CHAPTER TWO. Elastic Behavior of Members 2.1, ELASTIC BEHAVIOR {In the inital stages of loading and often throughout a substantial portion of the loading history the behavior of structures can be represented by assuming elastic behavior. This means that the structure will return to its original undeflected position upon the removal of the loads (Fig. 1.1) ‘We shall start the study of structural behavior by examining some topics ‘about the elastic response of prismatic members, because this serves as an initial step in understanding, not only the elastic behavior of members and frames, but also their later inelastic response. In this chapter we shall discuss the stresses and deformations resulting from the separate effects of bending moment, axial force, shear force, and twisting moment. The final section is devoted to the development of the differential equations of bending for the 2se. 22 PLASTIC REHAVIOR OF MEMBERS 2 «ase in which the changes of geometry due to deformation cannot be neglected and bending, torsion, and compresion interact with each other. tis assumed in this chapter that the material is elastic, homogeneous (that is, it has the same elastic properties everywhere in the bar), and isotropic (that is, the elastic properties are the same in every direction), Furthermore, wwe assume that the strains and deformations are relatively small. These are the usual assumptions of the theory of elasticity. *" 2.2, RESPONSE TO BENDING MOMENT AND AXIAL FORCE, Consider the cross section of a bar as shown in Fig. 2.1(a). This bar is ‘ofan arbitrary shape. Any cross section can be located along the longitudinal axis by the coordinate z. Any point in a section can be identified from the x coordinate system. A force P acting parallel to the = axis and in its po: tive direction is applied at a distance e. and e, from the origin of the x-y system. This force can be resolved into a force P through the origin and into ‘wo bending moments Mf, = Pe, and M, = —Pe,. These three forces are shown in Fig. 2.1(b); the bending moments are shown as vectors with direc- tions defined by the right-hand rule (see inset). The vectors in Fig. 2.1(b) define the sign convention: Tensile forces are positive, and moments are positive according to the right-hand rule. ‘The forces P, M,, and M, will cause stresses inthe z direction (positive in tension). From elementary strength of materials it can be shown that normal stress is equal to" Po May Myx ater provided that the s-p axi-system is a centroidal and principal axis system, that i, Qa) fvda =f xd4=[ sda =o (2.2) and — _ —=S—=Ssese 2 where dA is an area element dy dv, 4 is the eross-sectional area, and I, and J, are the moments of inertia about the x and the y axes, respectively. The corresponding strain is Po My Myx °~ aE * Fi, ~ Ei, ea) From Eqs. (2.1) and (2.4) we see that the stresses and strains caused bym4 ELASHIC BEHAVIOR OF MEMBERS sec, 22 or © Fig. 2.1. Cross section of a bar subjected to bending and axial force the three forces P, Mz, and M, can be separated. The axial force P will elongate a small length element dz (Fig. 2.1) by the amount e dz = P dz/AE. Since the strains due to M, and M, are zero at x = y =0, the centroidal axis of the element will not change its length if P = 0. But away from the neutral axis the strains vary as the distance from it and the element will bend, ‘The measure of this bending is the curvature & which denotes the change in the slope of the centroidal axis between two points dz gpart. From Fig. 2.2 wwe see that in the y-2 plane som and, = £ 2.5) tan, = @5)sc. 23 ELASTIC BEHAVIOR OF MEMBERS 25 Fig. 2.2. Curvature, strain, and stress due to bending ‘We now make the usual assumption that the strains are small, tan ®, =, and 0 = a (2.6) From Eq, (24) we see that for P = AM, M, Similarly it can be shown that M,= EI, 8) M,y/EI,, and thus en 2.3, SHEAR STRESSES DUE TO BENDING Bending moments are usually accompanied by shear forces unless the moments do not vary along the length of the bar. The determination of the shear stresses is complicated for a general cross section (see Chap. 12 of Ref. 2.1), and so we shall introduce further stipulations to arrive at a simpler6 FLASTIC BEHAVIOR OF MEMBERS sec. 23 solution. The first of these is that we restrict the discussion to thin-walled members having an open cross section. A cross section is thin-walled if its thickness is of a smaller order of mag- nitude than its other dimensions; itis ‘open if the middle line does not contain a closed loop. Such a section is shown in Fig, 2.3. We can define the position of any general point O(x, ») on the middle line by the centroidal princi- pal axis system x, y, z, and also by its distance 5 from point O(x, ») at the edge of the cross section. ‘The thick- Midate tine (45,4) Origin of reterence s Eig, ya) End ofeterence = E10" como nes fisasumed tobe a function of Oty) Geer pot ‘The point Sin this igure isthe shear SC) sauce ons 1 Tikes freon ot eee ee s Coerinae olong missle line ct tion was prompted by the fact that the ey ROSE at un sheastess an be asted tbe 27 [efgkedcalowrogelovs uniform across the thickness of thin plate; the choice of an open setion was dictated by considerations which will become obvious later. A great ‘many practical metal sections, such as the wide lange, the tee, or the angle, ‘can be treated as thin-walled open sections. ‘We shall also make the assumptions that (1) the member is straight and prismatic (that is, the thickness does not vary with 2) and (2) the eross sec- ‘ion will retain its shape. This lst assumption isan extension of the