4 Dynamic Fields Learning Objectives Describe charge dissipation using the current continuity equation Examine the wave equation used to describe wave propagation Define electromotive force and examine the operation of transformers and generators Define Faraday’s law, showing how a time-varying magnetic field produces an electric field Define displacement current, showing how a time-varying electric field produces a magnetic field Use Maxwell’s equations to demonstrate transverse electromagnetic wave propagation Introduce phasor notation to concisely describe Maxwell’s equations for time- harmonic fields ‘We have thus far assumed no time variation in our electric and magnetic fields. This was done to build a sense of comfort in working with vectors and coordinate systems and to get a first inkling of Maxwell’s equations, Now we turn to the dynamic case, where electric and magnetic fields do change with time. First we'll consider how current is related to charge density and how rapidly charges can disperse in a material. Then, we'll review the properties of traveling waves before turning to the heart of the chapter on Faraday's law and displacement current. Finally, with the dynamic Maxwell’s equations we will see the intimate linkage between electric and magnetic fields, Consider a volume of charge Q contained within a closed surface. The only way to decrease Q within the enclosed volume is to let it flow through the surface.*! This flow of charge is current, and the current must be equal to the rate of decrease in the contained charge. This can be written ag I dS (4.1 iJ i an “the pnp of conservation of charge mints tat nt charge cannot beret or destoye 169170 Chapter 4. Dynamic Fields ‘A partial derivative is used since Q can be a function of both time and position, Because a positive current out of the closed surface corresponds to a decrease in enclosed charge with time, a negative sign is appended to the derivative. ‘The divergence theorem (see Chapter 2, Section 2.8) can be used to rewrite the left side of (4.1) as §5-dS=[(V Jay (4.2) ‘The right side of (4.1) can be rewritten as (4.3) Nov, if we fix the closed surface so that the volume containing the charge doesn’t change with time, we can pull the derivative inside the integral: 44) By comparing (4.1), (4.2), and (4.4), we see that (45) This is the point form of the current continuity equation In steady currents where there is no change in charge density, the continuity equation leads to Kirehhoff’s current law, which says the currents into a junction must sum to zero, In Chapter 2, Section 2.10 it was pointed out that free or excess charges introduced in a conductor will repel each other and race to the outside, We can use the continuity equa- tion to determine how long it will take the charges to dissipate. ‘The continuity equation can be rewritten as Ved V-ob =— Pe 46) or Ina homogeneous material where & doesn’t vary with position, V-E + 2s (47) ‘We also know by the point form of Gauss’s law that v.E=2 (48) € ‘Combining (4.7) and (4.8) leaves us with the differential equation Be. 0p 49) Upon separation of variables, this has the solution P= pe | (4.10)4.2 Wave Fundamentals 171 where , is the initial charge density at time = 0, The charge density decreases with time, and the value reaches I/e of the starting value at the relaxation time t, where (4.11) Ina good conductor, the charges are able to move rapidly and the relaxation time is very short. In contrast, in a good dielectric, it can take considerable time for a charge to dissipate, Calculate the relaxation time f 1.5 109s, (b) t= 26 days) (a) copper and (b) polystyrene, (Answer: (a) Toss a stone in a quiet pool and observe the ripples traveling radially away from the point of impact, These water waves travel, or propagate, al a particular velocity, and they carry energy with them. The medium itself (water) only bobs up and down. Other {ypes of waves include sound waves, mechanical waves traveling as ripples in a rope, waves in a stretched slinky, and, of course, light traveling as electromagnetic waves. In this section, we'll briefly review some of the fundamental features of waves before employing them in our study of electromagnetics, Here we will only consider continuous time-harmonie waves, represented by sine waves, rather than transient waves? (such as pulses and step functions). Let's consider an electric field propagating in the z direction. The general solution to the wave equation, derived in the next chapter, is EG, 1) = E,e™ cos(wr — Bz + da, (4,12) The electric field in this wave expression is a function of position (z) and time (f). It is always pointing in either the plus or minus x direction, so we call this an x-polarized waves“? The amplinde, E,e-*, is made up of the initial amplitude at z= 0, £,, and an expo- ential term {0 account for attenuation of the wave as it propagates. The phase inside the cosine argument consists of three parts: wf, where @ is the angular frequency (w = 2nf), Be where B is the phase constant (sometimes referred to as wave number), and a phase shift. For illustration purposes let's initially assume the phase shift @ is zero and look at the field versus time when z= 0. We then have BO,0 _cos(ai)a, (4.13) which is plotted in Figure 4.1. A characteristic of a sine or cosine wave is that it repeats every 2 radians (or 360°). Put another way, we have cos( wr) = | for wt = n2n, where 1 = 0, “Transient waves are very important in the study of digital circuits and as such they will be picked up when we study transmission fines in Chapter 6 ‘Polarization will be discussed in Chapter 5,172 Chapter 4. Dynamic Fields Eo uf ofp} —_——_—___—____________ — = i ! L L \ Plot of, versus 9 05 q 15 2 25 3 time at ‘for the function Time (periods) BO.) Fc0s( 1), 1, 2... The period 7'is the time elapsed for one cycle, or wT’ = (1)2n. Solving, we have the following relationship: a (4.14) of | We can reinsert the phase shift and in Figure 4.2 plot EO.) = E,cos(ot + Oa, (4.15) where we have chosen =—45°. This trace lags the original function by 45°. Now let’s rezero @ and look at the field versus position z when time f= 0. First let’s assume the wave is in a lossless medium (such as vacuum) so that there is no attenuation. In this case, the attenuation constant ot equals zero and e-% = 1, We have B(z,0) = E,cos(-Pz)a, (4.16) Plot of £, versus, time at z= 0 with -45* phase