RE Circuit Deoy. Chee. Bou ck ©1432. Reed Elsevier FILTER DESIGN ia Filters occur so frequently in the instrumentation ‘and communications industnes that no book covering, the field of rf eircut design could be complete without at least one chapter devoted to the subject. Indeed, ‘outire books hove haen written on the att of filter de. sign alone, so this single chapter cannot possibly cover all aspects of all types of filters. But it will familiarize you with the characteristics of four of the most com- only used filters and will enable you to design very quickly and easily a filter that will meet, or exceed, most of the common filter requirements that you will ‘We will cover Butterworth, Chebyshev, and Bes- sel filters in all of their common configurations: low- pass, high-pass, bandpass, and bandstop. We will Tearn how to take advantage of the attentiation char- acteristics unique to each type of filter. Finally, we will learn how to design some very powerful filters Ine litle ae $ minutos by moraly fnaleing threweh a catalog to choose a design to suit your needs. RACKEROTND In Chapter 2 the concept of resonance was ex: plored and we determined the effects that component Yaluc changes bad on resonant circuit oparatian You should now be somewhat familiar with the methods that are used in analyzing passive resonant circuits to find quantities, such as loaded Q, insertion loss, and bandwidth, You should also be capable ot designing one- of two-resonator circuits for any loaded Q desired (or, at least, determine why you cannot). Quite a few of the filter applications that you will encounter, how- ever, cannot be satisfied with the simple bandpass arrangement given in Chapter 2. There are occasions ‘when, instead of passing a certain band of frequencies while rejecting frequencies above and below (band- pass), we would like to attenuate a small band of fre- quencies while passing all others. This type of filter i called, appropriately’ enough, a handetan filter. Stil other requirements call for a’ low-pass or high-pass response. The characteristic curves for these responses are shown in Fig. 3-1. Tho low-pass fiter will allow all signals below a certain cutoff frequency wo pass while attenuating all others. A high-pass filter's re- sponse is the mirror-image of the low-pass response and attenuates all signals below a certain cutoff fre- Queney while allowing those above cutoff to pass. ‘These types of response simply camnot be handled very well with the two-resonator bandpass designs of Chanter 9. In this chapter, we will use the low-pass filter as ‘our workhorse, as all other responses will be derived from it. So lets take quick look at a simple low-pass fier and examine its characteristics. Fig, 3-2 Is an example of a very simple tvo-pole, or second-order low-pass filter. The order of a filter is determined by the clone of the attenuation eurve it presents in the stopband. A second-order filter is one whose rolloff is 1 function of are Bper ‘octave. A third-order filter causes a rolloff that is pro- portional to frequency cubed, or 18 UB per octave. Thus, the order of a flter can be equated with the number of significant reactive elements that it pre- conte to the souree at the signat-deviates from the passband. ‘The circuit of Fig. $2 can be analyzed in much the same manner as was done in Chapter 2, For instance, an examination of the effevis uf Iuaded Q uu the 1 sponse would yield the family of curves shown in Fig. 5.3. Surprisingly, even this circuit configuration can ise a peak in the response, This is due to the fact that at some frequency, the inductor and capacitor will ‘become resonant and, thus, peak the response if the loaded Q is high enough. The resonant frequency can ‘be dererinined from (Eq. 31) For low values of loaded Q, however, no response peak will be noticed. "The loaded Q of this Milter Jy dependent upon the individual Q's of the series leg and the shunt Jeg ‘where, assuming perfect components, (a,.38) (4.33)poss Deston ome wu Qi = 00s Eq.3-4: Qua = IG, (4.34) total Q of the circuit is greater than about 0.5, Lepiiee epteinde fed eaeh ad tp the load, Qs should equal Qo, In this case, at the Frequency (6) Bondstop. Fig. 3-1, Typical flter response curves Fig. 9-2 A simple low-pass ter. “& peak frequency, the response will approach 0-dB in- sertion loss. If the total Q of the network is less than about 0.5, there will be no peak in the response and. for optimum transfer of power, Ry should equal Re, ‘The peaking of the filter's response is commonly called ripple (defined in Chapter 2) and can vary cousider- ar a 30 ee rege Fig. 3-3. Typical tworpoleSlter response curves, r 1 i 8 |- an0 | i aN ee Frequency tf) Fig. 38. Carves showing fequency response vs. losded Q {for three-element low-pass filter6 ably from one filter design to the next depending on the application. As shown, the two-element filter ex- habits only one response peak nt the edge of the pace nd. tt can be shown thatthe number of peas within the passband is directly related to the number of ele- nents in the cer by: Number of Peaks = N ~ 1 where N= the number of elements. ‘Thus, the three-element low-pass filter of Fig. 34 should exhibit two responce poake ar shown in Big. 3.5, This is true only if the loaded Q is greater than ‘one, Typical response curves for various values of loaded Q for the circuit given in Fig. 3-4 are shown mm Fig. 3-0. For all odd.otder networks, the response at de and at the upper edge of the passband *proad with dips in the response between the rashes wi dps in the tesa be “tt pee duce an insertion Toss at de equal to the amount of passband ripple in dB. Keep in mind, however, that either of these two networks, if designed for low values of loaded @ can be made to exhibit hittle of no pass: band ripple. But, as you can see from Figs. 33 and 54 the cliination of passband ripple can be made only at the expense of bandwidth. The smaller the tipple that js allowed, the wider the bandwidth be- 0: erefore,_‘electivity.sulfers. Optimum fatness in the passband occurs when the loaded Q vf the Uiree-element citeuit 1s equal