earlier assumption thatthe stains are small. Since the deformations are related to the strains, statement 2 above means that we are formulating the equilibrium equations onthe undeformed element. Fig,23. Dimensions ofa thin-walled open ‘roi section STRESSES “The general thin-walled cross section showa in Fig. 2.4(a) is assumed to be subjected to a positive shear force V, aeting parallel to the y axis through the shear center S, The shear stress is distributed uniformly across the plate thickness 4, resulting in a shear flow rt acting atthe middle line. Also shown in Fig, 24a) are the forces acting on an element ¢ ds d= ofthe cross section. ‘The longitudinal stresses are due to the bending moment M,, which is also present but is not shown (M, and P are assumed to be 2er0). Equilibrium of the forces acting on this element and manipulations familiar from elementaryste. 23 ELASTIC BEHAVIOR OF MEMBERS 2 de MW e —( {A \ + ee 7 LY be r Fig. 24. Shear sexes on an element fa thin-wals pen rss ton strength of materials give the folowing expression forthe shear flow: ie <1 fives 29) Equation (2.9) reflects the fact that the shear stress at the edge (s — 0) is zero. "The application of Ea. (2.8) is straightforward if we have an open ros section. I the cross-sectional shape contains ane ot more closed cel we do not know for the starting point ofthe integration. We have, in fact staal inde terminate problem, and we must invoke the condition of the compatibility’ of the shear deformations, The shear stress dstbution of multicellular cross sections is discussed further in Ref. 24, for example,28 ELASTIC BEHAVIOR OF MEMBERS sec, 23 “The term {yf dss the statial moment of the area taken at the point where 71 is desired. At the other edge of the cross section (point E, Fig. 2.3) the shear flow is also zero, since [£31 ds = fy dA = 0 (Eq. (2.2), tds = dA and the integral over the region OF denotes integration along the middle line from one ‘edge to the other}. The units of the shear flow are force per unit length of the midale line THE SHEAR CENTER We define the shear center as the point S(x., 9) in the plane of the cross section through which the shear force V, must act ifno twisting of the section is to take place. This means that the resultant torsional moment about C fr any other point in the plane of the eross section must be zero. For the situation shown in Fig. 2.4(a) and (b), for example, [mtd nr, =0 ‘where p isthe lever arm of the shear flow zt and x, is the lever arm of the shear force V,. The negative sign for V, was used to denote the reacting rather than the resultant shear force, as shown in Fig. 2.4(b). Rearrange ment of this expression and substitution of the formula for ¢ (Eq. (2.9) gives Lf A fire) ax ‘We shall now manipulate Eq. (2.10) to make it eoincide with con- cepts to be introduced when we dis- cuss torsion, From Fig. 2.5 we see that the incremental area dd, en= closed by the cross-hatched sector is 4A, = 4p ds, The total area from O tosisthen dy — 4 ftp ds. We define 4 new term a, having units of area, as the double sectorial area or the anit warping with respect to. the centroid Fg. 25, Defiton ofthe “sectoral area” o= y= [ode aun With this new definition p ds ~ dy and so Eq. (2.10) can be written as Vee sn} [peda We now integrate by parts, that is, {f de — aol — Jf 6d, With @ and di = do,da = yrdsand 5 = a, or (of [onasec. 24 ELASTIC BEHAVIOR OF MEMBERS » The term fF yrds =0 [Eq. (2.2). With a newly defined cross-sectional property, the warping product of inertia (units of length tothe fith power) t= ore aw the sear ete cation ay By performing a similar derivation for the shear force V, due to M, in the x-2 plane, we obtain the following expressions for the shear flow and the shear center: ¥ ans Ye in (2.16) wee tam [fase am ‘The positive direction of Vis in the positive x direction. The sketch in Fig, 2.4(©) shows the reacting direction of this shear force. With Eqs. (2.9) and (2.15) we can now determine the stresses due to V, and Vj, respectively, and Eqs. (2.14) and (2.16) define the location through which these shears must act in order to avoid twisting. 2.4, THE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF BENDING DEFLECTIONS. In the previous sections we have shovsn how to compute the longitudinal stresses 7 and the shear stresses 7 for prismatic members having a general thinewalled open cross section whichis subjected to an axial force P, bending moments M, and M,, and shear forces V, and V,, We shall now show how these forces can be determined, and we shall develop expressions whereby the deflection due to bending can be computed. In accordance withthe principle of superposition we shall treat the forces and deformations in the )-2 and the x-z plane separately. An element of a ‘beam of length ds is shown in Fig. 2.6(a). The end forces on this element consist of shear forces V, and V, ++ d¥, and bending moments M, and 1M, dM, The moments are represented by vectors with two arrows in this, figure; thei direction is determined in accordance with the right-hand rule. In addition to the end forces a uniformly distributed load 4, is also present (postive in the positive y direction) Both the end shears and g, act in a plane parallel to the )-r plane through the shear center S, and so no twisting mo-30 ELASTIC BEHAVIOR OF MEMBERS see. 24 ray, i +0, mrem, (le 4 Say {> “ y My ray wo @ Fg. 2.6. Fores inthe y+: plane of » bar element ment is present. The only deformation under such loading will be the deflec- tion in the +z plane. This deflection v is positive if it isin the direction of the positive