overpasses 152 25 8 shift for the function E(0,) = Time (periods) ,cos(t + 6)a,.4.2 Wave Fundamentals 173 #24 Plot of B, versus L L L L L zima lossless medium at r 0s 1 15 2 28 3° Ofor the function K(z,0) = z (wavelengths) E,gos(-Bz)a,. which is plotted in Figure 4.3. We again have the 2n-radian repeat cycle, or cos(-Bz) cos(Bz) = 1 when Bz = n2n. One cycle is a wavelength long, or BA = (1)2n. This rearranged to give the relation between wavelength and phase constant, is (4.17) Now let's insert attenuation: E(z,0) = E,e% cos(-Bz)a, (4.18) As plotted in Figure 4.4, the amplitude is shown decreasing with increasing z with an atten- uation constant c., The units for attenuation are nepers per meter (Np/m). We are now ready to consider traveling waves. Let’s again consider a lossless medium and we'll let = 0 for this illustration, In Figure 4.5 we plot E, versus position at progres- sive values of time using EG) = cos(oor — B2)a, (4.19) Plot of &, versus bea a ! zat =0, with attenuation 05 1 415 2 26 35 4 included, forthe function Z (wavelengths) E(e0)= Eye cos(-Bz)a,.174 Chapter 4, Dynamic Fields Plot of E, ve o~«OS 1 15 2 25 3 zat progressive times show 22 (wavelengths) ing wave travel For each trace a dot has been added representing a constant-phase point on the wave. We see that, as time increases, this phase point is moving in the +z direction, so we call this a +z traveling wave. How fast is the wave traveling? Consider the phase or-Be=C (4.20) where Cis an arbitrary constant representing a constant-phase point such as indicated by the dots in Figure 4.5. If we take the time derivative of both sides of this expression we have & o- pa =0 4.21) which can be rearranged as (4.22) The phase velocity (also called the propagation velocity) of the wave is 1 enty of the medium, This is a prop- Suppose we havea -V amplitude 100-MHz.x-potarized wave in air propagating in the zdireetion. We ‘want to write a wave equation like (4.12) for this case, It is reasonable to assume that air is a lossless medium (50 = 0). Since the frequency is 100, ‘Mz, we know the angular frequency (is 2007 x 10° radians/s. Also, since the speed of ight c is, approximately 3 x 108 m/s, we can find the wavelength as A = off = 3 m., Thus we can write K (ey) = Leos(200R x 108r- (2n/3)2 + )a, Vin ‘To determine the phase shift 6, we need more information. If, for instance, we were = la, Vim, then we know @ = 0 and our wave equation becomes iven that E(0.0) Ee Leos(200n x 106 — (2n/3)2) a, Vim4.2 Wave Fundamentals 175 Suppose a propagating electric field is given by E(G,t) = 34e-0- cos(2m x 10° —10mz + 45°) a, V/m Find (a) the initial amplitude, (b) the attenuation constant, (c) the wave frequency, (d) the wavelength, and (e) the phase shift in radians. (Answer: (a) 34 V/m, (b) 0.002 Np/m, (c) 1 GHz, (d) 0.20 m, (e) 1/4 radians) ‘Write a program to plot the wave versus position for a fixed time. Assume the wave is in vacuum, % M-File: MLo4o1 x % Program plots wave (in vacuum) versus z-position for % a fixed time. % % Wentworth, 7/17/02 ® % Variables: % Eo wave amplitude (V/m) “Ff frequency (Hz) % omega angular frequency (radians/s) Rot time snapshot (s) % phi phase constant (degrees) % phir phase constant (radians) Boe speed of Tight in vacuum (m/s) % lambda wavelength (m) % OB phase constant (1/m) KOE electric field intensity (V/m) wz position cle Sclears the command window clear Sclears variables % Initialize Variables B=2*pi /lambda; omega=2*pi*f; % Perform Calculation 2=0:4*1ambda/100:4* lambda; E-Eo*cos(omega*t-B*z+phir) ; % Generate the Plot plot(z,£) (continues)176 Chapter 4. Dynamic Fields axis(‘tight‘') %sets axes min & max data values grid xlabel (*z(m)*) ylabel (*E(V/m)*) ‘Try running this program with different values for amplitude, time, phase constant, and frequency. Illustrate a traveling wave by making a movie in MATLAB. % M-File: MLo4o2 x % This program illustrates a traveling wave % % Wentworth, 7/17/02 % % Variables: % Eo wave amplitude (V/m) x Ff frequency (Hz) % omega angular frequency (radians/s) Bot ‘time snapshot (s) % phi phase constant (“s) % phir phase constant (radians) Koc speed of Tight in vacuum (m/s) % Tambda wavelength (mn) xB phase constant (1/m) x E electric field intensity Kz position cle Xclears the command window clear clears variables Initialize Variables hi *pi /180; c=2.99868; Tanbdanc/F; B=2*pi /lanbda; omega=2*pi* % Perform Calculation 4* Lanbda/100:4* lambda; EsEo™cos(omega*t-8¥2+phir) ; % Generate a Reference Frame plot(z,e) axis([0 4"lanbda -2*Eo 2*Eo]) grid xlabel(‘z(m)")43 Faraday's Law and Transformer EMF 177 ylabel (*E(V/m)") pause % Make the Movie to021/(40*F) 11/F; for n=1:40; ExEo*cos(omega*t (n)-B*z+phir); plot (z,e) axis({0 4*lambda -2*Eo 2*Eo}) grid vitleC'General Wave Equation’); xlabel (*z(m)’) ylabel (‘E(W/m)') MC, Degetframe; end Run the program. After the reference frame is drawn, the program will pause and wait for you to press the return key (with the cursor in the plot window). Try changing the direction of the wave by changing the sign in front of “B*z” in the cosine equation, (You should do this for both the reference frame and the movie frame.) This is one of several ways to perform animations in MATLAB. For more informa- tion on movies, in the command window type help movie, help moviein, and/or help getirame, Following Oersted’s discovery, Michael Faraday thought that if a current in a wire can pro- duce a magnetic field, then perhaps a magnetic field can produce a current in a wire, Ten years of experiment bore out his hypothesis, which was simultaneously confirmed by Joseph Henry. They observed that current was only induced in a circuit if the magnetic flux linking the circuit changed with time, Figure 4.6a shows a conductive loop in a plane normal to a magnetic field that increases with time. Since the magnetic flux through the area bounded by the loop is chang- ing, a current Jy, is induced in the loop as indicated by the ammeter, Notice the direction of the induced current, The flux produced by the induced current acts to oppose the change in flux. This statement is called Lenz’s law.45 ‘We can pull the ammeter out of the loop, leaving a pair of open terminals as shown in Figure 4,6b, Now the current induced in the loop establishes a potential difference across the terminals known as the electromotive force. This electromotive force, Van, (Ot just engf), is related to the