HYDROLOGY An Introduction to Hydrologic Science Rafael L. Bras ‘Massachusetts Institute of Technology ' A ve ADDISON-WESLEY PUBLISHING COMPANY Reading, Massachusetts + Menlo Park, California + New York Don Mills, Ontario + Wokingham, Bagland + Amsterdam + Bonn ‘Sydney * Singapore + Tokyo + Madrid + San Juan‘To Rafael E, and Alejandro L.: Build me a son, O Lord, who will be strong enough to know when he is weak, and brave enough to face himself when he is ‘ie book isin the Addison-Wesley Series in Civil Engin Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data, Bras, Rfae! L. ‘afraid: one who will be proud aad unbending in honest defeat, and ‘iydrology: an introduetion to hydrologic sions. humble and gentle in vietoy, Bibliography: Build me o son whose heart will be clear, whose goal will be Feud | high; a son who will master himself before he secks to master other 3. Hydrology. 1 ‘men; one who will reach into the future, yet never forget the past cuscrant i000 sods 8.10703 "And efter ll ths things ae hse I pay enough oF sese |SBN 0.201.05922-3 | of humor, 90 that he may always be serious, yet never take himself 100 seriously, Give him humility, so that he may always remember the simplicity of true greatness, the open mind of true wisdom, and the meckness of true strength, | Then I, his father, will dare to whisper, 'l have not lived Cover Mllustration: Used with permission of Brie F. Wood and Dominique Thongs, Wa ter Resources Program, Princaton University. Produced at the Interactive Computer Excerpts from "A Father's Prayer” by Douglas MacArthur, written for his (Graphles Laboratory, Princeton University son Arthur. Copyright © 1990 by Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Ine. All rights recorved. [No par ofthis publication may be reproduced, stored In a retrieval system, or rans ie ‘mitted, in any form or by any means, electrenie, mechanical, photooopying, recording, fr otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Printed in the ‘United States of America. Published simultaneously in Cenada, ABCDEFGHU-HA-89Preface ‘The remarkable levels of public health and safety enjoyed by the "urban population of the developed world are due im considerable part. to investments in hydrology over the past century. While we have ‘spent lavishly to cope with the scarcity and excesses of water, we ‘have invested little in the basic science underlying water's role i shaping and reshaping our planet. Hydrology, the science of water, hhas.a natural place alongside oceanography, meteorology, geology, and thers as one of the geosclences: yel in the modem acicnce extab- lishment, this nicho is vacant. Why is this?* ‘The answer to the sbove question lies in the fact that “the elaboration of the field [of hydrology], the education of its practitioners, and the creation of {te research culture” have been problem driven. There is nothing wrong with |knowledge responding to problems. Bui when knowledge only follows prob Tome, the human mind and condition stagnate, and in a solf-fulflling proph- egy we became unable to predict the new challenges our water environment vw bring. 5 It is 2 firm belief in hydrology as an earth science, as # useful earth sci- ‘ence, that has driven my career and the writing of this book. I have been jnepired by many with the desire to help inform people of what hydrology is. ‘That challenge has come from a variety of places, some strange indeed. I will never forget arriving in New York in 1983 from a year's sabbatical abroad, Jneluding a three-week trip to the People's Republic of China, My family was * ¥rom “Hydtulgy, the Forgottin Barth Solones” by R Le Bras and PS, Bagleson, itera in B08, Vol 68, No. 16, April 21, 1987vill ecrace received by your “friendly” immigration official. After responding the best I could to her question "What is hydrology?,” Thad to restrain my anger when she asked why the Chinese, or anyono else, would care about that. My dedica- tion to the education of hydrologists was reaffirmed. “Although it has changed and developed considerably, the core of this book: was ready nine years ago. At that time, hydrology in the United