y coordinate, In Fig, 2.6(6) and (c) we sce the clement of Fig. 2.6(a) in the x.y and the yz planes respectively. All forces in Fig. 2.6 are shown positive. From Fig. 2.6(0), the equilibrium of forces in the vertical direction gives = aay ‘The equilibrium of moments gives the following relationship if the terms (de)! and (d¥,) de, representing terms of a smaller order of magnitude thansec, 24 ELASTIC REHAVIOR OF MEMBERS 3 the remaining terms, are neglected: aM, 19) If we differentiate Eg, (2.19) once and substitute into Eq, (2.18), we obtain the differential equation of bending @M, =a (2.20) ‘This equation can be also written [with Eq. (2.7)] as EL®! = —4, 2.21) where the primes indicate differentiation with respect to z. The curvature of a plane curve can be expressed mathematically in terms of the deflection v as 222) “TF where the primes again represent differentiation with respect to 2. Since the deflections are assumed to be small, the term (v) < 1.0, and therefore = 0" 023) and setting Eq, (2.23) into Eq. (2.21), El =4q, em In the case that the beam is not uniform, J, is also a function of z, and then the differential equation becomes LEI’) =a, 225) ‘The deflection v is obtained by integrating the differential equation with respect to 2, By an identical process we can also develop the differential equation of bending in the x-r plane (with forces g., V,, and M,) Eli” = qe (2.26) In Eq. (2.26) w is the deflection in the positive x direction, g. and V, are positive when acting in the positive x direction, and M, is positive as shown in Fig. 2, From the differential equations of bending (Eqs, (2.24) and (2.26)] the deflections v and uw in the y and x directions, respectively, and the slopes 2° and w’ can be determined. We are also able to find the forces V,, Vis Muy and M, at any location 2 along the longitudinal axis from the relationships Ely", 22732 FLASTIC BEHAVIOR OF MEMBERS sec, 24 Deflection Fig. 2.7. Forces ating ata cut along the longitudinal axis and Vi = Ele", Ve = Sly” (2.28) “The stresses at any location in the eross section ean then be determined from Eqs. (2.1), 29), and (2.15). The fares acting at any cross setion are shown in thei positive direction in Fig. 27. Before going on to discuss stresses due to torsion we shall examine the assumptions underlying the derivations ofthe foregoing equations. In order to apply all these equations with confidence, iis necessary that the following assumptions hold: (1) the material is elastic, 2) the members are prismatic and straight, 3) the eross sections are thin-walled and open, (4) plane sections remain plane, (8) the deformations are small, (6) shear deformations are neglected, and (7) the shape of the cross section remains unchanged. Assump- tions (1) and (5) permit us to use superposition, to neglect higher-order terms, and to formulate the equilibrium on the undeformed element. We have also neglected the effect of shear on the curvature since itis small compared with unity. This isa very reasonable assumption forall except very short members, ‘This long lst of assumptions would seem to be restrictive. Fortunately, this is not so; great many practical problems can be solved with this theory, and as we know, the theory is used in many applications in determining the strength of materials and in the theory of statically determinate and indeter- minate structures, Since the deformations are assumed to have no effect on the magnitude of the internal fores, we call this type of an analysis irst- order analysisseo. 25 [ELASTIC BEHAVIOR OF MEMRERS 3 25. TORSIONAL STRESSES AND DEFORMATIONS GENERAL COMMENTS: (ON TORSION PROBLEMS ‘One of the principal distinguishing features of the response of members to torsion is that sections which were originally plane are no longer so after the ‘visting moment is applied, that is, the cross section will warp. Exceptions to this rule are solid or tubular circular sections and thin-walled sections for Which all elements intersect at a point, such as the cruciform, angle, and tee sections. These sections do not warp under torsion, Depending on whether a crass section is free to warp or whether warping is restrained, we distinguish ‘between uniform (or pure, or St. Venant) or nonuniform (or warping) torsion, respectively. In general both types of torsion will be present; their effects can bbe separated if we remain within the limits of our previously stated assump- tions. ‘The study of the torsion of general cross sections is beyond the scope of this book and belongs to topics usually studied in the theory of elasticity Because ofits later relevance we shall concentrate here on the torsion of thin- walled members of open cross section. Open sections are very inefficient in torsion, and are susceptible to lateral-torsional. buckling which involves torsion even though no intentional torsional loading is applied.