rate of change of flux linking a circuit by Faraday’s law: dh aa (4.23) “But Faraday was more prompt getting his message tothe publishers, so he generally ges credit forthe discovery. “4SRussian physicist Heinrich Lenz (1804-1865) was a contemporary of Faraday and Henty and published his Faw in 1834,178 Chapter 4. Dynamic Fields Bt) Soa Amps fa) Ba) Vert (b) Bq) + An increasing Reset S Vert netic field out of the page induces a current in (a) or an ( emf in (b). (c) The distributed resistance in a continuous con- ductive loop can be modeled as Jumped resistor Ry, in series () with a perfectly conductive loop. ‘The negative sign in the equation is a consequence of Lenz's law. If we consider a single loop, Faraday’s law can be written 4 thas (4.24) et de423 Faraday's Law and Transformer EMF 179. Generating emf requires a time-varying magnetic flux linking the circuit. This occurs if the magnetic field changes with time (called transformer emf), or if the surface contain- ing the flux changes with time (called motional emf) ‘The emf is measured around the closed path enclosing the area through which the flux is passing, and it can also be written Veme =$E-dL (4.25) This starkly contrasts with the static field case, for which the circulation of E around a closed path is zero. Using (4.25), we can rewrite Faraday’s law as Vet = $ E-dL = Sin ds (4.26) In this equation, the direction of the cireulation integral is related to the differential surface vector direction via the right-hand rule. For instance, in Figure 4.6b we choose dS pointing into the page and so the path for the circulation integral is in the same direction as that assumed for the induced current, If we are correct in our assumption, then @ Veq, of the polarity shown will result. A negative Veg- Will tell us the induced current is going in the other direction, It should also be noted that the surface integral on the right side of (4.26) does not have to be a planar surface bounded by the loop of the circulation integral. It can be any surface bounded by the loop, (Recall the Stoke's theorem discussion in Chapter 3 along with Figure 3.25.) Faraday’s law also applies to continuous conductive paths. There is always at least a lit- Ue resistance distributed along these conductive loops. They are sometimes represented as a lumped resistance Ry, in series with a perfect conductor, as Figure 4.6 indicates, Transformer EMF Consider the case where the field is varying with time and the surface stays c can pull the time detivative inside the integral in the right side of (4.26) to get Bic 7s Ve (427) Partial derivatives are used inside the integral since B may also be a function of position. ‘The generation of emf by a changing magnetic field is fundamental to the operation of transformers and hence is referred to as transformer emf. Suppose in Figure 4.6 that the field is B = 4r a, Wb/m2, where fis in seconds -oming out of the page. If the conductive loop has a 400 cm? area, (a) determine the emf established across the terminals in Figure 4,6b, (b) If the ammeter in Figure 4.63 is replaced by a 100-Q resistor, determine J,,g. (Answer: (a) 160 mY, (b) 1.6 mA)180 Chapter 4. Dynamic Fields Let's consider the circuit containing the pair of loops shown in Figure 4.7. Bach loop has an area S.A ‘magnetic field, normal to the plane of the Loops, varies with time as B isin or a, We want to calculate the voltage across the resistor, Vp Using the right-hand rule with the thumb pointing in the direction of dS (the +a, direction), the fingers curl in the direction of the circulation, which in this case indicates that Vq = Vjqy. Our equa- tion For Vege With N loops is ab Vet =-NJ a, the natural logarithm term is positive, and all of the other termis are positive, which means that, for our chosen loop, the Vay, is negative and the left end of the bar will be positive, Put another way, if we replaced the virtual portion of the loop with a stationary conductor, the induced current ‘would go in the counterclockwise direction, Perhaps a simpler way to look at the bar's polarity is to consider a positive charge +g intially held at the middle of the bar. If this charge is released, the Lorentz force would push it to the left of the bar; negative charges would be pushed to the right. Find the direction and magnitude of the current induced in the circuit shown in Figure 4.15 if B, = 100 a, mT, w= -2.0 a, m/s, w= 4.0 em, and R= 50. (Answers = 160 lA, counterclockwise)188 Chapter 4. Dynamic Fields Generators B=Bya, Sliding bar on con- x ductive rails for Drill 47, The electromagnetic generator converts mechanical motion to an AC electrical supply by employing Faraday’s law. As illustrated in Figure 4.16, a conductive loop is turned in the presence of the magnetic field from a permanent magnet. It rotates with an angular velocity radians per second. We choose to perform the circulation in the direction 1 > 2 3 4 1, giving us the Vea polarity as shown across the resistor. Notice that the loop sections from 2 to 3 and from 4 to I do not cut any magnetic flux, so we can ignore these sections in our caleula- tions. This can be confirmed mathematically by considering that the Cartesian components of the velocity vector u only have a, and a, components, so when crossed with B,a, there is only an a, component. However, for these arms of the loop, dL only has a, and a, compo- nents, which when dotted with a, yields zero. Considering the arms 1 — 2 and 3 > 4, we see that the distance traveled for a diff ential change in angle dé is simply ado, and u = adb/dt ay, Since dé/adt is the definition of angular frequency, we have Koay Figure 4, 6b shows how a, can be decomposed into Cartesian vectors, which for the 3» 4 arm is (@,)3_4=—sinp a, + cos a, For the 1 -» 2 arm, the Cartesian direction for a, is (ap), 42 = sind a, —cosd a, Now we can calculate Viqy. The portion of Vejrftom 1 to 2 is (Wone)s-s2 = J[acsinga, cospa,)x Ba, ]-dea, 1 This Oto is easily integrated, going from fh, to give4.4 Faraday’s Law and Motional EMF 189 Brush fa) x (b) x (a) An AC generator consisting of a loop rotating in the presence of a magnetie field. (b) Cross section for determination of vector elements. (Venii-12 = @OhB,sind ‘When integrating the portion of V,,, from 3 to 4, the direction of u is opposite that of the 1 —+ 2 arm and the integration of dz goes from hi to 0. This pair of sign changes ends up giv- ing the same value for Vaqyy and So the total Vege is Vane = 2ac0hB, sind ‘The configuration shown in Figure 4.16 can also be used as an AC motor, if the load resistor is replaced with an AC source. ‘The generator of Figure 4.16 has dimensions a= 8.0 cm and = 10, em, rotates at the rate of 120 revolutions per minute, and is in the presence of a 60.