Mitchell Johnson

Dr. Dunbar
ENG 432
3 October 2013
Setsuwa and Zen:
The Relationship of Form and Content
The image of the moon, alone, in an empty sky, is thoroughly Buddhist; just as the sky is
empty albeit for the moon, the devout Buddhist should empty themselves of the sufferings of
humankind, and be a beacon of enlightenment to a darkened world. The Moon Cannot Be
Stolen, found in the compilation Sand and Pebbles, illustrates these values in perfect alignment
with the setsuwa genre, a style that was prevalent during the rise of Zen Buddhism in thirteenthcentury Japan, and focuses on concise, direct anecdotes. The Zen Buddhist tradition can partly
be attributed to Dogen, the founder of the Soto School of Zen, one of the two major schools of
Zen in Japan. In his work, the Shobogenzo Zuimonki, he outlines core virtues of Zen,
specifically the importance of compassion-wisdom, which are deemed two-sides of the same
coin (Mikkelson 230). This key attribute of Buddhism, along with its emphasis on an
unadorned lifestyle, is reflected in the brevity of the setsuwa genre.
The Moon Cannot Be Stolen was written during the rise of Zen Buddhism in Japan. An
influential figure in this movement was Dogen who founded the Soto School of Zen in 1227.
Zen Buddhism, like traditional Mahayana Buddhism, emphasizes the emptiness of materials in
an impermanent world. The only way to escape the inevitable suffering found in the world is to
acknowledge the emptiness of desires and to seek enlightenment through meditation and
moderation. Along with these core values, Dogen outlines the mandatory virtue of

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compassion-wisdom in the Shobogenzo Zuimonki, a discussion of the necessary qualities of a
person who practices Zen Buddhism (Mikkelson 230). In the Mahayana tradition, compassion
and wisdom are inseparable and at the root of every virtue required of a Zen Buddhist monk
(Mikkelson 230). To explain, Dogen tells a parable of a monk who steals money from the
government and gives it to the people and, for his dishonesty to the court, was sentenced to
death. The emperor knew the monk in question, knew him to be an honest man and, finding the
reason for the monks dishonesty was his compassion for the destitute, the emperor let him live.
For this reason, Dogen names compassion-wisdom his only mandatory virtue; the virtue a
Buddhist monk must possess before any other nonmandatory virtue (of which honesty is one)
is achieved (Mikkelson 229).
Another important consideration is the prevalence of the setsuwa genre in twelfth century
Japan and the genres close relationship with Zen Buddhism. Setsuwa is defined as having a
distinct "brevity; an uncomplicated plot unfolded in plain, direct language; character delineation
through dialogue and action rather than through description and psychological analysis; and a
predilection for amusing, starting, dramatic, or marvelous subject matter (McCullough 7-8).
Emphasizing brevity and direct language make the setsuwa the perfect vehicle to communicate
Buddhist morals that also emphasize an unadorned, simple lifestyle.
Not only does The Moon Cannot Be Stolen evince the core virtues of Zen by being a
setsuwa, its form reinforces its content. Ryokan, the Zen master in the story, exemplifies core
Buddhist beliefs previously discussed: rejection of materials and compassion-wisdom. He lives
in a little hut at the foot of a mountain, separated from society; a thief visits but is instantly
thwarted because there was nothingto steal in Ryokans humble lodgings (560). By
relinquishing earthly materials, Ryokan avoids the suffering that losing these materials would

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create but he takes it one step farther: when he catches the prowler he does not want to see
him leave empty-handed so he gives him the clothes off his back (560). Now naked, with the
thief bewildered and slinking away, Ryokan has truly seen Buddhist enlightenment; he is
empty of all material desires, he has shown the wisdom to not resist a stronger opponent, and he
has shown compassion towards a person who typically would be spurned (560). By keeping the
form of the story short, direct, and unambiguous the benevolent theme of the anecdote is not
hidden from the reader. This shows a compassion for the reader because the theme is easily
communicated, and it shows wisdom because if the writer wants to promote the practice of Zen
Buddhism an understandable parable is the best way to ensure its transference. In addition, the
elegant austerity of the setsuwa is an exemplary illustration of the Buddhist priority of an
unornamented lifestyle. The final image, a naked man bathed in the moonlight, caps a
profoundly Buddhist parable with a profoundly Buddhist image: Ryokan is a figure covered in
white light in a world darkened all around him; he has shown compassion for a man who had no
good intentions towards him, and he feels no resentment, only a pity he could not communicate
the beauty of the moon to a lost soul.
This final emptiness reemphasizes the importance of the setsuwa to the establishment of Zen
Buddhism in Japan. Dogen, although instrumental in the spread of Zen, was only the beginning;
there had to be a direct method to translate his ideals into the canon of Japanese literature.
Already image oriented and brief in nature, Japanese literature was ripe for the introduction of
the setsuwa; its brevity played perfectly into the unmaterialistic, compassionate, and meditative
practices of Zen. In a perfect coincidence of form and content, the setsuwa genre and Zen
Buddhism established an important place in the canon of Japanese literature, and their marriage
is a valuable insight into the effect religion has on literary form.

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Works Cited
Barnstone, Willis, and Tony Barnstone. "The Moon Cannot Be Stolen." Literatures of Asia,
Africa, and Latin America: From Antiquity to the Present. Trans. Nyogen Senzaki and
Paul Reps. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1999. 560. Print.
McCullough, Hellen C. Classical Japanese Prose: An Anthology. Stanford: Stanford UP, 1990.
7-8. Print.
Mikkelson, Douglas K. "Toward a Description of Dogen's Moral Virtues." Journal of Religious
Ethics 34.2 (2006): 225-51. JSTOR. Web. 19 Sept. 2013.