States was dominated by only two introduetory textbooks, both of which had been on the ‘market for a considerable amount of time. Many of us felt the need for a dif ferent approach, somewhere between the “engineering hydrology” of the time and Peto Eagleson's Dynamic Hydrology, which ahead of its time espoused an ‘advanced and more seientifie, but quantitative, viow of hydrology. Circum- Stancas conspired to delay my project. To the chagrin of my editor (sorry, ‘Tom) in the past two years alone, more introductory hydrology books have ‘boon published than I care to remember. I should be upset at myself for losing the edge, for furnbling the opportunity to be the first of a new generation. But ‘Lam not. In whatever smal] way, I believe that my adtivities (yes, including drafting and redrafting this book and making my students suffer through the changes) have helped to spur renewed interest in hydrology. Tt is an exciting time for hydrologista, « time of major changes and opportunities. The field is beginning to carve its niche in the science establishment, We are moving, and it is fun to be part of it! Like all efforts of this nature, this book has an ideal es a soul. and com- promise as its body. It is not all I wanted, nor will it be for anybody els T intended it to be a textbook for advanced undergraduates or first-year graduate students, As a prerequisite it requires come Newtonian physies and Some thermodynamic concepts, Rlementary fluid mechanics is also needed. Introductory Inowledge of probability and statisties would be helpful to the understanding of some ideas, in particalar those of Chapter 11, but is not required. Metric units are favored, but in response to the reality of practice in the United States, other commonly used units are intentionally used. ‘The book emphasizes physical hydrology, The processes inherent to the hydrologic eyele are diseussod. The origins and, to the level possible, the sci- entific foundations of the hydrologic processes are presented in a descriptive ‘and quantitative way. The book is unique in keeping a reasonable balance in the discussion of the occurrence and movement of water in the atmosphere ‘and land masses, More than the usual attention is given to unified viow of ‘energy, climate, meteorology, and land-atmospherie fluxes like precipitation and evaporation (Chapters 2-6). Chapters 7 and 8 deal with subsurface ‘waters, saturated and unsaturated, This knowledge is used to develop the concepts of infiltration and exfiltration as well as percolation and capillary rise, Chapter 9 canceptualizes the river basin response, leading to the defini- tion of the discharge hydrograph. Chapter 10 discusses the flow of water in channels, which is necessary for streamflow routing and flood forecasting. ‘The interpretation of hydrologic variables az random is inherent, to mod~ cern hydrologic practios, Chapter 11 introduces and presents ideas for the ercence ix analysis of random variables, particularly oriented to the definition of the ‘return period or recurrence of a hydrologic event. The river basin is the prod- uct of climate, geology, and hydrology. It is the reflection of nature's balance fand dynamics. Chapter 12 ends with a discussion of hydrology and fluvial geomorphology, one of the many exciting frontiers in hydrology. ‘Although all material is intended to emphasize basic understanding, it remains very quantitive and useful. The student should finish this book with. ‘2 practical working knowledge of hydrology that goos beyond the cookbook ‘approach that has plagued us for many years. “Many hydrologic subjects are missing from this book, like any other. A balance had to be achieved betwooa the book's goals, the nature and level of the subject matter, space, novelty, and the intended audience. In my opin- jon, the biggest gap is in the description of sediment transpor': and erosion. ‘This is the result of a tradeoff in which increased attention to meteorology, snow, and groundwater carried the day. ‘Others will point out that there is little or no reference to models, the in- tegration of concepts into the tools that make up the day-to-day