..

1986 1996 2006

 . .

LATEX 2 .

, ,
, , ., ., , , , ., , , , , , , ,
, , , , , , .

c :
, , , 832 00 , .
http://myria.math.aegean.gr/labs/dt/
,
( ). ,
.

1
1
1.1 1
1.2 , , 1
1.3 2
1.4
1.5
6
2
9
2.1 R
9
2.1 9
2.1 . 10
2.2 . 11
2.2 . 11
2.2 . 11
2.2 . 11
2.2 12
2.2 (sgn)
2.2 .
2.2 16
2.2 . 16
2.3
18
3 ,
19
3.1 19
3.1 19
3.1 20
3.1 23
3.2 . 26
3.2 . 26
3.2 28
3.2 31

14
14

3.3
3.4

3.2 . . 34
. 36

42

4
45
4.1 45
4.1 45
4.1 49
4.1
52
4.2 52
4.2
53
4.3 55
4.4
4.4 R
olle
60
4.4 63
4.4 x , x , log
69
4.4 x , > 0 71
4.4 84
4.5
87

59

5 Riemann
91
5.1 91
5.1 91
5.1 93
5.2 . 95
5.2 Darboux. 95
5.3 Riemann 99
5.4
100
5.4
100
5.4 101
5.5 Riemann 102
5.5 . 109
5.6 113
5.6 114
5.7 116
5.8 . 118
5.8
. 122
5.9 128
5.10
130
5.11 131
5.12 log x 135
5.13
138
vi


6
145
6.1 de l Hospital 145
6.2 150
6.3
155
6.3 Newton 157
6.3 .
159
6.4
160
7 163
7.1 163
7.2 Dedekind
165
7.3 Cauchy 166
7.4
7.5 170
7.6 Darboux 172
7.7 Darboux Riemann 173
7.8
176
7.8
177
7.9 Taylor. 178

vii

168

.
18 1940. 1963
. 1968
1971
,

A. Zygmund.
1972 1983
.
1983
.
1991 ,
19911992.
.

.
1980 prix salem.
18 1992
.

viii

2002
LATEX Postscript. ( )

. .
:
,
, TEX ,
,
,
(TEX) ,
,
.
.
-
. .

( .., ..).
()
. ()
. , 7
.

( ).

, TEX (
ix


) . , vms,

dummy terminals. TEX Knuth .
, TEX ,
1998, . ,
, (
) .
.
. .
. , ,
, ..

,
,
, ,
.

.
, , ,
, , .

, 2006.

(19401992) 1983.
, .
( ) ,
, .
1985

,

. , ,
.
, ,
.
, (

, , ).
,
, 29 .
,
,
.
, , ,
.
: . .
, .
1

, 1996

xi


,

, .
.
, , 7 1993, ,

.

, ,
.
, , (
, ) , ,
.
,
,

.
. ,
,
.

(, ) .
,
, ,
, .
, .
1995

xii

.

,
, .

. R
.
:
(i) , , .

(
),
.
(ii) ,

. ..
( , ...)

(,
,. . .).

. ,
xiii


. , ,
.

. , , ,
, , , ,
.

xiv

KEFALAIO

1.1
O E, E O,
X X.
.
M X X M
O, M O ( 1.1)
OE .

1.1
, , M () 2,5
N 0,5.

1.2 , ,
N
1, 2, 3, 4, . . .
. 0
, Z 0, 1,
2, . . . , ( )
. m/n, m, n n 6= 0,

1.
Q . ,
(
) q/r, r 6= 0, .
. 1.2, ,
2/3 ( ).

1.2

1.3

. ,
1 .

:
x , (
)
x2 = 12 + 12 = 2.
, , x ,
x = m/n m, n n 6= 0. , ,
m/n m n
.
2 = m2 /n2 m2 = 2n2
m2 , m, , m = 2m1
m1 .
2n2 = 4m21 n2 = 2m21
n2 , n, .
x .
.
2

1.4
, ,
R.
N $ Z $ Q $ R.
Q 6= R .
.

1.4

( ,
Peano) , ,

. , ,
(m, n)
, .
(m, n)
m n : (m, n) = (m , n )
m + n = n + m , (m, n) + (m , n ) = (m + m , n + n ), (m, n)(m , n ) =
(mm + nn , mn + nm ).
, , R :
() R .
() R
( ).

.
. ()
(, , 0, 1, ) R
. .
( 7.1)
.
.
A R , R
x A , x .
A.
supremum A
A :
A (: = sup A).
3

1.
, , .
, (A R)
= .
,
A, sup A ( R).

R Q.
:
A = {0, 1, 3},
B = {x : x < 0}
= {x R : x > 0x2 < 2},
= {x R : x > 0x2 2},
E = {x Z : x 3}
A, B, , . A, B, ,
3 ().
sup A = 3.
.
(
;)
, , 2 . x
x 2. x > 2, x2 > 4
x , x2 2 < 4 < x2 .
sup A(= 3),
sup B, sup , sup .
sup B = 0. x B , x 0
0 B.
a B, a < 0 (
a/2 < 0, a/2 B, a/2 < a, ( a < 0)
1/2 > 1 , ) . 0 a
.
1.4.1 A, B sup
( A) (
B) .
6= ( , 1 ) ,
, x x = sup .
: x2 = 2 x > 0.
( R)
2, Q.
.
x2 < 2 x2 > 2 . x > 0.
x2 < 2. 0 < 1 x + ,
x sup (
).
4

1.4

(x + )2 = x2 + 2x + 2 < 2

0 < 1,

(2x + ) < 2 x2

0 < 1.

, ,


1 2 x2
= min 1, ,
2 2x + 1
(min {a, b} a, b a 6= b, a a = b
. max{a, b}).
: min{a, b} = a+b|ab|
, max{a, b} = a+b+|ab|
.
2
2
x2 < 2
0 < 1
(2x + ) (2x + 1)

1 2 x2
(2x + 1) < 2 x2 .
2 2x + 1

x2 > 2. , ,
> 0 x .
> 0 x > 0 (x )2 > 2, y
y 2 < 2 < (x )2 , y < x .
> 0 0 < < x x2 2x + 2 > 2. ,
2
2
(;).
, = x 2x
sup sup sup .
y , y 2 < 2 y 2 = 2. y
y sup y = sup , y sup .
sup ,
sup sup . sup = sup .
E. E
.
a b .
E = {3k : k Z}. E
. E ( , 3 E)
sup E, b = sup E. b 1 < b
E b 1, k Z
3k > b 1. 3(k + 1) = 3k + 3 > b 1 + 3 = b + 2 > b
3(k + 1) E, ( E
sup E).
1.4.2 A
sup A = + ( + .
).

.
5

1.
a
n n > a
R .
E. , n N,
A = {n : n N} () .
sup A, sup A = b. b < b,
m, m N , A b < m, b < (m + 1).
(m + 1) A .
1.4.3
.
( 7.1).

() ,
, .

symbainei de tOn proeirhmenOn TeOrhmatOn
ekaston mhdenos hsson tOn aney toytoy
toy lhmmatos apodedeigmenOn pepisteyke
nai arkei de es tan omoian pistin toytois anag
menOn tOn yf amOn ekdidomenOn
(. . .
, ,
,
, . . . (.. :
).)

supremum
infimum ( ), inf. A
R x A, a x, a A. inf A
.
A {x : x A},
inf A = sup(A), ( !):
1.4.4 .

1.5
1. m
, m

( m)2 = m.
6

1.5
2.

2 + 3 ;
!n
!n
1+ 5
1 5
+
, n N.
2
2

3. : |a b| <
a, b R > 0, x R : |a x| < /2
|b x| < /2. ;
x R .
4. .
5. N . Z; Q;
6. , 1.4,
.

7. 2 infimum A.
8. A R, A 6= , A = {x R : x A}, inf A =
sup(A)
9. A = {|| : 2 < 5, 4 < 3}. ,
sup A, inf A A.
10. A R, A 6= A ,
sup A +. : sup A = +
M R x A x > M .
inf A = .
11. sup A, inf A
A = , ; 1 2 1 ,
2 .

KEFALAIO

2.1 R
, .
, ,
A, , B, ,
a A
B. f, g, h, . . . f (a) a.
, R
.
B R ( ).

2.1
. R :

{x : < x < }
{x : < x}
{x : > x}
R
{x : x }
{x : x}
{x : x}
{x : < x }
{x : x < }

(, )
(, )
(, )
(, )
[, ]
[, )
(, ]
(, ]
[, )

,
,
,
,
,
,

2.
( )
.
. , < .
, +, .

2.1 .
x A R A
>0 (x , x + ),
- x, A : (x , x + ) A
(, ),
(, ), (, ) , (, ) . x (, ), < x < . = min {x , x},
(x , x + ) (, ) ( 2.1).

(
=x

x+

{x < x + x + x = }

2.1

. [, ) -
, ( , + ) > 0 , (
2 [, ] ( 2.2).

2.2

.
10

2.2 .

2.2 .
2.2 .
a N, a : N R ,
. n
(an ), n = 1, 2, . . . {an }, n = 1, 2, . . .
a : N R. a1 , a2 , . . . , an , . . .
{an }, n = 1, 2, . . .
: an = 1/n, n = 1, 2, . . . , bn = n, n = 1, 2, . . . , cn = (1)n , n =
1, 2, . . . .

2.2 .
f : R R
:
f (x) = 0 + 1 x + + n xn , x R
0 , 1 , 2 , . . . , n n 6= 0. n . 1 = .... = n = 0,
f (x) = 0 , x R
0 0 6= 0 0 = 0 ( ).
.

2.2 .
f : A R

0 + 1 x + + n xn
P (x)
=
f (x) =
Q(x)
b0 + b1 x + + bm xm
. A x Q(x) 6= 0 Q
0.
m x Q(x) = 0.
Q.
m Q. m = 1, Q ,
. m > 1 Q.
Q x < 1,
Q(x) = (x )(x) + c (x). x =
c = 0 Q(x) = (x )(x). (x) m 1
Q 6= Q() = 0 = ( )(),
() = 0. (x) m 1
Q(x) m (
).
:
11

2.
(i) .
.
( ). .
. 1, 1+1(= 2), 2+1(= 3), . . .
. N :
() 1 N,

() n N n + 1 N.

(
R, Q,. . . ) N
(i)
(i), N
(i) (i), (;).
(ii) f (x) = P (x)/Q(x) , ,
f
:
a0 (x) + a1 (x)f (x) + + ak (x)(f (x))k = 0
a0 , a1 , . . . , ak , ak
P

0. f = Q
P (x) + Q(x)f (x) = 0.


, f (x) = x, x > 0.

2.2
X OX, Y OY
() (x, y) x (
X OX) (
Y OY ) y.
0 1
.
d .
M (x, y) AM
, , M . : =
2.
12

2.2 .
N
y

M (x, y)

2.3
sin (), cos () tan () :
sin = y R

cos = x R

tan =

y
R {(2k + 1) : k Z}
x
2

. .
.
| sin | || | tan | ,
0 < <
( 2.3)

|| <

(;)

\
2 sin = M M M
M = 2
13

2.

1
1
1
= OAM OAN =
AN = tan
2
2
2
( ON M
OAN . AN A).
sin cos
2,
f ( + 2) = f (), R, f = sin f = cos .
k sin ( cos)
:
sin(x + k 2) = sin(x + (k 1)2) = = sin(x + 2) = sin(x)
2 , 2k k N,
. 2 .
0 < a < 2 sin( + a) = sin() , , = 0,
sin(a) = sin(0) = 0, ( 0 < a < 2) a = .
= /2 sin( + /2) = sin(/2), -1=1 .
.
, , .
, , , ,
, . ,
. ( ).

2.2 (sgn)
.

x>0
1
f (x) = 0
x=0

1 x < 0

sgn(x)
x.
x = sgn(x)|x|

2.2 .
x .
: n n x < n + 1.
14

2.2 .
, ,
x n.
x [x]. :

...
...

1
1

x
<
0

0
0x<1
[x] =
1
1x<2

2
2x<3

...
...

, , , . m
n, n x < n + 1 m x < m + 1 n < m + 1
m < n + 1, m = n.
M M > |x| ( ) M < x < M . x [k, k + 1),
k = M, . . . , M 1, .
[x]
:
2.2.1 a < b , q
a < q < b.
. , x R
> 0 q (x , x + ) |x q| < .

x (
141
2).
1,41 = 100

, ,
. :
2.2.2 .

:
n N n(b a) > 2 nb > na + 2 > [na] + 1 > na.
, a < q < b.
2
q = [na]+1
n
q1 < q2
. , q1 + 2/n), n N, (;)
2
,
q1 . n n > (q2 1
1)
, a = q1 +
q1 < a < q2 .
15

2
n

2.

2.2
A R, A ( A )
:

xA
1
... ...
A (x) =

0
x
/A

.
.. Q , Q ,
Dirichlet .

2.2 .
f : A R, A R, .
(x, f (x)), x A, f .
.
( )
.
y
f (x) = 2x + 3
(0, 3)

(3/2, 0)
0

y
f (x) = x3 2x2 x + 2
(0, 2)

(1, 0)

(2, 0)

0
(1, 0)

16

2.2 .
y
f (x) =

2x1
x2

(0, 2)
(0, 1/2)
(1/2, 0)

(2, 0)

f (x) = [x]

y
f (x) = sin x

0
(, 0)

17

(2, 0)

2.
y

f (x) = tan x

3
2

;
f (x) = Q (x)
0
x

2.3
1. :

g(x) =

f (x) = x [x], x R
x [x],
[x] x [x] + 21
[x] + 1 x, [x] + 12 < x < [x] + 1.

f g .
0 g(x) | sin(x)| x
.
2. A ( ). x0 A.
I x0 A
: J % I, J 6 A.
I x0
A (: ). ,
, A , I
(a, b), (, a), (, ).
3. ()
2.2 :
A N, 1 A, n A n + 1 A , A = N
18

KEFALAIO

,

.

. : f (x)
x x0 , x +,
x , ..
,
,
.

3.1
3.1
an . , an a ,
an a
n.
.
an a
n,
, n, |an a| < .
n n0 ,
n > n0 .
, ,
A. Cauchy ( 19
)

3. ,
3.1.1 an a (: lim an
an a), > 0, n0 n > n0
|an a| < .
:
an a, > 0, , an a
( n) ( n > n0 ),
, .

,
: .
:
(i) an = 1/n 0. , > 0. n0
n0 > 1 (;), n > 1 n > n0 .
n0 1/n = |1/n 0| < n > n0 ,
1/n 0.
(ii) an = n. a R an a. a , .. = 1,
n0 N |an a| < 1, an = n < a + 1, n > n0 ,
.
(iii) an = (1)n . a an a. (a2n ,
n N) 1 1. . an a = 1.
n0 |an a| < 1 n > n0 . n > n0 . ,
: |1 a| < 1 | 1 a| < 1
1 + 1 = 2 > |1 a| + |1 + a| |(1 a) + (1 + a)| = 2,
.

3.1
(ii)
, , , . , M R
n0 N n0 > M
n > M n > n0 . an
( ) +.
( an = (n) ). :
3.1.2 n + () M R
n0 n > M (n < m) n > n0 .
: lim n = + (lim n = ) n + (n ).
20

3.1
. 0 .
n n .
+ .

. :
n0 N n = n n > n0 , n (
, +, )
n .
( ) : n
n , = . ,
. (
lim n ).
. n n . > 0
n1 , n2 n > n1 |n | < , n > n2 |n | < .
n > max(n1 , n2 )
| | = |(n ) (n )| |n | + |n | < + = 2.
, 2,
: | |
. 6= | | > 0 ..
= ||
2 , 2 < 1,
= .
3.1.3 19
.
, .
(B. Berkley),
, :
!
.
, , .
:
3.1.4 n n n lim n = lim n = , lim n =
.
: > 0. n1 , n2 n > n1 |n | <
n > n2 |n | < . n > n0 = max{n1 , n2 }
|n | < |n | < , max{|n |, |n |} < (
21

3. ,
;).
n |n | |n | > n
|n | < |n |. |n | max{|n |,
|n |} n > n0 |n | < , n .
2

,
,
.
.
3.1.5
(i) .
(ii) .

.
n .
n+1 n n N, n .
n+1 n n N, n .
n+1 > n n N, n .
n+1 < n n N, n .
n () () , () .
, {n : n N} R
, M R |n | M n.
(
), ,
n . :
3.1.6 n n
k1 < k2 < < kn < n = kn
n N.

( +
) (
n , kn n > 0. n0
n > n0 |n | < kn n (;) n, n > n0
|kn | < ).
:

(i) n ( ).
= sup{n : n N}. , , n . > 0,
n0 n0 > ( ). n > n0 , n ,
n n0 > |n | < ,
.
22

3.1
(ii) M R M < n <
M n. A
: x A, n N n x,
A = {x R : n n x}

M A x A x M , A
. ( ) = sup A.
n .
(1, +1)
( 1 A ;).
k1 . ( 21 , + 21 )
, k2 , k2 >
k1 . , k1 < k2 < < kn
k ( 1 , + 1 ), = 1, . . . , n,
1
1
kn+1 > kn kn+1 ( n+1
, + n+1
).
1
1
< k < + , N.
= k ,
1 + 1 , N, (;).
2

3.1
,

. (
) .
3.1.7 n n , n + n = n +
: > 0. n1 , n2 N n > n1 |n | < /2 n > n2 |n | < /2
n > max(n1 , n2 )
|n ( + )| = |(n ) + (n )| |n | + |n | < /2 + /2 = .
2
3.1.8 n n , n n = n .
. , , .
3.1.9 n , n .
23

3. ,
: , = 1, n0 n > n0
|n | < 1 n > n0 |n | < || + 1.
|n | max{||+1, |1|, . . . , |n0 |} n N,
n .
2
3.1.8: n n
. .
> 0. n , n ,
M1 , M2 |n | < M1 , |n | < M2 n N. (
):
|n n |

|n n n + n |
|n ||n | + |||n |

M1 |n | + |||n |.

n0 n > n0
/2.
, n1 , n2 N n > n1
|n | <

,
2(|| + 1)

n > n2 |n | < /(2M1 ), n > n0 = max{n1 , n2 }

M1 |n | + |||n | <

||

+
+ = .
2 2 || + 1
2 2

2




: / 2(|| + 1) / 2|| ;
n , n =
n, n , :
3.1.10 n n = n .
( ).

. :
3.1.11 n , n 6= 0
(i) n0 N
(ii) n =

n
n

n > n0 |n | >

||
2

>0

n > n0 n = n < n0 , n

6= 0 ( /). n (
n = 0 n).
24

3.1
: (i) = ||/2 > 0.
(ii) n = 1/n n > n0
n n0 , 1/
. > 0. (i)
|n | > ||/2 n > n0 ,


 1
1  |n |
2

 n  = |||n | |n | ||2 ,
2

|n | > ||/2. n n, n > n1 |n | < ||

2 .
n > max{n0 , n1 } |n 1/| < .
2
, ,
n , n = + .
:

n + &
n + &
n + &

+
: (sgn) =

n
n
n
n
n

&
&
&
&

n
= n + n +
n +
= n + n +
n (6= 0) = n (sgn)

n
n
n
n

>0
<0

+
(6= 0)
+

= n n +
= n n (sgn)
= n n
= n n +
= 1/n 0

( ) .
:
, 0 , 0/0, /.
.
.
n , n n +, n + n n
, +,
.
(i) n = n, n = n + , R. n +, n +, n n
,
(ii) n = n, n = n + (1)n . n n 1 +, n +,
n +, n n = (1)n .
(iii) n = n, n = 2n. n +, n +, n n = n
+.
(iv) n = 2n, n = n. n +, n + n n = n
.
25

3. ,
0
n
2n ), 00
(1/n n 1, n1 n2 +, n1 (n2 ) , (1)
n

.

,
2
+1
0,
. 2nn
n3






1
1
2
1
1
1
1
1 1
2n n2 + 1
+ 3 = 2
+ (1) +

= 2+

n3
n
n
n
n
n
n n
n n
(2 0) 0 + (1) 0 + 0 (0 0) = 0.

3.2 .

.

3.2 .
n , n +.
limn n , lim n . .
f (x) x .
: f (x) , x x0 ,
|f (x) | , x
x0 . ,
, ,
x0 .
x
x0 , :
-, > 0, x0 ,
(x0 , x0 + ) x0 ,
x0 . x0 .

2.1, ,
. , , , ,
.
.
3.2.1 x0 f , f (x) x x0
, : > 0 > 0 x
f , 0 < |x x0 | < |f (x) | < .
26

3.2 .

: limxx0 f (x) = f (x) , x x0 .

+ . :
3.2.2 x0 f , limxx0 f (x) = +() :
M R, > 0, f ,
0 < |x x0 | < f (x) > M (f (x) < M ).
limx+ f (x)
limx f (x). +
.
3.2.3 + ()
A R,


(, +) (, ) A.

