iyia cgahsf U FiwJ
bfhtJkhd tUkhd bfhif bfhifF,
gzbfhifF khwhf gJiu braglJ.
ekJ eho, tHfkhd fl ms fLghL fU wghd
Kiw bragliy. a r t gz bfhif wj
Kiw braglhjjfhd fhuz tUkhW. bfhif wj
Kiw bragl ntLbkwh, uL gjidfis
bgUf ntL. 1. gzrij tf tfis rhUf
ntL 2. tf tf jfSF njitahd ia bgw ika
tia rhUf ntL. Mdh j U gjidfSnk
ah iw bgwiy. Mfnt a r t (RBI)
bfhiff KY bragliy. mik fhy eho
Hf cs fU gz mf ms f (Speculative)
thgF gagLjglnj jF fhuzkhF.
gz mDL Kiw (Monetary Transmission) :
toj, KjL t _ykhf gzbfhif tUkhd
khwij VgLJ vW gz mDL Kiw TWwJ. gz
mDLKiw eltoifdh gz mghdJ tUkhd
khwij VgLJ.
cjhuzkhf muR k gzbfhifia gWtjhf
bfhnth. (c) ika tahdJ t to jij FiwF.
j fhuzkhf to j Fiw. mjdh KjL mfF.
J ntiy thig tUkhdij caJ. gz m ca
buhf Uj khw, btrij eltoifdh VgLwJ.
259

tiugl 11.1

to j

to j

KjL

nehLf, guf (Bonds) Matiw cslaJ fu jah

brt MF. EfthdJ jah fu brtJl neuoahd
bjhl cilaJ. bgausF gz m Todh iy khwhJ
UF bghGJ, cik gz m TL. Mfnt J fu jah
brh xU gFahf Ugjh brt mfF. mjdh
Ef mfF. Ef mfgjh bkhj njit mfF,
rkiy tUkhdK mfF. to jF vj, khwK
yhknyna brtK Ef mfwJ vgij eh F
ftf ntL. gza bfhif ik jil (liquidity trap)
Tl wj Kiw bragL.

Part - A gz m

R TWgo ik jil vgJ gz m mfjhY

to j vjj khwK UfhJ vgij FF.
Part - B KjL

Part A - gl, to j Fiw bghGJ (r1UJ ro) gz

mghdJ MoUJ M1F mfF. toj FiwtdhY,
gz m mfgjhY KjlhdJ Io UJ I1F mfwJ.

mUik gz (Dear Money)

gzf y bghGJ ika tahdJ mUik gz
bfhifia gagL gzfij fLgLj KaY. `mUik
gz vgJ to j mfkhf Ugij gz m FiwJ
nghtij FF.

gl 11.1 Kjo ms mfg fhuzkhf

tUkhdkhdJ Yo UJ Y1F mfwJ. (gl C) gz
mDL Kiw FWa fnzhlij cilaJ vW jfhy
bghUa mPf fUJwhf. KjL nghynt Ef
khwkil vW fUJwhf. EfthdJ tojnjhL
vfa bjhl cilaJ vW bjhik bghUa tYef
fUJwhf. to j FiwbghGJ Ef mfF. Mfnt
Ef bkhj njit xU gF Mf Ugjh bkhj njit
mfF. J rkiy tUkhdij caJ. KjL kL
mfgjh VgL tUkhd caitl, Ef KjL uL
nrJ mfgjh VgL tUkhd ca mfkhf UF.

k gz (Cheap Money)

gza bfhifahdJ fu jah brt khwij

VgLJtj _y tUkhdij kwkila br vW gza
bfhifahsf fUJwd. _yjd U, gz m,
muRfl (muR fl vgJ coaf (Treasury Bills), %gh

gz msnfhghL (Quantity Theory of Money)

260

k gz vgJ Fiwj to fl ilgij FF.

kgz bfhifia xU ehL, bghUshjhu kjfhy
gW. KjL brtjF CfgLj, gz mig
mfgjF k gz bfhifia gW.
gz k :
gz k vgJ mjDila thF ria FF.
gz thF rahdJ iy klij bghWjJ. bghJ
iynaw, gz k Fiwtij fhL. bghJ iywf
gzkig mfF.
gz msnfhghil cUthat (Irving
Fisher). gz ms khWgLtjF Vg mnj j iy
mfF. gz ms U klfhdh, iy U klfhF.
261

gz ms ghahf FiwbghGJ iy mj cik

iyUJ ghahf Fiw.
gz m nfhgho ika fUgo, gz m
ms khwKilnghJ iy khwkil.
gkhw rkghL (Equation of Exchange)
gz ms nfhghil j rkghL _ykhf sfyh.
J gkhw rkghL (Equation of Exchange) vW
miHfgLwJ. J rkghL vW miHfgLwJ.

gz ms nfhgho Ka FiwghL, KGntiy

iyia vLnfhshf bfhLsnj MF. KGntiy iy
iyba, KGikahf gagLjglhj tsf UFkhdh
gz ms TodhY iy cauhJ. bghUshjhu kj fhy iy
Fiw, mj neu gz ms mfjhY iy cauhJ.
nkfl FiwghL fhzgoD, gz ms nfhghL vgJ
xU nghFiu TwhF. nkY J iyF gz msF
cs bjhlig FWa fnzhl sFwJ.

~ MV = PT

gz ms ju kw fhuzfshY iy klkhdJ
ghfgL mitahtd mu gzbfhif, a bfhif,
Fl fhy glf m / eilbgW thg
ms, tUkhd VgK khw, glfSfhd cW njit
Kjad MF.

PT = MV (or)

gzfK gzthlK ((Inflation and Deflation)

rkghL, M vgJ gz mig V vgJ gz

Hfij, P vgJ iy klij, T vgJ bkhj cg
bragl glf gfis Fwd.