life of the practitioner. This was to have been Part IT of the book, but it lost out in the ‘competition for space. Given my objectives and my view of what « eolid intro duction to hydrology is, I see this as an unfortunate but correct definition of priorities Drafts of this book have been used at MIT‘ for many years (it has also ound its way, via former students, to othor universities). There is an extraor- dinary amount of material to cover in one somester. Generally, I go aver the ‘great majority of the subjects but net all of them. I have starred sections that fare more expendahle, aither because they are elaborations of a subject or because they are secondary to the main concepts. Depending en the audience and geography, Chapter 6, Snowpack and Saowmelt, can be given variable emphasis; I nevertholoss suggest some study of this chapter, however brief it may be, Chapter 12, Concepts of Fluvial Geomorphology, is not process oriented and hence is not part of the mainstream. The temptation to treat Chapter 11, Concepts of Probability in Hydrology, in a similar way should be avoided, Probebility is crucial to hydrology and should be the noxt level of sophistication to the studont. ‘The book has a respectable collection of end-of-chaptey problems. Com- monly, these are used as didactic tools to either expand or introduce new concepts, The teacher should carefully select homework to achieve the goal of teaching by doing, Introductions aad summaries to chapters should help in continuity of thaught and link the veriety af concepts prevented. ‘Albert Binstein once said: A lhundred timedevery day Ivemind myself that my inner and outer life are based on the labors of other men, living and dead, and that I must exert myself in order to give in the same measure as | have received and am still receiving.X PREFACE ‘These words ere ftamed in the Arthur T: Ippen Conference Room at the Ralph M. Parsons Laboratory for Water Resources and Hydrodynamics at MIT. Toaanot think ofa better way to express my appreciation for the people that make up that laboratory and for the many other friends and colleagues 1 have, Sharing the droams, the excitement, the opportunities, and the eolle- siality of the Ralph M. Parsons Lab has been the reward of « career. Having tthe honor of serving as ite director fulfilled a dream. I want to particularly thank the studente, both undergraduate and graduate, who for many years ‘suffered the development of this book and the maturing of my thoughts. I have been blessed with extraordinary students. Seeing them succeed is my greatest enjoyment and satisfaction. Some have contributed particular prob- Toms and/or portions of text. They are acknowledged where the material appears, Dr. Carlos Puente was also very helpful in the development of come fend-of chapter problems. Besides challenges and opportunities, hydrology hes provided me with extraordinary friends end mentors, Even in competition, I can't think of a betior sot of colleagues. There are two who deserve special attention; 1 would {ike fo mention Professor Peter S, Eagleson, a friend, example, and mentor, ‘and Professor I. Rodrigue2-Itarbe, my closest collaborator. ‘The careor of an academician is impossible without the support of many agencies that sponsor research and facilitate our thinking. Many have pro- vided me with financial eupport. The Office of Hydrology of the National ‘Weather Service and the National Science Foundation (Engineering and Sci- ‘ence Directorates) have always been there when I nooded their. For many years now, Elaine Healy has served as my personal secretary ‘and friend. She went through three word processors and uncountable drafts of tis book (not to mention may many other wild projects). Believe it or not, she actually likes it! If ever write another book (two may be enough for mel) I hhope to count on her excellent support again. Thanks, Blaine. "fom Robbins, Sponsoring Editor, and Sherry Berg, Production Coor- dinator, have worked on ry two books. I thank them for their efforts and confidence. ‘Versions of this hook have been reviewed by many. Drs. Stephen J. Burges, University of