,

(, +)
(, ) , +() . :
3.2.4 +()
f , , limx+ f (x) (limx f (x))
, > 0 M , x
f , x > M (x < M ) |f (x) | < .
limx+ f (x) = +, M R M R,
x f , x > M f (x) > M .
limx+ f (x) = , limx f (x) = .
f (x)
( + ), x x0
x0 .
f , x x0 , .
limxx+ f (x) lim f (x),
0
+

x x+
f (x) lim f (x), x x
0 , f (x0 ) limxx
0 , f (x0 ), .
0
x + x (
, ).
,
x0 . f (x+
0 ), > 0
f (x0 , x0 + ) f (x
0 ),
(x0 , x0 ). , ,
limx f (x) f
(, ), limx+ f (x).
.
27

3. ,
3.2.5 f
(x0 , x0 + ), > 0, > 0 > 0
x f , 0 < x x0 < |f (x) | < ,
f (x), x x0

(: f (x+
0 ) = ). f (x0 ) =
+

f (x0 ) = , f (x0 ) = .
, , .
x x0 , x0
, .

3.2
, f (x) = c x
, |f (x) c| = 0 x ()
limxx0 f (x) = c. limxx0 f (x) = x0
f (x) = x.
, ,
f (x) , f (x) = 0 + 1 x + + n xn
limxx0 f (x) = f (x0 ). f (x) = x2 2x+1. > 0.
|f (x) f (x0 )| < x 0 < |x x0 | < .

|f (x) f (x0 )|

= |x2 2x x20 + 2x0 |

= |x x0 ||x + x0 2|

|x x0 |(|x| + |x0 | + 2).

|x x0 | < 1, |x| < |x0 | + 1 , |x x0 | < 1,

|f (x) f (x0 )| < |x x0 |(2|x0 | + 3).
, 0 < |x x0 | < ,
|x x0 |(2|x0 | + 3) < .
= min {1, /(2|x0 + 3|)},
.
.
. :
3.2.6 f, g A
x0 A. limxx0 f (x), limxx0 g(x) , : limxx0 (f (x) + g(x)), limxx0 (f (x)g(x))
limxx0 f (x) + limxx0 g(x) (limxx0 f (x))(limxx0 g(x))
. limxx0 g(x) 6= 0, limxx0 f (x)/g(x)
limxx0 f (x)/limxx0 g(x)
, () , .
28

3.2 .
, ,
f (x), limxx0 f (x) = f (x0 )
x0 . [

. (x)
(;) limxx0 fg(x)
x0 .
.]
, x
x, limxx0 x = x0 .
,
.
.
.
f (x) + g(x) .
limxx0 (f (x)g(x)).
:
3.2.7 limxx0 f (x), > 0 M R,
|f (x)| < M x f
0 < |x x0 | < .
: limxx0 f (x) = = 1
. > 0 0 < |x x0 | < |f (x) | < 1,
x , |f (x)| < || + 1.
M = || + 1.
. limxx0 f (x) = , limxx0 g(x) =
> 0. > 0 0 < |x x0 | < |f (x)g(x)
| < .
|f (x)g(x) |

|f (x)g(x) g(x)| + |g(x) |

= |g(x)||f (x) | + |||g(x) |.

1 > 0 0 < |x x0 | < 1 |g(x)| <

|| + 1. 2 , 3 > 0 0 < |x x0 | < 2

|f (x) | < 2(||+1)

0 < |x x0 | < 3 |g(x) | < 2(||+1)
.
= min{1 , 2 , 3 }, ,
:
0 < |x x0 | < |f (x)g(x) | < (|| + 1)

+ ||
< ,
2(|| + 1)
2(|| + 1)

.
2
,
, :
29

3. ,
3.2.8 limxx0 g(x) = 6= 0, > 0 x
g, 0 < |x x0 | < |g(x)| > ||
2 > 0.
( = ||/2,
).
, f g
x0 .
,

f g (x0 , x0 + ) |g(x)| > ||

2
x0 < x < x0 + .
> 0.


 1
1  | g(x)|
2

 g(x)  = |||g(x)| 6 ||2 |g(x) |,
|x x0 | < . 1 > 0

0 < |x x0 | < 1 |g(x) | <

||2
2



 1
1 

0 < |x x0 | < min{, 1 } 
< .

g(x) 

1
limxx0 g(x)
= 1
(
f 1/g).
.
limxx0 f (x) (
) limxx+ f (x) limxx f (x).
0
0
,
.

0 x 6= 0
(i) f (x) =
1 x = 0.

limx0+ f (x) = limx0 f (x) (= 0)

(ii) f (x) = [x] , x0 N , x0 Z,
limxx+ f (x) = x0 , limxx f (x) = x0 1, limxx0 f (x)
0

30

3.2 .

(;).

0
x0
(iii) f (x) =
sin x1 x > 0
limx0 f (x) =
(0, 1)
0. .
limx0+ f (x). ,
, f (x) , x 0+ , (0, 1)
:
x = 0, 1 y 1.
3.1
, , f (0+) . > 0
0 < x < |f (x) | < 1/2.
(0, ) x1 , x2 1/x1 = k 1/x2 = 2k + /2.
f (x1 ) = 0, f (x2 ) = 1 |0 | < 1/2, |1 | < 1/2

1 1
1 = |(0 ) (1 )| |0 | + |1 | < + = 1
2 2
. x1 , x2 ,
k N 1/(k) < 1/(2k) + /2 < .
.
k = [1/] + 1.

3.2

: .
. , , ,
. , , Dirichlet

1 xQ
f (x) = xQ =
0 x 6 Q.
31

3. ,
.
,
x0 .
, x0
.
, .
.
3.2.9 x0 f ,
> 0 > 0 x f , |xx0 | <
|f (x) f (x0 )| < , f x0 .
x0 ,
:
3.2.10 f x0
lim f (x) = f (x0 ),

xx0

limxx0 f (x) f (x0 ).

,
, x0
,
.
:
3.2.11
.

.
3.2.12 x0 f
> 0 > 0 x , 0
x x0 < |f (x) f (x0 )| < (0 x0 x <
|f (x) f (x0 )| < ), f () x0 .

+
f (x+
0 ) f (x0 ) = f (x0 )
f (x0 ) f (x
0) =
f (x0 ) . (x0 , x0 + ), > 0,
f , +
f (x+
0 ) f (x0 ) = f (x0 ).
.
x0
.
(i) f . (ii)
. (iii)
.

32

3.2 .
3.2.13
|x x0 | < . . .
0 < |x x0 | < . . ., .

,
. . ,

.
T x0 , > 0 (x0
, x0 + )
{ }= {x0 } (;). > 0
|x x0 | < |f (x) f (x0 )| <
x |xx0 | < ( x0 ).
,
,
.
:

f (x) =

x2
0

|x| > 1
,
x=0
(1, 0)

(1, 0)

(, 1) {0} (1, ) x0 = 0.
.
2.2 .
,
:
3.2.14 f (x) (, )
x0 (, ), g (, )
(, ) f ( {f (x) : <
x < }) g
f (x0 ),


h = g f (: (g f )(x) = g f (x) , < x < ) x0 .
: . > 0. 1 > 0
|y f (x0 )| < 1 |g(y) g(f (x0 ))| <
g f (x0 ). f x0 < 0
|x x0 | < |f (x) f (x0 )| < 1 |x x0 | <
|g(f (x)) g(f (x0 ))| = |h(x) h(x0 )| < ,
h x0 .
2
cos x = sin(/2x), cos sin
/2 x. sin,
cos.
33

3. ,
3.2.15 sin(x) .
: x0 R.






 x x0 
x x0  
x + x0 
sin
.
| sin x sin x0 | = 2 sin
cos

2

2 
2 
2 

2.2 | sin | || || /2.

| sin | 1 , | sin | || .



 x x0 
 = |x x0 |
| sin x sin x0 | 2 
2 
( = )

|x x0 | < | sin x sin x0 | <

2

lim

x0

sin x
=1
x

| sin x| |x| | tan x| = |sin x/cos x|, |x| < /2, x 6= 0

: | cos x| (sin x)/x 1, 0 < |x| < /2.
limx0 cos x = cos 0 = 1, > 0 < 0 0 < |x| <
( |x| < /2) 1 < (sin x)/x < 1 + |(sin x)/x 1| <
.
3.2.16 : f (x) g(x) h(x),
0 < |x x0 | < limxx0 f (x) = limxx0 h(x) limxx0 g(x) limxx0 f (x).

3.2 . .
,
, .
[, ], (, ),
.
(, ] [, ).
, , f g
x0 , x0 .
g(x0 ) 6= 0.
x0
f . > 0 (x0
34

3.2 .
, x0 + ) . (
.
. ,
, ). f x0 limxx0 f (x) limxx0 f (x) = f (x0 ),
f (x0 +) = f (x0 ) = f (x0 ). f x0 ;
f (x0 +) = f (x0 ) 6= f (x0 ) f (x0 +) 6= f (x0 ) .
x0 f , ( ) (
).

f (x0 +)f (x0 ).
.
= f (x0 ), = f (x0 +)
= 6= 0, ,
d/3
= ||
(1)
3 ,
> 0
d/3
(2)
f d/3

(1) ( 3.2)
(x0 , x0 + )
(2)
x0
x0 +
x0
(x0 , x0 ). ( 3.2
)
.
3.2 (i) , (ii) (iii) .
Heine ( 19 ). f
x0 . xn
xn x0 > 0.
f > 0 |x x0 | <
|f (x) f (x0 )| < . xn x0 n0 N
n > n0 |xn x0 | < . n > n0 |f (xn ) f (x0 )| < , f (xn ) f (x0 ).
.
3.2.17 f x0
xn f xn x0 , f (xn )
f (x0 )
f
x0 xn xn x0 {f (xn )}
f (x0 ). f x0 ,
35

3. ,
: > 0 > 0 |xx0 | <
|f (x) f (x0 )| < . : > 0
> 0 x |x x0 | < |f (x) f (x0 )| .
3.2.18 , (
) . , ).
1/n, n N. n xn
(x0 1/n, x0 + 1/n) |f (xn ) f (x0 )| . x0 1/n < xn <
x0 + 1/n xn x0 ( )
|f (xn ) f (x0 )| n N, f (xn ) f (x0 ).
.
3.2.19
xn (x0 1/n, x0 + 1/n)
|f (xn ) f (x0 )| ,
{xn },
. ,
.

,
.
:
tan x, x R\{(k + 1/2) : k Z}.

2x + 5
, x 6= 1,
x2 1

sin 2x cos x
, x 6= 2k + , x =
6 (2k + 1) , k Z.
2 sin x 1
6
6
sin

3.3 .
,
. ,
.
,
.
3.3.1 an a an a .
: a > ( a < ), n

a
|an a| <
2
36

3.3 .
a an < (a )/2, an > (a + )/2 >
. ( 3.3).

3.3

2
3.3.2 an a |an | |a|.
:


|an | |a| |an a|.

3.3.3 f [a, b], :

(i) [a, b]
(ii) x0 [a, b] f (x0 ) = sup{f (x) : a x b}.
:
(i) f R x [a, b]
|f (x)| > M . M = 1, 2, . . .
xn , xn , |f (xn )| > n, n = 1, 2, . . . xn
, xkn , k1 < k2 < <
kn < , x0 . x0 [a, b]
(;). f x0 xkn x0
f (xkn ) f (x0 ) |f (xkn )| |f (x0 )|.
|f (xkn )| > kn |f (xkn )|
+ .
(ii) f [a, b], {f (x) :
a x b} ( ).
( )
sup{f (x) : x } ,
A. x0 [a, b] f (x0 ) = A.
37

3. ,
sup n N
xn [a, b] A 1/n < f (xn ) A. xn
xkn x0 [a, b] (;)
:
1
A
< f (xkn ) A.
kn
f (xkn ) A.
f x0 = lim xkn

f (xkn ) f (x0 ), n ,
f (x0 ) = A, .
2
3.3.4 (ii) f
x0 [a, b]. .
3.3.5
, (
).
f

f (x) =

(0, 1)
0,
1 |x|,

x = 0
0 <| x | 1.

(1, 0)
(1, 0)
sup f (x) = 1 x0 [1, 1] f (x0 ) = 1.
3.3.3 f 0.
.
f (x) = x 0 < x < 1, sup f (x) = 1, x0 (0, 1)
f (x0 ) = 1 ( x0 = 1!). (:
;)
x1 , x1 , f (x1 ) = inf{f (x) :
x }.
f (x)(;).

f [a, b]
f (a) f (b). :
38

3.3 .
3.3.6 f [a, b] f (a) < f (b) c
(f (a), f (b)) x0 a < x0 < b f (x0 ) = c.
f (a) > f (b) f (a) > c > f (b).
. y = c f ()
c
f ( 3.4 ).
f (a) < 0, f (b) >
0, c = 0
Bolzano-Weierstrass ( Bol- f ()
zano
19 . Weierstrass

x0
19

3.4
.
).
:

3.3.7 (Bolzano-Weierstrass) 1 f [a, b]

f (a) f (b) < 0 f x0 (a, b).

f ()

x0

f ()

3.5
.
Bolzano-Weierstrass
1 Bolzano.
Bolzano-Weierstrass : .

39

3. ,
Bolzano-Weierstrass
g(x) = f (x) c, g(a) g(b) = (f (a) c) (f (b) c) < 0.
: f (a) < 0 < f (b) (;).
:
21 x0 . (x0 ). ;
x : x x
f (x ) < 0.
:
(i) A = {x (a, b] : a x < x f (x ) < 0}
.
(ii) x0 = sup A a < x0 < b f (x0 ) = 0.
A ( b
). :
f a > 0 a x < a +
|f (x) f (a)| < f (a)/2 < 0. ( = f (a)/2 > 0
) a x < a + f (x) <
f (a)/2 < 0. x (a, a + ) A
A .
x0 = sup A a.
f B , ,
> 0 b < x b f (x) > 0
x (b , b] A
x0 . a < x0 < b
f (x0 ) = 0.
f (x0 ) 6= 0 . f (x0 ) > 0
> 0 x (x0 , x0 + ) (, ) , f (x) > f (x0 /2) > 0
(;). x0 /2 ,
A x0 , . f (x0 ) < 0
> 0 x (x0 , x0 + ) (a, b), f (x) < f (x0 )/2 < 0.
x0 + /2 A .
2
.
.
3.3.8
: f (x) = 0 + 1 x + + n xn , n 6= 0 n
. f (x)


n1
0
f (x) = n xn 1 +
= n xn g(x)
+ +
n x
n xn
40

3.3 .

g(x) = 1 +

0
n1
+ +
.
n x
n xn

g (, 0), (0, +)
lim g(x) = 1

x+

lim g(x) = 1

(;). M > 0 N > 0 x > M

g(x) > 0 x < N g(x) > 0. M > M N > N
:
f (M ) f (N ) = 2n (M )n (N )n g(M ) g(N ) < 0
2n > 0, g(M ) > 0, g(N ) > 0, (M )n > 0, (N )n < 0 n
. Bolzano-Weierstrass
f (N , M ).
2

Banach ( S. Banach
20 ):
3.3.9 f : [0, 1] [0, 1] , x0 [0, 1]
f (x0 ) = x0

(1, 1)

(0, 1)
f

(0, 0)

(1, 0)

3.6
: f
(0, 0), (1, 0), (1, 1), (0, 1), g(x) = x, 0 x 1. f (0) = 0 f (1) = 1,
. f (0) > 0 f (1) < 1.
h(x) = g(x) f (x) . x0 (0, 1) g(x0 ) f (x0 ) = 0,
f (x0 ) = x0 .
2
41

3. ,

3.4
1. 3.1 3.2
2. f (x), < x < , limx f (x) =
limx+ f (x) = +, x0 (, ), f (x0 )
f (, ).
3. f (x) (x0 , x0 + ), > 0,
|f (x)| M x |x x0 | < , g(x) =
(x x0 )f (x) x0 .
4. limxx0 g(x) g(x) = P (x)/Q(x) x0 .
x + x .
5. n + n ,
{n : n N} .
n .
6. ak . bn = sup{ak : k n}.
lim bn lim bn = +. lim sup an .
lim inf an .
an lim sup an = lim inf an .
7. n sup n , inf n sup, inf {n : n N}. sup(n + n ) sup n + sup n , inf(n +
n ) inf n + inf n . , ,
.
8. :
lim

n2
= 1,
n2 + n

lim

x
2
= .
x2 1
3

x2

9. , , M R : x > M
x5 + 4x + 7
> 106 .
x4 + 1
10. [n , n ], n = 1, 2 . . . , [1 , 1 ] [2 , 2 ] . . . [n , n ] . . .,
T
()
n=1 [n , n ]
lim n , lim n

[n , n ] = [lim n , lim n ].

n=1

42

3.4
()
.

n=1 [n , n ]

11. , , lim n

() n = n + 5 n
()

n =

n2 + n +
,
n2 + n +

6= 0.

();
.
12. f f (x) = f (x)
x 6= 0. f (0) = 0.
13. f (x) = x10 7x7 + 8x5 + x2 , x R.
, inf{f (x) :
x R} > . x0 R f (x0 ) = inf A A = {f (x) :
x R};
14. x [x] cos x;
[x] sin x.

43

KEFALAIO

4.1
4.1
f x0 .
> 0 x0 + h
f |h| < . f (x0 + h) f (x0 ) f , h = (x0 + h) x0
x x x0 .
f /x x 0,
, f x0 . ,
+ .
:
4.1.1

(i)
lim

h0

f (x0 + h) f (x0 )
h

f x0  f x0
df 
(: f (x0 ) Df (x0 ) dx
,
x=x0
, df /dx).

(ii)

f (x0 + h) f (x0 )
lim
h
h0+

f (x0 + h) f (x0
lim
h
h0

f (),
f (x0+ ) (f (x0 )) D+ f (x0 ) (D f (x0 )).

4.
(iii) + f
( ) + ,
( f ).
4.1.2 ()
x0
. f
[x0 , x0 + ) ( (x0 , x0 ]), > 0.
f x0
f (x) f (x0 ) f (x0 )(x x0 )
0,
x x0
x x0 , (;), > 0 > 0 |x x0 | <

|f (x) f (x0 ) f (x0 )(x x0 )| < |x x0 |,

|x x0 | <

|f (x) f (x0 )| < |f (x0 )| + |x x0 |.

f x0 x0
(: f (x0 ) , +
). , = 1,
> 0 |f (x) f (x0 )| < x




|x x0 | < min
, .
|f (x0 )| + 1

, ( ). :
(f + g) (x0 ) =
(f g) (x0 ) =
 
f
(x0 ) =
g

f (x0 ) + g (x0 )
f (x0 )g(x0 ) + f (x0 )g (x0 )
g(x0 )f (x0 ) g (x0 )f (x0 )
,
(g(x0 ))2

g(x0 ) 6= 0.

. x0
f g. g x0
g(x0 ) 6= 0 g
(x0 , x0 + ), > 0,
f /g.
46

4.1
:
f (x0 + h)g(x0 + h) f (x0 )g(x0 )
h

f (x0 + h)g(x0 + h) f (x0 )g(x0 + h)

h
f (x0 )g(x0 + h) f (x0 )g(x0 )
+
h
f (x0 + h) f (x0 )
= g(x0 + h)
h
g(x0 + h) g(x0 )
+f (x0 )
h
g(x0 )f (x0 ) + f (x0 )g (x0 ),
=

h 0 ( g x0 ).
,
 
1
g (x0 )
(x0 ) =
g
(g(x0 ))2
. :


1
g(x0 + h) g(x0 )
1
1
1
=

h g(x0 + h) g(x0 )
h
g(x0 )g(x0 + h)
1
,
g (x0 )
(g(x0 ))2
h 0, g x0
g(x0 ) 6= 0.
:
(i) f (x) = c (). f (x0 ) = 0 x0 f /x =
0 0, f (x0 ) = 0.
(ii) f (x) = x, x R:
f (x + h) f (x)
x+hx
=
=11
h
h
x = 1.
(iii) f (x) = xn , n N:
(x0 + h)n xn0
h

h{(x0 + h)n1 + (x0 + h)n2 x0 + + x0n1 }

h
x0n1 + x0n1 + + x0n1 = nx0n1 ,
=

h 0, (xn ) = nxn1 . (
(f g) = f g + f g ).
47

4.
n = 0 f .
n Z n < 0. , f (x) = xn , n N, x 6=
0. :
 


(xn )
nxn1
1
=

= nxn1
f (x) =
xn
x2n
x2n

x 6= 0. n (xn ) = nxn1
x xn ( x n 0
x x 6= 0 n < 0).
(iv) f (x) = a0 + a1 x + + an xn : , c
(cg) (x0 ) = c g(x0 ) + cg (x0 ) = cg (x0 ),
f (x) = a1 + 2a2 x + + nan xn1 .
(v) f (x) = sin x.
f (x + h) f (x)
h

=
=

2 sin h2 cos (x + h2 )
sin (x + h) sin x
=
h
h


sin h2
h
cos x,
cos x +
h
2
2

h 0.
, (sin x)/x 1 x 0,
(;). : (sin x) =
cos x.
(vi) f (x) = cos x. (cos x) = sin x ( ).
(vii) f (x) = tan x, x 6= (k + 21 ), k Z.

(tan x)

=
=
=

sin x
cos x

cos x(sin x) sin x(cos x)

(cos x)2

cos2 x + sin2 x
cos2 x
1
,
cos2 x

(tan x) = 1/cos2 x = 1 + tan2 x.