to one (1). Any value of loaded Q that is less than one will eause the response to roll off noticeably even at very low freauencies. within the defined pacchond. Thus, mot only is the selectivity poorer but the passband inser tion loss is too, In an application where there is not ‘much signal to begin with, an even further decrease fu signal stengch could be disastrous Now that we have taken a quick look at two repre- sentative low-pass filters and their associated responses, let's discuss filters in general: 1, High-Q fiters tend to qghibit « far greater intial sopeorard the stopbeet thse terbarts with the same nnmher of elements) “Thue, at any frequency in the stopband, the attenuation will be greater for 2 high-Q filter than for one with a lower Q. this. improvement ac_inerease tu passband nipple That must Oct asa result. id to have the flattest passband response but their initial attenuation slone at the band edge is small. Thus, the penalty for the re duced passband ripple is 'a decrease in the initial stopband attenuation 9. A with dhe tesyuaiit cieeults discussed in Chaprer 2, the source and load resistors loading a filter will have a profound effect on the Q of the filter and, therefore, on the passband ripple and shape factor RF Cmmcurr Destox of the filter. If a filter is inserted between two re- sistance values for which it was not designed, the performance will suffer to an extent, depending, upon the degree of error in the terminating im- pedance values, 4, Tho final attenuation slope of the racpanen te do pendent upon the order of the network, ‘The order of the network is equal to the number of reactive clements in the low-pass filter. Thus, a second-order rctwork (2 eleuents) falls uff ata final attenuation slope of 12 4B per octave, a third-order network (3 elements) at the rate of 18 dB per octave, and so ‘on, with the addition of 6 dB ner actave per ele. sent. MODERN FILTER DESIGN Modern fiter design has evolved through the years from a subject known only to specialists in the Bld (because of the advanced mathematies invnlved) to 4 practical well-organized catalog of ready-to-use cir. cuits available to anyone with a knowledge of eighth srade level math. In fact, an average individual with absolutely no yi Aker design expenence should be able to sit down, read this chapter, and within 30 minutes be able to design a practical high pass, low-pass, bandpass, or bandstop filter tn his specifications. it sounds simple and it isonce a few basie rules are memorized. The approach we will take in all of the designs in his chapter will be tw make Use of the myriad of normalized low-pass prototypes thet are now avail able to the designer. The actual design procedure is, therefore, nothing more than determining your va. quirements and, then, finding a filter in a catalog which satisfies these requirements. Each normalized element value is then sealed to the frequency and im- Pedance you desive ai, Chen, transformed to the type of response (bandpass, high-pass, bandstop) that you wish, With practice, the procedure becomes very sim- ple and soon you will be defining and designing fltnrs ‘The concept of normalization may at first seem foreign to the person who is a newcomer to the feld of filter design, and the idea of transforming a low-pass filter into one’ that will give une of the oter three types of responses might seem absurd. The best advice 1 can give (to anyone not familiar with these prac- tices and who might feel a bit skeotical at this point) is to press on. The only way to truly realize the beauty and simplicity of this approach is to try & few actual designs. Once you try a few, you will be Thanked, and any other approach to filter desig will suddenly seem tedious and unnecessarily complicated: NORMALIZATION AND THE, LOW-PASS PROTOTYPE In order to offer a catalog of useful filter circuits the eleetranin Altar dosigner, it became necessarysex Desten lado tho prosentation of dhe material, Obvi- ‘gay, in practice, it would be extremely dificult to are the performance and evaluate the usefulness af to filter networks if they were operating under totally dlteent sets of circumstances. Stmilaly, & presentation of any comparative design informa. for Sites, if not standardized, would be totally Se ris coey af wold be tly ts, then, IF tnerely @ toot used xperts (0 by Filter- Fall ter desigirand-performance information 7 ‘Naviatimneton tbe- performance oF any herr Biven rating conditions. ~~ Sifter tela Bes is die chaprer are one pass filters normalized for a cutoff frequency of one tidian per second (0.159 Hz) and for source and load resistors of one ohm. A characteristic reapnnes of euch Hf is shown in Fig: 37. The circuit used to gen fate this response ig.called the low-pass prototype Frequent Fig, 97, Novice lowpass response, Otriously, the design of a filter with such a low queney would require component values er thon those we are accustomed to working in henries rather than in microhenrics aml unies. But once we choose a snitable low-pass from the catalog, we can change the ine Jevel and cutoff frequency ofthe fiter te any Ee Shou «sn pes a {cult ofthis process isa practical filter deste, elzable component valoce i FILTER TYPES ity othe Sters used today bear the names of the 20 develanwt them, le ie ee ‘ton, we will take i three such filters and examine their attenua- ‘and aan ‘Their relative merits will be dis- it low-pass prototypes presented ‘The trys dscssed wil Thue the Buen *byshev, and Bessel responses. Response worth filter is a medium-Q Alter that is 1B which, equire the amplitude response a of the filter to be as flat as possible, The Butterworth response is the Wattest passband response avalahih and contains no ripple. The typical zeqnonse of anc, 4 Glter might took like that of Fig: 38° Since the Butterworth response i only @ mediuin-Q Biter, its initial attenuation steepness is not as aeot 2504, le fo bet on cites it Eh acteristic often causes the Butterworth response to called a middle-of-the-road Gesign- “The attenuation oe Butterworth Alter ic Aeo= 10logf 1+ ey (84.35) ison by. where, @ & the