P = MV
T
J gkhw rkghL vW miHfgL gz Hf (V)
vgJ xU Fl fhy gz vjid Kiw ifkhWwJ
vgij FwJ. kwit khwhUFbghGJ, gz m
ms mfif, iy klK caU vW rkghL
FwJ. gz k FiwwJ vW bghUgL. v.fh. (M)
gz m uoghF bghGJ (P) tiy uoghF.
iwa ehf, gz m bgUgF fhnrhiyf,
khW Lf (bills) kW Vida fl fUfS mlF. vdnt
gz msit fzL bghGJ, nkTa gz tiffis
fz vLJ bfhs ntL vW y bghUa mPf
fUJwhf. vdnt gkhw rkghL flthW
khwkilwJ.
PT = MV + M 1 V 1 M 1 vgJ vyh tifahd
fhnrhiyf bkhj ms, khWLf (bills) kW
HfYs kw fl fUf mlF. V1 vgJ M1 (fl
fUf) gzHf.
262

gzf, gzthl Matiw vjhf tiuaWf ayhJ.

gntW bghUa mPf gntW jkhf tiuaWJsd.
busj (Crowther) vikahd gaDs tiuaiwia
bfhLJsh. gz k FiwtJ iyf caJ bfhL
brtJkhd xU iyia gzf vW busj
tiuaWJsh. bghJthf gzf fhy iy kl caU.
mfgoahd gz fFiwj glfis JuJ iyia J
FLwJ. J msF mfkhd (Abnormal) iynawij
njhWF. FLgoahd bjhlahd iykl cait
FF vW rhnuh (Shapiro) TWwh. cWahd iyahd
iynaw vW Ah #hr (Harry Johnson) gzfij
tiuaWwh. MD iykl cauhknyna gzf njhW
vgij eh id bfhs ntL. jF fLgLjgl
gzf (Repressed inflation) vW bga. nghfhyfnyna J
njhW. fhyf, gy fLghLfS, cz glfis
gL brt _yK iynaw fLf itfgLwJ.
mfLghLf jsjgll iyf caU. gz ms
mfgnjh myJ iy canth cikahd gzf my.
(mrhjhuz msF mfkhd) yhg njhwnk gzfkhF.
263

bjhygfS cgahsfS msF mfkhd yhgij

<L mFna gzfkhF.

beUfo myJ cg ts jil gzf

gz f tiff (Types of Inflations)

KG ntiyth cg iy mil bghGJ, y

gwhFiw iy, rkdw iy kW Wiy bry
ca VgL mj isthf gzf Vgl TL. Jnt
cg beUfo gzf vdgL.

1. njit G gz f (Demand Pull) : mfgoahd gz

f Fiwj glfis JuJtJ gzf vW TwgLwJ.
bfhLfgl iy glf gfSfhd njit, mt
migl caUF iy bghJ iy kl caU iyia
gzf vnwh.
jtG gzf (Creeping Inflation)
ulh cyf ngh KoF tjUJ (1945-UJ)
iy T xiw xW nkneh caJ iyia jtG
gzf vW TWnwh.
XL (m) jh (m) if ntf gzf
ifntf gzf (Hyper Inflation) : xbthU ehS
iykl tu caJ bfhnl brtij ifntf
gzf vW Twyh. Kj cyf nghUF wF b#k,
ulh cyf nghUF Anf, dh jifa gz
fij fld. j Niy iyahdJ mf ntfkhf
mf msY caJ bfhnl brwJ. k glfSF
Tl mf iy bfhLf ntoUjJ. gz gadwjhf, a
gz mKfgLj ntoa iy tjJ. jF if ntf
gzf vW bga.
2. bry cJ gzf (Cost push inflation)
cg bry mf
bry cJ gzf, bry catjh VgLtJ, Jl
T ca nrJ cg bry mfgjh njhWwJ. T
ca, kw cg bryfS nrJ iyia mff
brwJ. T kW iy ca fhufsh VgL gzfij
T - cJ gzf, iy cJ gzf vW TWnwh.
264

(Bottleneck Inflation)

yhg cJ gzf (Profit Push Inflation)

bjh rff T jij caj Kagij nghy y
nyh KWikahsfS, mfF cg bryit
csl, cr yhgij <Ltjfhf, msffkhf iyia
caJt. jF yhg cJ gzf vW bga.
bghJthf nghfhyfY, mjF gzf
VglTL. nghfhyf kf tUkhd mfJ,
mjnfg bghUf cg braglhk, gwhFiw VgL
bghUfis gL brj fLghL VgL. nkY, nrf
flhagLjgl kf jnghJ mfkhf bry brthf.
jdh vyhtifahd bghUfSF mntfkhf njit
mfF. Mdh mnj ntf m mfgiy. jdh
gzf VgLwJ. ngh btaila muR Utjh, mY
jfhy nghf mf bryilajhf Ugjh, jid rf muR
gwhFiw ahfij nkbfhs ntosJ. J nkY,
nkY gzfij mfJ bfhnl brwJ. iynaw
mf iynawij VgLJwJ. iynawjh bjhyhsf
mf Tia nfhUthf. mf T mf bryit VgLJ. mf
bry nkY iyia caJ. thwhf xU ``eR RH
cUthfgLwJ.
T iynawij VgLJwJ. iynaw Tia
caJwJ. Jnt gzf RH vdgLwJ. gwhFiw
ahf gzfF xU Ka fhuzkhF. lLjiy
bfhl ts Fiwj ehLf jifa gzfij
fhzyh. tf NH brGik fhyf Tl gzf Vgl
thL. gzfdh gy ikf VgLwd. jdh gy
265

ehLf bghUshjhu FiyjJ. v.fh. 1923 b#ka eho

bghUshjhu FiyjJ. vdnt xbthU muR gzfij
fLgLj jf eltoiffis nkbfhs ntL.
gzfij fLgLj fl Kiwfis gwyh.
1.

t (jij) mfgLjyh.

2.

_yjd lf (Project) jhd muR bryit Fiwj .

(gzfij Fiwf Kiw gJiufglJ. _whtJ
IjhL l mKfgLjgl gy _yjd
lf ghnyna iflgld).

3.

wFk fLghLf j

4.

gL

5.

iy fLghL

eltoiffY yhg UfhJ. Mfnt, Kjo ms Fiw.

J ntiyyhj lhlJF monfhY, gzf,
gzthl uLnk ikahit. uo xiw bj bra
ayhJ. mu gza bfhif _ykhf iynawij
XusF fLgLjyh. J gzthl fhy iy klij
caj cjwJ. vdntjh jfhy bghUa mPf
bghUshjhu braghLf muR Ka gfhw ntL vW
bghJ gJiw lf tahf bghUshjhu braghLfis
fhyf CFf ntL vW TWwd. Tia
Fiwj, bghUshjhu kjF thf y rkaf
fUjgLwJ. Mdh J rahd my. iyikia nkY
etila br.
iy khwjh VgL isf

y neuf Tia iy WitJ (Freeze) gz

fij fLgLj gJiufglJ. fhyfl,
bjhyhsf Tia caj nfhuntlh vd
bjhrff nfLbfhsgld. gz fij fLgLj
nkbfhl Kiwf btahdJ, murhf bfhiffis
mKgLJ wikia bghWjJ.
gzthl
gz k caJ bfhnl brtij, mjhtJ glf
iy FiwJ bfhnl brtij gzthl vW busj
TWwh. gzthl, gzf uLnk iy VgL
khwij FF. gzthl vgJ gzfF
vilahdJ. bghJthf gzf vgJ ntiyth kW
bghUshjhuij caJ eltoiff fhyij FF. gz
thl fhy, kjkhd thg iyia ntiyyh
lhlij FF. gzthl fhy iyahdJ
bryitl ntfkhf Fiwtjh cgahsfS, bjh
mgfS mfkhd Hig rf neL. vj bghUshjhu
266