(viii) f (x) = |x| x R. x0 > 0, f (x) = x (0, ),
f (x0 ) = x |x=x0 = 1 (;). x0 < 0, f (x) = x
(, 0), f (x0 ) = 1.

x0 = 0 .
|x| 0 ( = ) ,
48

4.1

.

|h|
f (0 + h) f (0)
=
,
h
h
h 0. limh0+ |h|/h = 1 limh0 |h|/h = 1
limh0 |h|/h, |x|
0. f (0+)
f (0) f (0+) = 1, f (0) = 1.
(ix)

0,
x < 0
f (x) =
x2 , x 0.
f (x) 0 x < 0, f (x) = 0
x < 0 x2 x > 0, f (x) = 2x x > 0.
x = 0 ,
lim f (x) = lim 0 = 0 = f (0) = lim+ x2 = lim+ f (x).

x0

x0

x0

x0

0
f 0. f (0+)
x2 x = 0. x2 ,
< x < ,
(x2 )x=0 = (2x)x=0 = 2 0 = 0.
,
f (0) = 0. :

0,
x<0

f (x) =
2x, x 0.

4.1

. ( , , ) h(x) = f (g(x))
49

4.


h (x) = f g(x) g (x)
( ) . :
h(x) h(x0 )
x x0

f (g(x)) f (g(x0 ))
x x0
f (g(x)) f (g(x0 )) g(x) g(x0 )
.

g(x) g(x0 )
x x0

=
=

g g(x) g(x0 ) x x0 x x0 ,
x x0 ,
h(x) h(x0 )
x x0

f (g(x)) f (g(x0 ))
g(x) g(x0 )
lim
xx
g(x)g(x0 )
g(x) g(x0 )
x x0
0
lim

f (g(x0 ))g (x0 ).

g(x) = g(x0 ) x x0 .
.
:
(i)
(cos x)

=
=

x) = cos( x) ( x)
2
2
2

cos( x) = sin x.
2
sin(

(ii)


sin(x3 cos x)

= cos(x3 cos x)(x3 cos x)

= cos(x3 cos x) 3x2 cos x x3 sin x

(iii) ((ax + b)n ) = n(ax + b)n1 (ax + b) = an(ax + b)n1 , n N.

.
4.1.3 ( ) x0
g y0 = g(x0 ) f
g (x0 ) , f (y0 ) ( ),
h(x) = f (g(x)) x0 :
h (x0 ) = f (g(x0 )) g (x0 ).
: g x0 g x0 . 1 > 0 y |y y0 | < 1 f , y0 = g(x0 ) . 2 > 0 ,
50

4.1
|x x0 | < 2
|g(x) g(x0 )| < 1 |x x0 | < 2


h(x) = f g(x) .

f (g(x)) f (g(x0 ))
f (g(x0 ))g (x0 )
x x0
x x0 . :



g(x) g(x0 )
f (g(x)) f (g(x0 ))
g(x) g(x0 )

f (g(x0 ))
+f g(x0 )
g (x0 ) .
x x0
x x0
x x0

g(x) g(x0 )
g (x0 )
x x0
x x0 .









f g(x) f g(x0 ) f g(x0 ) g(x) g(x0 )
0,
x x0
x x0 . > 0. g x0 2 > 0 :


 g(x) g(x0 ) 


 < |g (x0 )| + 1 = M .
|x x0 | < 2 
x x0 
f y0 = g(x0 ) 3
: |y y0 | < 3



 f (y) f (y0 )


f (y0 ) <
 y y0
M

|y y0 |
M
|y y0 | < 3 . g x0 4 > 0 : |xx0 | < 4 |g(x)g(x0 )| < 3 . = min{2 , 4 }
0 < |x x0 | <











f g(x) f g(x0 ) f g(x0 ) g(x) g(x0 ) 
 g(x) g(x0 ) 

x x0
M  x x0 
|f (y) f (y0 ) (y y0 )f (y0 )|

M
M
= ,
<

2
51

4.

4.1
f x ,

f . f f ( D2 f
D2 f /dx2 ) ...
:
(i) f (x) = x3 . f (x) = 3x2 , f (x) = 6x, f (x) = 6, f (4) (x) = 0, . . .,
f (n) (x) = 0 n 4.
(ii) f (x) = sin x.
f (x) = cos x,
f (x) = sin x,
f (x) = cos x,
f (4) (x) = sin x
( )
f (4k+1) (x) = cos x,
f (4k+3) (x) = cos x,

f (4k+2) (x) = sin x,

f (4k+4) (x) = sin x, k = 0, 1, 2, . . .

4.2
17
Newton1 , Fermat2 Leibnitz3 ( ).
Newton
Kepler.
Principia
,
( Principia
). Fermat
,
Leibnitz .
df /dx,
Fermat Newton .

.
1

1718 .
1718 .
3 1718 .
2

52

4.2

4.2

x(t), y(t), z(t) ,
t. ,
[a, b].
x, , ,

x.
x(a) x(b)
b a.
(x(b) x(a))/(b a).
(x(b) x(a))/(b a) .
(t, t + h), ,
, (t, t + t). ,
t, t
(x(t + t) x(t))/(t)
t
x(t + t) x(t)
lim
,
t
t 0. x(t) , t, x(a) = 0,
: ()
.
(
). ,
.
M
( ). M

(t)
1
(0, 0)
p
(1, 0)

t = 0 (1, 0).

x.

4.1
(= (t)) , (t) = t, 53

4.
rad/sec,
.
P x
x(t) = cos (t) = cos t.
P
(t) = x (t) = sin t

b(t) = x (t) = 2 cos t.

P .
1
1 ,
1

( ), 4.2
P (
).
. Hooke ,
:
F = kx, k . k = 2 .
(
Newton)
( = 1)
x (t)
=
2 x(t).

( ).
.
.
:
1/2 , 1, .
,
x(0) = 1.
1 t = 0 ( ) .
,
x (0) = 0. (x(0) = 1)
(x (0) = 0) .
54

4.3
x(t)
x (t) = 2 x(t) x(0) = 1 x (0) = 0.
: x(t) = cos t.
x(t)
x(t) = cos t,
k.
.

.
4.2.1
: , ,
(
(x(0) = 1) (x (0) = 0)
( 2 x) ). ,
;
( ) .
Newton ( ) = ()().
( )
.

4.3
f x0 x0 .

M N (
26) N x0 + h, f (x0 + h)
M , h 0. , ,

f (x0 , f (x0 )).
M
M , , M N
h 0. . ( ) M N
h :
f (x0 + h) f (x0 )
(N )
=
h
(M )
f (x0 )
( 26) tan = f (x0 ).
f (x0 , h) = f (x0 + h) f (x0 ) df (x0 , h) = f (x0 )h ,
f (x0 , h) = N f ,
df (x0 , h) = K f (x0 )+(xx0 )f (x0 ).
f (x0 , h) df (x0 , h) = N K,
55

4.

f
N

f = f (x0 + h) f (x0 )

(x0 , f (x0 ))

f (x0 ) h
x0

x0 + h

4.3
f (x)
f (x0 ) + (x x0 )f (x0 ) ( ), ,
h, , h 0.
.
N K = f (x0 , h) df (x0 , h) =
=
=

f (x0 + h) f (x0 ) f (x0 )h

f (x0 + h) f (x0 ) f (x0 )h
h
h
h q(x0 , h)

f (x0 + h) f (x0 )
f (x0 ).
h
f x0 q, h,
h 0,
q(x0 , h) =

f (x0 , h) df (x0 , h) 0

f (x0 , h) df (x0 , h)
0, h 0
h
: f (x0 , h) df (x0 , h) h, : f (x0 , h) df (x0 , h)
56

4.3
o h (:
f (x0 , h) df (x0 , h) = o(h),
h 0).
: f (x) f (x) 0, x x0 (
x x0 ).
o (o ) O (O )
Landau ( 20 ) :
4.3.1 f , g
x0 (
(x0 , x0 + h) (x0 h, x0 ), h > 0),
(i) f (x) = O(g(x)), x x0 , > 0 M
|x x0 | < |f (x)| M |g(x)|.
(ii) f (x) = o(g(x)), x x0 ,
f (x)
0,
g(x)
x x0 .
(f (x) = O(g(x)), x x0 , : f O g
x x0 f (x) = o(g(x)), x x0 , : f o
g x x0 .)
:
(i) sin x = O(x), x 0. | sin x| |x| x.
(ii) sin x1 = O(1), x 0. | sin(1/x)| 1 x.
(iii) x2 = o(x), x 0. x2 /x = x 0, x 0.
(iv) 1 cos x = o(x), x 0.
sin x
x
1 cos x
1
x
= 2 sin2 = x 2 sin 1 0 = 0,
x
x
2
2
2
x 0.
4.3.2 x h df (x0 , h) = f (x0 )
h f (x0 ) = df (x0 , h)/x. f (x) = x
df (x0 , h) = 1 h = h
h, dx(x0 , h) = x.
Leibnitz df /dx.
57

4.
df (x0 , h), x0 ,
f (x0 ) h, f .
.

.
.
f (x) = (1/4)x2 .
N (0, 1) y = 1.
N
y = 1. ( 4.4)
y



2
M x, x4

N (0, 1)
x

4.4

(M N )2

2
x2
1
4
 2 2
x2
x
+1
= x2 +
4
2
 2 2
x2
x
+
= 1+
4
2


2 2
x
=
1+
4
= x2 +

= (M M )2 .
58

x
y = 1

4.4

. :
( 27) = , =
= /2 2 = /2. :
tan

tan
:

= f (x)
x
( )
=
2

1 x2
=
1
x 4
2 tan
1 tan2
x
=
2
1 x4
1
=
tan
= cot (),

tan 2 =

2 = /2. (
, , , , x > 0 x2 /4 > 1.
.

4.4

, ,
( ).
:
.
, ,
.
:


.

.
59

4.

4.4 R
olle
f [, ]
. ,
. f
(, ). (
, , , ).
AB ( 4.5) ,

B
(, f ()

A
(, f ())

x0

4.5
, x0 , < x0 < .
x0 , f (x0 ) ,


f () f ()
.
( )
.
4.4.1 ( ) f [, ]
(, ), x0 (, ) :
f (x0 ) =

f () f ()
.

f () = f () = 0.
R
olle. R
olle (
17 ) .
4.4.2 (R
olle)
f () = f () = 0 x0 (, ) f (x0 ) = 0.
60

4.4

x0

4.6

. R
olle

f (x) g(x) = h(x),

g(x) = f () +

f () f ()
(x )

AB.
h R
olle g
, R f () = g(), f () = g().
x0 (, ) h (x0 ) = 0,
f (x0 )

f () f ()
= 0.

R
olle.
: f [, ] f (x) = 0 x [, ],
f (x) = 0 x .
x, (, ), f (x) 6= 0.
f (x) > 0. f
x0 [, ] :
f (x0 ) = sup{f (x) : x [, ]},
f (x0 ) f (x) x [, ]. x f (x) > 0,
f (x) > 0, < x0 < . f (x0 ) = 0
.
x0 (, ), f (x0 ) f (x+
0 )

f (x0 )

f (x0 ) = f (x+
0 ) = f (x0 ).

f (x+
0 ) = lim

xx+
0

f (x) f (x0 )
x x0

61

4.
f (x0 ) f (x) x > x0
x > x0 .

f (x)f (x0 )
xx0

f (x0 ) = f (x+
0 ) 0.

f (x0 ) = f (x
0 ) 0
f (x0 ) = 0 .

4.4.3 (, )
.
[, ]
(;) .
: f (x) = 0 0 x < 1 f (1) = 1.
1
. f (x) = 0 x (0, 1),

f (1) f (0)
= 1 6= 0
10
( 4.7).

4.7
4.4.4
. Lagrange ( 18 ).
f g :
h(x) = (f () f ()) g(x) (g() g()) f (x)
h() = h() .
x (, ), :
(f () f ()) g (x0 ) = (g() g()) f (x0 ).
62

4.4
f g (, )
g() g() 6= 0, g (x0 ) 6= 0 (;),
f (x0 )
f () f ()
=
.
g() g()
g (x0 )
Cauchy,
.
4.4.5 f g
f g (, )
g() g() 6= 0, x0 (, ) :
f (x0 )
f () f ()
=
.
g() g()
g (x0 )

f g .
x2 x3
[1, 1]. ( ,
.)

.
4.4.6 f (, )
f (x) x (, ) f
(, ).
: x0 (, ) f (x)
f (x0 ) x (, ). x0 < x.
(x0 , x) f (x)f (x0 ) =
f ()(x x0 ), ( f () = 0) f (x) = f (x0 ),
x (, ).
: f g ,
f (x) = g (x) < x < ,
, f (x) = g(x) + c < x < . (
(f g) (x) = 0 < x < .)
2

4.4
.

[a, b].
.
63

4.
f : (a, b) R ( ) x < y
f (x) f (y) x, y (a, b) (x < y f (x) < f (y)
x, y (a, b)) ( ) x < y
f (x) f (y) x, y (a, b) (x < y f (x) > f (y) x, y (a, b)).
( )
( ).
:
(i) sin x (/2, /2)
[/2, /2].
(ii) x+ (x) = max(x, 0) R
( x+ x+ (x) =
1

2 |x| + x, x ).
(iii) tan x


(2k 1) 2 , (2k + 1) 2 .
(iv) cos x (0, ).

(v) [x] R.
( [x]).
.
. (

f f ).
f : (a, b) R a < x0 < b.
{f (x) : a < x < x0 }
f (x0 )
.
sup{f (x) : a < x < x0 }.
sup (
) = f (x
0 ). , > 0 x1 < x0
f (x1 ) > (

x0

supremum). 4.8
f (x) > x
x1 < x. = x0 x1 0 < x0 x <
< f (x) < + , = f (x0 ).
= inf{f (x) : x0 < x < } = f (x+
0 ).
f (x+
)

f (x
0
0 )
x0

f (x+
0 ) f (x0 ) = inf{f (x) : x < x0 } sup{f (x) : x < x0 }.

64

4.4
.
4.4.7 f () (a, b), x0 ,
. :
+

+
f (x
0 ) f (x0 ) f (x0 ) f (x0 ) f (x0 ) f (x0 ) .

( [

] )

f (a, b)
: = inf{f (x) : < x < }, = sup{f (x) : < x < }.
{f (x) : < x < } ()
() (+).
f (x), < x < , [, ] (
+ , (, ], [, )
(, ). f
[, ] (, ). , f (x0 ) =
x0 (a, b) x1 = (a + x0 )/2
f (x1 ) < f (x0 ) = , x1 < x0 , .
f
.
y (, ) 2
x (, ) f (x) = y.
1
, y > =

inf{f (x) : < x < } x1 (, ) f (x1 ) =

1 < y x2
x
x2
(, ), x2 > x1 ,
] )
( [ 1
f (x2 ) = 2 > y.

4.9
f [x1 , x2 ].

: f (a, b), g (, ), y = f (x) x = g(y) g (f (x)) = x
f (g(y)) = y, x (a, b) y (, ).
: g
(, ).
< y1 < y2 < . x1 , x2 y1 = f (x1 ) y2 = f (x2 )
x1 < x2 ( y1 y2 ) g(y1 ) < g(y2 ).
g (, ) , , y0 (, ), limyy g(y) < g(y0 ) limyy+ g(y) >
0
0
g(y0 ).
, , g(y0 ) < g(y0 ).
: < y < y0 < g(y)
< g(y0 ) < g(y0 ) :
< y < y0 f
(g(y)) < f g(y0 ) < f (g(y0 )), < y < y0
y < f g(y0 ) < y0 ,
65

4.



y = 12 y0 + f g(y0 ) .

f x0 .
:
4.4.8 (i) f (a, b)
x0 f (x0 ) 6= 0, g 1
y0 = f (x0 ) g (y0 ) = (f (x0 )) .
(ii) f (x0 ) = 0, , g (y0 ) = + g , g (y0 ) =
g .
: (i). (ii) ().
. y = f (x) x = g(y)
Leibnitz :
1
dx
= dx
dy
dy
g (y0 ) = 1/f (x0 )
dx/dy .
.
f (x0 ) :
f (x) f (x0 )
f (x0 ),
x x0

x x0 .
f (x0 ) 6= 0

x x0
1

,
f (x) f (x0 )
f (x0 )
x x0 . > 0 > 0 x0 < x < x0 +



 x x0
1 

 f (x) f (x0 ) f (x0 )  < .

, f .






y1 = f x0
< f (x0 ) = y0 < f x0 +
= y2
2
2

= min{y0 y1 , y2 y0 }. y y0 < y < y0 +

g(y) (x0 /2, x0 + /2), y = f (x) x (
g(y)) (x0 /2, x0 + /2). :
|y y0 | <

x x0
g(y) g(y0 )
=
y y0
f (x) f (x0 )
66

4.4
x |x x0 | < /2,


 g(y) g(y0 )
1 
|y y0 | < 

< ,
y y0
f (x0 ) 
.

: f (x) = xn , n N, x > 0. xn
, g, (0, ),
inf x>0 xn = 0 supx>0 xn = . g(y) = x
xn = y, 0 < y < . y 1/n g(x) y m/n
(g(x))m , m Z.
y

x3

x2

x1

4.10
g(x).
xn = y :
g (x) =

1 n1
1 1
1
1
1
= y n = y n 1
=
=
1
n1
f (x)
nxn1
n
n
n(y n )

(xn ) = nxn1 1/n,

n N.

. , xq , q Q, x > 0
, q = m/n = m /n , m, m Z,

n, n N (x1/n )m (x1/n )m .
n x1/n x
x 6= 0 ( x = 0 + n > 1). n = 1
x.
(x+ = x x , (x ) = x ,
) .
x+ = x x , x > 0,
= m1 /n1 , = m2 /n2 , m1 , m2 Z, n1 , n2 N. f (x) = xn1 n2 (x+ )n1 n2 =
67

4.
x3 x2

x
x = x1/2
1/3
x

x1/3
x3

4.11
(x x )n1 n2 . xq , q Q,
(x+ )n1 n2

 m1 n2 +m2 n1 n1 n2
x n1 n2

=
=

xm1 n2 +m2 n1
xm1 n2 xm2 n1

(xm1 )n2 (xm2 )n1

(x n1 )n1 n2 (x n2 )n1 n2

=
=

(x )n1 n2 (x )n1 n2
(x x )n1 n2 ,

m1

m2

x+ = x x .
g
f f g
( x, x2 , x3 34).
:
4.4.9 (i) f ()
(, ) f (x) 0 (f (x) 0 < x < ).
(ii) f f (x) 0 (f (x) > 0) < x < ,
f ( ) (, ).
( ) .
:


(i) f f (x) f (x0 (x x0 )
f (x0 ) 0
x0 (, )
68

4.4
(ii) < x1 < x2 < .
[x1 , x2 ] f (x2 ) f (x1 ) = (x2 x1 )f () (x1 , x2 )
(x2 > x1 , f () 0) f (x2 ) f (x1 ). f () 0
f (x2 ) > f (x1 ).
2
:
(i) f (x) = x2 (0, ) (, 0). 2x
x > 0,
x < 0.
(ii) f (x) = x3 R,
2x2 x = 0. (
0 x).
(iii)
f (x) =

0,
x2 ,

x < 0
x 0.

f (x) (, ) ( ) f (x) 0
< x < ( 4.1)

4.4 x, x, log
a > 0. an , n N, n
am/n , m Z, n N ()
n = m .
aq q Q,
.
f (x), ax
x R f (q) = aq q Q.
,
f (x) = 0 x f (q) = aq , q Q,
. ,
.
:
(i) f
(ii) f (x) = aq , q Q.
f , Heine f (qn ) f (q), aqn f (q)
qn qn q.
:
69

4.
4.4.10 a > 0, x R qn q, qn Q, ax =
lim aqn .
:
(i) lim aqn ,

(ii) qn x qn x, qn , qn Q, lim aqn = lim aqn .

4.4.11 a > 0 qn 0 qn Q, aqn 1.
a = 1 a < 1 a > 1 (;). a > 1.

a > 1 () aq > aq q > q

1

= a|qn | aqn a|qn | .
a|qn |
a|qn | 1. |qn | = An /Bn Bn =
n An + n ( ) An , Bn , n , n 0 0 n , An
:
1
n

a|qn | = a n + An a n .

a1/n = 1 + n , a = (1 + n )n , n 0,
n 0. Newton

a = (1 + n ) n 1 + n n 0 n a1
n .
Bn = nAn + n , 0 n An n = [Bn /An ]
, (a 1)/n 0 n 0.
(i), (ii). qn , qn x,
qn lim aqn (;)

aqn
lim qn = lim aqn qn = 1,
a

lim aqn = lim aqn qn qn x.

(ii)
(i) qn qn x.
qn , aqn (
aqn a[x]+1 ) , .
qn . q1 x 1 <
q1 < x, q2 > q1 x 1/2 < q2 < x ...

, (
x , ).
ax
, (xa , loga x)
ax a.
70

4.4
4.4.12 ax

( 2 = 23,14159... 23 , 23,1 ,
23,14 , 23,141 , 23,1415 , 23,14159 , . . .),
.
.