frequency at which the attenuation is dee sired, cutoff frequ 2) ofthe Biter. si See te If Equation 3.5 is evaluated at various frequencies {for various numbers of elements, a family of enone 4s generated which will give a very good graphical Yepresentation of the attenuation provided. by. any order of filter at any frequency. ‘This information illustrated in Fig. .0 ‘Thue, from Fig. 0.9, 6 Solero (ifth order) Butterworth filter will provide an attena, ation of approximately 30 dB at a frequency equal to Fig. 948, The Butterworth response rgueny Rata) Fig. 3.9, Attenuation cheractestis for Butterworth fers.6 vice the cutol frequency of the flter. Notice here that die Frequency aa ts hormatsed a Note ae raph begins at the cutoff (-3.dB) point This meaph IS extemely useful as it provides you with a method of determining. at a glance, the order af «flr eeeoed to meet a given attensation specication, A tot example should illustrate this point (Example 21) EXAMPLE 31 How many elements are required to design a Butter- woth filter with a cutoff frequency of 60 MITsrif the deer sot prone at feast 90 dD Of atenuation at 150 $a Solution ‘The fst step in the solution is to find the ratio of w/w, ‘Thus, at 3 ties the cutof frequency, the responge must be day ya lent 50d Rade Pa Soe ee ‘quick that minim of 6 elements is sequived to eek this desig goal, Aten {/£, of 3, x G-lement design would provide approsimately 87 dB of attenuation, whi a Bele, ment design would provide only shen 7 auite good enough ‘The element values for 2 normalized Rntterworth low-pass filter operating between equal l-ohm termi, uations (source and load) can be found by Ana tain RED ay, (g. 3.8) where, i the numberof element, Acie a ekctanco i he ladder and may bo tither an inductor or capacitor. The term (2k ~L)ar/2n ie in radians, We can we [ition 36 to generate our fst entry into the cath beg of low-pass prototypes shown in Table 9-1, The ent of each component of the filter is shown Immediately abuve and below the table. ‘The rules for interpreting Butterworth tables are le, The schematic shown above the table is used never the ratio Re/Ry is ealmlatod aa the design magn The table is read from the top down. Alter, th, when Ri/Rs is calculated, the schematic below the table is used. Then, the element designators in the “Bible ave woad feu the bottom Up. ‘hte & favs eke low-pass prototype could appear as: shown in ;10. Note here that the element values not given He 9-1 are simply left ct af the prototype ladder ani load restr i'then paced di Across the output ofthe filter. Remember thatthe cutoff frequency of each filter is Rie Fo eccoul, ui 0.199 Hz. tach capacitor value 4 in farads, and each inductor value is in hen. RF Cucurr Dastex rie ‘The network will latex be sealed to the impedance and frequency that is desired through a simple multi, plication and division process. The component values will then appear much more realistic Occasionally, we have the need to design a filter that will operate between two unequal terminations as shown in Fig. 311. In this case, the circuit is normal, tative atthe “| 7 1 Fig. 3:10, A fourelement Butterworth low-pass rototype circuit. ‘Table 3.1. Butterworth Equal Termination Low-Pass Prototype Element Values, (Ry = R,,) GG Gy 2 Tad rata = ccs 3 1000 2.000 1.000 4 0765 1848 ee ozas 3 v01s 18i8 2000 1618 O68 $ ost8 1414 ioe ime 144 ost 7 45 1267 1802 2.000 802 1347 0.445 ai Fite a m fs Fig, 9-11. Unequal terminations. mp3. Fig. 3:12. Nomlized unequal terminations,pam Dssiow stance of 1 ohm, while taking what fe pote coures renstanee, Diana ee source resistor by 10 will yield a load re. ‘of | ohm and a source resistance of 8 ohms Hee ein Fig. 219 We can use the normalized ting resistors to help us find a low-pass proto- SF is lst of Butterworth lowpass proto- ues tor vanious ratios of source © load de (Mte/Re). The schematic shown above the is used when Rq/R, is calculated, and the ele. oor aii ably apr genebr age ‘Table 3-24. Butterworth Low-Pass Prototype Element Valucs 2000 044s aan 5000 0.180 7707 10.000 074 2 lala “O70 3 0900 088 1633 1.509 0800 08s = 13841006 0700 0915 = L165 arr vow ozs gs 40 50 118 07793381 400 1425 O64 4.084 0300 1838 O44 5.963 2300 2009 © Oam rato 010 S167 O38 4 an 0409 1502 ae 1.409 ysco 0303 Law ott TAT 14290395 rae 13012175 Yast 0260 203082313 200 0218 2452 aga} 3.187 2500 mina Bove eo aes 3353 oind 38m oT S338 5000 0.080 564 oso 40.000 0.039 1.004 0.162 asa bh ,2, tt _ tomo pt hue 9 Alternately, when Ru/Ry ic caloulated, the schematic: below the table is used while reading up from the bottom of the table to get the element values (Ex, ample 3.2) EXAMPLE 32. Fi the low-pass prototype value for an 2 mi 4 Batter 50 ohms, Re Solution Normalizing the two terminations for Rs. = 1 ohm will Yield a value of fu = 08. Reading down from the top af Table 8-2 for on n= 4 low-pass trotatyor vai we soe tat tere is no R/T — 08 ratio listed: Our second choice then, ft take the value of u/s = 2, and read up foes the tom of the table whe using the schemate below the table at the form for the low-pass prototype, values This euyroml sels hte how-pak prope cea Fig 38 et Fig. $19. Low pass prototype circult for Example 3-2. Obviously, all possible ratios of source to load re- sistance could not possibly ft on a chart of this sec. ‘This, uf course, leaves the potential problem of hot being able to find the ratio that you need for a par- ticular design task. The solution to this dilemma is to simply choose 2 ratia which moet closely matches the ratio you need to complete the design, For ratios of 100:1 oF so, the best results are obtained if you assume this value to be so high for practical purposes «> be hate, Since, an these instances, yOu are only approximating the ratio of source to load resis tance, the filter derived will only approximate the re sponse that was originally tended. ‘This is wovally not too much of a problem. ‘The Chebyshev Response ‘The Chebyshev Aer 1s a high filer that is used when: (1) a steeper inital descent into the stopband is required, and (2) the passband response is no longer required to