* UNIFORM TORSION ‘The study of the uniform torsion of thin-walled open cross sections is greatly simplified by the fortuitous fact that certain relationships exist be- tween the Corsion problem and the deformations of a membrane stretched across an opening equal in size and shape to the cross section for which the torsional properties are desired. This leads to the membrane analogy, with Which the reader is assumed to be acquainted from his study of the strength of materials." Table 2.1 lists these analogous relationships and explains the notation used. This table states that (I) the stress function W, which is a ‘measure of the torsional deformations, is analogous to the deflection # of the membrane, (2) the shear stresses due fo torsion correspond to the slopes of the membrane, and (3) the volume under the membrane is related to the twisting moment. We shall first consider the torsion of a thin rectangular element subjected ‘Torsion problems in general are covered in texts on the theory of elasticity (For cxample, Ref. 21), The torsion of closed thin-walled single and multicll members i treated in most aircraft structure texts; Refs, 2.5 and 2.645 well as Chap. IV in Ref 118 area limited sampling of other available literature on this subiect, » Se, for example, Chap. 11, Ref 2.1 or Chap, 9, Rel. 22.4 ELASTIC BEHAVIOR OF MEMBERS see. 25 Table 2.1. MeaRane-toRsion ANALOGY Membrane ‘Torsion Differential equation Differential equation: Be Po acy Bh 4 EY = aay Sires function y 268 Stes Fr. Moment Mor =2 ff sodedy Mee Mer [Notaion. x»: ordinates in plane of eros section {pressure perpendicular to membrane F: Gkeumferential force ingle of twist per unit length G: shear modulus toa torsional moment My, as shown in Fig 2.8(a). The subscript SV identifies ‘Mas a twisting force causing uniform or St. Venant torsion, We assume that a membrane is stretched across an opening bt, where 6 and f are the depth and thickness ofthe cross section, respectively [Fig. 2.(b)). Except atthe very ends, the membrane will deform into a parabolic shape under a pressure 4 (Fig. 2.(0)]. We shall assume that th element is thin-walled and so b> therefore we shall neglect the end effects and assume that the membrane deforms everywhere into the same shape. The height ofthe membrane atthe middle line i Zand the equation ofthe parabola is Azoyt 7 The slope of this parabola is di _8hy Go This isa linear function of y, and thus the slope of the membrane as well as the shear stress varies as shown in Fig, 2.8(c). The stress is zero at the middle line and maxinvum at the outside faces of the plate. Thus at y = 1/2 Cons ‘The equilibrium of the forces on the membrane is qib — 26F sina = 0. But for small membrane deformations sin « ~ ce = 43,/r, and thus « Assomption of smalt:membrane deformations is requited not only For the reason shown above, The force qacls perpendicular to the deformed membrane, and oaly iis less than 15° fs our assumption ofa vertical force reasonable (Ref 2.7),we. 25 + LASTIC BEHAVIOR OF MEMBERS 35 oy ee Fig, 2.48. Uniformly distributed twisting GK," — EL" = —m, (2.61) moment ona bar ment46 ELASTIC BEHAVIOR OF MEMBERS sec, 25 Equations (2.65) and (2.67) can be written as and “Pinned End a (2.68) og" (2.69) Ieeo! Cove 7 1 Practical Cose 1207" laioghragm permis ALO Fworing bu prohibits ¥ sg eee! cose Procicl Case ig. 2.16, Torsional boundary conditionssc, 26 ELASTIC BEHAVIOR OF MEMBERS a where 1 GK uaG (270) ‘The solution of Eq. (2.68) can be written either in the form" b= 64 Ce + Ge any Mz B= G4 Coeoshnz + Cinna + ME en For the uniformly distributed twist the slution i b= C4 Oz + Cooshaz+ Csinhar— 2 (2.73) 26K; The coefficients C;, C., Cy, Ci, Cis Co, and C; are constants of integra tion and are determined from the boundary conditions of the twisted mem- ber. If at any boundary =, the section cannot twist; if 4’ = 0, no warping can take place [“fixed” end; sce Eq. (2.41); if ¢” = 0, warping is not restrained [“pinned” end; ay = 0 from Eq. (2.55)}; and if 4” = 0, the shear flow due to warping is zero (“free” end). The sketches in Fig, 2.16 show two types of practical boundary conditions.* 2.6, SUMMARY OF THE FIRST-ORDER ELASTIC SOLUTIONS ‘COMBINED STRESSES In Sees, 2.2 through 2.5 we discussed the individual effects of axial force, ‘bending moments, and torsion, respectively. We introduced a considerable number of new cross-sectional properties and many formulas. The most ‘important of these are summarized in Table 2.2 for easy reference. This table also lists the assumptions which underlie all the formulas, so that it will be easier to resist the temptation to use them where they do not apply. There are of course many more situations which could have been examined, but they are not relevant to the later portions of this book, and the student can refer to the cited literature for further study. As already noted, the cross-sectional forces will produce longitudinal stresses o and shear stresses 7. Each of these will be composed of the sum of the stresses due to axial force, bending, and torsion, Within the limits of the assumptions we can superimpose these stresses. This first-order analysis "The practical design of welds for such connections is discussed in Ref. 2.15. The problem of restrained warping at the en (that is, continuous beams under torsion) is treated by Goldberg in Ref 2.168 ELASTIC BEHAVIOR OF MEMBERS ste. 26 leads to excellent results in many practical situations, and as will be seen later, is considerably simpler than a second-order analysis in which equilibrium is formulated on the deformed structure. ‘Table 22. Surovany oF Foasuias FoR AXIAL FoRcE, BENDING, AND TORSION 1. Assumptions (2) The material i elastic (©) xand y are principal ceniroidal coordinates. (©) Member i staight and prismatic. {@) Cross setion i thin-walled and open (6) Cross section doesnot change shape, © Exqulibium is formulated forthe undeformed member. () Deletions are smal 2. Cross-sectional properties (a) Properties dependent on s fire r= finde beep ay F301 ove fete a Su floutde (Propet othe ros ston fisrds= [sea [Ford —0 fede ay [Prt ts [lortde tos [Fatde tas [ede [fave Ips © Units Lengthy: 5.x (Lengthy: 6:9 oye A (hengtins: Slay (lengthy Ton oy lengthy: 1 3 Differemial equations (a) Asi force: = Pade (0) Bending aout x ais: 2480") ay (© Bending about y axis: (10°) ~ ae (a) Concent trae: Gig — Els” = = C44 Cyooshas + Cast a ME Co) Uniformly dst frase: Gkrg" ~ Ee" = me B= C+ Cart Cocos ts 4 Csi as =0. 