4.4 x, > 0
ax+y = ax ay , (ax )y = axy , ax = 1/ax , (ab)x = ax bx , > 0,
> 0, x, y R . ,
(ab)x = lim(ab)qn = lim(aqn bqn ) = (lim aqn )(lim bqn ) = ax bx
qn qn x.
a = 1, ax = 1 x a < 1
ax =

1
( a1 )x

1/a > 1. , ...,

a > 1.
a > 1. x y > 0 qn Q,
q0 Q qn q0 > 0 n, qn x y (;)
ax
= axy aq0 > 1,
ay
ax a > 1 ( a < 1 ax ).
ay , y
R. ; ;
4.4.13 ax R.
: x0 R. lim ax , x x0
lim(ax ax0 ) = lim ax0 (axx0 1) = ax0 lim(axx0 1) = 0,
x x0 . lim ax = 1, x 0 (
x = 0 !)
qn 0 aqn 1
(qn Q). a1/n 1. > 0. n0 N
0 < a1/n0 1 < ax
0<x<

1
1
0 < ax 1 < a n0 1 < .
n0

lim ax = 1 x 0+ , ax = 1/ax ,
lim ax = 1 x 0 , lim ax = 1, x 0.
2
4.12 () a = 1/3, 1/2, 1, 2, 3.
71

4.
=3
=2
=1
=
=

1
2
1
3

4.12

4.4.14 f (x) = ax R.

:
ah 1
ax+h ax
= ax
.
h
h
, limh0 (ah 1)/h, ax
x = 0, x (ax ) = f (0)ax ,
ax ax
!

ah 1
ah 1
1 ah
= ah
=
h
h
ha
h
ah 1, h 0. limh0+ (ah 1)/h
.
h = 1/k, k = 1, 2, . . .,
k(a1/k 1) .
.
72

4.4
yk = k(a1/k 1)
a

yk  k
k
k(k 1)  yk 2
+
= 1 + yk +
2
k
k(k 1) (k l + 1)  yk l
+
+
l!
k


k(k 1) (k (k 1)) yk k
+
k

 k!
1
1
2
1
yk +
= 1 + yk +
2!
k




1
l1
1
1
1
ykl +
+
l!
k
k




1
1
k1
+
1
1
ykk
k!
k
k
=

1+

yk .
k yk < yk+1
a





1
k1
1
1
1
ykk
= 1 + yk + +
k!
k
k


1
1
2
< 1 + yk+1 +
1
yk+1
+
2!
k+1




1
k1
1
k
1
1
yk+1
+
k!
k+1
k+1

 

1
1
k
k+1
+
1
1
yk+1
(k + 1)!
k+1
k+1
= a

. yk
( 0) .
, , (ah 1)/h h 0+ . k = [1/h]
1

a k+1 1
1
k

<

ah 1
ak 1
,
<
1
h
k+1

k 1/h < k + 1,
 ah 1

1
k+1 
1
k 
<
(k + 1)(a k+1 1) <
k(a k 1) ,
k+1
h
k
(ah 1)/h , h 0+ .
73

4.
e
:
(1 + k1 )k .
k



 


1
1
1
k1
1
1
1
+ +
1
1
=1+1+
1+
k
2!
k
k!
k
k


k 
k+1
1
1
1+
< 1+
k
k+1

(1 + k1 )k .

k
1
1
1
1+
< 1 + 1 + + +
k
2!
k!
1
1
1
< 1 + 1 + + 2 + + k
2 2
2
1
= 1 + 1 + 1 k+1 < 3,
2
(1+ k1 )k . lim (1 + k1 )k ,
k , e
2,718281828459045235360287 . . .
e
k

1
1
1
1
1 + + + + .
1+
k
1! 2!
k!

1
1
+ +
2!
k!
bk ( )
:


1
1
.
e lim 1 + + +
1!
k!
bk = 1 +

m, k m, :
k





1
m1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1 + + + +
1+
k
1! 2!
m!
k
k
k ,
e1+

1
1
1
+ + +
= bm .
1! 2!
m!

bm e lim bm m e = lim bm .
:
74

4.4
4.4.15

k
1
ak = 1 +
k

bk = 1 +

1
1
+ +
1!
k!

, ak bk ,
e ( 2,718281).
.
e, . e = lim(1 + k1 )k+1
(1 + k1 )k+1 . e = lim(1 + k1 )k+1 :
k+1 
k 


1
1
1
1+
e 1 = e.
= 1+
1+
k
k
k
(1 + k1 )k+1 , :

k+1 
k
1
1
1+
< 1+
,
k
k1
k = 1, 2, 3, . . ., (k+1)k+1 (k1)k < k 2k+1 (k 2 1)k (k+1) < k 2k+1

k 
k

1
k2
1
.
=
1
+
1+ <
k
k2 1
k2 1
:

k
1
1
k
1
1+ 2
=1+k 2
+ > 1 + 2
>1+ .
k 1
k 1
k 1
k
:
k
k+1


1
1
<e< 1+
,
1+
k
k
k = 1, 2, 3, . . .
(ex ) = ex ,
x
e ! : (ex ) = cex
c = lim k(e1/k 1).
k
k+1


1
1
1+
<e< 1+
k
k


1
1
1 < k(e k 1) (k + 1) e k+1 1 < k+1
k 1 :
1/k
1/k
lim k(e
1) 1 lim k(e
1) 1, lim k(e1/k 1) = 1.
ex ax , a 6= e.
, ex .
75

4.

(
). :
: sinh x =

ex ex
( sh x)
2

: cosh x =

ex + ex
( chx)
2

: tanh x =

ex ex
( th x).
ex + ex

sinhx
tanhx

coshx

4.13
x R. (
).
cosh2 x sinh2 x = 1
cosh (x) = cosh x
sinh 2x = 2 sinh x cosh x
(cosh x) = sinh x

sinh (x) = sinh x

tanh x = sinh x/ cosh x
(sinh x) = cosh x
(tanh x) = 1/(cosh x)2

.
76

4.4
e .
e m/n, m, n N.
bk = 1 +

1
1
+ +
e
1!
k!

0<

0





1
1
1
1
m
= lim
1 + + +
+ +
k (n + 1)!
n
1!
n!
(n + k)!




m
1
1
< n!
1 + + +
n
1!
n!


1
1
1
+
+ +
= lim
k n + 1
(n + 1)(n + 2)
(n + 1) (n + k)
= lim gk ,

1
1
+ +
.
n+1
(n + 1) (n + k)



m
1
1
A = n!
1
n
1!
n!
gk =

lim gk .

1
1
1
1
+ + k
+
+
2 2 3 23
2

1 1 1
1
1
=
+ +
1 + + + k3
2 6 8
2
2


1 1 1
1
1 1 1
=
2 k2 < + + 2
+ +
2 6 8
2
2 6 8
11
.
=
12
0 < A 11/12 .
0 < gk

<

4.4.16 . e , ax + b = 0 a, b ,
, a0 + a1 x + + an xn
e.
1872
Hermite Lindemann,
, .

.
77

4.

a > 0 a 6= 1 ax (
a > 1, a < 1).
lim ax = +,

lim ax = 0

a > 1
lim ax = 0,

lim ax = +

a < 1.
. ,
ax a[x] = (1 + (a 1))[x] 1 + [x](a 1) +
x + a > 1.

, y 0 < y < , x ( ax
) ax = y. x a
y loga y.
loga x, x > 0 ax . loga x
(0, +) :
(loga x) =

1
1
1
= y =
y

(a )
ca
cx

( x = ay ). c limh0 (ah 1)/h.

ax
:
(i) loga (xy) = loga x + loga y,
aloga x+loga y = aloga x aloga y = xy = aloga (xy)
(ii) loga a = 1,
(iii) loga 1 = 0,
(iv) limx+ loga x = + a > 1,
(v) limx0+ loga x = a > 1 ( a < 1;),
(vi) loga xy = y loga x, ay loga x = (aloga x )y = xy .
a = e log x loge x ( ln x)
( a = 10
Briggs).
.
a > 0, b > 0 : a = blogb a loga x = y
(x > 0), ay = x, by logb a = x, logb x = (logb a)(loga x).
78

4.4
ax = ex log a
c, ax . ,
(ax ) = cax . (ax ) = (ex log a ) = loga (ex log a ) = (log a)ax
c = log a.
( a > 0) (ax ) = (log a)ax , (ex ) =
x
e < x < +,
(loga x) =

1 1
log a x

(log x) =

1
,
x

x > 0.
(log |x|) = 1/x
x 6= 0.
x > 0 . x > 0
(log |x|) = (log(x)) =

1
1
= .
x
x

log |x| 4.14.

log |x|

4.14
xb , x > 0, b R
xb
log x :
xb = eb log x
xb ex b log x.
b > 0 xb , +
x + x 0+ . b < 0 xb
0 x +, + x 0+ .
xb , bxb1 .
,
1
1
(xb ) = (eb log x ) = b (eb log x ) = b xb = bxb1
x
x
79

4.
b R (xb ) = bxb1 x > 0.


.
(i) sin x, /2 x /2. sin x ,
, Arcsin x
( x). Arcsin x

 
 

, sin
,
[1, 1] = sin
2
2
[1, 1] (1, 1).
Arcsin x, ,
sin x
y = x.

4.15
x0 (1, 1) x0 = sin y0 , /2 < y0 < /2,
:
1
1
1
(Arcsin x)x=x0 =
=
=
(sin y)y=y0
cos y0
1 x2

cos y0 > 0 y0 (/2, /2).

1 Arcsin x,
, +.
.

.
(Arcsin x)x=1 = +.
80

4.4
M > 0. (sin x)x=x0 = cos x0 = 0, > 0

sin x 1
<
<x<
,

2
2
x 2
M

cos < sin x < 1

sin x = y, :
cos < y < 1

x 2
> M.
sin x 1

Arcsin y
y1

> M,

D Arcsin x|x=/2 = +.
x = 1 +.

4.4.17
sin x [/2, /2] , , [/2, 3/2], sin x .
. [k
/2, k + /2], k Z,
sin x ( k
k ) Arck sin, ,
(1, 1)
[k /2, k + /2]
: (Arck sin x) =
1
, x (1, 1).
(1)k 1x
2

Arc2 sin

3/2

Arc1 sin

/2
x 1

Arc0 sin 1
Arc1 sin

3/2

Arc2 sin

(1)k :

/2

4.16

Arc2k sinx = 2k + Arc0 sinx = 2k + arcsin x

Arc2k+1 sinx = 2(k + 1) Arc0 sinx = (2k + 1) arcsin x.

arcsin x
x
Arck sin x, k Z.
.
, . Arck sin x
arcsin x
Arcsin x .
81

4.
cos x, tan x,
.
(ii) cos x, 0 x . cos x
Arccos x.
0 x /2 /2 x /2 y = cos x
y = sin(/2 x). Arccos x = /2 Arcsin x

(Arccos x) =

1
1x2

1 < x < 1

x = 1 1 ( ).

Arccosx

/2
1
1

cos x

4.17
(iii) tan x, /2 < x < /2. Arctan < x < ,
:
(Arctan x) =

1
cos2 y

1

sin2 y + cos2 y
cos2 y

1

= (1 + tan2 y)1

x = tan y (Arctan x) = 1/(1 + x2 ) < x < .

/2

/2

/2
/2

4.18

82

log. (
, log x, x,

).

4.4
(iv) cosh x, x 0. cosh x ,
cosh 0 = 1, limx+ cosh x = +,
y
g [0, ). x 0 cosh y = x (ey + e
)/2 =
y 2
y
y
21
x
x, (e ) 2x(e
)
+
1
=
0,

e
=
x
+

2
2
y = log(x + x 1) ( x x 1;).

cosh x, x 0, log(x +

x2 1). ,
Arccos
Arccosh. Arccosh x =
log(x + x2 1) x 1.

(v) sinh x < x < .

, Arcsinh, log(x +

x2 + 1).
(vi) tanh x < x < . ,
Arctanh x 12 log 1+x
1x .
sinhx

Arctanhx
1

Arcsinhx

tanhx

1
1

coshx

Arccoshx

4.19

:
1
, x > 1,
(Arccosh x) =
x2 1
1
(Arcsinh x) =
, < x < ,
1 + x2
83

4.
(Arctanh x) =

1
, 1 < x < x.
1 x2

4.19.

4.4
. ,
, , , .
(
) .
.
. xa , a > 0
x = 0 (0a = 0) a 0,
0 0, a > 1 1
a = 1 ( 0 < a < 1 0 +.
.
f (x)

c ()
< x <
0
< x <
nxn1
xn , n = 1, 2, . . .
xn , n = 1, 2, . . .
..'0
nxn1
a
x , a R,
x>0
axa1
x
a , a > 0,
< x <
(log a)ax
x
e ,
< x <
ex
loga x, a > 0, a 6= 1
x>0
1
log |x|
x 6= 0
x
sin(x)
< x <
cos(x)
cos(x)
< x <
sin(x)
1
2
tan(x)
< x < ,
cos2 (x) = 1 + tan (x)

x 6= (2k + 1) 2 , k Z,
< x <
cosh(x)
sinh(x)
cosh(x)
< x <
sinh(x)
1
= 1 tanh2 (x)
tanh(x)
< x <
2
cosh (x)
1
Arcsin(x)
1 < x < 1
1x2
1
1 < x < 1
1x
Arccos(x)
2
1
< x <
Arctan(x)
1+x2
1
< x <
Arcsinh(x)
1+x2
1
x>1
Arccosh(x)
x2 1
1
Arctanh(x)
1 < x < 1
1x2
. ,
84

4.4
.

ax2 + bx + c

log(x + a2 + x2 )
Arcsinh(1/x)
log | tan( x2 )|
|x|a
Arcsin( xa )

2
a
x
x
2
2
2 Arcsin( a ) + a2 a x

ax2 + bx + c > 0
< x <
x>1
x R, x 6= k, k Z
x 6= 0
|x| < a
|x| < a

2ax+b
2 ax2 +bx+c
1
a2 +x2
xx12 1
1
sin x
a2

ax|x|
1

a2 x2
a2 x2

. log |x|
.
( , ,
) .

=2=1
,
= 1/2
,
1
=0
:

x<0
0
xa x > 0 a 0, b R.
f (x) =

b
x=0
4.20

limx0 f (x) = 0 b 6= 0 .
a 6= 0 limx0+ f (x) = 0 b = 0,
0.
a = 0, limx0+ x0 = 1
. b = 1 .

0. b 6= 0 D f (0) = + b > 0 D f (0) = b < 0
f (x) f (0)
b
=
+, x 0 ,
x0
x
b > 0 xb , x 0 b < 0.
b = 0 D f (0) = 1 (). b = 0 a 6= 0,
D+ f (0) = axa1 |x=0 = 0 a > 1

D+ f (0) = + a < 1,
85

4.

f (x) f (0)
xa
=
= xa1 +, x 0+ , a < 1.
x0
x

b = 0 a > 1, f (x)
0. ,
a > 1 f (x), x > 0,
x.
a 0. ( f .)
a > 2 a > 1
f :

0
x0

f (x) =
axa1 x > 0

f (x) = ag(x), g(x) =

0
xa1

x0
.
x>0

a > 2, a 1 > 1, g ( 0)
f .
.
:
: f (x) < x < ,
1 x < 0, 3
x > 0 .

( ) f (x) x.
f . f (x) = a0 +
a1 x + a2 x2 + a3 x3 , x > 0,
f (0) = 1, f (0) = f (0) = 0 (; )

a0 = 1, a0 = 2a2 = 0,

f (x) =

1
1 + x3

x<0
x 0,

(
).

. ,
, .
,
.
86

4.5
( ).
.
.
1 4.2.1 ;;
x(t) < t < , -
cos(kt) x (t) + kx(t) = 0 x(0) = 1,
x (0) = 0

4.5
1.
.
() x(t) = cos kt + y(t) y(t)
y (t) + k 2 y(t) = 0, < t < ,
y(0) = y (0) = 0.
() x (t)+ k 2 x(t) = 0, < t < ,

2

2
x (t) + k 2 x(t) .

() () () .
() () ;

2. () f [, ],
(, ) limx f (x) D+ f ()
.
() limx+ f (x)
( D+ f ()
limx+ f (x)).
3. () f (x0 ) = +, x0
f ;
.

() f (x), < x < D+ f (x0 ) =

+, D f (x0 ) = x0 (, ).

4. f (x), g(x) , f (x) = (x)k g(x), k N, g(a) 6= 0

k a f (x).
k > 1 f (k1) (x).
Pk

k
(x) f (0) (x)
5. (f g)(k) (x) =
=0 f (x)g
f (x) f g
k .
6. f (x), < x < , A, B R.
y = Ax + B , x f
limx {f (x) (Ax + B)} = 0.
87

4.
()
f (x) =
x2 + 1, x > 0.
() x .
() x = A
f ; x = 0
f (x) = 1/x tan x.
() :
esin

, x R,

(log x)(log x) , x > 0,

xx , x > 0,

x(x ) , x > 0.

() f x = 0
g (0) .
i. : f + g
x = 0; , .
ii. , :
(f g) x = 0.
() f (0, ) limx f (x) = 0.
limx {f (x + 1) f (x 1)} = 0.
() y = x2 + 1
(0, 0). x
(1, 2);
() (xn , 0), (0, yn )
y = x3 (n, n3 ), n N. lim xn , lim yn .
() ( 85).
() (a, a) :
f (x) = (sin x)(cos x) (a, a).
f .
() f1 (x), . . . , fn (x)
n (, ).


 f1 (x)
...
fn (x) 


 f1 (x)
...
fn (x) 

W (x) = 
..
..



.
...
.

 (n1)
(n1)
 f
(x) 
(x) . . . fn
1

( g ()(x)

...
fn (x)
 f1 (x)

...
fn (x)
 f1 (x)

..
..
dW

=
.
...
.
 (n1)
dx
(n1)
 f
(x)
.
.
.
f
(x)
n
 1
(n)
 f (n) (x)
...
fn (x)
1
88

g).






.





4.5
: W (x) Wronski
.
() (
) (, , , . . . ) f , g, h, q
i. f (1) = 0, f (2) = 1, f (1) > 0.
ii. g(1) = 0, g(2) = 1, g (1) < 0.
iii. h(k) = 0, k Z, |h(x)| < 1/2, x R, h(1/2) 6= 0.
iv. q(0) = 0, q(3) = 1, q (1) = 0 q
[0, 3].
() i. , , :
r

n
x o
1+x
x1
.
,
arccot
,
log tanh1 tan
x+1
1x
2
ii. :

2

.
ex log x,
e2x sin 3x +
6

() :
i. cosh(x + y) = cosh x cosh y + sinh x sinh y,
ii. sinh(2x) = 2 sinh x cosh x,
2 tanh x
iii. tanh(2x) = 1+tanh
2 x,


1
x
iv. 8 + 32 sinh(4x) = (sinh x cosh x)2 .

() f (x) = (x 1)(x 2)(x 3)(x 4), f (x)

.

() ex = 1 + x .
;
() 4.4.8 ( 66).
()
1
1
+ +
.
n = 1 +
(2!)2
(n!)2
n .
()

i. tan x = x
Ik = (k /2, k +
/2) k Z.
ii. ak Ik , k = 1, 2, . . .. ,
, lim(ak+1 ak )
.

() M A O
1 m/sec. OA 1 m. B
N
M ( 4.21).
89

4.
A
N
M
/2
B

4.21
() : f
I, f j I .

90

KEFALAIO

Riemann
. , ,
( 4.2). ,
, . .
,
,
.
, Newton,
.
Riemann ( )
, ,
.

5.1
5.1
A
A 1.
1 (
)
(, , ,. . . )
.
.
,
,

5. Riemann
.
( 5.1).

v
11

E =42=8

1 + 2 = ,
E = 21 (1 v1 ) + 12 (2 v2 ) = 21 v.
5.1

.
, vn
n
B
2n . , E


 :
vn
A n n 1
0
1
n
vn n + ( vn )n .
2 vn n < E < 2
2
2
12 2n vn n ( 2n + 1

2n
AB) E.
5.2

1
0 < E 2n vn n < 2n ( vn )n = ( vn ) sn < ( vn ) s
2
sn s .
( vn ) 0,
1
1
vn (2n n ) = vn sn E,
2
2
n . vn sn s
( ),
E = s/2.

. ,

f .
92

5.1

5.3

. f

{(x, y) : x 0 y f (x)}.
R
f (t) dt
f [, ].
. .
Riemann-.
.
, ,

.

.

5.1
5.1.1 () OAB f (x) = x2 , x x = 1 1/3
OAB.
: [0, 1] [x0 , x1 ), [x1, x2 ) ,
. . . , [xn1 , xn ] x0 , x1 , x2 , . . . , xn 0 = x0 < x1 <
x2 < < xn1 < xn = 1 [xk , xk+1 ] x2k x2
x2k+1 x [xk , xk+1 ]

[xk , xk+1 ] x2k
x2k+1 . E ,
:
n1
n1
X
X
(xk1 xk ) x2k < <
(xk1 xk ) x2k+1
k=0

k=0

93

5. Riemann
.
x0 , x1 , . . . , xn [0, 1] .
y = x2

[0, 1]

1
B
, E,
. supremum .
:Z
1

[0, 1] R1
0 x2 dx Darboux

x2 [0, 1]. (
Darboux

A
0

xk xk+1

x2 dx = sup ,

5.4

).
Darboux
Z1


x2 dx = inf : [0, 1]
0

x2 dx E

R1

Z1

x2 dx.

R1
x2 dx = 0 x2 dx.