he Rat With thic type of require ment, ripple can be allowed in the passband. As more pple is introduced, the initial slope at the beginning of the stopband is'increased and produces a more rectaugulat attenuation curve when ‘compared to the rounded Butterworth response. This comparison is made in Fig. 3-14. Both curves are for n= Blters, ‘The Chebyshey response shown hae ? dB ‘of pascbound ripple and produces a 10 dB improvement in stopband attenuation over the Butterworth filter.» RF Cmourr Desicy ‘Tabla 9R, Botterworth Low Pass Protvtyyo Blowout Values ee oF oT St oT % 2 Cy Te a ly Cr 5 0600 94a tay ——a.01 ea 800 © 0470 ogee Este oo osiT orgs Taso 000 0588 = eo eco tne «Ease 9500968 = 4m 30s) aa Bae vay owe OSs 3558 ar aes 0300 © 1000885 daar Sn 9200 © ag oss ies se Ta 100 a2 Oost oestrus o | re ey et aoe ie eee ee 1350 om Elena) Lau Tes oor apogee aga tag tt aoe kor ors tas tah am EME 28 200 01st aso 33a awe 2500 oll = 2008 = ostd laksa 2383 ose 258 asm = gat) Sah Kann 054 = S017 oman aes SRR 10000 00287705 ode sree Tee aay © ss) .79 sss ‘hams = oss bast 7 9800939 © om 40 as ates ater osm casos iy tre eae 9700 © oas7 Osis e8s toot ais 900 048 oases tT Ss tse BORE 0 Oe ears orn ney tt gary aa 9400 0500 name Sor gon 355M S08 son Orme oes aH seni nase tat aay eee 920 = M5085 547 athe gay SS 100 2257 067 ©0700] ea ‘2 rss umes tao" gate SZ Sn Ba bet Gs ly ly Ce a —_ The attenuation of a Chebyshev filter can be found are given in Table 3:3. The Parameter ¢ is given by: by making a few simple but tiresome caleulations, and ‘an be expressed as: VIF (Eq.38) Note that (2) isnot the same as (2). The quan- ) can be found by defining another parameter: i where, Aas = 10 log. p + #02(2) i) (Eq. 3-7) ‘Rup is the passband ripple in decibels. Where, Gr (gy is the rata polynomial to the order i ( R evaluated at (2). ‘The Chebyshev polynomials forthe first seven orders Leot(!) 39)Fregueney 4) 5-14. Comparizon of thntamant Chebyshev he and Butterworth responses. Table 3-3. Chebyshev Polynomials to the Order n Chebysheo Polynomial 51 Fipple allowed in the passband, Several of these famni- lies of curves are shown in Figs. 3-15 through 3-18, and include 0.01-4B, O.1-4B. 05d, snd 10-dB ripple, Each curve begins at w/w. = 1, which is the normal, ized cutoff, or 3-€B frequency. The passband ripple is, therefore, not shown. HF other familics uf attenuation curves are needed With diferent values of passband ripple, the preceding Chebyshev equations can be used to derive them. The Problem in Example 3:3 illustrates thie Obviously, performing the calculations of Ex: 3:3 for various values of a/42, ripple, and filter order isa very time-consuming chore unless a programmable ‘saloulator or computer is available to do tnost of the work for you. The low-pass prototype element values correspond- ing to the Chebyshev responses of Fige 2-18 through Bisave given in Tables 84 trough 96) Note ae Chebyshev prototype values could not be separated into two distinct sets of tables covering the equal and T ie PENSE : PENS SESE ’ * PNR Ke = ™ PE terst 5 the order ofthe filter, ¢5 the parameter defined in Equation 3-8, feeb ~ the iuvesoe liyperbolie cose of the quan tity in parentheses, Frally, we have: 7 1 B (Zeon (zq.9410) a, Mere, ()=te sto ofthe frequency of interest to the cutoff frequency, Ph=thehypecbolte Soin. eye gt calculator does not have hyperbolic and in- 2yperbolic functions, they can be manually de. “sho! rom the fellowing tities cosh x = 0.5(0 + e-*) ty cook “Ham nas YIFST) Preceding equations yield families of attenva- ate, each classified according to the amount of Freueney Ratio if) Fig 5:15. Attenuation characteristics for a Chebyshev filter with 001-08 ripple. eb SS 4 fs SS he q rN Ss SS NCES 4 ul Pr : ao +t » g- oe ett ia ‘Frequency Ratio (f/f) "5:10. Atgeon sora CnnAtenaton (8) SERBS ER g a3 suas ee Frequency Ratio) Fig 317. Anemation characteris for Chebyshev " ‘Altar with 0.5 dB ripple. ca Psi ala rave unequal termination cases, as was done for the But- teoweth protons ‘hie he gn andes = webyshev_ e equal ong. The source and load must always. bé different for proper operation as shown in the tables. EXAMPLE 33 Find the attenuation of a 4 clement, 25-dD sipple,low= pass Chebyshev Stor at w/ee = 25. Solution First evaluate the parameter: Torre 82 ~*[-o% «(ods)) =a Theo, (fon is (ofa) =25 oth 1379 5004 Finally, we evaluate the fourth order (n= 4) Chebyshev sly a aifen = o(2)=9(2)' a(S) + ~ o¢s0200) = aC) 4 Zanes We can now ease the Sol equation Nest, find B, ‘Thus, a an o/s of 25, you can expect 47.63 dB of atten- ation for this Ste, 1S 20 25 303500 5 Frequengy Ratio 4) 7 89 Fig 218. Attonnation chasesteie fora Chebyshev ier with -4B ripple. The rules need for intorproting the Butterwonth ta bles apply here also. The schematic shown above the table is used, and the element designators are read down from the top, when the ratio R; s/ Rx is calculated ‘9 a design critena, Altemately, with K;/Re caleule: tions, use the schematic given below the table and read the element designators upwards from the ‘bottom of the table. Example 4 isa practice problem for use in understanding the procedure. EXAMPLE 34 Find the low-pass prototype values for an n = 5, 0B "pple, Chebyshev flier ifthe source resistance you ae de signing for is 50 chms and the load resistance ia 250 rhe Solution Normalicatiou of Ue source und Toad resistors yields an RwRe = 02,4 Took gt Table 5, for a O.1.aB nipple ‘Aller with an a = 5/and an Ha/Re = OB, yields the cea values showa in Fig. 3-18. 