iykhwkhdJ rKjha gy diu gy tf

ghwJ. mJ cgia, git ghwJ.
cg VgL is
iynaw cgia mff L. KjyhJt
rKjha
cgahdJ
yhg
nehffhf
nkbfhsgLwJ. iynaw fhy (gzf fhy)
mgjkhd yhg VgL. J cgia mff br.
cgahsfS, bjh mgfS gzf fhy
gadilthf. fhy cg bryitl iy ntfkhf
mfgjh cgahsf gadilwhf. vdnt mtf mf
yhgij milwhf. gzf, if ntf gzfkhf
khdh thg behoJ m Ko. gz k ntfkhf
Fiwkhdh, gztoyhd yhg gadwjhL. fhjgz
kgwjhL. gzf, bghUa FHgfSF, u
uF fhuzkhL.
iy wf fhy tff mf elij milthf.
iyahdJ cg bryitl ntfkhf Fiwtjh tff
267

mf fLikahd elij milthf. KjoF thf f

Fiwthf UF. J ngusyhd ntiyyh lhlF
t tFF. jdh thg kj VgL. gzthl fhy gz
vjhf ilF. glf iy Fiwthf UF.
bjhyhsf vjhf ilghf. Mdh mF
glfSfhd njit, tUkhd, ntiyth, KjL Kjad
UfhJ. j Niy brGik tWik vW
tUfgLwJ. jF 1930 Vgl bghUshjhu bgUkj
ey cjhuzkhF.
g VgL is
1. tff : gzf fhy tffS cgahsfS
mf yhgij <Lthf. gzthl fhy mtf mf
elij milthf.
2. iyahd tUkhd bgWgtf : iyahd tUkhd
cstf gz f fhy mfkhf ghf gLthf.
Tia bgWgtfS, khj Ca bgWgtfshd Maf,
vGjf, cjahsf, gf MnahuJ tUkhd iynaw
kiltijnghy ntfkhf mffhJ. gzf fhy Xa
bgWgtfS ghfgLthf.
T bgWgtfS, khj Ca bgWgtfS iy wf
fhy gadilthf. fhy gz kig Hf
neLtjh J xU cikahd ga my. ntiyyh
lhlkhdJ iynawijl nkhrkhdJ.

b#k Mufzfhd eLju FLgf gzf

fhy mJld. mtf theh KGtJ nrj gz
kHJ xWyhjjhlJ. jF iynawnk
fhuzkhF. gz k bjhlJ Fiwkhdh k
iyfydhf (Store of Value) UgjFa jFia HJL.
vdnt kf nrf Ktukhlhf.
4. thlif bgWnth : (Rentiers)
gz f fhy H, gzthl fhy gaD
milthf. gzthl fhy mil ga jfhfkhdjhF.
nkfl sfUJ iy VgL fLikahd khw
ikahdJ vW mJ bfhsyh. gzfK, gzthlK
mf ikahditna. gzf mahdJ. gzthl
ikahdJ MF. y bghUa tYdf uo,
gzthlnk f ikahdJ vg Vbd J ntiyyh
lhlF ttFF vW fUJwhf.
iyahd iynawkhdJ bghUshjhu Kndw F,
rKjha F. cfjJ vW bghJthf fUjgLwJ.
gzkhdJ kj dF gytY eik gafToanj.
Mdh gz fLgLjglhlh, kj mF, FHgF
ttFF vW uhgr TWtJ midtuhY VW
bfhsToanj MF.

3. Kjlhsf :
muR guf KjL brUgtf iyahd
tUkhdij bgWt. vdnt mtfsJ iyik iyahd
tUkhdij bgWgtfis nghnw UF. Mdh
Wtdf gFf (Shares) KjL brUgtf iynaw
fhy mf yhgij iywf fhy mf Hig
milthf.
268

269

II. nfhol lfis uf

g
gF-m
I.

rahd ilia njbjLf

1.

gz bfhifia mkgLJtJ

2.

3.

4.

5.

m. ika muR

M. khy muR

. ka muR

<. jah Jiw

bghJkfl cs Hfgz vgJ

m. M1

M. M2

. M3

<. M4

6.

glfis bfhLJ glfis thFtJ ........ vd

miHfgLwJ.

7.

gzthl vgJ iyf ......... FF.

8.

gkhw rkghL MV=PT vgij mjt .....

9.

jh gzfij ........... vW miHfyh.

10.

gzbfhif fLgLj cjtJ .........

III. bghUJf
11.

fl ms fl fLghL

- m. Fiwj to j

12.

fl jik fLghL

- M. to j

13.

k gz bfhif

- . mWj

14.

T iy xiw

- <. gz thF r
xW jSwJ

gzf nghJ vd fG

15.

gz k

- c. CJ brY gzf

m. ahghf yhg <Lt

IV.

xU brh ilaf

M. Ca <Lgt yhg bgWt

16.

eho gzmig fLgLJ t vJ?

. khj rgs bgWgt yhg bgWt

17.

mUik gzbfhif vgJ ahJ?

<. thlifF Lgt yhg bgWt

18.

iy khwyhjnghJ VgL gzf vJ?

iyf caU nghJ cs Niy, kW njit njfK

miHf bgWtJ

19.

T Fiw gzthlF xU MFkh?

20.

ifntf gzfid rj xU ehL vJ?

t j vnghJ cajgLwJ
m. gzthl

M. gzf

. iy iyahf Uj

<. ntiyik

m. bry - cJ gzf

M. njit < gzf

. iyjik gzf

<. T cJ gzf

270

271

gF-M
tU dhfSF
ilaf

ehF

myJ

21.

gz yfzij TWf.

22.

gzm ehF TWf ahit.

23.

gz bfhif yfz TWf.

24.

fl ms fLgho fUf ahit?

25.

njf iy gzf vwh vd?

IJ

tf

gF-
tU dhfSF xU gf ms ilaf.
26.

glkhW Kiw cs uridfis sFf.

27.

U gz - W F vGJf.

28.

sFf : (m) mUik gzbfhif (M) k

gzbfhif

29.

gkhw rkghL - sf jUf.

30.

tUkhd bfhif - W F vGJf!

gF-<

tU dhfSF _W gf ms ilaf.
31.

gz gfis tf.