R1 2
0 x dx Riemann x2 [0, 1].
,
Z 1
Z1
x2 dx
x2 dx ()
()

Z1
Z
2
0 x dx
0

x2 dx .

> 0 <
. .


1 2
n
= 0, , , . . . , = 1 ,
n n
n
n N,
=

n1
X
k=0

k+1 k

n
n

94

n1
k2
1 X 2
=
k ,
n2
n3
k=0

5.2 .

() =

n1
X
k=0

k+1 k

n
n

n1
n
(k + 1)2
1 X
1 X 2
2
=
(k
+
1)
=
k ,
n2
n3
n3
k=0

k=0

1
1 2
n = .
3
n
n

n > 1/ < .

:
n
X

k=0

k2 =

n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
( ),
6

1 n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
1 n(n + 1)(2n + 1) n2
3 <E< 3
,
n3
6
n
n
6

1
3







1
1
1
1
1
1
1+
1+
<E<
1+
1+
.
n
2n
n
3
n
2n

1/3 1/3 E
1/3, E = 1/3, .

5.2 .
5.2 Darboux.
,
Riemann, [a, b] (
0.)
.
= {x0 , x1 , . . . , xn }
a = x0 < x1 < < xn = b,
[a, b].

d() = max{x1 x0 , x2 x1 , . . . , xn xn1 }.

[a, b] D[a, b]
Dl, . , .
95

5. Riemann
.
, .
: , [a, b] .
.
.
f [a, b]
= {x0 , x1 , . . . , xn } [a, b]. [x0 , x1 ],
[x1 , x2 ], . . . , [xn2 , xn1 ], [xn1 , xn ] f
. mk Mk inf sup
,
mk = inf{f (x) : xk x xk+1 },
Mk = sup{f (x) : xk x xk+1 }, k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1.
f
:
n1
X
(f, ) =
(xk+1 xk )mk ,
k=0

(f, ) =

n1
X
k=0

(xk+1 xk )Mk .

(f, ) (f, ) . :
, D (f, ) (f, ).
(f, ) (f, ) (f, ) (f, )
(f, ) (f, ) (f, ) (f, ).
.

.
. = {x0 , x1 , . . . , xn } =
{x0 , . . . , xk , yk , xk+1 , . . . , xn }, yk
xk < yk < xk+1 .
mk
mk
Mk
Mk

=
=
=
=

inf{f (x) : xk x yk }
inf{f (x) : yk x xk+1 }
sup{f (x) : xk x yk }
sup{f (x) : yk x xk+1 },

:
(f, ) (f, ) = mk (yk xk ) + mk (xk+1 yk ) mk (xk+1 xk )
= (mk mk )(yk xk ) + (mk mk )(xk+1 yk ) 0,
96

5.2 .
mk mk mk > mk , (f, ) (f, ).
(f, ) (f, ).
,

f 0. (f, )
(f, )
( 50)
y
M2

M1

m1

M3

K
m2

N m3

A
0

B
a = x0

x1

x2

x3 =

(f, ) = (x1 x0 )M1 + (x2 x1 )M2 + (x3 x2 )M3 = (ABEZHBA)

(f, ) = (x1 x0 )m1 + (x2 x1 )m2 + (x3 x2 )m3 = (AIKMNBA)
5.5
{(f, ) : }
, (f, ) . supremum ( ). Rb
Rb
f
f (x)dx Darboux f

a
a
[a, b].


(f, ) :
, (f, ) .
Rb
infimum . a f
Rb
a f (x)dx Darboux f [a, b].
Riemann
.
97

5. Riemann
5.2.1 (Darboux) f ,
Rb
Rb
[a, b], Riemann [a, b], a f =
f.
a R
b
Riemann f a f
Rb
a f (x)dx.

Riemann
f .

5.2.2 f [a, b]
Riemann , > 0
([a, b])
(f, ) (f, ) < .
: f Riemann ,

f, + >
2

f=
a

f > (f. ) ,
2
a

, , (;). =
, ,
(f, ) > (f, ), (f, ) < (f, )

> (f, ) ,
2
2

(f, ) +

(f, ) (f, ) < .

, > 0
(f, ) (f, ) < ,
(f, )

b
a

b
a

b
a

f (f, )

b
a

f (f, ) (f, ) <

f=
a

f.
a

2
,
Riemann .
98

5.3 Riemann
Dirichlet [0, 1],


1 x [0, 1]
f (x) =
0 x [0, 1]
Riemann .
, = {0 = x0 < x1 < < xn = 1}
[0, 1] Mk = 1 mk = 0, [xk , xk+1 ]
. :
(f, ) =

n1
X
k=0

(f, ) =

n1
X
k=0

R1
0

f =0<1=

R1
0

(xk+1 xk ) 0 = 0

(xk+1 xk ) 1 = 0

f , f .

5.3 Riemann
.
f 0
[a, b], .
= { = x0 < x1 < < xn = }
= {0 , . . . , n1 } xk k xk+1 k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1

X

(f, , ) =

n1
X
k=0

(xk+1 xk )f (k ).

d (

P
d = max{x1 x0 , . . . , xn xn1 }) 0, (f, , )
.
R
f :

Z
X
(f, , ).
f = lim

d0

.

P P
(f, , )
limd0 (f, , ). ,
P d . (f, , )
, , n x0 , x1 , . . . , xn
= {0 , 1 , . . . , n1 }, n .
99

5. Riemann
, 0 , 1 , . . . , n1 x0 , . . . , xn ,
xk k xk+1 .
( , Moore-Smith), .
,
,
P
limd0 (f, , ). :

5.3.1 (Riemann) f
[, ], , I
R
f f [, ],
> 0 > 0 :
= { = x0 < x1 < < xn = }
= {0 , . . . , n1 } xk k xk+1 k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1
: () = d <

Z 
X


f  < .
 (f, , )



Riemann
.
Darboux, , .

5.4


.

5.4
f [, ].
[, ] n ,
=




, +
,..., + k
,..., + n
= .
n
n
n
100

5.4

(f, ) (f, )

n1
X

(xk+1 xk )(Mk mk )

k=0
n1
X
k=0

(xk+1 xk )(f (xk+1 ) f (xk ))

n1
X
(f (xk+1 ) f (xk ))
n
k=0

f () f () .
n

> 0. n

f () f () < .
n

( ) f () f ()
.
n>

5.4
f [, ] > 0.
D
n1
X
k=0

(xk+1 xk )(Mk mk ) < .

f , k , k [xk , xk+1 ]
Mk = f (k ), mk = f (k ).
f ,
(, ), f (x)
x (, ) |f (x)| M < x < M .

Mk mk = f (k ) f (k ) = (k k )f (k ),
k k k ,
Mk mk |k k |M |xk+1 xk |M d()M,
d() .
101

5. Riemann
d() <
(f, ) (f, )

n1
X
k=0

<
=
<

(M + 1)( ) ,

(xk+1 xk )(Mk mk )

n1
X

(xk+1 xk )M
( )(M + 1)
k=0

M ( )
( )(M + 1)
.

, f f
[, ].
:
> 0 > 0 x1 , x2
f
|x1 x2 | < |f (x1 ) f (x2 )| < .

. .
5.4.1 f [, ],
, > 0 > 0
: x, y [, ] |x y| < |f (x) f (y)| < .

.
, . ,
, , , ,
[, ]
.

.
,
.

5.5 Riemann
,

,
102

5.5 Riemann
. , ,
, .
,
( , , . . . ).
.

, Mk , mk , .
R
(i) f (x) = c = x , f = c( ).
, Mk = mk = c
(f, ) =

n1
X
k=0

(f, ) =

n1
X
k=0

f=

(xk+1 xk )c = c( )

(xk+1 xk )c = c( )

= c( )

(ii) f f [, ], f + g
:
Z

(f + g) =

f+

mk , Mk inf sup f + g [xk , xk+1 ],

mk , Mk f mk , Mk g . x
[xk , xk+1 ] :
f (x) + g(x) Mk + Mk
Mk +Mk f +g [xk , xk+1 ],
supremum f +g . : Mk Mk + Mk mk mk + mk .
(xk+1 xk )
k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1, :
X
(mk + mk )(xk+1 xk )
(f, ) + (g, ) =
X

mk (xk+1 xk )
=

(f + g, ) (f + g, )
X
Mk (xk+1 xk )
X
(Mk + Mk )(xk+1 xk )
(f, ) + (g, ).

103

5. Riemann

((f, ) + (g, )) (f + g, )


(f + g, ) (f, ) + (g, ) .

0 (f +g, )(f +g, ) (f, ) (f, ) + (g, ) (g, ) .

> 0.
1 , 2

0 (f, 1 ) (f, 1 ) <

2

0 (g, 2 ) (g, 2 ) < .

2
= 1 2 1 , 2 ,
1 , 2
(;).
:
0 (f + g, ) (f + g, ) <
f + g .

Z

(f + g) =

f+

g.

> 0.
(f, ) + (g, ) (f + g, )
Z b
(f + g) (f + g, ) (f, ) + (g, )

Rb
([a, b]). a f = inf (f, ) 1

Z b

(f, 1 ) <
f + ;
2
a
2
Z b

(g, 2 ) <
g+ .
2
a

1 , 2
Z b
Z b
(f, ) + (g, ) <
f+
g + .
a

104

5.5 Riemann

(f, ) + (g, ) <

f+

(
;)
:
Z b
Z b
Z b
Z b
Z
f+
g<
(f + g) <
f+
a

g + ,

,
Z b
Z b
Z b
(f + g) =
f+
g.
a

: Riemann, :
(f + g, , ) = (f, , ) + (g, , ).

.
(iii) f [a, b] , f

Z b
Z b
f =
f.
a

.
(iv) f, g [a, b] , ,
f + g
Z b
Z b
Z b
(f + g) =
f +
g.
a

: (ii) (iii).

(v) a < c < b, f [a, b]

[a, c] [c, b].
Z

f=

105

f+

f.
c

5. Riemann
: f [a, c]
[c, b]. > 0. 1 ([a, c]) 2 ([c, b])

Z c
(f, 1 )

f (f, 1 )

(f, 1 ) (f, 1 ) <

(f, 2 )

,
2

f (f, 2 )

(f, 2 ) (f, 2 ) <

.
2

,
(f, ) = (f, 1 ) + (f, 2 )

(f, ) = (f, 1 ) + (f, 2 )

= 1 2 ([a, b]) 1 , 2 .
:

(f, )

f+

f (f, )

(f, ) (f, ) = (f, 1 ) (f, 1 ) +


+ (f, 2 ) (f, 2 ) < + = .
2 2

Z b
(f, )
f (f, ).
a

:
Z
Z c
Z b !
 b


f+
f  (f, ) (f, ) < ,
 f
 a

a
c

f=

f+

a
b

=
a

f.

f+

f.
c

. 2
106

5.5 Riemann
(vi) [a, b] f ,
f (x) = g(x) x [a, b] x = x0
Z

f=

g.

f ( ).
: h = f g 0
[a, b] x0 . , (iv)
Rb
= 1 = 1 a h = 0. h(x0 ) = 0 (i). h(x0 ) 6= 0
> 0. d() < /(2|h(x0 )|).
(h, ) (h, )

d()|h(x0 )| < /2.

< (h, )

b
a

Rb

b
a

h (h, ) < ,

h 0.

(vii) m f M , a qx b f ,
m(b a)

f M (b a).

:
(f, ) =

n1
X
k=0

(f, ) =

(xk+1 xk )Mk M

n1
X
k=0

n1
X
k=0

(xk+1 xk )mk m

(xk+1 xk ) = M (b a).

n1
X
k=0

(xk+1 xk ) = m(b a)

(viii) f (x) g(x), a x b f, g [a, b]

Z

107

g.

5. Riemann
Rb
: a h 0 h
h(x) 0, a x b (;).
h(x) 0 mk 0, (h, ) 0
.
2
(ix)

Z

 b  Z b


|f |,
f

 a 
a

f [a, b].

: .
.

|f (x)| f (x) |f (x)| a x b,

(ii) (viii)
Z b
Z b
Z b

|f |
f
|f |,
a

Z

 b  Z b


f
|f |.

 a 
a

;
f |f |. . (:
Mk mk |f |
f .)
2
Rb
(x) . a f (x)dx a < b.
a = b a < b.
:
5.5.1 a = b f a
Z a
f = 0.
a

a > b f [b, a],

Z a
Z b
f =
f.
a

.
a > b f, g [b, a],
Z b
Z a
Z a
Z a
Z b
Z b
(f + g) =
(f + g) =
f
g=
f+
g.
a

,
108

5.5 Riemann

5.5 .

, .
. Newton Leibniz.
.
f [, ].
f 0,
,
.
Rx
( (v)) < x < f .
R x
f x .
H

x x+h

5.6
Rx
f , F (x),
[, ],
Z x
F (x) =
f,
x .

. F (x + h) F (x)
5.6.

h M , M |f |, |f (x)| < M ,
x , 0 h.
R x :
f [, ] F (x) = f
[, ]. . :
Z
Z x0  Z x0 +h 
 x0 +h

 

|F (x0 + h) F (x0 )| = 
f = 
f
f  M |h|





x0
109

5. Riemann

= .
M
, F ,
|F (x + h) F (x)| |h|

|F (x0 + h) F (x0 )| M |h|.

|F (x + h) F (x)| < M

Lipschitz , .
x0
F x0 .
.
.

1, x0 x <
f (x) =
0, x < x0 .
f [, ] (;)

Z x
0,
x x0
F (x) =
f=
x

x
,

x0 x ,
0

(;). (
5.7).
f
F

x0 x

x0 x

5.7
F (x) F

F x0 (F (x+
0 ) = 1, F (x0 ) = 0).
x 6= x0

0,
x < x0
F (x) =
1,
x0 < x ,

x 6= x0 F f (x).
.
5.5.2 f
[, ] x0
Rx
[, ] F (x) = f , x ,
x0 f (x0 ).
110

5.5 Riemann
x0 = (x0 = )
().
: < x0 <
|h| < min{ x0 , x0 } x0 + h (, ). x0 =
x0 = .
5.8.
y
f
F (x0 + h) F (x0 ) f (x0 ) h

f (x0 ) h

x0

x0 + h

5.8
F (x0 ) = f (x0 ) :


F (x0 + h) F (x0 )
lim
f (x0 ) = 0.
h0
h
h > 0. :


 F (x0 + h) F (x0 )




f
(x
)
0 

h

 nR
o
Rx
x +h


=  h1 0 f 0 f hf (x0 ) 
n R
o
R x +h
x +h


=  h1 x00 f x00 f (x0 ) 

 R

 x +h
=  h1 x00 (f f (x0 ))
R x +h
h1 x00 |f f (x0 )|.

> 0. f x0 > 0
|h| < |f (x)f (x0 )| < . |h| < , |f (x)f (x0 )| <
x0 x x0 + h, 0 < h <


Z
 F (x0 + h) F (x0 )
 1 x0 +h
1



f
(x
)

|f f (x0 )| < h = ,
0 

h
h x0
h
111

5. Riemann

F (x+
0 ) = f (x0 ). F (x0 ) =

f (x0 ) F (x0 ) = f (x0 ). ( . h > 0;)

2

.
f [, ]
x [, ]. G
[, ], (, ), [, ],
G (x) = f (x), < x < .
f ( R ).
x
F (x) = f
f . F (x) G(x) (, )
( ) [, ]. R

F (x) G(x) = c, x . x = 0 F () = f = 0
c = G() :
Z
x

F (x) = G(x) G() =

F () =

f = G() G().

:
5.5.3 G f , x ,
R
f = G() G().

G (, ) < < <

, , .
G1 (x) G2 (x) f G2 (x) G1 (x)
, .

R
, ( ,
).
R ,
R
f f (x) dx f
f ( ).
R
R
f = G() G() f = G(x)| ,
G(x)| G() G().
,
( ). .
,
R
f .
112

5.6
Z
Z
Z

xn+1
+ c,
x dx =
n+1

n 6= 1, n Z

x+1
+ c,
+1

n R, 6= 1

x dx =

sin x dx = cos x + c

dx
1 x2

Z
Z

ex dx = ex + c

= Arcsin x + c
= Arccos x +


2

+c

cosh x dx = sinh x + c

1
dx = log |x| + c
x
x dx =

x
+ c,
log

>0

cos x dx = sin x + c

1
= tan x + c
cos2 x

1
dx = Arctan x + c
1 + x2

sinh x dx = cosh x + c

1
dx = tanh x + c
cosh2 x
5.1

. c , , . x ( ,
, ).

5.6
.
,

. , , R (F
R +G)
R = F +G
, , (f + g) = f + g.
: f (x) = 0 + 1 x + + n xn ,
Z

f = c + 0 x + 1

x2
xn+1
+ + n
.
2
n+1

( )
113

5. Riemann
. ( ) .

5.6
F (x) f , < x <
, F (x) = f (x) x (, ) g(y) < y <
g(y) (, ) < y < ,
F (g(y))
( ):





F g(y)
= F g(y) g (y) = f (g(y))g (y),

< y < . F (g(y))

f (g(y))g (y). :
Z
Z


f g(y) g (y)dy = f (x) dx.
, ,
y x
, x g(y).

5.6.1 R
f (x) dx x g(y) R dx dg(y) = g (y)dy. dx f (x) dx
,P xk = xk+1 xk

f (xk )(xk+1 xk ) Riemann.

.

R
(i) (2x + 3)3 dx. 2x + 3 = y x = (y 3)/2
Z
Z
1
1 y4
(2x + 3)4
(2x + 3)3 dx = y 3 dy =
+C =
+ C.
2
2 4
8
R
(ii) cos3 x dx. , ,
.

. .

cos3 x = cos2 x cos x = (1 sin2 x)(sin x)
, sin x = y:
Z
Z
sin3 x
y3
= c + sin x
.
cos3 x dx = (1 y 2 )dy = c + y
3
3
114

5.6
(iii)
Z

xe

x2

Z
Z
2
1
1
x2
=
(2x)e
dx =
(x2 ) ex dx
2
2
Z
ey
1
y
e dy = c
=
2
2

dx

ex
= c
.
2

(iv)

dx
(x )m
Z

m = 1, 2, . . .

dx
(x )m

=
=

(v)

x+
x2 +x+

(x )m (x ) dx
y m dy

c + log |y| = c + log |x |,

m+1
(x )(m+1)
y
=
,
m + 1
m + 1

m = 1
m 6= 1.

dx, = 2 4 = 4k 2 < 0.

x +
dx =
2
x + x +

(x + 2 ) +

dx

dx

(x + 2 )2 +

2
4 2
4

2(x + 2 )
(x + 2 )2 +

4 2
4

Z

dx

+
2
(x + 2 )2 +

4 2
4

k 2 = (4 2 )/4 (= /4 > 0):
I1

((x + 2 )2 + k 2 ) dx
2
2
(x + 2 )2 + k 2
(x + 2 ) + 4
4


Z


dy
2
2

=
+k 
= c + log |y| = c + log  x +
y
2

2(x + 2 ) dx

= c + log |x2 + x + |.
115

5. Riemann

I2

=
=
=

dx
(x +
Z

2
2)

4 2
4

dx
(x +

2
2)

+ k2

Z
( k1 (x + 2 )) dx
dx
1
1
=
k2
k
{ k1 (x + 2 )}2 + 1
{ k1 (x + 2 )}2 + 1
Z
1
dy
1
= c + Arctan y
2
k
y +1
k
x + 2
1
Arctan p
.
c+ p
4 2
4 2

5.7

(f g) = f g + f g
:
Z
Z

f (x)g (x) dx = f (x)g(x) f (x)g(x).

:
Z
Z
f dg = f g gdf,

.

R2
(i) 1 log x dx. log x :
Z
Z
Z

log x dx =
(x) log x dx = x log x x(log x) dx
Z
1
= x log x x dx = x log x x + c
x
:
Z 2
2
4
log x dx = (x log x x)1 = 2 log 2 2 + 1 = 1 + log 4 = log .
e
1

, , :
Z 2
Z 2
Z 2
1

2
log x dx =
(x) log x dx = x log x|1
x dx
x
1
1
1
= 2 log 2 1 log 1 (2 1) = 1 + log 4
4
= log .
e
116

5.7
(ii)
Z

x2 cos x dx

=
=
=

(iii)

Z
x2 (sin x) dx = x2 sin x 2x sin x dx
Z
x2 sin x + 2x cos x 2 cos x dx

x2 sin x + 2x cos x 2 sin x + c.

(x+)
(x2 +x+)

dx, = 2 4 = k 2 < 0, = 2, 3, . . ..
v ( 115)
Z

a
2

(x + )
dx =
2
(x + x + )

2(x + 2 )
dx
(x2 + x + )
Z

dx

.
+
2
2
(x + x + )

I1

=
=
=

I2

=
=

Z
2(x + 2 )
(x2 + x + ) dx
dx
=
(x2 + x + )
(x2 + x + )
Z
dy
y +1
=c+

y
+ 1
1
1
c
.
1 (x2 + x + )1

dx
=
2
{(x + 2 ) + k 2 }
Z
dy
12
.
k
(y 2 + 1)

x+ 2
k ) dx

x+
k 2 {( k 2 )2 + 1}

k(

dy
(y 2 + 1)

y (x + /2)/k.
, I , I1 .
R dy
1 I1 = 1+y
2
117

5. Riemann
(= Arctan y + c). :
Z
Z
dy
1 + y2 y2
I =
=
dy
(1 + y 2 )
(1 + y 2 )
=

dy

(1 + y 2 )1

= I1

1
2

y2
1
dy = I1
2

(1 + y )
2

1
(1 + y 2 )
dy = I1
2

(1 + y )
2

2y
dy
(1 + y 2 )

y(1 + y 2 ) (1 + y 2 ) dy

Z
1
y{(1 + y 2 )(1) } dy
2( 1)


Z
1
dy
y
= I1 +

2( 1) (1 + y 2 )1
(1 + y 2 )1
= I1 +

y
1
2 3
.
I1 +
2 2
2( 1) (1 + y 2 )1

I I1 .
.
5.7.1 (iv) (v), 115, (iii), 117,
.