02s oes eee te Fig. 8-19, Low-pass prototype clteuit for Example 9-4 It should be mentioned here that equations could have been presented in this section for desing th ¢glement values for the Chebyshev low-pass proto ‘The equations are extremely long and tedious, how ever, and there would be litle to be gained from theit presentation,pose Desc pie 244. Chebyshev LowPass Element Vales for 001-dB Ripple 0.900 480 0.500 106 0700 2165 9.500 ann 8500 S64 400 3974 0300 5.280 0:00 7804 15300 O59 171 1.046 Lae 165 13a La 133 2008 1128 bast 098 goss om aero 0538 = 5300 0382 T8I3, 017315510 The Bessel Filter wae i stopband attenuation of the Bessel filter ‘oor and can be approximated by. Aaa = (2 (Eq.3-11) Te Bresson, however, is not very accurate above dalle: that is equal to about 2. For values of w/o, than 2, a straight-line approximation of 6 dB 53 per octave per element can be made. This yields the family of curves shown in Fig. 320, But why would anyone deliberately design a filter with very ‘poor initial stopband attenuation character- istics? The Bessel filter was originally optimized to obtain a maximally flat group delay or linear phase charactorictio in the Biter’ passband: Thus, selectivity ‘or stopband attenuation is not a primary concern when dealing with the Bessel filter. In high- and medium-Q filters, such as the Chebyshev and Butterworth filters, the phase response is extremely nonlinear over the filter's passband. This phase nonlinearity results in distortion of wideband signals due to the widely varying Hime dolaye associated with the diferent spectral components of the signal. Bessel filters, on the other hand, with their maximally flat (constant) group delay are able to pass wideband signals with a minumum ot distortion, while still providing some selectivity. The low-pass prototype clement values for the Bes- sl Biter aro given in Tablo 28, Table 2 tabulatos the prototype element values for various ratios of source to load resistance. FREQUENCY AND IMPEDANCE SCALING Once you specify the filter, choose the appropriate attennation response, and write down the low-pass prototype values, the next step is to transform the prototype circuit into a usable filter. Remember, the cutoff frequency of the prototype circuit is 0.159 Hz (@ = I rad/sec), and it operates between a source and load resistance that are normalized so that Ry, = 1 ohm. oe | g « iL | ; Frequency 1 Fig. 320, Attenuation characteristics of Bessel filters.RF Cmcurr Desion ‘Table 3-4B, Chebyshev Low-Pass Element Values for 0.01-4B Ripple Tee Rg gaan B iy Gr 3 ho oat ha 900 088s 000 OST Laas 0700 Osa L.ouo Seo nae os 10) Sa 0400 13884 0350 © Lt 0308 020 Senha 100 Sout Oa 1S L785 6 1 oss o9a7 iin at ray oe 13500543884 304 Tes 049 Sas 1500 Teer 05513 08 ast zo oar) bare Sian zm aid 8h 3 350 015 245 510 5000 oo a0 is 10000 = 08a 15595 Sitter emetic eee 0400 1 1000 091s 585 1505 gis 0000 © 0gla 3a vest 130 0500 © OB Las a Gro Garter iit 188 Soo OKO tit as0 500 1080.80 oom Bas 0400 = Lk Osor ors To fam ieee ae S30 tae 0300 Spe ona ose Tan 010 = 4701 iss ese 18s Lar Tier 04s6 > hw Cr ce Tr & ‘The transformation is affected through the following ‘I, = the final inductor wala, formulas: , = alow-pass prototype clement value, Lt = alow-pass prototype element value, au: q.312) R=the fin load resistor valu, Sot (Eq, 4, = the final cutoff frequency. and The normalized low-pass prototype source resist La Ble (fq 2.12) must also be transformed ta its final valne hy at. plying it by the fnal value of the load resistor ( where, ample 3.5). Thus, the ratio of the two always remai C= the final capacitor value, the same.Desion Chebyshev Low-Pass Prototype Element SOSA Cretuce fs 0.0 pple 2500 0417 3o7 Bos 02835550 ‘5000 0.184 7.436 wo.000 0.087 © = LL OBI ww 1491504149 90 1498 Laut 102 000 14511356 Lert 0700 1521393 2.100 00 101 nr ews 0500 1853 oss «3.159 040 2186 © a660 3.968 0300 2765 048s 5279 nom 3010 oar ne 0100 7512 0155 15468 © 1513 1810 ‘O76 1385 og 2481585134 azo 0770 Bay 14281700 Asst 0576273918523 2000 0440 92270957 2.856 2500 0399 3981 760 3.008 33% oom kim ago Bose 5000 0.148 7807 © e764 10.00 0072 14887 §=— 0.180 15230 co 1s yes 14550673 2 ea eg rey 4 55 eae EXAMPLE 08 Seale the low-pass prototype values of Fig. 3-19 (Exam- i 5-4) tos cual frequency of 50 Mil nd ae ees Solution Vag Kouatinne 2.19 and 2.19 te sale eal component asoliows ae 3546 OFT TET = 450F aaitioner Be (BOX 109) (50) =6nk Ga 180 = Be5O x 1OFEOY = 100pF 290)(u289) 3560 x 10°) 235 aH (250)(0. 1 25(50 x 108 = 291 if ‘The souce resistance is scaled by multiplying its non inal lua By de had aac oh a ; 03(250) 50 ohms “The fal ciealtaypentsn Fig. 3-2, Breen a eae UE The process for designing a low-pass filter is a very le rma which involvoe the following procedure, Define the response you need by specifying the re- Guid attenuation characterises at selected fr. im Normalize the frequencies of interest by ing by the cutoff frequency of the filter. This step ‘your data to bo iw the aause fort x9 at of the attenuation curves of this chapter, where the Point on the curve is: Fig. 9.21, Low-pass filter circuit for Example 35. 3. Determine the maximum amount of ripple that you can allow in the passband. Remember, the greater the amount of ripple allowed, the more selective the Aer 1s, Higher values of ripple may allow you to eliminate a few components, 4, Match the normalized attenuation characteristics (Steps 1 and z) with the attenuation curves pro- vided in this chapter. Allow yourself a small “fudge- factor” for good measure. This step reveals the mini- imum number of siresit slemente that you can get away with—given a certain Blter type. 5. Find the low-pass prototype values in the tables. ©. Scale all elements to the Frequency and impedance ofthe final design. Example 3-6 diagrams the process of designing a low- pass filter using the preceding steps.Table 3-58, Chebyshev Low-Pace RF Cmeur Dis Pretotrae Element Values for 0..odB Ripple HIGH-PASS FILTER DESIGN Mechanics of low-pass becomes a snap. You can Tesponse curves presented, (i far, forthe low-pass Bee simply iaverting Chek 8 tor instance, a Sclerent 1-dB-ripple Ghibsshes low-pass filter wil prod attenustion wenbout 80 dB at an f/f of 3 (Fig 9:18). IF you were reg ig Intent with «tps pter of Hae Ne and type, you could stl we Fig Sloe tell you (Once vow have learned the ‘ter design, high-pass design Use all of the attenuation Alter finding the response whieh satisfies all of the ui cB of ete ply eer tables of low-pass Prototype values and copy down: the prototype values that are called tor High-pass val wer for than at ae obtained directly frog Fe, SUPE Prototype values as fale ee Fig, 3-24).por Deston TRAMPLE 36 Design low-pass