-mT field. Plot Veg versus time s over several cycles, Assume = 0° at f= 0. (Answer: See Figure 4.17,) 15 10 Vern(™V) 0 05 1 18 25 3 AC signal gen- t (seconds) erated in Drill 4.8.190 Chapter 4. Dynamic Fields Recall Ampire’s circuital law for static fields from Chapter 3, rewritten as, VxH=J, (4.43) Here, a “c” subscript has been added to the current density term to identify it as a condue- tion current density, which is related to the electric field by Ohm’s law: J.=0E (4.44) The current is a result of the drift of charge carriers in response to the electric field, Ina vacuum where o = 0, J, =0. A postulate of vector algebra is that the divergence of the curl of any vector field equals ; that is, VV xA)=0 (4.45) Let's apply this postulate to the point form of Ampére’s circuital law for static magnetic fields: V-(V xB) =V-G)=0 (4.46) Recalling the current continuity equation, Op V-Jo=— Joan wwe see that the static form of Ampere’s circuital law is clearly invalid for time-varying fields, since it violates the law of current continuity. The problem was resolved by Maxwell's introduction of an additional term to Ampzre’s circuital law: VxH=J.4+3, (4.47) ‘The additional term, called the displacement current density,4" is the rate of change of the electric flux density, ap eas, (4.48) and thus (4.49) Although the displacement current density term doesn’t represent current in the conven: tional sense of charge flow, it does allow a time-varying electric field to be an additional source of magnetic field, If we apply the divergence of a curl postulate to this new version of Ampére’s circuital law, we have 1D 2) =o 450) V-(VxH)=V-I. +05 *7Miaxwell introduced this tem in 1873 and it was verified experimentally by Heinrich Hertz in 1888,45 Displacement Current 191 Rearranging, we have a 451) ‘So we see that the additional term reconciles the vector postulate with the current continu- ity equation, The addition of displacement current makes Ampéte’s law analogous to the point form. of Faraday’s law, vxe--2 or and clearly shows the interdependency of time-varying electric and magnetic fields Maxwell’s original motivation for the additional term was to show that light is an electro- magnetic wave, consisting of both electric and magnetic fields. He needed some way for magnetic field to be produced in vacuum, where conductivity (and therefore conduction current) is zero, The displacement current term fulfills this requirement. ‘We can integrate both sides of Ampére’s circuital law over area to get aD 2) ds (4.52) D-ds| =i, +ig (4.53) where i, and i, represent conduction and displacement current, respectively. To gain an understanding of displacement current, consider the simple capacitor circuit of Figure 4.18, A sinusoidal voltage source »(t) = V, sinoot is applied to the capacitor, and from circuit theory we know the voltage is related to the current i(t) by the capacitance as i= co) = CV,@cos wr dt Now consider the loop in Figure 4.18b surrounding the plane surface S,, By the static form of Ampére’s circuital law, the circulation of H will be equal to the current that cuts through the surface, However, the surface doesn’t have to be planar, and the same current must therefore flow through the surface S; that passes between the plates of the capacitor. Because no conduction current passes through an ideal capacitor (6 = 0 for an ideal dielec- tric), the current passing through S, must be entirely a displacement current. We can calculate this current by considering the field across the capacitor is and the time derivative is192 Chapter 4. Dynamic Fields ( 1) \ \ Plate area S (a) { {b) Capacitor used to demonstrate displacement current. Jy =e = Oe cos ora eet aan anne ‘The current through the capacitor is wes, ig = [Jq-dS= 2 cos@t For a parallel-plate capacitor, C= eS/d, so i= CV,@008 oF which agrees with the circuit theory result ‘The conduction current in the dielectric can be ignored if the dielectric is a low-loss (small 0) dielectric. But if that is not the case, the conduction current density is found by Obm’s law and the expression for electric field intensity between the plates as oul? j= 20a, d For the parallel plate-capacitor example of Figure 4.18, the conduction current term is then found to be oV,S sinot d The ratio of the conduction current magnitude to the displacement current magnitude is called the loss tangent and is seen to be fe] = (4.54) ons oe ia Loss tangent is a measure of the quality of the dielectric. A good dielectric will have a very Iow-loss tangent, typically less than 0.001. Loss tangent will be discussed further in Chapter 5, Section 5.3.46 Maxwell's Equations 193 A pair of 100, cm? area plates are separated by a 1.0-mm-thick layer of lossy dielectric characterized by €, = 50. and 6 = 1.0 x 10 S/m., (a) Calculate the capacitance, Ifa voltage v(t) = 1.0 cos (2nx 10%) V is placed across the plates, determine (b) the con- duction current, (c) the displacement current, and (d) the loss tangent. (Answer: (a) C = 4.4 nF, (b) i, = L.0cos(2m x 1074)mA, (c) jy =—28 sin (2 x 10) HA, (d) tan 5 = 36) With his insightful inclusion of displacement current in Ampére’s circuital law, Maxwell ‘was able to unify all of the theories of electricity and magnetism into one concise set of for- mulas known as Maxwell’s equations. With the addition of the Lorentz. force equation, the constitutive relations for material media, and the current continuity equation, all of the fun- damental electromagnetic equations are contained within Table 4.1 ‘The table contains both point and integral versions of Maxwell’s equations. Both are useful in different situations. As a review, the reader is encouraged to apply the divergence theorem and Stoke's theorem to convert from the integral form to the point form, and vice versa Although we've covered many other equations so far in this text (and will cover many more), the equations listed in Table 4.1 are the fundamental ones from which all else fol- lows. For example, the static form of Maxwell's equations used in Chapters 2 and 3 