Washington; Daniel D. Evans and Soroosh Sorooshiaa, University of Arizona; Konstantine P. Georgalsakos, University of lowa, Towa Institute of Hydraulic Research; arid Antonis D. Koussis, Vanderbilt Univer- sity, provided formal reviews and criticisms that were very helpful in prepar- ing the final manuscript. Finally, J want to acknowledge the love of my wife, Pat, and my children, Rafael B. and Alejandro L., and my parents, Amalia and Rafael, Without them any projost would be senseless. Carnbridge, Massachusetts RLB, Contents 1 INTRODUCTION 1 Introduction 1 ‘The Hydrologic Cycle and the Hydrologic Budget Equation 3 Scope of Work 12, Sommary 13 References 13, Problems 14 iJ 43 1 1 2 soLaR RADIATION AND THE EARTH'S ENERGY BALANCE 19 2.1 Introduction 19 5 2.2. Planetary Motions and the Distribution of Radiation 21 28 Radiation Physics 31 23.1 Shortwave Radiation 34 23.2 Longwave Radiation 42 24 Summary 47 Relurences® 47 Problems 49xii contents 3 princiwies oF METEOROLOGY: THE EARTH ATMOSPHERE SYSTEM 53 aa 32 33 a4 35 36 at 3s 39 Introduction 53 Composition and General Characteristics of ‘the Atmosphere 54 ‘Transport Processes 56 ‘Tomperature Distribution 58 34.1 ‘Temporal Distribution 58 342 Vorizontal Distribution 60 3.43 Vertical Temperature Distribution in the Lower Atmosphere 63 844 ‘Temperature Measurements 66 Pressure Distribution 68 + ‘Advection by Winds and Ocean Currents 73 3.6.1 Atmospheric Circulation 73 36.2 Circulation in the Oceans 80 ‘Atmospheric Humidity &2 3.7.1 The Phases of Water 82 3:72 Vapor Pressure and Humidity 84 3:73 Measurement and Estimation of Humidity and Vapor Pressure 86 8-7.4 Distribution of Atmospheric Moisture 88 ‘Atmospheric Stability and Condensation 92 3B. Adiabatic Cooling 93 3.8.2 Condensation by Pseudo-adiabatic Cooling 95 383 Further Comments on Thermal Conveetion and Stability 100 Summary 102 References 103 Problems 104 4 PRECIPITATION OCCURRENCE AND MEASUREMENT 109 1 Aa ‘3 Introduction 109 Cooling and Lifting Processes 110 ‘An Introduetion to Cloud Physics 116 49.1 Nucleation 116 432. Growth and Distribution of Precipitation Particles 17 4.3.3 Terminal Velocities of Fydrometeors 120 43.4 Evaporation of Precipitating Hydromoteors 120 Forms of Precipitation 126 48 comments xii Storm Structure 127 ‘Measurement of Precipitation 182 46.1 Gages 132 482 Radar 134 46.3 Satellites 140 Precipitation Data Analysis 146 4.7.1 Estimation of Missing Data 149 4.7.2 Consistoncy Checks 153 4.73 Mean Areal Precipitation 154 474 Frequency Analysis 157 4.75 Network Design 158 Summary 170 References 171 Problems 175 5 EVAPORATION, TRANSPIRATION, INTERCEPTION, AND DEPRESSION STORAGE 183 61 52 53 Ba 55 56 Bq Introduction 183 Evaporation from Free Warer Surfaces 188 5.21 Water Balance Mothod 189 5.22 Enorgy Balance Mechod 190 523. Mose-Transfer Methods: The Dalton Law Analogy 197 6.24 Combined Mass-Transfer and Energy Methods: ‘The Penman Equation 201 5.2.5 Empirical Equations 203 5.26 Direct Measurement of Evaporation 210 ‘Transpiration and Evapotranspiration 219 Bvuporation from Snow 231 Intercoption 232 Depression Storage 234 ‘Summary 296 s References 237 Problems 241 6 SNOWPACK AND SNOWMELT 247 on 62 63 Tatroductidh 247 Snow Accumulation and Measurement 248 Snowpack 256 63.1 Density 257 63.2 Cold Content 259xiv contents 63.8 Thermal Quality 260 63.4 Liquid-Water Content 261 6.3.5 Albedo 262 64 Bnergy Budget and Snowmelt 264 64.1 Net Radiation 265 642 Advected Heat in Precipitation 265 643 Bnergy Consumed in Evaporation, Condensation, and Sensible-Heut Transfers 266 644 Heat of Conduction from the Soil 267 645 Energy Reloased by Freezing of Liquid Water Content 268 65 Air Temperature as an Index of Snowmelt 268 66 Routing of Melt through Snowpack | 275 67 Summary 278 References 278 Problems 280 A GROUNDWATER FLOW IN SATURATED POROUS MEDIA 283 TAL Introduction 283 7.2 ‘The Soil-Rock Profile and Subsurface Waters 284 13 Darcy's Law 290 714 Mass Belance Equations —Flow in Saturated Porous Media 294 74.1 Confined Aquifers 294 742 Unconfined Aquifer 296 743 Horizontal-Plane Flow and the Dupuit Approximation 296 7,44. Initial and Boundary Conditions | 300 745 Linearity