26 ELASTIC BEHAVIOR OF MEMBERS 4% “Fable 22 (Cont) 4, Stresses (@) Doe to axial force: rr — (6) Due to bending and shear: ¢ne = Me2; oyy = —Mu® vm = Hp fives rm = He (©) Duet torsion sve ‘aries linearly across thickness (Fig. 299) om = Bayh ie Mee a uniform across thickness of plate ‘The longitudinal stress is made up as follows (tensile stresses are posi tive): Po My Mx oa Me ME Ba em ‘The corresponding equation for the shear stresses is Hv, [iyeds vy fixed py gn cele oie es aw ans Each term in Eqs. (2.74) and (2.75) consists of two parts: One part refers tothe variation ofthe stress along the longitudinal axis 7(P, Me, My, Vin Vp, $'", 4), and the other part defines the variation of the stress inthe eross section (x, 3, eas (1/6) fe yt ds, (1/t) fg.xt ds, S,, ). The analysis problem then consists in determining the variation of these two types of quantities and locating the positions where the combined stresses are maximum. We are cady familiar with this procedure from drawing shear and moment dia rams, For the torsional components itis necessary to know the variation of and Because of the more complicated nature of the differential equation this could bea rather laborious procedure, and it wil be illustrated by several examples in Sec. 2.7. Charts for twelve Frequently occurring tor- sional loadings have been published" and with the help of these the maxi- mum values of ¢', @”, and ', and their locations can be obtained very rapidly. These charts ate presented in a nondimensional form and are appl cable for any material and cross section. The computation of the torsional section properties (0, J et.) for «toss sections made of plate elements [Fig, 2.9(6)] is greatly simplified by the fact that between points of intersection the unit warping properties oe, and , vary linearly. In Fig. 2.17 one such plate element ij is chosen. The variation of esis showin inthis figure. From geometry we an determine that (orm ouks— 8)0 ELASTIC BEHAVIOR OF MEMBERS see. 26 where x; and x, are the x coordinates of the ends of the element, and oy and o, are the corresponding values of w. If we now wish to calculate [F ext ds, we can write Ft Pg, 4 (ele 2) ] ae wiz [i [a+ ese In tis expression we used the relationship (rom Fig. 2.17) ds = dxjos a, Fig. 2.7, Distribution of w on plate element ‘Table 2.3. FonMuas rox Sections win Sraoits PLATES [as Shown IN Fic. 2.9(6)) Bemba ° “Be oy J Bleu + ends] — 07 (ook, + ox Moby + HE (ay + Op Mobys * & (oun } oy doby + & Blows + yt,ste. 26 ELASTIC BEHAVIOR OF MEMBERS st By performing the integration and noting that cos a = (x) — ¥d/byy We se, after some algebra, the following expression for Jax ie In = Similarly derived equations for other properties ar listed in Table 2. and their uses are illustrated in the examples in Sec. 2.7. Te pertinent tor- sional properties of three common shapes are given in Table 2.4. The arrows (ort + ons Mubs + 4 3 os) + om eby (276) ‘Table 24, WaRvine TonsowAt. Paorensiis Wide Flonge Shape H Ta coi db t/2, sony adbg ene aba, Sya= diy (I~, Ser iL (um Soa 7, a7 Fy 4 ts lear Su : nl Se "i Sy. F Bee ade 1 stat rer cbieed, emgage getter Wg =IBW 2, Syq= dO UI~a'%8,32 FLASTIC BEHAVIOR OF MEMBERS see. 26 ‘Table 24. (ont) m4 wad Bee 22or+aw* ta a(t 6aew/6'] vo, a oar alsawion®, Soa J eels +a'wibr) (o'Faar2 in the S, diagram show the direction of the shear flow due to a positive ‘moment M,..The maximum values of o, and S,, as well as J, are tabulated for all rolled steel shapes in Ref. 2.10. FURTHER COMMENTS ON “THE ASSUMPTIONS It would be wonderful if we could conclude here by precisely defining the limitations ofthe theory upon which the stress and deformation formulas are based. Unfortunately this is not possible, and it will always be left to the judg ‘ment of the analyst to determine what degree of idealization is permitted. One rather laborious way of determining this is to analyze a member by the simple methods presented here, then to use a more precise analysis, and finally to Judge whether the difference is tolerable. A vast amount of literature is avai able (some of which has already been referred to in this book, and further references can be found from the cited literature) which shows that this has been necessary in the past. We shall not go into these matters too deeply here; we shall make only qualitative comments on some of our assumptions. First ofall, theoretical derivations of other than the equilibrium equations are invalid in the inelastic range. Reasonably accurate results are obtained if the member is slightly curved and ifthe changes in the cross section along the axis are slight, The cross section must be definitely open, although a similar theory can be developed for closed sections." We can consider as thin walled most of the members used in metal construction and also somesc. 2.7 ELASTIC BEHAVIOR OF MENERS 3 prestressed concrete elements. For most of these members the cross section will retain its shape, except for some light-gage members or thin shells in which the deformations must be considered." ‘The assumption of small deflections is generally excellent for members in framed structures, even in the inclastic range. The members must not be too short or be subjected to very high shear forces, because the effect of shear on the deformations has been neglected. The effect of shear is not too im- portant if the shear span is more than three or four times the depth of the member. In See. 2.5 we assumed that the element ds dz in Fig. 2.11 will remain rec- tangular, We neglected the effect of the warping shear which would distort this rectangle, For closed sections this can lead to serious discrepancies," Dut itis not a serious neglect for open sections provided the member is not very short.