are found by zeroing the time derivative in the equations in Table 4.1. As another example, the relationships between field quantities at the boundary between different media are found from straightforward application of Maxwell's equations, Finally, it may be pointed out that the concept of electric potential, so useful in solving electromagnetics problems (and use~ ful as a bridge between clectromagnetics and circuits), is merely a stepping stone from the fundamental equations to the final solutions, ‘Maxwell’s equations Point (differential) form Integral form Gauss's law V-D= Gauss's law for magnetic fields. = V-B =0 1B Faraday’s law VxE= a ar a Ampére’s cireuital law VxH 2 fH-dL =f d+— JD as qi a Lorentz force equation F =q(8+uxB) Dek Constitutive relations Bou J =0E (Ohm's law) Py Current continuity equation vego-2e or194 Chapter 4. Dynamic Fields A key aspect of these equations is the interdependency of the electric and magnetic fields, Because a time-varying electric field is a source of magnetic field, and vice versa, it will be shown in the next chapter how these equations led Maxwell to postulate the exis- tence of electromagnetic waves, Let’s use Maxwell’s equations to study the relationship between the electric and magnetic field components of an electromagnetic wave. Consider an x-polarized wave propagating in the +z direction in some ideal medium characterized by [and e, with 6 = 0, To say an elec- tromagnetic wave is x-polarized simply means that the electric field vector is always point: ing in the x (or-x) direction, We choose = 0 to make the medium lossless, for simplicity. ‘The propagating electric field is given by EG,1) = E, cos(ot -fz)a, (4.55) where £, is the wave amplitude (in volts per meter), propagating at an angular frequency of ‘radians per second and having a phase constant of f radians per meter, The field is a fune- tion of its z position and time and is plotted versus z at time ¢ = 0 in Figure 4.19.48 Upon application of Maxwell’s equations, we will find that the magnetic field also propagates in the +z direction, but its field vector is always normal (perpendicular) to the electric field fector. Such a wave is said to propagate in a transverse electromagnetic wave mode, ot EM mode for short ‘We can apply Faraday’s law, vee A Aplotofthe Ex(vim) equation B(z.0) = eI E,cos(Bz)a, at 10 MHz with ,=1'Vim, 2(m) 80 100 ~ ‘\8This is a MATLAB-generated figure (see MATLAB 4.3). Careful study reveals that iis indeed a right-handed coordinate system,47 Lossless TEMWaves 195 to (4.55) to solve for the magnetic field. Taking the curl of E, we have s y vxe-| 2 4 2 lz, cos(wr—Bz) 0 o| (4.56) -{ 2. Bg costor- 62) = Be, sin(ot—Br)a, ‘This must equal the right side of Faraday’s law, so ~u a = BE, sin(or— Ba)a, (4.57) After dividing both sides by -, we form the integral fan=—- Jsin(ct ~ Be)a,dr (4.58) ‘The right side of the equation is easily integrated using [ sin udu =—cosw , where u = wr — Be and du is edt. So we have Bl H = cos(at— Bz)a, +C, (4.59) ou where C, is a constant of integration. Examining this problem we see that the time-varying Lis the only source of H; that is, there is no conduction current given that can also gener- ate H. So if we were to “turn off” E, H would also disappear. From this argument, we see that C, must be zero. To the plot of E we can add a plot of H versus z at time r= 0 (see Figure 4.20), The amplitude of the magnetic field is given as BE /ot. In other words, the amplitudes of E and Plot ofthe equation H(, 0) = (BEyon) cos(Bz)a, at 10 MHz with £, = 1 V/m along with the lighter plot of E@0) ° Ex(V/m) 5196 Chapter 4. Dynamic Fields Hare not independent; they are related by Maxwell's equations. Also, note that both waves are traveling in the z direction, and, moreover, they are related by yet still another version of the right-hand rule! Mathematically, we can say that the electromagnetic wave propa- gates in a direction given by the cross product of E and H: Starting with fingers pointing in -field direction (a,), then curling them to the H-field direction (a,) means the thumb will point in the propagation direction (a,). Even though we now have both fields, let’s continue using Maxwell's equations on this problem, We can apply Ampare’s circuital law, the ap VxH=Jo+5> to the changing magnetic field to recalculate E. Since there is no conduction current (6 = 0), the J, term is not present in our problem and we have aE VxH=e— x x a (4.60) ‘Taking the curl of H, we have jax a, VxH 2 2 7 “| (4.61) 0 0 - 2 a Fe sin(or Bea, Equating this to the right side of (4.60), we have (4.62) which we can integrate as we did for (4.58) resulting in BE, E cos(or ~Bz)a, 4.63) rue Oo" ~ Be} (4.63) For (4.63) and (4.55) to be equal, we must have 2 = ope or B=o,ue (4.64) Earlier in the chapter, we discovered that the propagation velocity is related to the phase constant and angular frequency by47 Lossless TEM Waves 197 or, since @ = 2nf and B = 27h, u, = Ay. But now we see from (4.64) that the propagation velocity is also given by 1 (4.65) ° ue (4.65) ‘This very significant result, which we found by applying Maxwell's equations to the prop- agating fields, relates u, to the properties of the medium, In the absence of any media (termed free space), the constitutive parameters are [l= [t,, € = €,, and G = 0. Plugging the by-now well-known values of }, and &, into (4.65), we are pleased to see that electromag. netic waves in free space propagate at the speed of light! Ay-polarized plane wave in air (jt = H,, €=€,, and o = 0) propagates in the x direction at 10 MHz. Write the expression for E(;1) if the wave has a 10 V/m ampli- tude. (Answer: E(x,1)=10cos(2m x 10"r-.2nx/3)a, Vim) Suppose in a nonmagnetic medium we have an electric field E(s,1)=20, {estore cod, im Among other things, we want to find H(,). By inspection, we see that the wave amplitude is E,= 20 Vim. The frequency is With a phase constant B = 1/10 radians/m, we have 7 © 2x10" 168 yg B milo Since this is in nonmagnetie medium, we have ty =~ Te, ore,=9. ‘To find H(a,0) we employ Faraday's law and follow the procedure from earlier in this s ansiving at BE, Peco nxioles Bvt Ela, 10° 6) om 5 60004 wai? + 10198 Chapter 4. Dynamic Fields Suppose 2 E(z,1)=6.0 os( 2 x10°, Zn V/m (a) What is the wave amplitude, frequency, phase constant, wavelength, and propagation velocity? (b) Find H(z,1). (Answer: (a) 6.0 Vim, 100 MHz, 2n/3 radians/m, 3m, 3 x 108m/s; (b) H(z,f) =—16 cos(2m x 108+ — 2nz/3)a, mA/m) Lot’s use MATLAB to create the plots in Figures 4.19 and 4.20. First, for the E, versus z plot we have the following: % M-File: MLO403a x % This program generates a 3D plot of Ex versus z. x % Wentworth, 7/17/02 x % Variables % Eo field amplitude (V/m) KF frequency (Hz) Be speed of Tight in vacuum (m/s) % lambda — wavelength (m) KB phase constant (1/m) % Ex electric field intensity (v/m) Kz position % null null array cle clears the command window clear clears variables % Initialize Variables Eo=1; 1086; 99868; Tambda=c/F; B=2*pi lambda; % Perform Calculation 1100; Ex-Eo*cos(-8*2) j nul1=0.