32.

gzbfhif nehf kW fUfis thf.

33.

gzms nfhghL - tf.

34.

gzf fhuzf, isf, mtiw fLgLJ

Kiwfis tf.

35.

gz mDL Kiw nghFfis tiugl tiuJ

tf.
272

ghl-12

a bfhif
bghJ a myJ mu vgJ bghUshjhu
xU isahF. J ML iy mif (Budget), mu
tUth kW brydfis gajhF. J murhf
a bfhif ga klhF. J mu tKiwf kW
Kafis g milahs fL bfhSjY M brjYkhF.
bghJ vgJ mu rhj braghLfshF. J
mu fUy braghLfnshL bjhlilajhF. bghJ
vgJ bghUshjhu (Fiscal Economy) vW miHfgL.
gila fhyf murhdJ bghUshjhu tsia rhj
gfis nkbfhlJ. mfho rfsha njit kW m
Mad bghUshjhuid iw br tfhofshf Ujd.
Mdh murhdJ braghLf jiyliy. gila fhy
muRf 1. cehL rl xGif ghJfhj 2. ehil ghJfhj
3. thf kW 4. bghJ thf Ma aikahj gfis
kLnk nkbfhld.mj muRf fhty muRf (Police States)
vd miHfgld.
iwa ed murhdJ vzw ts, Kndw
lf kW kfis rhj bghJ ey lfSF
KaJt bfhLJ brayhWwJ. Mfnt ed muir bghJ
ey muR (Welfare State) vg. jifa ed muRf bgUtU
mu brydfSfhf Mjhufis ul ntL.
iwa fhy bghUshjhukhdJ bga ms
khwij cUthsJ. khwfis bfhif _ykhf
mJ bfhsyh. bfhif mu nga bghUshjhu
gfnshL bjhlilaJ. bfhif mu tbfhif,
mu bryd, kW gz bfhifnahL nrjjhF.
bfhif bghUshjhu nfhghL kW bghJ nfhghnlhL
izjjhF.
273

yfz

1.bghJ bry

fhQ bghUshjhu tYef bghJ F yfz

jJsd.

ed muR xU ey muR, vdnt mfgr bghJ eyij

iyehLtJ mjDila bghWghf csJ. jfhf muR
gytifahd gfis nkbfhS. jdh muRF mfkhd
gz bryf VgL. mu mogil bfhifahdJ
mu Mjhufis gntW ts gfSfhf bry
brtnjahF.

nguha lhl bghJ vgJ mu tUth, kW

brydfis gajhF, itf xnwhblhW r brJ
bfhS vd tiuaiu jJsh.
nguha ny uh (Findlay Shirras) bghJ vgJ
mu bryd bfhifia, bgUfij ganj MF,
vd tiuaiw jJsh.
bghJ cslff tUkhW
1. bghJ bry
2. bghJ tUth
3. bghJfl
4. Uthf
5. TlhKiw (ka-khy cwf)

bghJ cslf

bghJ cslf

bghJ bry

Tlh Kiw
ka_khy cwf

bghJ fl

274

muR bgWw tUth, mu tUth vdgL. J mu

tUkhdij vthW bgUf brtJ vgij g, t
bfhiffisg, mjndhL rkjgl uridfis
rhjjhf csJ. bghJtUthahdJ t tUth, t myhj
tUthia cslajhF.
ttUth vgJ gytifahd tf, tjhf (impact)
kW t ff (incident) gajhF. tayhj tUthahdJ
(1) tf tUth (bghJ Jiw gidah iljtUth, kW
yhg) (2) thf tUth (flzf, mDkflzf, w
itf) (3) btFk kW khaf
3. bghJfl

bghJ cslfij tiugl _y sfyh.

bghJ tUth

2. bghJ tUth

Uthf

mu flfis vgo mfgJ vgJg,

mfw flfis vgo Ug brYJtJ vgJ g
TWwJ. bghJ kflUJ muR bgW flfSF bghJfl
vW TWt. ed murhdJ jDila brydfis, tf,
kW tf myhj tUthf _y rkhf Koahj xU iy
csJ. Mfnt mu tUthahdJ, mu bryit fhoY
Fiwthfnt csJ. jdh murhdJ cehL kW btehL
flf thFtjF cjgLwJ. cehL fl vgJ, muR
bghJ kflUJ tf tflUJ, ika
tflUJ fl bgWtjhF. btehLfl vgJ, cyf
t (World Bank), gdhL Wtd (IMF) kW ma
ehLfUJ bgWw fldhF.
275

4. thf

1. rkJt

mu Wtdf, mu gf kW mu
aufnshL rhj eltoiffns thfkhF. nkY
thf vgJ, tu-bry lfis totikj,
cUthFj, xgj kW ghuhSkw, rlkwf jhf
brj, jif brj, eilKiwgLJj Matiw gaJ.

go xUt j rnfg t brYJtnj

jDila bfhifahF. tF nghJ t brYJnth,
rnfg t fntL. ViHf J Fiwthf,
gzfhuf J mfkhf t j ntL. tghdJ
mogil mikantL. midJ ju kfS jfsJ
rnfg t brYj ntL.

5. Tlh
bghJ xU cnt Tlh ahF. Tlh
vgJ uL (m) mjF nkgl muRf Tlik.
Tlh mik ika, khy kW cS muRf
xUizJsd. J, tuRfilna yw
cwKiwf g, mjndhL rkjKila uridfisg
MuhwJ.
t vgj bghU
tf _y bgwgLw tUkhdnk bghJtUth Ka
tUkhdkhF. xU Fokf (m) xU Wtd muRF flhakhf
brYjToa xU brYJifna t vdgL. t flha
jik fhzgLwJ.
t-yfz
nguha brnk (Seligman) t vgJ xU Fokf
muRF flhakhf brYJ, brYJif. mul UJ vjj
neuo eik vghfhk, flhakhf brYj ntoanj t
vdgLvd TWwh.
t f

2. bj / cW
xbthU FokfD jh brYjntoa t ms,
vbghGJ t brYjntL, ahl brYj ntL vgij
mUf ntL. Jnt bj / cW ahF.
3. tr
t brYJj, t brYJnthUF trahf ghu
Fiwjjh Uj ntL. v.fh rgsUJ oj
bragL tUkhdt, glf jhd tf bghUfis
thFnghnj bgwgLj. (c..)mWtilnahL bgwgL yt.
4. fd
tY, t tNgY mf gz
uakhfhkUf ntL vw jJtij gaJ. fd
trlf kW t Kiwf vjhdjhf, kfsJ tUkhd
tfis Fiwj ms gagLJtjhf mikj ntL.
tf tiff
tf tiffis tUkhW tirgLjyh. mitahtd
1.

neKf kW kiwKf tf

2.

j tKiw, tsjKiw, njjKiw, jtsj

Kiw

2. bj

3.

kTL t (VAT)

3. tr

4.

xW (m) gyjugl tf

Ml t bfhiff tUkhW
1. rkJt

4. fd
276

277

1. neKf kW kiwKf tf

5)

mg tf

nguha lhl TWgo, neKf t vgJ ah J

t fglnjh, mtnu t brYJtjhF. kiwKft vgJ
xUt J tfgL, kbwhUt gFahnth (m)
KGikahfnth t brYJtjhF.