(% We also assumed that the warping shear stress is uniform across the thickness of the element. This is not precisely so, but its effect is again small. Bleich’ gives formulas for J, which include this effect for tee and angle shapes, for which our theory gives I, ‘The assumption of formulating equilibrium on the undeformed member is usually good except for beam-columns with compressive axial forces. This assumption also leads to a theory which cannot predict buckling. For this zeason we shall formulate equilibrium in Sec. 2.8 for the deformed member, thus abandoning the very convenient principle of superposition. 2.7, EXAMPLES, STRESSES IN A SEMICIRCULAR BEAM [As our first example we shall compute the stresses in a thin-walled semicir- cular cantilever beam loaded at its end by a vertical force Q which passes through the origin of the circle [Fig. 2.18(a)]. A bending moment M,, a shear force V,, and a twisting moment M, ~ Px, will act at any cross section. ‘The following quantities are given for this problem in terms of nondimen- sional ratios: G/E = 0.383, r/t = 24 (where is the radius of the circle to the middle line and is the uniform thickness), and Lr = 20. We shall first determine the necessary cross-sectional properties. With the aid of Fig, 2.18(b) we can determine the following geometric properties a ds=rdp, x, her xe —rsin 8, y= reo par 2s ® Chapter 1V in Ref. 1.3, in which a more elaborate discussion is also given on the problem of nonuniform torsion.Fig. 2.18, Semisicular cantilever bear ‘The cross-sectional properties are now computed from the formulas in Table 2.2 and are given below. Ae [fear 1a fia Seo on fea [(288)-apr[a— 2a oop] byw [lamas =o aH 2, 510 byinpeton 34sec. 27 ELASTIC BEHAVIOR OF MEMBERS 3s otra ym anny =rfa—40— onal] fytds = rtsin p pa ‘The properties needed for the later stress calculations are plotted in the non- dimensional graph shown in Fig. 2.19, The functions wa/r*, y/r, 10S,/r%¢ and {tpt ds/r't are plotted against the angle 8. ‘The shear and moment diagram for the problem is shown in Fig. 2.20 along with the variation of the first, second, and third derivative of the angle of twist. These latter properties were obtained from the formula for the deformed shape of @ twisted member [Ea. (2.68)] : . 2+ Me. B= G+ Coooshas + Cink rs + HE The boundary conditions at end z = 0 are ¢ = 4’ =0 (“fined” end, see Fig. 2.16); at the end z = L the section is free to warp (ar ~ 0), and so from Eg. (2.55), i” = 0. With these boundary conditions we find that = hl be — sinha + anh xL¢eosh 4s — D) -0 Fig. 219, Distribution of erosssectional properties on a semicircular4 a ol ‘Shear clagram Ce Moment giogrom FI) 1.0} -ONET My PAPEL mM, os O50 7 -05| PET /M, Torsion iograms bending moment diagram, andthe variation of the derivatives ofthe twist angle for @ cantilever beam ‘The derivatives of ¢ are equal to gel, M OONEL, 1 cosh Az + tanh XL sinh Az sinh Az ++ tanh AL cosh az SEL cosh hs + tanh nL sn az ‘These equations are shown in curve form in Fig, 2.20, in which the three 56ste. 2.7 ELASTIC BEHAVIOR OF MEMBERS 37 nondimensional derivatives are plotted against z, For our given situation ML = LV GRe[ET, = 2.730. ‘The information given in Figs. 2.19 and 2.20 permits us now to calculate the stresses, The longitudinal stresses are MY an E p= MP and on = Bondi Both the bending moment M, and the property "are maximum at the fixed end On) = =QL and ("nw 0.992, “NEL ‘The twisting moment AY, is Q times the distance from its line of action to S M,= (x + [mpg = 420 Substituting Mf, 6”, and I, ino the stress equations, we get "3062 and Zar" — sage @ r @ r The distribution of these stresses and their sum across the cross section st z= Ois shown in Fig. 221. The major share ofthe stress is contributed by restrained warping. The maximum longitudinal stresses are at the extreme fibers of the cross section and are equal to oa = M658 ‘The maximum St. Venant shear stress is r5» = Gig, and it is the same everywhere in the eros section since # is constant, The value of gis maxi ‘mum at the free end where z = L (Fig. 2.20). With M, ($a = 0.87055 ‘we get for the maximum St. Venant shear stress arg nue = ‘The shear force Vis constant along the length of the member, and so the bending shear stress is equal to, everywhere along z, rox Ye fina or, ater substitution of V, = Qand 1, = xr%4/z 1s fie\ 0 From Fig. 2.19 we see that {fds has a maximom value atthe center, and thus 159 Cao = — 8 This is a negligible percentage of both the maximum bending stress at z = 0 and the maximum St. Venant shear stress at > = L. ‘The warping shear stress varies as 6” (Fig. 2.20), and its maximum value is at the end z = 0. With ($"" MJEL., we obtain tert ES.6"" OT @ Se 185; 38sc, 2.7 ELASTIC BEHAVIOR OF MEMBERS 9 At the other end (= = 2), "= —0.130M,/EL,, and thus S, ori ‘Te maximum value ofS, ~ 0.0524 (om Fig. 2.19), and therefore Gerla = 22 w= 0 and rhea 8B as ‘These quantities are again small compared with the bending stresses at =O and the St. Venant shear stress at z= L. By inspection of Fig, 2.20 we see that it is not necessary to consider sections other than the ends, and Cither (o)ux at 2 = 0 OF (rsp)ane at z = E will govern, For example, with the maximum allowable value of 7 = 30 ksi and + = 20 ksi and for r = 6 in. the maximum