#2; build a nut array XK Generate the Plot plot3(z,Ex,nut1) grid on view([3@ 30]) xlabel('z(n)") ylabel (*Ex(V/m)")47 Lossless TEM Waves 199 This is plotted in Figure 4.19. Notice the formation of a “null” array. We do this so we'll have something of the same dimension as z and E, to plot on the three-dimensional coordinate system, (In short, it forces y to be zero for all these points.) Also, for inereased clarity, the trace thickness was increased after the program was run by using the editor in the figure window. For the Z, and #, plots versus z, we have the following: % M-File: MLO403b x % This program generates a 3D plot of Ex and Hy versus 2. x % Wentworth, 7/17/02 x % Variables: % Eo Field amplitude (V/m) “F frequency (Hz) %w angular frequency (rad/s) Ke speed of light in vacuum (m/s) % uo free space permeability (F/m) % Jambda wavelength (mm) KB phase constant (1/m) % Ex electric field intensity (V/n) % Wy magnetic field intensity (A/m) Kz position % null nut] array cle clears the command window clear Sclears variables % Initialize Variables Fo=1} 1006; c=2.998e8 uo=pi*4e- Jambda=c/F} 8-2*pi/lambda; we2*pi*F; % Perform Calculation (B*E0)/(wsu0))*cos(-B*z) ; “2; Sbuild a null array % Generate the Plot plot3(z,Ex,null,"~",z,nu11,Hy) grid on view([30 30]) xlabel (*2(m)") ylabel (*Ex(W/m)') Zlabel (*Hy(A/m)") In this case, we’ ve chosen to plot Z, versus z using a lighter line.200 Chapter 4. Dynamic Fields Many, if not most, electromagnetic applications involve fields that vary sinusoidally with position and time, Such fime-harmonic fields are encountered in @ host of communications applications, and of course all AC circuitry is sinusoidal. In addition, repeated pulses of information may be treated as a Fourier series of sinusoidal waves. A time-harmonic signal can be transformed into the frequency domain by the use of phasors. The utility of working in the frequency domain (also called the phasor domain) i that the time factor is removed from the analysis, and time derivatives and integrals become simple algebraic exercises a ~is a Gale bt nit ni npdif 8A usoidal wave can be represented versus position by a polar plot of its amplitude rand phase 6. ‘This polar plot can be superimposed onto a set of real (Re) and imaginary (Im) axes, as shown in Figure 4.21. The complex value can be written re”, or, as is evident from the figure, rel? = cos 0 + jrsin O (4.66) ‘The relation between the polar form of the complex value (re®) and the rectangular form (reos0 + jrsin®) is given by Buler’s""” identity: e% = cos 8 +jsin@ (4.67) Itis also customary to employ a shorthand polar form (4.68) In Figure 4.21, corresponding points are indicated for both the cosine function and the. polar plot. The real part of the complex value is found as Reve") = r cos0; the imaginary part is Im(ve#) = r sin 8. Cosine function plot synchronized with polar plot “See Appendix C for a summary of complex aumbers. 4207p name Buler is pronounced “oiler”48 Time-Harmonic Fields and Phasors 201 Show how a point on a polar plot corresponds to the location on the cosine plot with an animation, % M-File: MLO4O4 % % This program generates a cosine plot animation % synchronized with a polar plot. % % Wentworth, 7/17/02 % revised 5/14/05 % % Variables: % Ao wave amplitude KOA wave value at theta % AL wave value for movie % theta angle Cin degrees) % thetal angle for movie KON data points for plot cle Xclears the command window clear %clears variables % Generate the reference frame X Initialize variables Ao=1;N=180; % Perform Calculation theta=0:4:4#N; A=Ao* cosd (theta) ; % Generate the Plot subplot (211) , plot (theta,A,0,A0, ro”) axis ([0 720 -1 11) set (gca, 'XTick’ , [0:90:720]) ; Xspaces the tick marks appropriately xlabel (‘theta (deg)') ; ylabel(’ cos(theta)") subplot (212) , polar (0,Ao, *ro") pause XMake the Movie for n=1:N thetal(n) =n*4; thetaldeg=thetal* pi/180; A1(n) =Ao*cosd (thetal (n)); subplot (211), plot(theta,A, thetal(n) ,AL(n),,"ro") axis({0 720 -1. 1.]) set(gca, 'XTick’ , [0:90:720]) xlabel (theta (deg)’) ;ylabel (’cos(theta)") subplot (212), polar(thetaldeg(n) ,Ao, 'ro’) MC:, Degetframe; end202 Chapter 4. Dynamic Fields A general time-harmonic electric field is a function of position (1, y, 2) and time (2) and can be written in instantaneous form as EG 2) = Exp z)eos(ar + $) (4.69) Now, using Buler’s identity we can also write this as E(xy,2,) = Re[Blax,y,z)e+ 0] (4.70) ‘This can be reorganized and written as Exy,2ut) = Re [E(x,y,z)e ai] = RelE,e'] a7 where the phasor form of the field is E,=Elxy2le (472) ‘The phasor, written with an s subscript,*!! is the time-harmonic field with the time depend- ency stripped away. Let’s see how we would write the point form of Faraday’s law in terms of phasors. We have B(x, y,21) VxE( xE(x,¥,2,1) H Using phasors, we see that this is equivalent to a 2 elO]) = jor Vx(Re{E,€ )- 5(RelBae' } (4.73) On the left side of (4,73), the curl operator is a position derivative, and so we can pull out the Re and the &® terms, so Vx (Re[E,e]} = Re[(V x E,]o™] (4.74) On the right side, it ean be shown (see Problem 4.37) that ~2 (Ree ) =r 2 2c | (4.15) and since B, is time independent, a jo a —Re| —B,e™ |=—Re| B, —e!” |= (4.76 E ] ( ar ans ‘Comparing (4.74) and (4.76), we find that VxE,=-joB, (477 ‘This is the differential phasor form of Faraday’s law, ‘.t0The student may recall the s-domain in circuit analysis, where s = jo.48 Time-Harmonic Fields and Phasors 203 The rest of Maxwell’s equations can also be written in differential phasor form as given in Table 4,2, Derivations of Gauss's law and Ampere’s circuital law are included as Problem 4,38, ‘The procedure for using phasors in problems is to first transform the instantaneous form of the field