and the Superposition Principle 300 7.5 Hydraulics of Welle 313 75.1 Steady State Solution of a Fully Penetrating Well ina Confined Aquifer 313 75.2 Steady-State Solution of a Fully Penetrating ‘Well in an Unconfined Aquifer 316 1.58. Unsteady Flow in Wells 817 754 Wells in Leaky Aquifers 323 75.5 Superposition of Wells and the Method of images 323 7.5.6 Aquifer Tests 925 16 Summary 336 References 337 Problems 939 contents xv 8 row in unsatunareD POROUS MEDIA AND INFILTRATION 349 8.1 Introduction 349 82. Flow in Unsaturated Porous Media 350 8.2.1 Conservation of Mass in Unsaturated Porous Media 352 8.3. Infiltration and Exfiltration 355 83.1 Empirical Infiltration Equations 362 88.2 Storm Runoff 368 88.8 Actual Evaporation 877 8A Percolation and Capillary Rise 382 8.5 Summary 384 References 985 Problems 388 THE HYDROGRAPH AND SIMPLE RAINFALL— DISCHARGE RELATIONSHIPS 395 9.1 The Hydrograph 395 9.2 Hydrograph Separation 399 9.3 Streamflow Measurements 401 94 Rainfall-Discharge Relationships 404 9.4.1 Peak Discharge Formulas—The Rational Formula 405 94.2 The Unit Hydrograph 409 94.3 Synthetic Unit Hydrographs 419 9.5 The Instantaneous Unit Hydrograph 430 #95.1 Fourier Series 432 +9552 Fourier and Laplace Transforms 436 95.3 Moments and Cumulants 437 96 Conceptual Instantencous Unit Hydrographs 441 97 Sommary 449 . References 450 Problems 453 10 eroon routine ss 101 Routing 465 302 Conceptual Models 466 102.1 Channel Routing: The Muskingum Method 468U1 12 102.2 Reservoir Routing 475 10.38 Hydraulic Routing: The ‘St Venent Equations 478 103.1 Solutions to St Venant Equations 482 10.3.2 Numerical Solutions 486 104 Black-Box Models 491 10.5 The Diffusion Analogy 492 10.8 Summery 494 References 494 Problems 496 CONCEPTS OF PROBABILITY IN HYDROLOGY 505 : 11. A Introduction 505 '2 Review of Probability 606 3 Models of Probability 515, 11.8.1 Models of Discrete Random Variables 515 11.8.2 Models of Continuous Random Variables 521 11.4 Nonparametric Estimates of Exceedance Probability 543 "115 Novel Approaches and Future Directions 545 116.1 Derived Distributions 645 115.2 Regional Analysis 548 11.5.3 Paleohydrology and the Value of Historical Information 550 116 Summary 554 Reforences 555 Probleme 657 CONCEPTS OF FLUVIAL GEOMORPHOLOGY 567 12.1 Introduction 567 123 Descriptions of Drainage Basin Comporiton 668, 12.2.1 ‘Two-Dimensional Planar Descriptors ZZ2Z_ Descriptors of Keliet 582 122.3 Stream Channel Geometry 587 "123. Fluvial Geomorphology end Hydrology 689 12.3.1 Geomorphologic Instantaneous Unit Hydrograph 590 124 APPENDIX A APPENDIX covets. xvi 12.3.2 Geomorphoclimatic Instantaneous Unit Hydrograph 597 12.3.8 Comments and Further Developments of the Geomorphologic Instantaneous Unit Hydrograph 699 12.8.4 Link-Based Derivations of the Geomorphologit Instantaneous Unit Hydrograph €02 Summary 605 References’ 605 Problems 610 ‘TABLES OF WATER PROPERTIES 615 DEVELOPMENT OF UNSTEADY FLOW EQUATIONS FOR. SATURATED MEDIA 628 INDEX 633Chapter 1 . Introduction | 1.1 intRopucTION | dslgy eh tay of water ns omen ml orgs fel 4 its destinations on the earth. Although the hydrologic umbrella would in- | clude water-quality issues, this work will essentially concentrate on the ques- { tions of water quantity | "As a requirement for Life as we know it, water hs been @ souree of con tinvons presecupation for humans sines the beginning of mankiné. The same ‘quostions end inoues of the past are prevalent today. How much water is there? Where is the water coming from? Where is it ging?” What isthe qual- ity of the water and how can we control it? What should we do when we have fo0 much or too little of i? ‘Since our elomentary-seience-course days, we all have a fecling for the ‘movement and location of water. The occan is clearly recognized as the biggest source of wator. Rainfall is always associated with streamflow as well as with climatic and moteorologic phenomena. Water losses due ta evepora- tion and infiltration are not absizact concepts. But these seemingly trivial {dees wore not always eo clearly understood; our predecessors in the study of hydrology did not reach this level of knowledge until