6)

brt tf

7)

_yjd jhd tf

8)

Mait tf

neKf t t brYJgtnu, tRikia RkfntL.

Mdh kiwKft, tfglt ntW, t Rikia Rkgt
ntW.

9)

Rff (VWk, kW wFk tf)

ka mu trhuh tUthf
(1)

rh gf

(2)

to tUthf

(3)

yhg gFf

ka kW khy muRf tf

(4)

bghJ ga, gf

ah a mikghdJ, Tlh mikghF.

a mua mik rlgo ah ka, khy
muRfSF jjahf tf J tNF cikf
tHfgLsd. khahd idf _y ka, khy
muRfSilna thf vjj uridfS VglhJ.

(5)

r_f, rKjha ga gf

(6)

bghUshjhu ga gf

neKft v.fh.: tUkhdt, brhJt, btFkt, itt

vgitahF.
kiwKf tF v.fh: Rft, gid t vgdthF.

ka muR F tf
ka muRF fhQ U Kiwf tUkhd
ilwJ.

khy murh fgL tf

a mua mik rlgo khy muRf t
_y tUkhd bgW mfhu bgWsd. Mdh a
unjrfSF neuoahd jia ka murhfnk mJ
cj.
khy mu _y fgL tf

(1) t rhj tUkhd

1.

y tUth (t, it tN cgl)

(2) t rhuhj tUkhd

2.

gid kW brjh ju kw bghUf jhd tf

t rhj tUkhd

3.

ntshik tUkhd jJ w tUkhdf jhd

tf

ntshik tUth kW y Mat J fgL

tf.

4.

y, kidf, folf J fgL tf.

2)

Wtdf jhd tf

5.

ntshik y rhghd ntsh giztf

3)

brydf jhd tf

6.

kJtiff J fgL Maitf

4)

brhJf jhd tf

1)

278

279

7.

xU khyUJ, bjhU khyF glfis

bfhLtU nghJ fgL tf.

8.

fk bghUf ckf J fgL tf.

9.

rhu Ef, gid jhd tf.

10.

yFf, glFf, thfdf J fgL tf.

11.

Ughij, cehL t Mat bfhL brY

ruFf, gaf J fgL tf.

12.

Kiujh tf, kw flz, kW g

flzf

2. tsj t Kiw (Progressive Tax)

Kiw t mogil js mfF nghJ, t
jK mfwJ. tUkhd mfjh tjK
mfF. (v.fh) tUkhd t.
3. nj j tKiw (Regressive Tax)
tUkhd caUnghJ, brYjntoa t j Fiwjh,
mJ nj j t vdgL. j Kiw gzfhuiul ViHf
J tRik mfwJ. vdnt jifahd t
ahakwjhF.
4. j tsj tKiw (Degressive Tax)

13.

bghGJngh J fgL tf.

14.

sguf, brjh jJ w sguf jhd

tf.

15.

bjhf, tjf, ntiyf jhd tf

16.

ghrd kW fhLf _y ilF ttUkhdf.

jKiw t , tsj t Ma uL nrj

fyitna j tsj tghF. tUth cau, cau
tjK xU Fl ms tiu caJ uhd iyia
milwJ. F tUth cajhY, tj catiy.
tKiw ca tUkhd <Lgtf Fiwj tUkhd
<Lgtfis fhoY Fiwthd ahfijna nkbfhwd.

17.

ka mu khaf jhdtf

ehF KiwfS tsj t Kiwna wjjhF.

18.

w tUkhdf, mjhtJ gflz, tUkhd t xU

gF, Rftf, kW flf jhd tf.

ML iy mif (Budget)

t Kiwf
(1) j Kiwtf
(2) tsj Kiw tf
(3) nj jKiw tf
(4) j tsjKiw tf vd ehF tifgLj gLwd.

mu t tUth kW bghJ flfis ga khdf

ML iy mif tubry l
mfgLwd. tsF, l LjYF tu bry
lkhdJ aikahjjhF ts lf nehffis
mila ltlkhd bfhif tKiwfis tu bry l
tiuJ jUwJ. nkY tu bry xbfhW izahf
eilbgwhjjh j tu bry lkhdJ mtakhdjhf
UwJ.

1. j t Kiw (Proportional Tax)

sf

tif tf khwhJ, iyahdjhf csd. tUkhd

mfkhdY FiwjhY t khw VglhJ. ViHfSF,
gzfhuUF xnu khahd tj fgL.

tu-bry l vgJ ML iy mifahF. J

mu tu-bryfnshL Toa xU Mofhd (Vu 1 Kj
kh 31 Koa) mif. gb# vD brh buR bkh

280

281

brhyhd (Bougette) vw gjUJ cUthdJ. Bougette

vgjF a ig vW bghU. ehlhSkw
rkfglntoa tifia (khy rlkwY)
mikrf ig itJjh bfhLtUtJ tHf. ka,
khy muRf xbthU ML njhW tifia
jahg. j lf mu bfhiff, t
bfhiff, _yjd wlf, nr msf, tsf
gaghLf kW _yjd Mff ga sff l bgW.

mJ cg tu-bry l vdgL. bghJ bryit fhoY,

bghJ tUth Fiwthf Ujh mJ gwhFiw tu-bry
l vW miHfgL.

tiuaiwf

tu-bry l tiff

tu-bry lF btntwhd tiuaiwf

cUthfgld.
nguha okh (imock) mtf FLnghJ tubry l vgJ xU Fl fhyfl rkkhf fzl
tu kW bry vwh. nkY thfij bghWjtiu
Kija braghoid g brj, ffhy fLgLJ
Kiwahf kW vfhyij ugF xU lkhF.

bjhik bghUa mPf rkiy tu bry lij

Mjjd. Mdh ed bghUa tYef rkiyaw tubry lnk xU eho bghUshjhu rkiyia mila,
miyia bjhlJ iyehl bgJ gaDsjhf UF
vW fUJwd.
1. tUth tu - bry l
2. _yjd tu - bry l

tu-bry l, rkiy tu-bry l vW rkdw

tu-bry l vd uL tifgL.

thf, tu bryl vgJ f Kakhd

gFahF. xbthU MoY muR jdJ tuidg
brydfisg jdJ tiuid ghuhSkw
thgjfhf rkf ntoaJ mta. nkY mu
brydfS
tUth
brydfis
_yjd
brydfis w brydfUJ ntWgLjntL.
vdntjh lij tUth gb# vW _yjdgb#
vW uL tiffshf wd.