quantities to phasors. The problem is then solved in the phasor domain, and at the end (or at any intermediate point) the phasor form can be transformed back to an instantaneous form. Let's consider the problem in the previous section where we were given EG,t) = E,cos(ot ~ Bo)a, and now want f0 use phasors to find HU). ‘Asa first step, we convert to a phasor, B= 2,0 Next, we employ Faraday’s law to find B,. We have VxE,=-joB, a ay & 2 223 a ty & ee 0 0 Solving for B,, we find 1, Booey ee lay ‘Then, we can find , by dividing B by ‘To find the instantaneous form, we have to reinsert", employ Euler's identity and take the real part of the result. So we have Now suppose we have a magnetic field intensity given as H(c,t)=H, sinforpe +2)204 Chapter 4. Dynamic Fields and we want to find K(z,) using phasors, Using the relation sin(at) = cos(cx~m/2), we have sin(or — B+ 2/4) = cos(oor— e~ n/8) ‘Converting H(z.) to a phasor, we have H, = H,ebe+ Fg, ‘The phasor vector E, is found using Ampere’s circuital law, wher of any other information, and we have we can assume o =O in the absence VxH, =joeR, Evaluating the curl, we find so Converting to instantaneous form gives B(z,1)= nef eter, Pele coor ~Be-n/4)a, Convert the following instantaneous quantities to phasors: (a) A = 16 cos(ae X 10% + 2/3), (b) ACs, 1) =A, sin(4n x 10% + 2x) a,. (Answer: (a) A,= 16€!¥, (b) A, AghrDg,) Convert the following phasors to instantaneous quantities: (a) A, = 102", (b) A, = j5e/3"4(c) A, = 4 + j3. (Answer: (a) A = 10cos(at + 1/4), (b) A = —Ssin(wr + 3n/4), (c) A = Scos(cr+36.9°)) + The rate of change of charge density is related to the divergence of the current density vector by the current T= continuity equation o ‘+ The general wave equation is ved EG) 2 cos(ant— Bz + 6a, Using this equation and Gauss’s law, we can relate where Z, is the amplitude and otis the attenuation con- charge density to time as stant. The cosine argument is the phase, with angular frequency @ (radians/s), phase constant B (radians/m), P= Poe and phase shift @ (radians), where p, is the initial charge density and t is the * Paraday’s law relates an electromotive force Vig t0 the relaxation time rate of change of flux linking a circuit by‘where 2-is the flux linkage, For a single-loop citcuit, the emf can be written a =fE-dL=-<{B. Vent =$E- aL = —= 1 + Transformer emf is for the case of a time-varying magnetic field through a fixed surface, For this case we can find the point form of Faraday’s law, eB or + Motional emf has a changing surface in a constant ‘magnetic field. A form of Faraday's law for this case is, Veme = f(x B)- dL * Displacement current density J, is equal to the rate of change of the electrie flux density, ap wes ‘This term is added to Ampére’s circuital lew, showing that a changing electric field produces a magnetic field. * Maxwell's equations, summarized here in point (differential) form, are 4.1 Current Continuity and Relaxation Time How long does it take for charge density to drop to 1% of its initial value in polystyrene? At a particular point in a slab of silver, a charge den sity of 10” C/m? is introduced. Plot p, versus time for a duration of 10 relaxation times. A current density is given by J=pe-a, A/m?. Find the charge density after 10s if it has an initial value of zero. At1=0 5, 60.0 LC is evenly distributed throughout 2.00-cm-diameter pure silicon sphere. (a) Find the initial charge density, (b) How long docs it take for the charge density to drop to 10% ofits initial value? (c) What will be the final surface charge density’? Problems 205 V-D=py V-B=0 an or VxE= vxnas.+2 ar In integral form, Maxwell's equations are fHedL=JJ s+ 290 as + The direction of propagation of a transverse electro- magnetic mode wave is given by the eross product Ex H, where the field vectors of both E and H are normal to the propagation direction, * A time-harmonie field in the time domain can be represented by a phasor in the frequency domain, The transformation employs Buler’s identity. For an electric field given by K(xy.2 the phasor is written E,=E(xy,2) olf E(uy,z)eos(or+ 4) 4.2, Wave Fundamentals A propagating electric field is given by x E(t) = 100.670 s(n 10+ ne ) a.v/im 4 (@) Determine the attenuation constant, the wave fre- quency, the wayelength, the propagation velocity, and the phase shift. (b) How far must the wave travel before its amplitude is reduced to 1.0 Vim? A 10.0-MHz magnetic field travels in a fluid for Which the propagation velocity is 1.0 x 108 m/s. Initially, we have HO, 0) = 2,0 a, Am. The amplitude drops to 1.0d ), nce etemation, Generate po forthe \ d\ 206 Chapter 4. Dynamic Fields ‘A/m after the wave travels 5.0m in the y direction. Find the ‘general expression for this wave. ‘Modify the simple wave program in MATLAB 4.1 to sse where the amplitude is 4 V/m, the attenuation constant is 0.001 Np/m, and the frequency is | MHz, Take your snapshot in time at 0s, and let your phase shift be 0°. Modify the traveling wave program in MATLAB 4.2 to include attenuation, Use the parameters from Problem \ 4.7, except for the fixed time of course. 43° Faraday’s Law and Transformer EMF ‘The magnetic flux density increases at the rate of 10, ‘Wh/m?/s in the z direction, A 10 x 10 cm square conduct- ing loop, centered at the origin in the x-y plane, has 10.0 of distributed resistance, Determine the direction (with a sketch) and magnitude of the induced current in the con- ducting loop. ‘A bar magnet is dropped through a conductive ring. Indicate in a sketch the direction of the induced current when the falling magnet is just above the plane of the ring and when itis just below the plane of the ring, as shown i. Figure 4.22, Considering Figure 4.7, suppose the area of a single Joop of the pair is 100 em?, and the magnetic flux density is constant over the area of the loops but changes with time as, B= Be a,, where B, = 4.0 mWb/m? and x = 0.30 Nps. Determine Vq at 1, 10, and 100 s. C=p ‘A dropped bar magnet just before and just after it passes through the plane of a conductive wire ring (for Problem 4.10). ‘Sometimes a transformer is used as an impedance converter, where impedance is given by v/, Find an expres- sion for the impedance Z, seen by the primary side of the transformer in Figure 4.1 1a that has a load impedance Z, terminating the secondary. A 1.0-mm-diameter copper wire is shaped into a square loop of side 4.0 em. Its placed in a plane