ter to met the following specdca obey eons go then 60 dB down at 105 MH: reste #105 Mts, Nasinaly St psn dso pe jeden to cos, R= 500 oh Saiton ee masa Bt pnd monty i- iste thatthe design mast ‘be a Battewert Fe 4n te design proces i to nomalae Pesr = Si, normalize the fog weaning uf heres 50 tat they may be found in the graph of Fig. 3-0, Thus, we have We next look at Fig. 3-9 and finda response that is down least 60 dB a a frequency ratio of f/f — 5. Fg. 89 te fake « minimum of 7 elements proto eatalog of Butter: oth low-pass prototype values given in Table 5:2 sickle 7 ona, Fig, 3.22, Low-pass prototype cieut for Example 9-6, He then scale these values using Equations 3-12 and ‘M3. The first two values are worked out for vou. Rite ask a ae toe dist Liew tend F i dtu he vlan 7 ‘Table 3-64. Chebyshev Low-Pass Prototype Element ‘Values for 0.5-48 Ripple Se t 4 [a aa 2 188 0983 Taso 8000 0009 us 2500 0864 3.165 3003 0gTs gal 5.000 03986709, 20.070 vas 13.38 © 1307 0.975 3 1000 1866 1.980 1834 0.900 ro1a 90 ase 0800 1997 1199 2397 9700 2114 0s air 050 2557 om 5.430 0400 gens oaie| 3S38 030 3729 0463 S576 0200 5254 0309.22 0.100 9800 0153 16.118 = 18 1518 “oa 4 1884 0920 2586 1.304 ane 200 0845 = 2771s 88S 2500 0510 3798 0.569 a ton eos usa 5190 Oat 459 5.000 03107708 0.400.987 15352 0.104 1.000 0008 252 San LANO Loa ear ces 8_ h/t GG Simply roplace cach filter element with an element of the opposite type and with a re- ciprocal value. Thus, L, of Fig, 3.248 is equal to 1/G, of Fig. 384A. Titewine, C, Diy and Ls = /C,. Stated another way, if the low-pass prototype indi- cates a capacitor of 1.181 farad, then, uns am reduces swath a value of W/List Oat} henry, instead, for a high-pass design. However, the souree and load re. sistors should not be altered. Tho transforwation results in an attenuation characteristic for the high-pess ter tat anna mirror image of the low-pass attenuation characteris- tio, The ripple, if there is any. remaine the came and ‘the magnitude of the slope of the stopband (or pass-RF Cmourr Desicr Table 3-68. Chebyshev Low-Pass Prototype Element Values for 0.5-dB Ripple Stnenag/ A Gy G Te Gs Ts Cr Suey LaoO dion Seat en ms ane 0900154 ooo 12381970 500 1.938 300 8 LIST 2185, 0700 2005 393 10688470 0500 2457 437 oslo Bald 040 2.870 5206 806k 4.245, 0300 3.588 8g7l = 050855 61009556 167 0734 2 1.60 18 1540908 6 1.984 0.805 1368 «713.388 Bom sue yao. «S578 sov 2500 0.508 050 4108 O8h 33830387 ome = Seo 08S 5000 0.206 0406 = are aa ico 0096 oiet rast 02 7 tow 1.790 27s 13818 1790 0900 1835 2560 © 1308 2.889, 1.053 0.500 1.905 3013153107 2.108 0700 © ont ie 15a 245s So 2174 am osm ase 2.8 0500 2498 437 = 0B 22809 8405 0400 2.835 5205 0685 B40 428 0309 36 S67 os Tk Sens oa Sgr 1003521086 Bae 0100 8.458 19649 ©0173 an. 16.885 2 1646 201178) 194 0805 Siig a PET 7 oy as i band) skirts remains the same. Example 37 iustrates the design of high-pass filters. ‘A closer look at the filter designed in Example 3-7 reveals that it is symmetric. Indeed, all filters given termination clase are qymmetzic. The equal termination class of filter thus yields @ circuit that is easier to design (fewer calculations) and, in most cases, cheaper to build for a high-volume product, due to the number of equal valued components. THE DUAL NETWORK Thus far, we have been referring to the group of low-pass prototype element value tables presented and, then, we choose the schematic that is located either above or below the tables for the form of th filter that we are designing, depending on the val of Ry/Rs. Either form of the filter will produce exact: the same attenuation, phase, and group-delay charaé toritiog, and oach form ie called the deol of tho othe ‘Any filter network in a ladder arrangement, such ¢ the ones presented in this chapter, can be change int its dual form by application of the following rules 1, Change all inductors to capacitors, and vice-verst without changing element values. “Thus, 3 henrie ‘bovomoe 3 farader 2 Change all resistances into conductances, and vice versa, with the value unchanged. Thus, 3 ohms bt comes 3 mhos, or ¥ ohm.ron Desiow (A) Low-pass prototype creat ose ey (B) Equicalent high-pass prototype circutt 7g. 3:24. Low-pass to high-pass filer transformation ¢ all shunt branches to series branches, and 1 peers, Baoge all elements in series with eachother into ts that are in parallel with each other, ange all voltage sources into current sources, and MMPT6 shows a ladder network and its dual repre- ‘ettation, retworks are convenient, in the case of equal ‘Wiitinations, if you desire to change the topology of without changing the response, It is most fea used. shrwn in Eatenple OF to deat uy inductor which might have crept into the through some other transformation process, devices thew (egive and, theretore. exhibit higher losses, ‘These mai tend to cause insertion loss, in addition to gen degrading the overall performance of the flier reduced whenever posi experimentation with dual networks having cminations wil eves! that vou can aitly ‘nro trouble if you are not careful. This nally true if the load and source westerns es sign criteria and cannot be changed to sot of Your lier. Remember, whe te dual of & Unequal terminations Is taken, then, the s must, by definition, change’ value. as Fig, 3.26, BANDPASS FILTER DESIGN ;PaSs protntype eirouite and resposise cut ves Hs chapter can also be used in the design Aiters. This is done through a simple table 3-7A. Chebyshev Low-Pass Prototype Element Values for 1.0-aB 3 1.000 2216 1088 216 0500 4431017316 038 asst O72 ae coco saz ue BIS 015 17725 Osis B81 © 1852 1460 L108 4 3000 0.653 oss ann 4000 aoe Ose 2848 8.000 0300, 0428 3381 881108 transformation process similar to what was done in the high-pass case. Te stot task awaiting the designer of a bandpass filter, if the design isto be derived fom the low-pass prototype, is in specifying the bancpecs ne tenvatonharateritis i ing he, bandas at sponse curves. A method for doing this i shew ty the curves in Fig. 3-27. As you can see, whee lon, pass design is transformed into a bandnace deve, ue acenation bandwidth