5.8 .

P (x)/Q(x),
P (x), Q(x) Q :
Q(x) = (x 1 )n1 (x k )nk (x2 + 1 x + 1 )m1 (x2 + x + )m ,
1 , . . . , R, n1 , . . . , m N 2 42 < 0 1 .
5.8.1
. ,

. .
,
(x2 + x + )m . ,
. ,
118

5.8 .
. , , (
), 3
( 1 2
).

3 .
f (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + a3 x3 , a3 6= 0,
f () = 0,
f (x) = f (x) f () = a1 (x ) + a2 (x2 2 ) + a3 (x3 3 ) =


a1
a2
2
2
=
a3 (x ) x + x + + (x + ) +
a3
a3





a2
a2
a1
a3 (x ) x2 + +
x + 2 + +
,
a3
a3
a3

f (x)
. ,
.
P (x)/Q(x)
Q ( )
.
5.8.2 x 1 , . . . , x k ,
x2 +1 x+1 , . . . , x2 + x+ , 2
4 = 1, . . . , n1 , . . . , nk , m1 , . . . , m ,
m
m
1
1
A11 , . . . , An1 1 ; . . . ; A1k , . . . , Ank k ; 11 , . . . , m
1 ; . . . ; ; 1 , . . . ,

An1 1
A11
P (x)
+ +
+
=
Q(x)
x 1
(x 1 )n1
++
+

Ank k
A1k
+ +
+
x 1
(x k )nk

m1
1
m
11 x + 11
1 x + 1
+
+

+
(x2 + 1 x + 1 )
(x2 + 1 x + 1 )m1

m x + m
1 x + 1

+ + 2
,
+ x + )
(x + x + )m

(x2

P, Q P
Q
Q(x) = (x 1 )n1 (x k )nk (x2 + 1 x + 1 )m1 (x2 + x + )m .
119

5. Riemann
5.8.3 P (x) = (x)Q(x) + y(x),
y(x) Q(x),
y(x)
P (x)
= (x) +
Q(x)
Q(x)
P
Q .
:

, A11 , . . . , m

.
n1 + n2 + + 2m1 +
+ 2m = N Q. N = 1 .
N > 1.
,

P (x)
P (x) An1 1 Q1 (x)
A1n1 1
=

,
Q(x) x 1 )n1
Q(x)
Q1 (x)

Q(x)
(x1 )n1 ,
B(x)
Q2 (x)

Q(x)

B, Q2 , Q2 (x) = x

1
B Q2 (;). An1 1
, , :
P (x) An1 1 Q1 (x) x 1 ,

P (1 ) An1 1 Q1 (1 ) = 0.
An1 1
Q1 (1 ) 6= 0 (;).
m1
1
m
1 , 1 . :
m1
1
1
P (x) (m
m1 x + m
P (x)
1 x + 1 )Q1 (x)
1
=
2 1
,
Q(x) (x + 1 x + 1 )m1
Q(x)
m1
1
, m
Q1 (x) (x2 +Q(x)
m . 1
1 ,
1 x+1 )
, :
m1
2
1
P (x) (m
1 x + 1 )Q1 (x) x +
1 x + 1 .
1 x + 2 , q1 x + q2 P, Q1
x2 + 1 x + 1
B :
m1
2
1
(m
1 x + 1 )(q1 x + q2 ) (1 x + 2 ) = B(x + 1 x + 1 )

120

5.8 .
:
m1
1
q1 m
1 + 0 1 B = 0,
m1
1
q2 m
1 + q1 1 1 B = 1 ,
m1
1
0 m
1 + q2 1 1 B = 2 .


 q1 0

D =  q2 q1
 0 q2

m1
1
m

1 , 1

1 
1  = 1 q12 + 1 q1 q2 q22 ,
1 

6= 0. q1 = q2 = 0
x2 + 1 x + 1 ,
Q1 (x) = (x2 +Q(x)
m
1 x+1 ) 1
. . (
x2 + 1 x + 1 ( 1
), 12 41 < 0, Q1
.
).
q2 6= 0.
(  
)
 
2
q1
q1
+1 ,
D = q2 1
1
q2
q2
12 41 < 0 D 6= 0.
P (x)

Q(x)

A
(x)m

x+
(x2 +x+)m ,

, B(x) QB(x)
2 (x)
Q2 (x) N .
.
2
5.8.4 , (;).
:

dx
(x1)2 (x+1)(x2 +1) .

A
B
x + E
+
=
+
+ 2
.
(x 1)2 (x + 1)(x2 + 1)
x 1 (x 1)2
x+1
x +1
A, B, , , E ,
,
.
:

A
B
x + E
1
+
=
+
+ 2
=
(x 1)2 (x + 1)(x2 + 1)
x 1 (x 1)2
x+1
x +1
121

5. Riemann
A(x 1)(x + 1)(x2 + 1) + B(x + 1)(x2 + 1) + (x 1)2 (x2 + 1) + (x + E)(x + 1)(x 1)2
,
(x 1)2 (x + 1)(x2 + 1)

1 = (A++)x4 +(B2+E)x3 +(B+2E)x2 +(B2+E)x+(A+B++E),

A++= 0
B 2 E = 0
B + 2 E = 0
B 2 + E = 0
A + B + + E = 1

3
1
1
1
1
A= , B= , = , = , E= .
8
4
8
4
4
, (x k )mk
P (x)/Q(x) (x k )mk x = k .
, , (x 1)2 1
1
x = 1 : B = (1+1)(1
2 +1) = 4 . x + 1
1
1
1
x = 1, = (11)2 ((1)
2 +1) = 42 = 8 .
1
(x1)2 (x+1)(x
2 +1)
.
Z
dx
(x 1)2 (x + 1)(x2 + 1)
Z
Z
Z
Z
dx
dx
1
dx
x+1
1
1
3
+
+
+
dx
=
2
8
x1 4
(x 1)
8
x+1 4
x2 + 1
Z
Z
3
dx
2x
1 1
1
1
1
= log |x 1|
+ log |x + 1| +
+
dx
8
4x1 8
4
x2 + 1 8
x2 + 1
3
1 1
1
1
1
= log |x 1|
+ log |x + 1| + Arctan(x) + log |x2 + 1| + c.
8
4x1 8
4
8

5.8
.
. .
R . P (x,y)
, P, Q
R(x, y) Q(x,y)
x, y.
R
(i) R(cos(x), sin(x))dx. tan x2 = y, (x = 2 Arctan(y)),
.
122

5.8 .
, :
cos(x) =

2y
2
1 y2
, sin(x) =
, (2 Arctan y) =
,
2
2
1+y
1+y
1 + y2



Z
1 y2
2y
1
R
,
dy,
1 + y2 1 + y2 1 + y2
. , ,
R .
R(cos(x), sin(x)) cos(x)R1 (cos(x), sin(x))
R1 (x, y)
R x,
y = sin(x) R(cos(x), sin(x))dx (;).
R dx
2y
:
sin(x) . y = tan(x/2), sin(x) = 1+y 2
:
Z
Z
dx
1 + y2
=
(Arctan(y)) dy =
sin(x)
2y
Z
dy
1 + y2 2
dy
=
= log |y| + c.
2
2y 1 + y
y
,
.
!
!
Z
Z
Z
1
dx
1
dx
1



=



dx =
=
sin(x)
2 cos2 x2
2 sin x2 cos x2
tan x2



Z

 x 
tan x2


dx = c + log tan
.
x
2
tan 2
R
R
(ii) R(ex )dx. ex = y R(y) dy
y .
.
R
: sinh2 (x)dx. y = ex , sinh(x) = 12 (y y1 )


2
Z
Z
1
dy
1
y
=
sinh2 (x) =
4
y
y
Z


Z
Z
Z 
1
dy
1
1
1
=
y2 + 2 2
dy =
y dy + y 3 dy 2
4
y
y
4
y


1 y2
y 2
+
2 log |y| + c =
4 2
2


1 1 2x
sinh(x) x
(e e2x ) 2x + c =
+ c.
4 2
4
2
123

5. Riemann

(iii)

 
1
1

ax+b n
ax+b n
dx, n N. y = cx+d
R x, cx+d

.
R
: xdx
. x 1 = y 2 ,
x1
Z

(iv)

dx

=
x x1

2ydy
= 2 Arctan y + c = 2 Arctan x 1 + c.
2
(1 + y )y

R(x, ax2 + bx + c)dx.

p R
n = 2 R(x, P (x))dx, P (x)
n. R
n = 1
. R(x, ax + b)dx
y 2 = ax + b. .

y 2 b
y 2 = ax+b,

x
=

R(x,
ax + b)
a
 2

R
y b
R
R(x, y)
a ,y

y2 b
,y
a



y2 b
a

dy =

y2 b
,y
a

2y
dy.
a

y 2 = ax + b
2
x : x = y ab . y 2 = ax2 R+ bx +
c
R(x, ax2 + bx + c)dx .
p
b b2 4(c y 2 )
x=
,
2a

Z
p
R(x, ax2 + bx + c) dx
=

!
p
b2 4(c y 2 )
,y
2a

!
p
b2 4(c y 2 )
dy,
2a

, .
a > 0.
, 18 L.
2
Euler,
2 . ax +bx+c =
x y (
(y + ax) .

ax):
c y2
,
x=
2 ay b
124

5.8 .
:
p
R(x, ax2 + bx + c) dx



Z
c y2
c y2
c y2

= R
,y + a
dy.
2 ay b
2 ay b
2 ay b
a < 0, ax2 + bx + c
1 , 2 , ( < 0 x) :
ax2 + bx + c = a(x 1 )(x 2 ) = (x 1 )2
y 2 =
x

a(x2 )
x1 ,
2
2 1 y
,
x = aay
2

Z
a2 1 y 2
,y
a y2

R(x,


p
ax2 + bx + c) =

a2 1 y 2
1
a y2

 

a(x 2 )
.
x 1

a2 1 y 2
a y2

dy.

,
(v) R
x2 + 1) dx
115,

R(x,

R
R
2
2
R(x, x 1) R(x, 1 x ).

R
R(x, x 1)

R
ex x = cosh(x) R(x, 1 x2 ) dx sin(y), cos(y)
x = sin(y).
:

() y = a2 x2 , Ra x a,
a
a. a a2 x2 dx,

1
2
2 a . . x = a sin(x), 2 t 2

Z ap
Z 2
2
2
a x dx =
a cos ta cos t dt =
a

a2

cos2 t dt,

cos2 t dt =

125

.
2

5. Riemann

(, 0)

(, 0)

5.9
:
Z

cos2 t dt =

1
2

1
2

2 cos2 t dt =

Z
1    1 2
(1 + cos(2t)) dt =
cos(2t)(2t) dt =
+

2
2
2
4

2
2

Z

1
1

+
cos(y) dy = + sin(y) = .
2
2
2
4
2

:
:
x = q(t), t
Z

q()

q()

f (x) dx =

f q(t) q (t) dt.

, ,

, f (x) f q(t) q (t).
, q f

Z
Z




f (x) dx = f q(t) q (t) dt
x = q(t) .

F (x)
G(t) F q(t) = G(t).
Z

q()

q()

f (x) dx = F q() F q() = G() G() =

f q(t) q (t) dt.

q ,
: t
126

5.8 .
x = q(t) , , q() q().
q , ,
R1
. 0 x dx. x = sin t,
0 t /2, ,
Z

x dx =

sin t cot t dt.

1
1
1
x2 
= 0= ,
2 0 2
2
Z /2
11
(sin t)(2t) dt
22 0
Z

1
1
sin y dy = cos y 0
4 0
4

 1
1
(1) (1) =
4
2

x dx

sin t cos t dt

/2

/2

=
=

x = sin t, 0 t 5/2 ( 0 t /2),

:
Z

x dx =

 Z
=

5/2

sin t cos t dt

/2

sin t cos t dt +

5/2

/2


sin t cos t dt .

R 5/2
/2 sin t cos t dt = 0
.
R
g (t) dt,

g()

= g() ( g(t) = F q(t) , g (t) = F q(t) q (t) =
f q(t) q (t)). 0,
Z

g (t) dt = g() g() = 0.

Z p
1 + x2 dx
()
127

5. Riemann
x = sinh y 1 + x2 = cosh2 y
Z p
Z
2
1 + x dx =
cosh y cosh y dy
=
=
=
=
=

Z 

ey + ey
2

2

1
dy =
4

e2y + e2y + 2 dy

Z
Z
1
1
y
2y
e dy +
e2y dy + + c
4
4
2
2y
2y
1e
y
1e

+ +c
4 2
4 2
2
1
y
sinh(2y) + + c
4
2


p
1 p
1
x 1 + x2 + log x + 1 + x2 + c.
2
2

Euler : 1 + x2 =
(y + x)2 x = (1 y 2 )/(2y),


1 y2
1 y2
dy
2y
2y
Z
Z
1 + y2 1 + y2
1
1 + 2y 2 + y 4
dy
=

=
2
2y
2y
4
y3
Z
1
=
(y 3 + 2y 1 + y) dy
4


y2
1 y 2
+c
+ 2 log |y|
=
4 2
2
 (1 + x2 x)2
p
1
1
1
2

=
1+x x
log
+c
8 ( 1 + x2 x)2
2
8

Z p
1 + x2 dx

Z 

y+

1 + x2 x.

; : !
( ).

5.9
p
R
R(x, p(x) dx p(x)
2, .
3 4 .

. N. Abel (
19 ).
, , 128

5.9
. 0

. g
0

A
( 10 m/sec2) l(cos cos 0 )
, ..).

mg
= (t). ,
5.10
,
= (t) , T
,
0 t T /2 T /2 t T .
,
.

2


1
d
= mg cos (t) cos 0 .
m
2
dt

d/dt < 0,
r
2g
d
=
(cos cos 0 )
dt

s 

2g

0
1 2 sin2 1 + 2 sin2
=

2
2
,
d
= 2
dt

s 

g
2 0
2
sin
.
sin

2
2

d
dt < 0 = (t)
t = t()
s
1
dt
1
q
=
,
d
2 g sin 0 1 k 2 sin2
2

0 < < 0 , k = 1/ sin(0 /2). t

Z
d
p
.
1 k 2 sin2
129

5. Riemann

Lagrange.
sin = y, :
Z
Z
cos d
d
p
p
=
2
1 k 2 sin
cos 1 k 2 sin2
Z
dy
p
=
,
(1 y 2 )(1 k 2 y 2 )

4 .

R(x,

p
p(x)) dx, p -

5.10
R
f (x) dx
, f R
f (x) dx,
.

.
.
1970
. p
,
( R(x, x2 + x + ), . . .)
. , ,
.


.
( macsyma)
Z
x dx
2
(x 1) (x + 1)(x2 + 1)
5.7. (
1 sec!)
(c5)

integrate(x/((x-1)^2*(x+1)*(x^2+1)),x);

(d5)

log(x2 +1) log(x+1) atan(x) log(x-1) 1

8
8
4
8
4x-4
130

5.11

5.11
Riemann
[, ].
( )
. :
5.11.1 (i) f [, ], <
R
lim+ f R
+ f .

(ii) f R [, ], <

lim f ,
R
f .
R
f f , < < ,
R
R
+ f + . (
R R
R
+ , , < < ,
+
R
+ f , < < .)

(iii)

R R
R R R
(iv) , + , , , . R
, f f
RM
[, M ], M > limM f ,
R
f .

R
, f
R
R
R
f , f , + f . < <
+
Z
Z  Z 



 
f  = 
f
f  ( )M,




M |f | [, ] (
f [, ]).
R
R
R
R
lim+ f = f , f = + f .
f
[, ] ( [, , ),
(, ], (, ), (, )).
(i) f
(ii) f .
131

5. Riemann


.

.
[, ),
. R

|f (t)| g(t), a t < , g ,

R
f , f [, M ],
M > .


R
: f (t) + g(t) dt. ,
0 f (t) + g(t) 2g(t), (M ) =
RM


f (t) + g(t) dt M

R
2 g (;).
lim

f (t) + g(t) dt,

(f + g). limM

Z M
Z M !
Z M
lim
(f + g)
g = lim
f,
M

RM

g(t) dt,

f .
2


R
R
R
( + f + + g = + (f + g) ..).
R
f
R
R
+ f f .
R1
: () 0+ xa dx. 0,
xa x = 0 ( a N,
).
a = 1 > 0
Z 1
1
1
dx
= log x  = log = log
x

0+ . . (
: .)
a 6= 1 > 0,
1
Z 1
a+1
1
xa+1 

=
xa dx =

a+1 a+1 a+1

132

5.11
1/(a + 1) a > 1,
( , ) a < 1.
R
() 1 xa dx. a = 1 M > 1
Z

M
a 6= 1,
Z M
1

R
1

M
dx
= log x 1 = log M
x
xa dx .

M
M a+1
1
xa+1 
=

x dx =

a+1 1
a+1
a+1
a

1/(a + 1) a < 1,
( a > 1.
5.11.2
. ,

Z
(sin x)x
dx
x2 + 1
1

. , x 1,


 (sin x)x 
1
x
2


 x2 + 1  x3 = x2 = x

2 < 1.
()

R
0+

xa dx a (;).

()
Euler , s > 0
:
Z
(s) =
ts1 et dt.
0

0 ts1 .
R1
R
0 ts1 et dt 1 ts1 et dt.
|ts1 et | ts1 (;)
(). ts1 et = (ts1 et/2 )et/2
ts1 et/2 [1, ),
M 0 ts1 et/2
M t 1.
R
1 M et/2 dt .
:
Z N
 N



M et/2 dt = M 2et/2  = M 2e1/2 2eN/2 2M e1/2 .
1

133

5. Riemann
f (t) = ts1 et/2 [1, ).
f (t) 0
1

f (t) = ts2 et/2 (s 1) t .
2

f (t) t 2(s 1) f (t)

t 2(s 1). f (t)
[1, 2(s 1)] |f (t)| A,
1 t 2(s 1). |f (t)| A t
t 1, .
5.11.3
n N tn et 0 n (;).
.

(s), s > 0.

Z
(s) =
ts1 et dt
0

(1) =


et dt = et 0 = 1.

( .

, , .)
, , :
Z
Z
s t
(s + 1) =
t e dt =
ts (et ) dt
0
0
Z

s t 
= t e  +s
ts1 et dt
0

= s(s)

( ).
, (s + 1) = s(s), (2) =
1 (1) = 1, (3) = 2(2) = 2, (4) = 3(3) = 3 2 1, . . .
( ) (n + 1) = n!, n N. (s)
s (s 1)!.

, , ..
.
.
134

5.12 log x
s0 > 0. :
Z
(s) (s0 ) =
(ts1 ts0 1 et dt
0
Z
t1 (log t)et dt
= (s s0 )
0

Z

(s) (s0 ) |s s0 | 

(log t)e



dt ,

, t, s0
s.
|s s0 | < s0 /2 ta
a
3

(log t)t 2 s0 1 et (log t)t1 et (log t)t 2 s0 1 et

t > 0 (;). R

0 ta1 et dt a > 0,
R a1
0 t
(log t)et dt ( ).
|s s0 | < s0 /2
    


3s0 
s0  

|(s) (s0 )| < |s s0 | A
,
+ A
2  
2 

A(a) =

et ta1 (log t) dt.

.
( ) () A(),
> 0; .

5.12 log x
, .
log x.
, .
:
Z x
dt
= log x log 1 = log x,
t
1
135

5. Riemann
x > 0, .
log x, ,
:
Z x
dt
,
log x =
t
1

x > 0.
[1, x] ( [x, 1] x < 1)
1/t ( ,
).
(log x) = 1/x x > 0 .
(log x) , log x
. ex
.
ex
(, ).

lim log x = +

x+

lim log x = .

x0+

, ( )
log

1
=
x

1/x

dt
=
t

d( y1 )
( y1 )

x 1 dy
y2
1
1
y

dy
.
y

log x + x +
M > 0. x0 x > x0 log x > M .
N = [M ] + 1 x0 = 22N +1 , x > x0 ,
log x > log x0 =

22N +1

dt
=
t

dt
+ +
t

22N +1

22N

dt
.
t

k = 1, 2, . . ., 2k y = t
Z

2k+1

2k

dt
=
t

2k dy
>
2k y

1
1
dy =
2
2

1 1
1
1
+ + + = 2N = N > M
2 2
2
2
limx+ log x = +.
ex > 0,
x = ex log .
log x >

136

5.12 log x
. , ,
.
x , x = 2 2 .
e2 log = 2 , (
ex log x) 2 log = log(2 ),
2

dt
=
t

dt
.
t

( y = t)
Z

dt
=
t

dt
+
t

dt
=
t

dt
+
t

dy
=2
y

dt
.
t

5.12.1 (;)
Z

f (x) dx =

f (y)dy.

f (x) dx,

x .