normal to ‘a magnetic field increasing with time as B= 1.0 a, ‘Wh/m?, where ris in seconds. (a) Find the magnitude of the induced current and indicate its direction in a sketch. (b) Calculate the magnetic flux density at the center of the loop resulting from the induced current, and compare this with the original magnetic flux density that generated the induced current at 1= 1.0, the mean length around a nickel core of a trans- former like the one shown in Figure 4.1 a is 16 em, and its, cross sectional area is 1 em?, There are 30 turns on the pri mary side and 45 on the secondary side. If the current on the primary side is 1.0 sin(20r x 10) mA, (a) calculate the amplitude of the magnetic flux in the core in the absence of the output windings. (b) With the output windings in place, calculate ip. ‘A triangular wire loop has its vertices at the points (2,0,0), (0, 3, 0), and (0, 0, 4), with dimensions in meters A time-varying magnetic field is given by B= 4¢ a, Wb/m? (with rin seconds). If the wire has a total distributed resist ance of 2 Q, calculate the induced current and indicate its direction in a carefully drawn sketch, 4.4 Faraday’s Law and Motional EMF Referring to Figure 4.23, suppose a conductive bar of length / = 2.0 cm moves with velocity u=—1.0 a, m/s toward an infinite length line of current = 4.0 A, Find an expression for the voltage from one end of the bar to the other when p reaches 10 em and indicate which end is pos- itive. ‘Suppose we have a conductive bar moving along a pair of conductive rails as in Figure 4.12, only now the ‘magnetic flux density is B = 4.0a, + 3.0a, W/m? If R = 10. Q, w= 20. em, and u, = 3.0 mis, calculate the current induced and indicate its direction The radius r of a perfectly conducting metal loop in free space, situated in the x~y plane, increases atthe rate of Gry m/s. A break in the loop has a small 2.0-0 resistor across it, Meanwhile, there exists a magnetic field B= 1.0 a, T, Determine the current induced in the loop, and show ina sketch the direction of flow. Rederive Via forthe rectangular loop of Figure 4.16 if the magnetic feld is now B = Ba,Conductive bar moving toward an infinite Iength line of current for Problem 4,16. In Figure 4.16, replace the rectangular loop with a circular one of radius @ and rederive Veg A conductive rod, of length 6.0 em, has one end fixed on a grounded origin and is free to rotate in the x: plane. It rotates at 60 revolutions/s in a magnetic field B 100. a, mT. Find the voltage at the end of the bat: Consider the rotating conductor shown in Figure 4.24, The center of the 2a-diameter bars fixed atthe origin, and ean rotate in the x-y plane with B = B,a,, The outer ends of the bar make conductive contact with a ring to make one end of the electrical contact to R; the other con- tact is made (0 the center of the bar. Given B, = 100. mWb/m?, a =6.0.em, and R= 50. Q, determine Ff the bar rotates at 1.0 revolutions. Brush contact Conductive ring x Schematic of rotating conductor for Problem 4.22, Problems 207 A Faraday disk generator is similar to the rotating conductor of 4.22, only now the rotating element is a disk instead of a bar. Derive an expression of the Via produced by a Faraday disk generator, and using the parameters given in Problem 4,22, find Consider a sliding rail problem where the conduc- tive rails expand as they progress in the y direction as shown in Figure 4.25. If w = 10. cm and the distance between the rails increases at the rate of 1.0 cm in the x direction per 1.0 em in the y direction, and 1, = 2.0 m/s, find the Vjgy across a 100,-Q resistor at the instant when y= 10. emif the field is B, = 100, mT. 4.5 Displacement Current ‘Suppose a vector field is given as A Verify that the divergence of the curl of this vector field is equal to zero, ‘Suppose a vector field is given by A=peoxd a, Verify thatthe divergence of the curl of this vector field is equal to ze, A pair of 60 cm? area plates are separated by a 2.0- m-thick layer of ideal dielectric characterized by e, = 9.0 Ifa voltage v(p)= 1.0 sin(2n x 10° Vis placed actoss the plates, determine the displacement current Plot the loss tangent of seawater (0 = 4 S/m and e, 81) versus log of frequency from 1 Hzto | GHz, At what fre- ‘quency is the magnitude of the displacement current density equal to the magnitude of the conduction current density’ A 1.0-m-long coaxial cable of inner conductor diameter 2.0 mm and outer conductor diameter 6.0 mm is led with an ideal diclectric with €, = 10.2, A voltage v(i) 10.cos(6r x 108 1) mY is placed on the inner conductor and the outer conductor is grounded. Neglecting fringing fields at the ends of the coaxial cable, find the displacement current between the inner and outer conductors. 4.7 Lossless TEM Waves Suppose in free space that Et )=5.0e-%"a, Vim. Is the wave lossless? Find Hi) An clectre field propagating in a lossless nonmag- netic medium is characterized by E694) = 100.cos(4nx 10% 0.1257))a, Vim (a) Find the wave amplitude, frequency, propagation veloc- ity, wavelength, and the relative permittivity ofthe medium, (b) Find Ho, 0.208 Chapter 4, Dynamic Fields Bar sliding along a pair of widening rails for Problem 4.24, ‘A magnetic field propagating in free space is given by H(e,) = 20.sin(ax 10% + Boda, Alm Find f, B, 4, and E(t), Find the instantaneous expression for K for the mag- netic field of Problem 4.6. Given, at some point distant from a source at the ori gin in free space, E (rf) = 8,0c03(97 x 104 — Brag Vim find the frequency, phase constant, and H(; 1). Ina lossless, nonmagnetic media, the magnetic field at some point distant from a source at the origin is given by Hp.) =6.0sin(3 x 10% + 10p)a, Alm. Find the relative permittivity of the medium, the frequency and phase constant of the wave, and E(p, Suppose, in a nonmagnetic medium of relative per- mittivity 3, that Gy) = 4.0sin(re x 1071 By)a, + 9.0cos(rex 1071 — By)a, Vin Determine B and Hy) 48 Time-Harmonic Fields and Phasors Show that A (ef3,c') Derive the differential phasor form of (a) Gauss's law and (6) Amptre's cicuital law, Find H(; #) in Problem 4.31b using phasors. Find E( ¢) in Problem 4.32 using phasors. In free space, EG.) = 1O.cos(rex 10%r— Bra, + 20.cos(rx 10% Ba, Vim Find AG 0). Find H6, 9) in Problem 4,36 using phasors. Repeat MATLAB44, now accounting for attenua- tion. Run the program assuming an attenuation of 2 10-6 Np/m, ej, )e™"]