I. rkiy tu-bry l (Balanced Budget)

1. tUth tu-bry l (Revenue Budget)

mu llgl bryfS, tUth rkkhf U mJ

rkiy tu-bry l vdgL. Fl fhyfl
tUthahdJ, bryF rkkh UF.

mu tUth tufS (t tUth, t jj w

tUth cgl) mtUJ bragL tUth bryfS
mlF. brhid cUthfhj midJ brydfS tUth
bryd vW miHfgL. (v.fh.) muRJiwf rhghd
bryf - el tUth (Current Reuenue) el brydfS
- mu bghJfl jhd to, kW ts rhuh brydf)

tu-bry l tiff

II. rkdw tu bry l (Un - Balanced Budget)

(if tu bry l (m) gwhFiw tu bryl)
rkiyaw tu bry l vgJ mu tUth, bryit
l TodhY (myJ) mu bry, tUthia l mfkhdhnyh
uLnk rkdw tu bry l vwiHfgL. mu
tUth, bry rkkhf yhUjny rkiyaw tu bry
lkhF. bghJ tUthf, bghJ bryfisl mfkhf U
282

2. _yjd tu - bry l
muR br brydf bgU gF _yjd bryfshF.
_yjd tuf, _yjd brydf Mait _yjd tu
bry l mlF. mfho flf, a r
tlUJ bgwToa flf, fUy coaf, maehL
283

muRf, Wtdf nghtUJ bgWw flf Mait

mu Fljf _yjd tUthfshF. muF brhjkhf
y, folf, au jsthlf nghwtiw thFj,
KjLf kw muR fbgfSF khy muRfSF tHfgL
flf nghwit _yjd brydf mlF.
braw tu bry l
(Performance Budgeting)
xJL t KiwahdJ gy ehLf, giHa bryd l
KiwUJ khWgL a cfsha - brw iy
mif, fhal kW {a iy mif (Zero based
budget) nghwit ifahsgLwd.
braw tu bry lkhdJ murhf bghJ
brydfis rhj, gf, fhaf, bratotf,
eltoiff, lf Matiw cslF lkhdJ
muR nkbfhS mogilahd mu brydfis
ugwJ.
{a tu - bryl (Zero Based Budget)
{a - iy mif vgJ xU a cia bfhl
tu brylkhF. xbthU ML, xU a Mlhf
VW bfhsgLwJ. flj y ffis fz vLJ
bfhtiy. l {aij mogilahf bfhL,
KGikahdjhf, jhdjhf vLJbfhsgLwJ.
a bfhif (Fiscal Policy)
a bfhif bghU sf
a bfhif vgJ mu (bghJ) bry kW
mjfhd tHF Kiwia ga bjhF nfhghLfis
FgjhF. xU murhf -iy mifga
iyaikna a bfhif vdgL. eho bghUshjhu
eltoiffis fLgLj, kh mikf muR vd
braTL vw nfF ilia bfhif mwJ.
284

eho cg, ntiyth, kW iy Matiw

bghJflf, tf, bghJ bryf thyhf kh mikf
muR vLJ bfhS Kafis gaJ MF.
tiuaiw:
Mj vgt TWgo a bfhif vgJ
eho nja tUth, cg, ntiyth Mat njitgL
isfis VgLj, njitglhj, vghuhj isfis
jf muR nkbfhw mu tUth kW bry ga
fhalkhF
a bfhif KaJt
nguha J.M. mtf btl ntiy th, to
kW gzij rhj bghJ bfhif vD btlgL
tiu a bfhif KaJt czugliy. mtuJ
bghJ nfhghlhdJ a bfhif bghUis
braghil mW bghJ a xU U Kidahf
mikjJ. t tf, bghJ bryf, bghJ flfns eho
cg iyia, ntiy iyfis khWtjfhd wj
fUf vW siujh.
kfsh t aF muR, kfsJ bghJ ey <LghL
bfhljhf elJ bfhs ntLkh bghUshjhu ts
Jiwf agahw ntL. mndf bghJey ts
gf (bghJ gaghL gfshd Fo tr, Rfhjhutr,
Foik gf, Jtf f, r_f ey, ghJfh) Ka gnfW
braglntL. Jnt ed muRf jiyaha a
bfhiffshF. nkTa gfS nritfS mfho
fglhj itfshF. mit Effhf mfho mghf
fKoahjitfshF. Mdh jifa bghJ gfSfhf
tf tot j bgWkhdij muR bgWbfhsyh.
ts Fiwj ehLf bghJ ayhdJ D
TLjyhd gfis nkbfhsntosJ. tuR
bghUshjhu iyahd jikia VgLj ntosJ.
tsJ tU ehLf u bghUshjhu tsia CFj
285

vgJ UgjfbjhwhF. vdnt bghJ a iuj

tsia bghUshjhu iygLjiy tW
murhff ghLglntL vw iy VglJ.
bfhif nehff
bfhif mogilahd nehff tUkhW
1. tsfisuo, bghJ Jiw Mjhufis
bgUf brj.
2. jah Jiwia tsaila brj.
3. tsfis cjk ms (optimum) gagLj.
4. gzfij
iygLJj.

fLgL,

bghUshjhuij

5. tUkhd, brhJ g cs Vwjhfis

Fiwj.
6. KG ntiythig milj, kW bghUshjhu ts.
7. bfhif, _yjd MfK
1. tsfis uo, bghJJiw
Mjhufis bgUf brj
eho t bfhifahdJ ilF tsfis wj
Kiw uo eho ts gfhf gagLJ Kiw
mika ntL. nkY zhd kW Mlgu bryfis,
cgnahfkhd cg KjLfshf kh ts gfSfhf
brylgl ntL.
2. jah Jiwia tsj
fy bghUshjhu jah JiwahdJ Ka
gfhWwJ. ts bghJ Jiw gF mfjhY
jah Jiw gif wff ayhJ. Mfnt, jah
Jiw KjL brgtUF t LKiw, t rYiff, cj
bjhiff, Cff mJ _yjd uia, Kjil
jah Jiw nkgl brayh.
286