value of Q permitted is equal to 0.737 kip. In this ease (@)eax was controlling. With these same allowable stresses, but by neglecting the torsional stresses, we would have obtained Q = 3.53 kip. In this case the neglect of torsional stresses would have resulted in premature failure. STRESSES IN A WIDE-FLANGE BEAM As the next example we shall consider the simply supported wide-flange beam shown in Fig, 2.22, The central concentrated load Q is applied with an fa a o) Fig. 2.22, A beam under combined bending and twisting© ELASTIC BEMAVIOR OF MEMBERS sec. 2.7 ° ore [Svea | 0 oto 3 I ApreZZ) ° wa_| wa | ao a | aa7e | =a 7a 5 I Jere | -ab/a By, = 0.000871in Ky=182in® 4p 4655 ‘The quantities g, ¢”, and g” are maximum at z = L/2, and g! is maxi- ‘mum at the ends z = Oand z = L.. With these properties we can now compute the stresses due to the twisting moment M, = Qe. 1. St. Venant shear stress at z =0. The St. Venant shear stress is 7s, = Gug, and from Fig. 2.25 '(0) = (0.805\(M,/2GK;), and therefore 0.805 SFR (Gen) = 0.221 0er In the flanges = 0.681 in., and 30 (usc = O4I8Qe; in the web t= w = 0.371 in, and (r5v)wsn = 0.0820Qe. These stresses are distributed as shown in Fig. 2.(6), and they are the maximum values atthe ouside face of the eros setion6 ELASTIC BEHAVIOR OF MEMBERS see, 2.7 Fidel 10) h 20K, 8m, -05| 2aK BANG, ion of and its derivatives alons the length of the beam 2. Warping shear stress at 2 ~0. The warping shear stress is ES, and itis maximum at the center of the flanges (Fig. 224(] ACE =O, i” = —0.195(042M/2GK;) from Fig, 2.25, and thus 75 = 0.002400 3. Warping shear stress at 2 =LJ2. At 2=L)2, $= —N2M,2GK, from Fig. 2.25, and so at this location at the center of the flanges tw = 000125060 4. Warping longitudinal stress at 2 = L/2. The stress ay is equal 10 op "Eo; from Fig. 2.25, 6” = -0.981(\M,/2GK;), and so at this locationseo. 2.7 ELASTIC BEHAVIOR OF MEMBERS 65 the maximum value of ow is ow = —0316Qe To these stresses we must now add the stresses due to bending. From the shear and moment diagram in Fig. 2.26 we see that the shear ¥, = Q)2is uniform across the whole half-span 0 < z axis (Fig. 2.35). These components will result in a twisting moment [Figs. 2.35(a) and (b)] 2.83) where we have againused the relationships sin dujds ~ = dds, In addition to the twist due to components of M and M,, we have other factors which contribute further torque components. One of these is due to the fact that P retains its original direction. In the z-x plane, therefore, P has ‘a component P(du/dz) which acts through the centroid [Fig. 2.35(¢). Together with the component of Pin the z-y plane [Fig. 2.35(d)] we have thusa twisting ‘moment about the shear center which is equal to (see Fig. 2.36) and sin doje (2.84) A third contribution to M, is caused by the fact that two cross sections 4g apart will warp with respect to each other (Fig. 2.37), and therefore the stress element o dA (positive in tension) is inclined by the angle a (dsh/dé) to the £ axis. The component of this stress element is o da (a d¢pldé), and itn ELASTIC BEHAVIOR OF MEMBERS sec. 28 ? nme é a a auras) @ Fig, 238. Twisting due to components of Ma, My and P causes a twist about the shear center equal to dM, = —a(o 4a)(a%2) Integrating over the whole eross section, we obtain ds oat dA 2.85) Letting [adaek (2.86)sc, 28 ELASTIC BEHAVIOR OF MEMBERS B 6 Plawree) — Ty bane | Fig, 2.36. Twisting due to the com- Fig. 2.37. Twisting due tothe diferential warping cee Oe cae eeaeas aod ong that dfx if we see ., ta af per order of magus we Me= 84 as purges ‘A fourth and final contribution is due to the end shears (Fig, 2.38), that is, My + Ru Ro Using the values of R, and Ry from Eq. (2.79), we find that My = — 7M + Mo) e238 Twisting due to the end — Elna + Ma) 288) Star 7 ‘The total owisting moment isthe sum of the four components [Egs. (2.83), (284), (2.87), and (2.88)}, or” FLASTIC BEHAVIOR OF MEMBERS see. 28 My = Maul + Mao! + Pro! — Pxco' — Re : u 289) EMry + May) — jE Mra + Mrs) We now know the moments which are acting at any location along the axis. These are M,, My, and M,. We can equate them to the internal resis- tance of the member. From Eq. (2.27) we get My=—Elo" and M, = Ela" and from Eq, (2.65) the twisting moment is equal to M, = GKy6' — EL” It we define the bending siffnesses as B,=EI, and B,= El, (2.90) and the St. Venant torsional stiffness as C, = GK; 291) and the warping stiffness as Cw = Ele (292) we can, after some rearrangement and by substituting Mf, and M, from Eqs. (2.80) and (2.81) into Eqs. (2.82) and (2.89), write the final differential ‘equations. These are 2. Po $M — Ell My) +P] : 293) My, — F(Mrs + Mae) By + Pu ~ $f Mae = [Mas + Moe) Pre : (2.94) = —Miy + EMry + My) 8" = (Cr+ Bo +f Mast M+ Po] = FM + Mm) + Pos] (2.95) (Moy + Min) — Mra + Myx) = 0 ‘These three differential equations describe the equilibrium of any cross section in the member shown in Fig. 2.30. In accordance with the assumption ‘of small deflections we have neglected all terms involving the products of the quantities wo, $*, etc., and thus the equations are linear with respect to the three deformations u, v, and ¢b and their derivatives. The equations are not independent of each other. Equation (2.93), which represents bending aboutcur, 2 HLASTIC BEHAVIOR OF MEMBERS 15 the strong axis, for example, depends also on the angle to twist which was associated with torsion only in Sec. 2.4 With these three differential equations we shall begin our examination of | the behavior of beams, columns, and beam-columns in the succeeding three chapters. By giving up the prerogative of using the principle of superposition, With these equations we shall be able to tell more about the behavior of these members than we could with the earlier independent equations, These equations will permit an examination of problems of elastic buckling, and they will also introduce and lead to an understanding of problems related to buckling in the inelastic range. REFERENCES 21. S. P. Timoshenko and J. N. Goodier, Theory of Elasticity, nd ed. (New York McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1981), p. 1. 