. , sin x
0

Z x
dt

1 t2
0
Arcsin x. (
.
sin x, sin x
(/2, /2).
. , 2.
137

5. Riemann

5.13
1. f [, ]
(, ) |f (x)| M < x < . :






f () + f +
+f +2
+
n =
n
n
n



+ f + (n 1)
.
n
() n ; ( f 0.)
R
() lim n = f .

() f [, ];
()


Z 


 M ( )2 1
f
n


2
n

R
5.13.1 () n f
. M
n R
f n . f (x) = sin2 (kx),
k N, = 0, = , n = k .

.
2. () f (x)
R (, ) () |f (x)| dx (R
R
) f (x) cos (xy) dx f (x) sin (xy) dx
y R. F ourier f
.
() f
> 0, f (x) = 0 |x| .
F ourier f , y,
0 y y .
R /2
3. In = 0 sinn x dx, n N.
() In =

n1
n In2

(: ).

() (3) :
I2n =

(2n 1)(2n 3) 1
2n(2n 2) 2
2
138

5.13

I2n+1 =

=2

2n(2n 2) 2
(2n + 1)(2n 1) 3

[2n(2n 2) 2]2
I2n
,
2
(2n + 1)[(2n 1)(2n 3) 3] I2n+1

n N.

() : sin 2n+1 x sin 2n x sin 2n1 x

(3) :
I2n
1
1
1+
I2n+1
2n
I2n /I2n+1 1 n .

() Wallis (
18 )
2 !

(2n 2)(2n 4) 2
.
= lim 4n
n
(2n 1)(2n 3) 3
Rn
1
1
4. () 1 dt
t |1 + 2 + + n log n| < 1.
1
1
n = 1 + 2 + + n log n .
(: 5.11
).
lim n y

( 0,5772156649 . . .)
Euler.
:
;

. , ,
1
n1 n
n+1
x ( ,
5.11
Euler ).
R n+1/2
() log(n!) 1
log x dx
n =

n!

1
nn+ 2

en

A, B
A < n < B.

R n+1/2 R 3/2 R 5/2
R n+1/2 
: 1
= 1 + 3/2 + + n1/2
139

5. Riemann

() : lim n = 2 ( Stirling).
n
Wallis

2n
2.
2n
5. f (x), ,
Ox
2.
f (x)

5.12
() :
V =

(f (x))2 dx

V . (
.)
()
, ,
, .
6.
x, f (x) = x4 (2, 16).
7. 0 1 ( limh0 m(x, h)/h,
m(x, h) [x, x + h]) (x), 0 x 1. R-. M1
M1, M2,
:
R1
M = 0 (x) dx.
140

5.13
M1, =
M2, =

R1
0

(x )(x) dx.

(x )2 (x) dx.

R1

() M1, , M2, ,
(x )(x) (x )2 (x) R-. (:
f, g R- f g R. f g = 14 [(f +
g)2 (f g)2 ] f R- f 2
R-. f 0 ,
, M f +M 0 f 2 = (f +M )2 M 2 2M f .
.)
() (x) 0 M 6= 0 = M1,0 /M
. M2, = M2,0 2 M .

() (x) = |x 1/2| (x) = sin x.

8. f R. :
Z
Z
Z
2
2
f (x ) dx = 2
f (x ) dx,
xf (x4 ) dx = 0,

/2

f (cos x) dx =

1
2

f (cos x) dx = k

f (cos x) dx

f (cos2 x) dx,

k Z, R.
9. :
1
x0 x sin x
lim

10.
lim x1 e2x

11.
( :

t2

dt = 1;
t+

e2t

p
1 + t2 dt.

sin x dx 1.

sin x + + sin kx =
x 6= 2k, k Z).
141

cos x2 cos(k + 12 x)
,
2 sin x2

5. Riemann
12.
0

4 2
sin t
dt +
.
t
4
2

R ; : sint t
. .
13. f [, ],
lim

(f (x) cos kx) dx = 0.

14. ,
:
Z
Z
dx
, (k Z)
(x + )3 dx
(x + )k
Z
Z

dx

x dx
x +
Z
Z
dx
dx

1 + 2 x
5 3x2
Z
Z
dx
tan2 x dx
sin x
Z
Z
x2 cos x dx
Arctan x dx
Z

log(3x) dx

dx

( 1 + x2 )3

p
x 2 + x2 dx

dx

2x + 3

p
e ex dx
x

3tanh x

dx
cosh2 x

142

x3 ex dx
ex 1
dx
ex + 1
dx
sin3 x
3x ex dx
x dx
cos2 x2
dx

x x2 2

5.13
Z

cos x dx
p
1 + sin2 x

dx
p
( x = sin2 t),
x(1 x)

x2 e3x dx

dx
x(x + 1)2
Z
3x + 5
dx
2
x + 2x + 2

ex sinh x dx
dx
+1

x4

x4
dx
x4 1

x2 dx

x2 x 1

x2 + 1
dx
(x2 4x + 5)2
dx

x x2 1

Z p
4
x2 (1 x2 dx

x2 dx
4 + 9x2

sin 3x dx
cos x

log cos x
dx
sin2 x

dx
(x + 2)2 (x + 3)2

Z 2
x 2
dx
x
Z
ln x
dx
x3
Z
x dx
sin2 x

x dx
1 2x2 x4

dx
2 + 3 cos2 x

cos(log x) dx

|x| dx

143

x sin2 x cos4 x dx
xex cos x dx
dx

3
( x2 3 x)2
5x dx

1 + x4
cos4 x dx

Arcsin x dx
x dx
sinh2 x

5. Riemann
Z

dx
sin x sin 2x

x dx
cos2 3x

2x
dx
2 4x

cos x dx
p
2 + sin2 x

sinh x cosh x dx

ex + 1 dx

144

KEFALAIO

.
.

6.1 --- de l Hospital

f (x) g(x)
(, ), (, ), g(x) g (x) x
(, ) (, ) limx f (x) = limx g(x) = 0.
limx f (x)/g(x), ,

lim

lim f (x)
0
f (x)
=
= .
g(x)
lim g(x)
0

,
de lHospital. ( 17 ).
6.1.1 ,
lim f (x)/g (x)

limx f (x)/g(x), .
+ .

6.
: :
f (x)
f (x) 0
f (x) f ()
(f (x) f ())/(x )
f (x)
=
=
=

g(x)
g(x) 0
g(x) g()
(g(x) g()(x )
g (x)
x . ,
.
f () = g() = 0 () f g
(;) (, ) (, ) (, ). :
f (x)
f (x)
= lim
.
x+ g(x)
x+ g (x)
lim

,
. f g ,
:
f (x) f ()
f (x)
=
g(x)
g(x) g()

Cauchy.
( ). : f (x)/g(x) = f ()/g (),
, < < x,
f (x)
,
x+ g (x)
lim

limx+ f (x)/g(x) ( ). (
) :
f (x)/g (x) () f (x)/g(x) ()
.
2
= + = .
6.1.2 f, g (, ), g(x) 6= 0
g (x) 6= 0 (, ), limx+ f (x) = limx+ g(x) = 0
lim f (x)/g (x)

, limx f (x)/g(x), .
: > 0.
f1 (x) = f (1/x), g1 (x) = g(1/x), 0 < x < 1/,
= 0.
2
:
(i) limx0 (sin x)/x (sin x) /x = (cos x)/1 1, x 0.
146

 de l hospital
(ii) (log x)/(x 1), x 1.
x1
(log x)
=
1, x 1
(x 1)
1
(log x)/(x 1) 1, x 1.
(iii) x2 sin(1/x)/sin x, x 0.
(x2 sin(1/x))
(sin x)

=
=

2x sin(1/x) + x2 (x2 ) cos(1/x)

cos x
1
1
1

cos .
2x sin(1/x)
cos x cos x
x

2x sin(1/x)/ cos(x)) 0 x 0,
cos(1/x)
cos x
(;), limx0 (x2 sin(1/x))/sin x.
, limx0 (x2 sin(1/x))/sin x,
,
 x 
1
(x2 sin(1/x))/sin x = x
sin 0, x 0
sin x
x
,

(x)
(x)
lim fg(x)
lim fg (x)
.
(iv)
: lim f (x) = lim g(x) = 0.
, , .
: (x + 5)/(x + 1) 5, x 0, (x + 5) /(x + 1) = 1/1
1, x 0.
(v) de lHospital
00 , ,
f (x)/g (x), f (x)/g (x) ...
:
1 cos x
, x 0.
x2

sin x (1 cos x)
cos x
1
(1 cos x)
=
,
=
, x 0,
2

(x )
2x
(x2 )
2
2
:
lim

x0

1 cos x
sin x
cos x
1
= lim
= lim
= ,
2
x0
x0
x
2x
2
2
147

6.
x 0.
lim f (x) = lim g(x) = .

xx0

xx0

. .
6.1.3 f , g , g (x) < 0 (a, ),
lim f (x) = lim g(x) = +,

xa+

xa+

limxa+ f (x)/g (x) , limxa+ f (x)/g(x)

. ( ,

(x)

, a = + a = , lim fg (x)
+ ).
: > 0 A = lim f (x)/g (x). ,
< < , < x f (x) > 0, g(x) > 0


 f (x)



 g (x) A < 2 .
Cauchy :

f ()
f (x) f ()
=
x < < ,
g(x) g()
g()

x < x < 1 (< ), 1

< x < 1 (< ) f (x) > f () g(x) > g() (
, f (x) + g(x) , x + ).
: f (x) g(x)
, x + , f (x)/g(x) (f (x) f ())/(g(x) g()),
f ()/g () A, x
. .
< x < 1 :
f ()
g ()
f (x)
g(x)

=
=
=
=

f (x) f ()
f (x) 1 f ()/f (x)
=
,
g(x) g()
g(x) 1 g()/g(x)
f () 1 g()/g(x)
=
g () 1 f ()/f (x)


1 g()/g(x)
f ()
1 g()/g(x)
A
+

A
1 f ()/f (x)
g ()
1 f ()/f (x)


g()/g(x) f ()/f (x)
f ()
1 g()/g(x)
AA
+

A
,
1 f ()/f (x)
g ()
1 f ()/f (x)

, < x < 1






 g() f () 

 f (x)

 g(x) f (x)   1




+ 
 g(x) A A 
f () 
 1 f (x)  2  1
148

g()
g(x)
f ()
f (x)

 de l hospital
2 x + ,
2 , < 2 < 1 , < x < 2


 f (x)



 g(x) A < ,

(;) .
2
, 0/0 /, .
: 0 , , 00 , 1 .

:
0 . f (x) 0, g(x) f (x)g(x) =
00 .

f (x)
1/g(x) ,

. f (x) , g(x) , f (x)g(x) = (f (x)g(x))( g(x)

1
),

.
f (x)

00 . f (x) 0 f (x) > 0, g(x) 0 (f (x))g(x) = eg(x) log(f (x))

g(x) log f (x) 0.
1 . f (x) 1 g(x) , f (x)g(x) = eg(x) log f (x)
g(x) log f (x) 0.
:
(i) x ex , x , > 0. 0
x ex = x /ex , /.
(x )
x1
=
.
(ex )
ex
1
x1

= 1 x 0, x
x
e
x
e
x /ex 0, x .
> 1 ... []+
1 6 N N,


x
x[]1
lim
= lim ( 1) . . . ( [])
= 0, 6 N
x ex
x
ex



1
x
= 0, N.
=
lim
(

1)
.
.
.
1
x
x ex
ex
lim

149

6.
x /ex 0 x +. (
< 0, de
lHospital ).

: ex x.

ex = y x = log y,

(log y)
0, y
y
: log x
x
(ii) x log x, x 0, > 0. 0 ().
x log x =

log x
,
x

1
1
(log x)
x
=
= x 0, x 0.

1
(x )
x

6.2
6.2.1 f A R
x0 A f (x) f (x0 ) (f (x) f (x0 )) x A
, f (x0 ) = sup{f (x) : x A} (f (x0 ) = inf{f (x) : x A}),
f (x0 ) () f A max f
(min f ).

f .
f (x) = cos x, x R max f = 1 = cos(2k)
min f = 1 = cos(2k + 1), k = 0, 1, 2, . . .
, ,
.
f (x) = x, 0 x < 1,
, sup{f (x) : 0 < x < 1} = 1 6= f (x) x
0 x < 1.
.
(
|x| 0 < |x| < 1
f (x) =
1
x=0
150

6.2
[1, 1] inf{f (x) : 0 x 1} =
0 6= f (x) x [1, 1].
f f
.
( )
: f (x0 ) f (x) f ,
> 0 (x0 , x0 + ) f f (x0 ) f
(x0 , x0 + ) f (x) f (x0 ) x x0 < x < x0 + .
.
: f 6.1 f (x1 ), f (x3 )
, f (x2 ), f (x4 ) , f (x4 )
( ) f () ( ) .
y
x0 , f (x0 ) (). , x0
f (;)
h > 0,


x1 x2 x3
x
x4

1
f (x0 + h) f (x0 ) 0
h
6.1

1
f (x0 h) f (x0 ) 0,
h
D+ f (x0 ) 0 D f (x0 ) 0. f (x0 ),
f (x0 ) = D+ f (x0 ) = D f (x0 ) = 0.
x0 . f f (x0 )
x0 .
: cos x
sin x, (
):
sin 2k = sin(2k + 1) = 0, k Z.
.
, f (x) = x3 , x R, 3x2
x = 0. f (0) = 0
151

6.
(, ), > 0, f (x) > f (0) = 0 0 < x <
f (x) < f (0) = 0 < x < 0.

x0
x0 , .
.
x3

6.2
f (x0 ) x0
.
6.2.2 f x0 , f (x0 ) = 0
f (x0 ) > 0 (f (x0 ) < 0) x0
().
: . ,
f (x0 ) > 0.
lim

xx0

f (x) f (x0 )
>0
x x0

> 0
0 < |x x0 | <

f (x) f (x0 )
>0
x x0

(;)

0 < x x0 < f (x) > f (x0 ) = 0

0 < x0 x < f (x) < f (x0 ) = 0

:
0 < x x0 < f (x) f (x0 ) = (x x0 )f (1 ),
152

x0 < 1 < x,

6.2
0 < x0 x < f (x) f (x0 ) = (x0 x)f (2 ),

x < 2 < x0 ,

f (x0 ) f (x) |x x0 | < , x0

f (x0 ) < 0
x0 .
2
:

(i) f (x) = cos x, x R. f (x) = sin x xk = k, k Z

f (xk ) = cos xk = cos k =

1, k
1, k .

2k, k Z (2k + 1), k Z, .

1 cos x 1 x.
(ii) f (x) = x3 . f (x) = 3x2 x = 0,
f (x) = 6x .
. f (x) < 0 x < 0,
f (x) > 0 x > 0, x = 0
, .

(iii) f (x) = x4 . f (0) = f (0) = 0, x = 0

.

(iv) f (x) = x4 . f (0) = f (0) = 0, x = 0

.

(v) A(0, ), B(, ), , , > 0 M (x, 0) 0 x AM B

( 6.3).
153

6.

B (, )

A
(0, )

A, B
x
0
M (x, 0)
B
Fermat.
A

6.3
: M

x A B, A (0, ) A x (;).
A OM M BB
M B
OM
=

OA
BB

x
=
=

x=

.
+

.
AM B , x, 0 < x < ,
f (x). :
p
p
f (x) = 2 + x2 + 2 + ( x)2 , 0 < x < ,

x
x
p
f (x) =
2
2
2
+x
+ ( x)2

f (x) = 0,
x
x

= p
,
2
2
2
+x
+ ( x)2

.
x2 2 = 2 ( x)2 , x = ( x), x = +
.
(, ).

0<

=
< .
+
+

f (x)
x0 , 0 x0 .
154

6.3
(0, ) ,
f (x0 ) = 0. x = /( + ) (0, )
f .
/( + ) .
f (0), f () f
[0, ].
,



f (0) > f
+

f () > f

( !). .
f (x) /( + ) [0, ]

f (0) = p
< 0,
2
+ 2

f () = p
> 0,
2
+ 2

f (x) 0 < x < /( + )

/( + ) < x <
(;). f [0, /( + )]
[/( + ), ] /( + )
(0, ).

6.3
y
(x, y)

y = x +
y. y =
(x, x + )
x + , < x < +.


(x, y)
x
x
y > x +
(x, y) 6.4
y
.
155

6.

I: y (x + ) > 0

:
I = {(x, y) : y > x + }
II = {(x, y) : y < x + }
III = {(x, y) : y = x + }.
(x, y) I (x, y) II (x, y)
III: y (x + ) = c
y = x + .

f II: y (x + ) < 0
(, ) f
6.5
x0 (, ).
f
(x0 , y0 ).
> 0 {(x, f (x)) : |x x0 | < }
() x0 , y = f (x0 )+f (x0 )(xx0 ),
f () x0 .
{(x, f (x)) : 0 < x x0 < }
() {(x, f (x)) : 0 < x0 x < } () ,
x0 f . ( 6.6)

x1
x2
x3

:
:
:

x1

x2

x3

6.6

:
(i) f (x) = x2 , x0 = 0. ().
(ii) f (x) = x3 , x0 = 0. x0 ().
(iii) f (x) =

x4 sin x1 , x 6= 0
, x0 = 0.
0,
x=0
156

6.3
f

x2 cos x1 + 4x3 sin x1 , x 6= 0

f (x) =
0,
x=0
x0 = 0 f
.
f (0) = 0 (0,0) x.
> 0 f
(0, ),
( ).
. x0 f
> 0
f (x) f (x0 )(x x0 ) + f (x0 )

|x x0 | <

:
g(x) = f (x) f (x0 )(x x0 ) f (x0 ) 0 = g(x0 ) |x x0 | < .
f x0
x0 g(x),
(;).
f (x0 ).
g (x0 ) = f (x0 )f (x0 ) = 0 g (x0 ) = f (x0 ) :
f f (x0 ) > 0
()
f (x0 ) < 0.
x0 x0 ,
g. g (x0 ) = f (x0 ) f (x0 ) = 0
g (x0 ) = f (x0 ) = 0 (;), :
x0 f (x0 ) = 0.
. ,
f (x) = x4 x = 0 (
), f (0) = 0.
(iii) 156.
6.3.1
Taylor .

6.3 Newton
f (x) = 0 , ,
f , .
Newton.
157

6.
f (, ) [, ] ( 6.7). f (x) > 0, a x
y
f (a) < 0, f () > 0.
f [a, ] (;)
.
.

x1

x2 x1 x

x2 (x1 , f (x1 ))
6.7
x. x1 , x2 , x3 , . . .,
.
.
. M |f (x)| m f (x)
m
.
[a, ]. m > 0 (;) |x1 | < 12 M
xk
.

xk+1 = xk f racf (xk )f (xk )

(;) k (, xk ), k (xk , k )
xk+1

=
=
=

f (xk ) f ()
f (xk )
= xk
=
xk
f (xk )
f (xk )




f (k )
f (xk ) f (k )
(xk ) 1
= (xk )
=
f (xk )
f (xk )




f (k )
f (k )
= (xk ) (xk k )
,
(xk ) (xk k )
f (xk )
f (xk )


M
|xk+1 | |xk | |xk |
.
m

|x1 | <

|x2 | <

1m
2M

1
|x1 |.
2


  2
M
1
|x3 | < |x2 | |x2 |
<
|x1 |
m
2
158

6.3
( )
|xk | <

 k1
1
|x1 |.
2

xk xk 0


1 k
|x1 |.
2
.
:
, Newton
2
.
f (x) = x 2 = 0
[1, 2] 2. x1 = 2
x1 = 2
x2 = 2

f (2)
2
= 2 = 1,5
f (2)
4

2,25 2
0,25
4,25
f (1,5)
= 1,5
= 1,5
=
= 1,4166 . . .
f (1,5)
2 1,5
3
3

2 = 1,4142 . . . 102 .
x3 = 1,5

6.3 .
. .
.

. y = ky k
. y = f (x)
y = ky. ,
, ,
.
y = f (x) cf (x),
c , .
y = ekx ( (ekx ) = kekx )
cekx , c R, .
. y = f (x)
y = ky (a, ) c y = cekx
x (a, ). (
(a, ) R (;).

.
159

6.
f (x) = kf (x) f (x)/f (x) = k . log |f (x)| = kx + c1 , c1
|f (x)| = ec1 ekx f (x) = cekx c
( ec1
).

a priori f (x) 6= 0 f (x)/f (x) = k. :
(f (x) = 0, f (x) 6= 0)
f (x) = kf (x) < x < , f (x) ekx
(, ) f (x) = cekx , c .
. :
(f (x) ekx )

= f (x) ekx kekx f (x)

= kekx f (x) kekx f (x)

= 0,

< x < f (x) ekx (, ).

.
f (t)
t . f
,
t R. 0
, , f (0) = .
.

t f (t).
:
f (t) = kf (t),
k .
f :

f (t) = kf (t)
f (0) =
f (t) = kf (t) f (t) = cekt f (0) = : c = ,
f (t) = ekt .