3. tsfis cjk ms gagLj

nk Flgl vyh nehffis iwntw, tsf
Kiwahf gjfgl ntL. jah Jiw, kW bghJ
Jiwfis Kiwahf _yjd uia gagLj mtiw CFf
ntL. cg tsfis bghUshjhu tsia mfF
tf gagLj ntL. ilfToa midJ tsfS
r_f, kW bghUshjhu tsfhf gagLjgl ntL.
4. gzfij fLgL, bghUshjhuij
iygLj
gzfij, gzthlij fLgLJ xU fUahf
bfhif csJ. Kjyhtjhf mtnghJ VgL bghUshjhu
ffis bra Vw xU t mikig milahs fL
bfhsntL. ulhtjhf, gzf kW gzthl
neuf t Kiwf mtakhd khw VgLJj ntL.
ah nghw ehLf gzthlij monahL mfw, t
mikig fhoY, bghJ bry nghid mf gaDsjhf
Mf ntL. gz f fhyf, gzf v tfshd
cg yhg tf, kW bghJthd, Mlgu Ef bghUf J
tf fglntL.
5. tUkhd, brhJf g cs
Vwjhfis Fiwj
ehL tUkhdkhdJ vyh tif kfS gabgW tif
gjfgl ntL. tUkhd, brhJ kW thfsh
rkiy VgLnghJ kLnk bghUshjhu tsY kW
r_f ts xU KGikia fhzKo. ViH va kf
ey fU tUkhdkhdJ kWg braglntL. tf _y
kLnk jifa khwij VgLj Ko. nkY murhdJ, bghJ
brydfis mfFnghJ bghUshjhu js
kf eyfis catila bra Ko. nkY ntshik,
ghrd f, Rfhjhu kW kUJt trf jhd bryf
mfF nghJ, ej kfsJ bghUshjhu Kndw mil.
287

6. KGntiy th milj kW bghUshjhu ts

KGntiyth, kW iy iyjik, Mad
bfhif _ynk mila Ko. bghUshjhu kj fhy
ntiyikia g gzbfhif btbgwiy. Mdh
mu bfhifah kLnk nehfij iw bra
aY. ts jij mff KG ntiyth cs tsf
rahd Kiw g brantoaJ mta. j braf
_y bghUshjhu cg wdhdJ mfF. Mfnt
bfhifia gagL tf thyhf KjLfis bgU,
Effis fLgLJtj _y cgia bgUfyh. j eg
tUkhd jhd tia FiwFnghJ, _yjd bgUf mfF.
ntiythfis mff, murhdJ r_f kW bghUshjhu
tsfhd brydfis mff ntL. murhdJ
nkbfhS cq bghJgJiw ts lf Fiwj
_yjdij mfkhd ms ciHig gagLdh
ntiyth mfF.
7. bfhif, _yjd MfK
bfhiffsha, tf, Rf/Ma itf, khW
brYJiff, t rYiff kW khaf, jSgof Kjad
_y _yjd Mf mfJ, l fhy bghUshjhu ts
mil _yjdkhdJ bghUshjhu tsia khF xU
fhuahF. mJnt bghUshjhu ts xU wnfhyhf
tsJ tU ehLf gagLwJ.
bfhif FiwghLf (Limitations of Fiscal
policy)
bfhifahdJ, jah kW bghJJiwf nr,
kW KjLfis mff KLL Ka fUahf
UjhY, fhQ FiwghLf csd.
1.

f ms

2.

tf NHfis fLgLJt bfhif

Fiwj bt.
288

3.
muR Uthf fhyjhkj
4.
kw FiwgLf.
1. f ms
iy mif vgJ xU rhjhuz tu-bry mif
kLky mJ xU bghUshjhu totikghF. tiu ehL
tUkhd xU a gFahf Ugjdh bghUshjhu ts
J Ugjf ghig VgLj ayhJ. e eho bgUksyhd
kf ViHfshf Ugjh, neKf tia mf ms eh
gagLj ayiy. nkY bkhj ttUthahdJ ehL
tUkhd xU W gFahf Ugjdh, bgUks ahf
njitgLw, ja iy Uw bghUshjhuij
Kndw, nghjhjjhf csJ.
2. tf NHfis fLgLJt

bfhif Fiwthd bt
xU eho JiwfSilna xUiz Vglhlh,
bfhif fUf meho bghUshjhu tsia
iugLj KoahJ. muR nkbfhS vyh braghLfS
midJ JiwfY xnu khahd jhfij VgL, thwhf
xUJiw VgLw kjkhdJ kbwhU Jiw iy Vwij
VgLJ. gwhFiw ahf _y Vgl thF r
mf, 1930- Mo bgU kjij ga sa J.M.
mtf, kj jGa bghUshjufSF D TLjyhd
iy Vwijna mjJ.
3. muR Uthf fhyjhkj
thfjilfdh thf bfhif eilKiw
gLJt fhy jhkjK, rakw NH kW FHgiy
VglTL. j isthf bfhif tik
braHfTL.
kw FiwghLf
bgU msyhd ntiyFiw, bghJkfilna fhzgL
xWikik, t Vf, Fiwthd t f nghwit
bfhif kw FiwghLfshF.
289

II.

nfhol lfis uf.

gF-m

6.

.............. vgJ gntW tf muRF tU tUth.

7.

neuo kW jhrhu rYif bgwhk nghtij thW

.............. miHnwh.

8.

t mogil nfhghil .......... vW miHnwh.

9.

neuo kW kiwKf t Kiw .......... mogilahf bfhL

fgLwJ.

10.

........... t vgJ tsj tia, jhrhu tia

cslaJ MF.

I.

rahd ilia njbjLf.

1.

bghJ ahdJ, tUkhd kW bryl bjhlilaJ.

2.

3.

m. jah Jiw

M. ntshik Jiw

. bghJ Jiw

<. bjh

t tUth
m. flz

M. tf tiff

. tUth

<. taw tUth

Tlh FoauR jid bfhlJ

III. bghUJf.
11.

j tt Kiw

- m. jSgo
cjbjhif

M. ika kW khy muRf

12.

tsj t

- M. Mj

. khy kW csh mikf

13.

(gz) bfhif

- . t j Fiw

<. nkTa midJ

14.

kW j t

- tUth bry
rkkhf UF

15.

rk iy mif

- wj tKiw

IV.

xU thijf ilaf.

16.

t vgJ vd?

17.

VAT vgj thf ahJ?

m. ika, khy kW csh mikf

4.

5.

mudh fgL flha flz vgJ

m. mDk

M. btFk kW kha

. fl

<. t

aij mogilahf ML iy mif jid

mogilahf bfhlJ
m. mogil ML

M. ahL

18.

jhrhu t Kiw vwh vd?