ratios remain the eoee This means that a low-pass filter with a 3.0 caf frequency, ora bandwidth of 2 kil, would trendy, into a hanlpace Biter with a oa borne nansforn KHz. If the response of the low-past network See dlown 90 dB ata frequency or bandwidth cfd ven, (fif,=2), then the response of the bandpass netwere suid be down sais at a bandwidth of 4 lle Tie, the normalized f/f. axis of the low-pass attesustinn caves becomes a ratio of bandwidths rather then fo ‘auencies. such that BW _ ft (Bq. 3-14) where, BW =the bandwidth at the required value of at- tenuation, BW. = the 3-dB bandwidth of the bandpass filter.oO RF Cxcurr Desv Ar eee eee : ? T a Be/Ry Gy Ly iy cy Ly cy pe a 2 i i i i fo ee ae So 2 Boe ie Rb Is Ly es Often a handpace reqpanen is not specified, ae in Example 38, Instead, the requirements are often given as attenuation values at specified frequencies as shown by the curve in Fig. 3-28, In this case, you ‘must transform the stated requirements into inforina- tion that takes the form of Equation 3-14. As an ox ample, consider Fig. 3.28. How do we convert the ate that ie given into the bandwidth ration we need? Before we can answer that, we have to find fy, Use the following method. ‘The frequency response of a bandpass filter exhibits ‘geometnie syinmetry. That i, it is only symmetric when plotted on a logarithmic scale, The center frequency ‘of a geometrically symmetric filter is given by the Formula. £=VEh (Eq. 3.15) where f, and fy are any two freauencies (one above td one below the paiband) having equal tients tion. Therefore, the center frequency of the response curve shown in Fig. $28 must be f= VUB)(75) MHz 38.1 MHz We can use Equation 0-15 ayatis ty Did fs 58.1 = VE(15) f)=27 MHz Now that f, is known, the data of Fig. 3-28 can’ put into the form of Equation 3-14 BWioan _ 195MHe— 27 MHz isan TSMHa— 45 MH =327 To find a low-pass prototype curve that will satish Ahcse reyutreinemt, simply Peet 0 any ofthe perine. graphs presented in this chapter and find a r which will provide 40 dB of attenuation at an f/fe 3.27. (A fourth-arder or hetter Bntterworth filter wit ao quite nicely.) Th ata eaormaton fom hel ps bandpass configuration is accomy Test crcl he pas ete ean cement of fe type and of the same value. All shunt elements of low-pass prototype circuit become parllel-espesion a 34, ‘ an LC(hihybass filter with anf. of 66 MBtz and ‘attentaton of 40 aB at 30 MHz. The source esitance sre ogual at 300 abs, Asse that = ‘pusband ripple is tolerable. er i tema eens 0h Besoctcoayie a, we set: 4 normalized low-pas filter that offers atleast eMUAUU Wa TEND Of ft =. Heterence to Fig ctenaation response of O5-dB-ripple Chebyshev fi cates that a normalized n = 5 Chebyshev wil pro. ‘needed attenuation, Table 3-8 contains the ele. ies coating stro em ‘rotofype circu shown in Fig 2-954. Note that atic below Table 2-68 was chosen asthe low past in mind however, thatthe ratio of Ra/Re is the as the ratio of Re/R, snd is unity. Therefore, it does which form is used for the prototype circuit teansform the lowpass circult to a high-pass net- by replacmg exch incctor witha capacitor, and vice. ‘wing reciprocal element values ae shown In Fig. Note here that had we begun with the lowpass pro: ireit shown above Table 3-6B, thie transformation neve yickled Higa eoutatning tree mito Pater the two shovn in Fig. 3-25B, The object in any of Alter designs is to reduce the number of inductors in design. Maze on this Tater. sade om al impedance and frequency using Equations tod 3:13, The first two calculations are dane for you B(OH TOTO) =490F a es a uy ly SFT o_o 1301 1308, 1 % G R (A) Normalized low-pass filter circuit 1 Misr Ree aaa & wn aswZ 4 ug ued oR ne (8) High-pass transformation, G & ure 2 aoe Late [athe ta Zou nn 1,301 ni R,g3000 (C) Frequency and impedence-secled filter circuit. ig. 8.25. High-pas filter design for Example 27. ea “The remaining values are: 33pF onr I nit “The final filter circuit is given in Fig. 3-25C. BUMPLE 3.8 fe the Butterworth low-pass prototype circuit which, AES stoned, would wabsty Yhe Tohowing bases veirements BWioe =2 Mie ten we are not concerned with the center Frequency bes response jst yet. We are only concemed the relationship between the above requitements tnd the low-pass response curves, Using Equation 14, we BW _f _BWe _ Mike MH ‘Therefore, tum to the Butterworth response curves shown Ip Fig 0 and Gnd « prototype value tat wil vide 90, 4B of attenuation at an f/f, = 3, The curves indicate a 5. clement Butterworth filter will provide the needed attens.e an} soa 7 °g 28 ws f T (8) Its dual form. Fig. 326. Duality (A) Low.pass prototype response (B) Bandpass response. Fig. 997, Low pao bau Transformation bandwidths, Fig. 3.28, Typical bandpass specifications. RF Crrcurr Desiewit ble 3-84. Bessel Low-Pass Prototyne Klement Values ————___—_—_—___ Aaa at 0900 037 ages, 2375 500 O41. onze ka 700 0468 ass 2.858 0.600 0537 © oss8 3916 0500 0635 0.450 3714 457 2500 0089 Lod oak 4543 3533 0000 S117 0.300 5.805 Fig. 3.29, Low-pass to bandpass circuit transformatioo citeuits. and all carne slomente bosom seria feson™ cireuits. This process is illustrated in Fig, 320.3% To complete the design, the transformed filteTable 9-6B. Bessel Low-Pass Prototype Element Values = Ci Te Ce Le Cr 3 140507 0800 0193' 0454 0859 0.985 015° 0402 0.986870 0700 «OMS 03K) Lak (704 0000 0204 Oa) 1SI4 SL 0500 ©0338 O27) SeT OB 0400 0419 0198-1646 OanT 0300 0585-0 3STT IT 0100 = 1635 0.048 7.504.104 @ 1513 oes O753 (aT 6 1.900 0157 0.400 08390854 2.985 Lim oma oa aera ome Bo 1250 010804950508 1.080 2055 1499 0040564041207 2.908 16eT 008006550378 Lon 3.300 2000 ©0067 = OTR2.oals Ts Bale 2500 oss TSM] oBs ao 3333 © 00112800185 2.703 587 5000 ©0028 «= «1283 018S 4.120 378 10.000 «00133815086 15951 = 13 Luss UBS Ot os 1 1000 oi = 0385052502 11052286, 0900 012.2) ©0830 0990 2.440 9.500 © OST 0.358 8.520558 oss 2.656 Gnu 08 e Osa O72 = «ue 0.000 ©0182 103,086S (OLB oes 3.08 0500 © O3IT le) 1082 0386 0537 3.800 0300 0270187128578 on7 4a 0.000 0.083.008 a80 ea 5.800 0300 «53K uss 0308362 0100 1061 oast 508200888307 © lod. BIT 2 