6.4
1.
lim f (x) = lim g(x) =
160

6.4
6.1.
2. f (x) (, )
lim f (x) = lim f (x) = +

x+

f (x) (, ).
3. , ,


sin 2x

lim
.
+
x0
x3
x2
4. f (x) (, )
,
f (x + y) < f (x) + f (y)
x, y (, ) , R > 0, > 0 + = 1.
; (
f [x, y] ).
5. m(t), t .

, m (t) = k 2 m(t) k.
,
, m0 .

161

KEFALAIO

. . 6
.

7.1
.
.
7.1.1
:
(i) x, y , x + y x, y, x, y, z
:
() (x + y) + z = z + (y + z).
() , 0, :
x + 0 = 0 + x = x.
() , x, :
x + (x) = (x) + x = 0.
() x + y = y + x.

7.
(ii) x, y , xy
x, y, x, y, z :
() (xy)z = x(yz).
() 0,
1, :
1x = x1 = x.
() x x 6= 0 , x1 , :
xx1 = x1 x = 1.
() xy = yx.
() x(y + z) = xy + xz.
(iii) P , , :
() x : x P ,
x P , x = 0.
() x, y P x + y P xy P .

(i), (i), (i)
(i), (i), (i), (i) .
(i) (ii) .
, x < y
y x P .

. , 0 . ,
0 0 + x = x + 0 = x x ,
x = 0 : 0 + 0 = 0 0 + 0 = 0 ( 1) 0 = 0 .
1 > 0, 1 0 = 1 P . ,
1 6= 0 1 P 1 P . (1) P
1 = (1)(1) P ( 3). 1 P .

(i) .
(ii) 1 ; 2 ; 3 ;
.

, . ,
.
164

7.2 Dedekind

, .
.
. Q(x) .
Q(z)
. Q(x)

a0 + + an xn
p(x)
,
=
q(x)
b0 + + bm xm
an 6= 0, bm 6= 0, an bm .

:
(i) Q(x)
(
).
(ii) Q(x) (
).

7.2 Dedekind
1 ,
. (

) ( 2)
,
. 19 ,
,
( : x = y
x y
x y).
1872
R. Dedekind
.


(
Newton ).
Dedekind , , :
. . .
. :

. . .
165

7.
Dedekind ( Dedekind).
7.2.1 Q :
(i) 6= A ( Q
(ii) x A y < x y A
(iii) A ( x0 A x0 x
x A).
. : x
Ax = {y Q, y < x} x Ax 1 1
.
: x 7 Ax ;

. A
B A B, A + B { + : A B}
...
, ( ) .

7.3 Cauchy
{n } ,
, ( n ).
, ,
,
.
.
7.3.1 {n } (
Cauchy), > 0, n0 n, m N
:
n, m > n0 |n m | <

{n }.

: n n . ,
> 0, n0 : n > n0 |n | < /2.
n, m > n0 :
|n m |

= |n (m )|
|n | + |m | <
166

+ =
2 2

7.3 Cauchy
{n } .
. :
. , , = 1, n0 N :
n > n0

|n | |n0 +1 | + |n n0 +1 | < |n0 +1 | + 1

n N, :
|n | |1 | + |2 | + + |n0 +1 | + 1 = M
{n } .
{kn } {n }
, kn .
{n } . . > 0.
n0 N |n m | < /2 n, m N n, m > n0 .
n1 N n > n1 |kn | < /2.
n > max{n0 , n1 }, kn n n0 :
|n | |n kn | + |kn | <

+ =
2 2

7.3.2 ( Cauchy ) f
x0 .
limxx0 f (x) :
> 0 > 0 x, y f
6= x0 :
|x x0 |, |y x0 | < |f (x) f (y)| <
: .

, , R. R
. , ,
Q R. Q .
{n } n Q, n = 1, 2, . . . ,
( Q).
: {n }
R, Q R, ( R),
Q.

(i) {n }, n Q, n =
1, 2, . . . , Q.
167

7.
(ii) [0, 1], (0, 1), [0, ), (0, ) R
,
R .
(iii) A R A , A
A.

7.4

.

.
x . x0 = [x] y0 =
x x0 , x = x0 + y0 0 y0 < 1.
x1 = [10y0 ], y1 = y0 101 [10y0 ], : x = x0 +
x1 /10 + y1 , x1 0 x1 < 10 0 y1 < 101 .
x1 , x2 , . . . 0 xk < 10, k = 1, 2, . . .
x = x0 +

x1
xk
+ + k + yk
10
10

0 yk < 10k , k N.
xk =
[10k x] 10[10k1 x].
xk
x0 , x1 , . . . , xk x0 + x101 + + 10

k
k
10
x.

0 = x0 , 1 = x0 +

x1
xk
x1
, . . . , k = x0 +
+ + k
10
10
10

x.
, 0 , 1 , . . . , n , . . . 0 N
{0} j {0, 1, . . . , 9}, j = 1, 2, . . .
k = 0 +

k
1
+ + k
10
10

x. k 0 {k }
. {k } .
168

7.4
k N :
k

=
=
=

1
9
k
9
+ + k 0 +
+ + k
10
10
10
10
1
1
9
+ + k1 )
0 + (1 +
10
10
10
9 1
9 1 101k
0 +
1 < 0 + 10 9 = 0 + 1
10 1 10
10
0 +

0 + 1 {k }. ,
,
. x
.
1,000 . . . = 0,999 . . .
:
1
9
9 1 101n
9
+ + n =
1 = 1 10n 1,
10
10
10 1 10
n .
, 0 ,1 2 . . . = 0 ,1 2 . . .
(i) a0 = b0 , a1 = b1 , a2 = b2 , . . .
(ii) k {0, 1, 2, . . .}, a0 = b0 , . . . , ak1 = bk1 ,ak = bk + 1,
ak+1 = ak+2 = = 0, bk+1 = bk+2 = = 9
(iii) k {0, 1, 2, 3 . . .}, a0 = b0 = , ak1 = bk1 , bk = ak+1 ,
bk+1 = bk+2 = = 0, ak+1 = ak+2 = = 9.
, i. k
0, 1, 2, . . . ak 6= bk . ak >
bk .
ak+1
ak+n
ak
bk
1
ak
+ k+1 + + k+n k k + k ,
10k
10
10
10
10
10
bk+1
bk+n
bk
9
9
bk
+ k+1 + + k+n k + k+1 + k+n =
10k
10
10
10
10
10


1
bk
1
1
bk
= k + k 1 n < k + k
10
10
10
10
10

a
bk
ak+n 
1
k
+ + k+n k + k
k
n 10
10
10
10


bk+n
bk
.
lim
+

+
n 10k
10k+n
lim

169

7.
n > 0 ak+n > 0
(;) n > 0 bk+n < 9
(;).
, (i) (ii)
(iii).
:
(i) x > 0 x0 x1x2 . . . xn . . .
xn 6= 0 xn+1 = xn+2 = = 0 x = x0 x1 . . . xn . . . =
x0 x1 . . . xn1 9999 . . ..
(ii)
0 9999 . . .
.
(iii) q = x0 x1 x2 . . . q Q, q > 0, k, n N
x+n = x k. (
).
.
: , 10n q q =
A
, A, B N
(10n 1)q . q = B

B = 2 5 , , N {0}, 10.
Fermat n
10n 1. n
.

7.5
,
.
A N N 1 1
{1, 2, 3, . . . , N }
A. 1 1 (a) = (b) a = b,
,
A {1, 2, 3, . . . , N }.
R N, Q, R, ( ).
.
R ( , )
19
G. Cantor. Cantor .

Cantor.
.
170

7.5
7.5.1 R ,
1 1 N R.

( ).
A, B
1 1 A B.
R N.
.
A , A = {2k, k N} N, N.
: N A (k) = 2k. Q ,
N. R .
(x) = tan 2 x, : (1, 1) R, R
(1, 1) : (1, 1) (0, 1)
(x) = 21 (x + 1) (1, 1) (0, 1), (;).
(0, 1) .
( )
Cantor.
.
: 1 1 N
R. (1), (2), . . . , (N ), . . . ,

9999
ldots, .
(1) = 0, x11 x12 x13 . . . x1n . . .
(2) = 0, x21 x22 x23 . . . x2n . . .
..
.
(n) = 0, xn1 xn2 xn3 . . . xnn . . .
..
.
.
x (0, 1) x 6= (n)
n N. x
0, a1 , a2 , . . . , an , . . ., a1 , a2 , . . . : ak = 5 xkk 6= 5
ak = 6 xkk = 5.
x (0, 1) x 6= (n), n ( ).
2
7.5.2 , ,
Cantor , : R N
R;
171

7.
. ( K. Godel
1939 P. Cohen 1963) .

, ,
. ,
(
), ,
.

7.6 Darboux
(a, b).
a priori . Darboux
, , .
:
7.6.1 f (a, b) f (c) 6= f (d),
a < c < d < b, A f (c) f (d),
, c < < d, f () = A.
f
( Darboux
).
:
(i) f
.
(ii) f
.
:
(i) I = (a, b),

x 6 (a, b)
0
gI (x) =
n

o2

1 4 2 x a+b 2
x (a, b)
(ba)
2
R.

(ii) , ,
f (x) =

gIn (x),

x In = ( n1 , n1 +

0,

x (1, 1)
n=1 In .
172

1
n3 )

n = 2, 3, . . .

7.7 Darboux Riemann

(iii) ii
f (x) =

x2 sin( x1 ), x 6= 0
0

x = 0.

: f (c) < A <

f (d).
: n > 0 n < d c
g(x) =

f (x + n) f (x)
, c x d n,
n

g(c) < A < g(d n).

. g ,
,
, c < < d n,
g() = A

f ( + n) f ()
= A.
n

, < <
+ n, f ( + n) f () = f ( ) n, f ( ) = A,
.
2
:
.
g (x) > 6.1.3 ( 148)
g (x) 6= 0.
.

7.7 Darboux
Riemann

5.2 :
7.7.1 Riemann Darboux .
: f Riemann
[a, b] > 0.
= {a = x0 < x1 < x2 < < xn = b},
173

7.


Z b 
X


f <
 (f, , )
 4

a

f




mk = f (k )
= 0 , . . . , n1
= 0 , . . . , n1
Mk = f ( ), k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1 (;),
(f, ) = (f, , ) (f, ) = (f, , ).
:
(f, ) (f, ) = (f, , ) (f, , ) =
!
Z
Z
b

(f, , )

(f, , )


Z b 
Z b  


 


f  < + < ,
f  + (f, , )
(f, , )
 4 4
 

a
a

Darboux .

Z b
Z b
Z b
f (f, ) = (f, , )
f
f+
a


Z b  Z b

b

f (f, , )
f >
f ,


4
a
a
a
Z

f<
a

f+ .
4

< f ba
4

<

f+

> 0
Z

f=
a

=
a

f.

( f ) , .

= {0 , . . . , n1
}, = {0 , . . . , n1
}
mk > f (k )

,
4(b a)

Mk < f (k ) +

174

4(b a)

7.7 Darboux Riemann

(f, ) =

n1
X
k=0

n1
X
k=0

f (k )(xk+1 xk )

mk (xk+1 xk ) >
n1
X

(xk+1 xk ) =
4(b a)
k=0

(f, , )
4

(f, ) < (f, , ) + .

4
(
).
, Darboux
Riemann .
> 0. (f, ) (f, ) < 2 .
> 0 |(f, , ) I| <
d( ) < ,
Rb
Rb
I = f = a f.
a
(
, d( ) <
) .
:
(f, ) (f, ) (f, , ) (f, ) (f, )

(f, ) I (f, ),
I (f, , )
[(f, ), (f, )],

|(f, , ) I| (f, ) (f, ) <

< .
2

,

y
xk
y+1
.
7.1
n ( ). {a = y0 < y1 < < ym = b}.
xk , y < xk < y+1
( 7.1) (f, , )
175

7.

(y+1 y )f ( ) + (xk y )f ( ) + (y+1 xk )f ( ),

, [y , xk ], [xk , y+1 ] .



|y+1 y | + |xk y | + |y+1 xk | M 3d( )M,

M |f (x)| [a, b] ( f
[a, b], |f | ), |f (x)| M
x [a, b].
(f, , )

,
3nM d( ). = 23nM

d( ) < ,

|(f, , ) (f, , )| 3d( )nM < 3nM

= ,
2 3nM
2

, . (f, , )
|(f, , ) I|

.
2

|(f, , ) I| |(f, , ) (f, , )|+|(f, , ) I|
.

+ =
2 2
2

:
Riemann.

7.8
5.3 ( 99) :
7.8.1 f
[a, b], .
Riemann .
: f
[a, b] > 0 > 0 x, y
[a, b]
|x y| < |f (x) f (y)| < .
, , f
[a, b] . > 0
176

7.8
> 0 x, y [a, b] |x y| <
|f (x) f (y)| . k1 , k = 1, 2, . . . ,
xk , yk [a, b] :
|xk yk | <

1
|f (xk ) f (yk )| , k = 1, 2, . . .
k

{xk } , ,
. [a, b].

(;). {ykn }
{yn } . ,
{ykn } y [, ]. {xkn },
xkn , x. ,
x = xkn , y = ykn , = 1, 2, . . . :
|x y | <

1
1
<
kn

(;) |f (x ) f (y )| , N.
x = lim x = lim y = y.
f x, y f (x ) f (x) f (y ) f (y) = f (x).
|f (x ) f (y )| |f (x) f (y)| = 0,
|f (x ) f (y )| > 0.
2

7.8
(i) [, ]
:
() [, ] (
)
() [, ]
[, ].
[, ] [, ] (;).
R (ii)
( R,
[0, 1] [5, 6], [3, ), . . .).
.

.
:

R .
177

7.
(ii)
:
()

1
,
0 < x 1.
x
(0, 1] , 0
. > 0.
f (x) =

1
1
1
1

=
>
x 2x
2x

x (0, 1] |x| = |2x x| < /2, f

.
() f (x) = x2 , < x < . (, ) .
(iii) f A R > 0, x A
= (x) > 0
|y x| < (x) |f (y) f (x)| < .
= (x), x.

x , , > 0,
x A. :
> 0, inf {0 (x) : x A} > 0
0 (x) = sup { > 0 : |y x| < |f (y) f (x)| < }.
(iv)
. : R, (1, 1), [0, ).

7.9 Taylor.
0 , 1 , . . . , n
f (x) = 0 + 1 x + + n xn f 0.
k N, N

k(k 1) (k + 1)xk , k
k ()
(x ) =
0,
> k
0 f (x) = xk


k!, = k
f () (0) =
0, =
6 k.
178

7.9 Taylor.
f (x) = 0 + 1 x + + an xn

k!ak , 0 k n
(k)
f (0) =
0,
k > n,
0! = 1 f (0) (x) = f (x),
f (x) 0 .
f (x) :
n

f (0)
f (n) (0) n X f (k) (0) k
f (x) = f (0) +
x + +
x =
x .
1!
n!
k!
k=0

Maclaurin (
18 ) f .
x = 0.
g(x) = f (x + x0 ) = a0 + a1 (x + x0 ) + + an (x + x0 )n
g f
Maclaurin g :
g(t) = g(0) +

g (n) (0) n
g (0)
t+ +
t ,
1!
n!

f (t + x0 ) = f (x0 ) +

f (n) (x0 ) n
f (x0 )
t+ +
t
1!
n!

( x = t + x0 )
f (x) =
=

f (x0 )
f (n) (x0 )
(x x0 ) + +
(x x0 )n
1!
n!
n
X
f k (x0 )
(x x0 )k .
k!

f (x0 ) +

k=0

Taylor ( 18 ) f . Maclaurin
Taylor ( x0 = 0).
f
(x0 , x0 + ), > 0, x0
.
Taylor
f (x) = f (x0 ) + +

f (n) (x0 )
(x x0 )n
n!

n N.
. f (x) = ex ,
179

7.
.
. (
ex n, n + 1
0, ).

Taylor ,

f (x0 ) +

f (n) (x0 )
f (x0 )
(x x0 ) + +
(x x0 )n
1!
n!

, |x x0 |, f (x),
|Rn (x)|, Rn (x)
, :


f (x0 )
f (n) (x0 )
n
Rn (x) = f (x) f (x0 ) +
(x x0 ) + +
(x x0 ) .
1!
n!
.
7.9.1 f x0
n [x0 , x0 + ], > 0,
n n + 1 (x0 , x0 + ),
= (x), x0 < < x0 + ,
f (x) = f (x0 ) +

f (n) (x0 )
f (x0 )
(x x0 ) + . . . +
(x x0 )n + Rn (x),
1!
n!

Rn (x) =

f n+1 ()
(x x0 )n+1 .
(n + 1)!

, ,
T aylor Rn (x) Lagrange:
Rn (x) =

f n+1 ()
(x x0 )n+1 .
(n + 1)!

:
7.9.2 n = 0 Taylor
f (x) = f (x0 ) + f ()(x x0 ),
.
7.9.3 f n+1 (x)
(x0 , x0 + ), , |f n+1 (x)| M ,
|Rn (x)|

M
|x x0 |n+1
(n + 1)!
180

7.9 Taylor.

Rn (x) = O((x x0 )n+1 )

x x0 . n f (x)

f (x0 ) +

f (x0 )
f (n) (x0 )
(x x0 ) + +
(x x0 )n
1!
n!

x x0 .
7.9.4 Rn (x)
,
Z
(x t)n n+1
f
(t) dt.
Rn (x) =
n!
(: n
).
7.9.1: Rn (x)
:


f (n) (x0 )
f (x0 )
n
(x x0 ) + +
(x x0 ) .
Rn (x) = f (x) f (x0 ) +
1!
n!
, , x0 < x.

q(t)



f (x0 )
f (n) (x0 )
n
= f (t) f (x0 ) +
(t x0 ) + +
(t x0 )
1!
n!
Rn (x0 )
+
(t x0 )n+1
(x x0 )n+1
Rn (x)
(t x0 )n+1 ,
= Rn (t)
(x x0 )n+1

x0 t < x. Rn
Rn (x0 ) = Rn (x0 ) = = Rn(n) (x0 ) = 0
( : f (x) Rn (x) n
x0 f n ).
:
q(x) = q(x0 ) = q (x0 ) = = q (n) (x0 ) = 0
181

7.

q (n+1) (t) =
=

Rn (x)
(x x0 )n+1
Rn (x)
f (n+1) (t) (n + 1)!
(x x0 )n+1

Rn(n+1) (t) (n + 1)!

( ;).
(x0 , x)
Rn (x) =

f (n+1) ()
(x x0 )n+1
(n + 1)!

q (n+1) () = 0.
R
olle
( ):
q(x) = q(x0 ) = 0 1 (x0 , x) q (1 ) = 0,
q (x0 ) = q (1 ) = 0 2 (x0 , 1 ) (x0 , x)
q (2 ) = 0 ... = n+1 (x0 , x)
q (n+1) () = 0,
.
:
(i) f (x) = ex , x0 = 0. f (k) (0) = e0 = 1 k N,
ex = 1 +

x2
xn
x
+
+ ...+
+ Rn (x),
1!
2!
n!

x R, Rn (x) =
x.

e
n+1
(n+1)! x

Rn . :
|Rn (x)| e|x|

|x|n+1
.
(n + 1)!

x = 1, n = 5
|Rn (1)|

3
3
1
e

=
=
,
(n + 1)!
6!
720
240

1+

1 1 1
1
1
326
+ + +
+
=
= 2,716
1 2 6 24 120
120

e 0,01.
182

7.9 Taylor.
x R, Rn (x) 0,
n ,


x
xn
lim 1 + + +
= ex .
n
1!
n!
, n0 = 2[|x|] + 2 n n0 .
:
|x|n+1
|x|n0

(n + 1)!
n0 !

|x|
2|x|

nn0

2n0 n0
|x|
n0 !

  n
1
,
2

n .



xn
x
x
e = lim 1 + + +
n
1!
n!
ex = 1 +

X
xn
ex =
n!
n=0

x
1!

+ ...+

xn
n!

M aclaurin ex .

(ii) 1/100
Z

ex 1
dx.
x

(ex 1)/x (
). Taylor
:


x
1
x2
xn
ex 1
1+ +
=
+ +
+ Rn (x) 1
x
x
1!
2!
n!
n1
x
x
Rn (x)
= 1+ + +
+
,
2!
n!
x

1
0

ex 1
dx =
x

1 dx +

1
2!

+
=

1
n!

x +
Z

xn1 dx +

1
1
+ +
+
1+
2! 2
n! n
183

Rn (x)
dx
x

Rn (x)
dx.
x

7.
n
1/100.
|Rn (x)|

R1
0

Rn (x)/x dx -

e
e|x||x|n+1

xn+1 ,
(n + 1)!
(n + 1)!

e
Rn (x)

x
(n + 1)!

xn dx =

3
e

.
(n + 1)!(n + 1)
(n + 1)!(n + 1)

3
=
n = 4 ( 5!5
1/100

3
5120

<

1
100 )

1
1
1
ex 1
dx 1 +
+
+
.
x
2 2 6 3 24 4

(i) Taylor sin x cos x, x R,

x.
(ii) 1/100
Z

sin t
dt.
t

7.9.5
: n , n
n = 1 + + n

1 + 2 + + n +

n .

n=1

n . n
, .
, .

184


: 2006