. jhL

<. fahL

19.

iy mif tiff ahit?

20.

bghJ fl vgJ vd?

290

291

ghl - 1 ilf
gF-m

gF-M
tU dhfSF
ilaf.

ehF

myJ

IJ

tf

I.
1

2 <

Mj j t bfhif vd?

24.

tf tiff vbdd?

gaghLfis

25.

{a (Zero Budget) iy mif vwh vd?

glkhWKiw

r_f

10

rKu (fl)

21.

bghJia ehF myJ IJ tf ilaf.

22.

bghJ ghlbghU (Subject Matter) vd?

23.

II.

gF-
tU dhfSF xUgf ms ilaf.

III.

26.

t bfhifia t?

11

12 c

27.

khy mu Ka ttUth kW taw tUth vit?

vit?

13

<

14 m

15 M

IV.

ML iy mif vgij sFf. rkiy kW

rkiyaw ML iy mifia tf.

16

mua bghUshjhu

17

a, fzF-bghUa

29.

gzbfhif tiuaiw ahJ?

18

gFjh Kiw (Inductive Method)

30.

neKft kW kiwKftia ntWgLfhLf.

19

fhW, Nax

20

bgaus tUkhd (Nominal Income)

28.

gF-<

ghl - 2 ilf
gF-m

tU dhfSF _W gf ms ilaf
31.

gzbfhif Jizf ahit?

32.

t vgij tiuaW. neuo tf tiff ahit?

1.

<

2. m

33.

ML iy mif tiffis t.

3.

<

4. M

34.

gz bfhif nehffS tiuaiwfS vbdd?

292

I.
5. m

293

II.

IV.
6.

gHffS, kufS

16. Ugfis iw br r

7.

iyfU

17.

8.

cg th viy

9.

r_f/TLey

18. rknehF tisnfhL vgJ uL glf gntW

izf _y ilF.

10.

jah kW bghJ

19. r k n e h F t i s n f h o b j h F v g J u L
glfSfhd btntW iyahd gaghil sF.

III.
11.

<

14. M

12. m

13. c

15.

16. M.

17. yhgnehF.

18. .

19. dh, gh.

20.M.

20. iy - j nfhL
ghl - 4 ilf
gF-m
I.

ghl - 3 ilf
gF-m
I.
1.

2.

3.

4. <

nfh ulh

5. m

II.

1.

<

2.

3.

5.

<

II.

6.

Ef

7.

nghoLgit, xiwbahW rhJsJ.

8.

6.

FiwJ br Wiy gaghL

a gaghL M

7.

mfho njit mltiz

9.

bkhj gaghL

8.

bts is

10.

bghUshjhu nfhghL

9.

Mu khr

10. m be

III.
11. <

12. m

13. M

14. c

III.
15.

11. <
12. m

294

295

13. c

IV.

14. M

16. rkiy

15.

17. tUkhd, Ritf, g glf iy.

IV.

18. Mu kh

16. kwit khwhUFnghJ

19. fduf auf, fll KjL rhjdf

17. brGiknghJ njit mfF, kjnghJ

njit Fiw

20. M

18. e p = njit tisnfho /njit tisnfho

nk
19. tUkhd Vgl khwjh njit Vgl khw
ms.
20. M
ghl - 5 ilf
gF-m

ghl - 6 ilf
gF-m
I.

<.

2. M.

3.

m.

4. .

2. m

3.

4. m

5. m

II.

I.
I.

1.

5. m.

6.

mogil fhuf

7.

Ml R

8.

ntiy gF Kiw

9.

_yjd

10. cg rh

II.
III.

6.

iy

7.

cgKiwf

8.

rkiy

9.

FWafhy kW lfhy

10.

brFjhf Y-mRF izahf

III.
11. c.

12. d.

13. a.

14. b.

11.

12. c

13. m

14. M

IV.
16. bjh Kidnth
17. Wtd cUJ
18. rk cg nfhLf

15. e.

19. MRTS xy = Px/Py

20. Q = b L C

296

297

15. <

ghl - 7 ilf
gF-m

II.

I.
1.

<

2. m

3.

<

4. M

5.

6.

xjgl.

7.

mfgr a yhg.

8.

iy Vgt.

9.

rl ahd KWik.

10. xWikl TLwthf.

II.
6.

bgaus bry

7.

bghUshjhu bry

11.

12. <

8.

FWa fhy

13. c

14. M

9.

bkhj khwhbry + bkhj khW bry

III.

10. U tot

15. m

IV.
16. gy Wtdfis bfhlJ
17. muR

III.
11. <

12. c

13. m

14. M

18. t / rl Kiw
15.

IV.

19. glf ntWghL

20. 1969
ghl - 9 ilf
gF-m

16. MR khwhk UF / AR-cl bghU tU.

17. bkhj tUthl nrj TLj.
18. yhgK, eZlK yh iy.

I.

19. F W a f h y b r y n f h o x U b j h F / l
tisnfhL.
20. TC/q

1.

<

2. <

3.

4. M

5. m

II.
ghl - 8 ilf
gF-m

I.
1.

2. m

3.

<

4. M

5. m
298

6.

bghJthd

7.

iw

8.

th

9.

bgaus

10. bjh Kanth

299

III.

IV.
11. M

12. m

13. <

14. c

16. bgUkj.
15.

17. m mj njitia clhF.

IV.

18. R.
16. iy

19. R FWF

17. M

20. K = 1/1 - MPC.

18. ngh - nghFt

ghl - 11 ilf

19. thf

gF-m

20. jhf nfhghL

ghl - 10 ilf

I.

gF-m

1.

2. m

3.

4. m

5.

II.

I.
1.

2.

3.

4. M

5. <

II.

6.

glkhW thf.

7.

8.

~
if ntf gzf (m) XL gzf

6.

tUkhd kW Ef.

9.

7.

Wiy nr ehl.

10. gzf

8.

KjL .

9.

ik Ug.

III.

10. KL.

11. M

12.

13. m

14. c

15. <

IV.

III.
11.

12. m

13. c

14. M

16. ika t
15. <
300

17. gzf fhy

301

18. fLgLjgl gzf

19. iy
20. b#k
ghl - 12 ilf
gF-m
I.
1.

2. M

3.

4. <

5.

II.
6.

mu

7.

rpL (Quid-pro-quo)

8.

t f

9.

f khw

10. neha nghF

III.
11. M

12. c

13. m

14.

15. <

IV.
16. flha brYJj ntL.
17. k TLt.
18. xnu khahd t .
19. rkiy kW rkiyaw iy mif.
20. bghJkflUJ fl bgWtJ.
302