Tso 10290555 —O@TS 00S IKON a AWA Gr Ta TC Te G Tr Rob ob & & Siam cin) ein) am then frequency- and impedance-scaled using the fol- lowing formulas. Por the parellel-scovumul Lema, C, caso, (Bq. 318) t=, 83 (8q.3:17) wey 3 and, for the sertes-resonant branches, B Fig. 9.0, Typical band-reeton iter curves. O° SCR anepe (Bq.3:19) where, in all cases, the final load impedance, the 3-dB bandwidth ofthe Bnal design, the geometric center frequency of the final de- rr 1 te normalized Inductor bandpass element values, n = the normalized capacitor bandpass element "values. Example 3-9 furnishes one final example of the pro- cedure for designing a bandpass filter SUMMARY OF THE BANDPASS FILTER DESIGN PROCEDURE 1. Transform the bandpass requirements into an equivalent low-pass requirement using Equation 3M 2, Refer to the low-pass attenuation curves provided in order to find a response that meets the requirements of Step 1. nd the curespunding low-pass prototype and write it down. 4. Transform the low-pass network into a bandpass configuration, 5. Scale the bandpass configuration in both impedance and frequency using Equations 3-16 through 3-19, BAND-REJECTION FILTER DESIGN Band-tejection filters are very similar in design ap- proach tn the handlpace Stor of the last section, Only, in this case, we want to reject a certain group of fre- ‘quencies as shown by the curves in Fig, 3.30. ‘The band-reject filter lends itself well to the low- pass prototype design approach using the same proce. dures as were used for the bandpass design. First, define the bandstop requirements in terms of the low: base sttennation curves. Thio ie done by using the inverse of Equation 3-14, Thus, referring to Fig, 3-30, wo have: ‘This sets the attenuation characteristic that is needed and allows yuu tw read directly off the low-pass at- tenuation curves by substituting BW./BW for f/f on the normalized frequency axis. Once the number of elements that are reauired in the low.nase nratotye circuit is determined, the low-pass network is trans. formed into a band-reject configuration as follows: ach chunt slamont in the low pace prototype circuit is replaced by a shunt series resonant circuit, and each serieselement is replaced by a series parallel-resonant circu, RF Crcurr Destox EXAMPLE 3.9 Design a bends flter with the following requirements: 15 Miz Passband Ripple = 1 dB R 35 Mile Solution Using Equation 3-14 Subsceue this vatue tor t/te in the low-pass attenuation ‘cures for the I-dB-ipple Chebyshev response shove fn Fig, 3-18. This reveals that a S-element Biter will provide about 50 aB of attenuation a Biter can he found in Tele 9-7 for an Ta == O° and 4 = 3. This yields the low-pass prototype iruit of Fig. 3.524 hich I andomed ito te Bandas tone Gieulof Fig 598 Pinly, ning Eoueser eo Le ene S78) oblnin the Gal ica tat sshown in Pigg SSN, The caleulation fllow. Using Equations 3-16 and 217 4431 = SMT TRY 1007 pF (100)¢7 >< 108) FaUTS x 108)3 4437) AT nt Using Equations 18 and 8.19 = BRE TOT OBTIIIOO =24pF 10090817 to Bet x 108) = 186 ait Zap sown in Fig Noe tat both elements bare of the resonant circuits have the same norms value inva the prototype cout has been transformed int its band-reject configuration, itis then scaled in it dance and frequency using the following formula For al seriesxesonant circuits 7 Fig. 3-31. Low-as to bandereg!traneformatinn(A) ow puse rose ere As oar 28 “pb ope (B) Bondyas transformation. ras 24 pF Lab ult 007 pt Bae att (ovr Fig. 9.92, Bandpass iter design for Example 9-9. inet with froguenay and tnpedance suse i Fl ig: 0-00, The elect uf finer efements on ter response. (Eq.3-22) (Eq. 3-23) a bad ‘the 3-dB bandwidth, =e inal load Gala nae Cemetery nen ‘value, 4.= the normalized inductor bandcreject element Value, ‘THE EFFECTS OF FINITE Q Thus far in this chapter, we have assumed the in- ductors snd capacitors used in the designs to be lossless. Indeed, all of the response curves presented in this chapter are based on that assumption. But we now from onr pravinue study: of Chapters 1 and 2 that even though capacitors can be approximated as having infinite Q, inductors cannot, and the effects of the Gnite-Q inductor must be taken into account tm any flter design. ‘The use of finite element Q in a design intended for lossless elements causes the following unwanted effects Grofer to Fig 2.4)- 1. Insertion loss of the filter is increased whereas the final stopband attenuation does not change. ‘The relative attenuation batwoon the two is decreased 2. At frequencies in the vicinity of cutoff (f.), the response becomes more rounded and usually results in an attenuation greater than the 3 dB that was onginally intended. 3. Ripple that was designed into the passband will be reduced. If the element Q is sufficiently low, ripple will bo totally eliminated 4. For band-reject filters, the attenuation in the stop- band becomes finite. This, coupled with an increase in passband insertion loss, decreases the relative attenuation significantly Regardless of the gloomy predictions outlined above, however, it is possible to design filters. using the approach oullined in this chapter, that very closely resemble the ideal response of each network. The key is to use the highest-Q inductors available for the sivon tack, Tablo 2 0 outlines the revnmuealed ain ‘mum element-Q requirements for the filters presented in this chapter, Keep in mind, however, that anytime a low-Q component is used, the actual attenuation response of the network strays from the ideal response to a degree depending upon the clement Q. It i therefore, highly recommended that you make it hhabit to eo only the highest-Q componreuty avatlable ‘Table 39, Filter Element-Q Requirements Minimum Element Q Fier Type Required Bessel Buttervort OOT-dB Chebyshev 01-28 Chebyahey 05-48 Chebyshev LdB Chebyshev The insertion Joss of the filters presented in this chapter can be calculated in the same manner as was eed in Chaptor 2. Simply replace each ronctive ele ment with resistor values corresponding to the Q of the element and, then, exercise the voltage division rule from source to load.