22. F. B. Seely and J. O. Simth, Advanced Mechanies of Materials (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1952), Chap .6 23. S. P, Timoshenko, “Theory of Bending, Torsion, and Buckling of Thin- Walled Members of Open Cross Section,” Journal of the Franklin Institue, Vol. 239, Nos. 3,4, 5, March, April, May 1945. 24, P. Kuhn, Stresses Aircraft and Shell Structures (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1956). 25. R. Dabrowski, “Torsion Bending of Thin-Walled Members with Non-Defor- sable Closed Cross Section” (Columbia University, Department of Civil Engineering and Mechanics, 1963) 26. C.F, Kollbrunner and K. Basler, Torsion (Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1966). 27. R. D. Mindlin and M. G, Salvadori, “Analogies” in Handbook of Experi- ‘mental Stress Analysis, M. Hetényi, ed. (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc, 1930). 28, B. G. Johnston and I. Lyse, “Structural Beams in Torsion,” Transactions of the ASCE, Vol. 101, 1936, 29, B, G. Johnston and I. A. Eldarwish, “Torsion of Structural Shapes,” Pro- ‘ceedings of the ASCE, Vol. 91, No. STI, p. 203, February 1965. 210. C. P. Heins, J and P, A. Seaburg, Torsion Analysis of Rolled Steel Sections, Bethlehem Steel Company, Stee! Design File No. 13-A-1, 1964 2.11, Aluminum Construction Manual(New York: The Aluminum Association, 1959) 242, Aleoa Structural Handbook (Pittsburgh: The Aluminum Company of America, 196. 213, B. G. Johnston and F. K. Chang, “Torsion of Plate Girders," Transactions of the ASCE, Vol. 118, p. 337, 1953.16 [ELASTIC BEHAVIOR OF MEMBERS cutar, 2 214. F. B. Hildebrand, Advanced Calculus for Engineers (Englewood Cliffs, NJ Prentice-Hall, Inc, 1949), Chap. 1 2.15. F, W. Bornscheuer “Schweissanschlisse torsionsbeanspruchter Triget mit F-,C-, und-Querschnitten,” Sehweissen und Schneiden, Vol. 13, No. 3, March’ 1961 2.16. J. E. Goldberg, “Torsion of Land H-Type Beams,” Transactions ofthe ASCE, Vol. 118, p. 771, 1953 27. J. N. Googier and M. W. Barton, “The Effects of Web Deformation on the Torsion of I-Beams,” Journal of Applied Mechanics, Vol. 1, March 1944, 2.18. G. G. Kubo, B. G. Johnston, and W. J. Eney, “Non-Uniform Torsion of Plate Girders,” Transactions of the ASCE, Vol. 121, p. 759, 1956. 2.19, R. Heilig, “Der Schubverformungseinfluss auf die Wolbkrafitorsion von Staben mit offenem Prof” Der Stahibau, Vol. 30, No. 4, p.97, April 1961 PROBLEMS 2.1, Determine the normal stress 7 and the sheat flow 7 for a thin-walled open cross section subjected to forces P, My, My, Va, V, (Fig. 2.7) ifthe x-y coordinates are centroidal but not principal axes 22. Determine the coordinates of the shear center location (xy, yy in Fig. 23) if the x-y coordinates are centroidal but nor principal axes. 23, Derive the equations given in Table 23. 2.4, Derive the relationships given in Table 24 25, See Fig. P25. Determine the location ofthe shear center, draw the on Su, fexeds and feeds diagrams and compute 1, for the following thin-walled open eoss sections. Exoept for erss section g the thickness of the plate is the same everywhere in the cross section. 26, Sce Fig. P.26. (a) Determine the maximum value of if the allowable normal stes is 15k and the allowable shear sess is 10 si. Check answer with Ref. 2.10 (b) Whats the coresponding value of m, ithe cross section sa closed circular shape? (©) Discuss the comparison ofthe answers from (a) and (b). 2.7, See Fig P.27. (a) Derive expressions forthe angle of twist $. (0) Determine the maximum normal stes as a funetion of Mand m, rapes Lively, forthe cross section of problem 25). L = 300in.; E ~ 30,000 ks G 1,500 ks. Use a computer to develop value of” along the axis, 28, See Fig. P.2.8. A uniformly varying distributed load is applied with an cccentriiy of Lin. toa 16 WFS8 steel beam with simply supported ends (both with respect to bending and torsion. Determine the maximum allowable valve of gy ‘Check answer with Ref. 2.10n cuar, 2 5 tosn on . a [om] / [at + ctl. a | Py Ly [ea] _o. : w @ E : X pocut 1 : Gove Gre wonenen 29 sr iaw75 (o) 360300 P.2s8 ELASTIC BEHAVIOR OF MEMBERS cue, 2 cae Ne eI Cross secon P28 ewes 29. See Fig. P.29. (a) Theload Qacis over one ofthe webs ofthe cross section in problem 2.5(F) (point 4). Determine the locations and the magnitudes of the ‘maximum normal stress @ and the maximum shear sess. The ends of the beam are simply supported with respect to bending (v — »” ~ 0) and fixed with respect to torsion ($ = $" = 0). Cross section 2.518) = 1000s (&) What is the horizontal and the vertical defection ofthe flange end [point problem 2.5()} atthe center ofthe beam? 2.10, See Fig. P.2.10. Determine the maximum allowable value of q if g acts ‘through the centroid of the channel. The ends are flexurally and torsionally simply supported.case, ELASTIC REHAVIOR OF MEMBERS vy OF 2 wt] asin Loy Ld 375i, Cross section 2.11, See Fig, P. 2.11. Determine the locations and magnitudes ofthe maximun ‘normal and maximum shear stress as a function of w. 2ow ao 300048 ee 3009 He 6000-30003 v=$208——— Cross section yy oo 7 t