relatively recent times. ‘The history and development of hydrology are fascinating subjects. The | render is referred {o,an excellent book by Biswas (197Z] on the history of hy- | Urology. A few remafics are usuful (o create the correct historical petspectivaee 2 CHAPTER INTRODUCTION Early thinkers and philosophers did not understand three basic hydro- logic principles (Eagleson [1970)): 4. conservation of mass, 2, evaporation and condensation, and 8. infiltration. ‘They were worried about how water gets up to the mountains, flows down to: the sea, and fails to raise the level of the latter, Because of what may be called Timited spatial ewarenscs they could not noo rainfall as « suficient |Site of treanfow. To acon fr cheered wer Seavion adergovn’ ‘serves (beneath mountains) were hypothesized. Water was balioved to be Dushol up thesmountains by vacutm foros, capillary aetio, or “rock pres- ure” and eurfoced as streatafiow. The underground reservoirs wore roplen- ished by the sea 5 Vitruvius, during the first century 9.0, stated thatthe mountains re- ceived precipitation tat thon gave rise fa sttamflaw. A Gltation process by ‘thich water percolated into soll was also acknowledged by Vitruvius end Tater by da Vine. Tt wan in the seventeenth century that Perrault proved by measurement that proupitation could account for streamflow in the Seine River, France Similar quantitative studies were mode by Mariotto and Halley during the | same historical period. At this stage, the mase balance concept was pretty wel established although questioning of i entinued well into th twentieth century, "The eighteenth contury saw advances in hydraulie and the mechanies of water movement by Bernoulli, Chezy, and many others. The nineteenth Conbury saw experitiental work on walet flow by people like Daxey and Manning The above names are familiar to ehadants of groundwater and surface-waler movement Until the 19908 hydrology remained a science filled with empiricism, qualitative deseriptions, and little overall understanding of ongoing pro cesses. At that time, people such as Sherman [1932a] and Horton (1940) ini- Sinted e more theoretca, quantitative, approach. Shermants unit hydrograph concept sill romains with us a tho most sucresefal (out not-nocossarily the ‘best) and most well-known explanation of river-basin behavior. Horton's ‘ons on inftration, coil moisture accounting, and runof are sill rexngnized | by present-day hydrologiata "All these conturieo of exporieace and study have converged to form the concept of the hydrologic eyele. The concept in simply that water changes State end is eansported ine clocod ayetns: he earth and ite atmosphare. Tha ele is closed only earthwide, each drop of wator following a path from the ‘tenn to the atmosphero to the earth (through surface or underground mover ment). Energy to keep this cycle going is provided by the sun. Processes in- ‘volved are evaporation, condensation, precipitation, infiltration, and runoff 112 THE HYOROLOGC CYCLE AND THE HYDROLOGIC BUDGET EGUATION 3. ‘The practicing hydrologist is usually concorned with local conditions and is therefore facing an open aystem. Nevertheless, unless the basic hydrologic ‘yele is recognized, he or she will again wonder how the water gets up the mountain, 1.2. THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE AND THE HYDROLOGIC BUDGET EQUATION ‘A schematic view of the global hydrologic oycle is shown in Figure 1.1, This diagram shows the interactions and mass transfers (water in different states) ‘that occur hetween the atmosphere, land surfaces, and the oceans. Note that water appears in liquid, solid, and gesoous states. Emphasis is given to pro- cesses on or within the land surface with no detail of water-transport mecha- Waren igo sl vapor phar coe . a he| Se | aa Ta FIGURE 1.1 A schomatic view ofthe hycrolégic oyte. Transport of water as vapor sinh cated by wavy Ines. Source: Eagleson {1970}4 coweren sf tRODUCTION nisms operating within the atmosphere and oceans: These details will be discussed in later chapters and are extensively covered in the associated fiolds of motoorology and oceanography. ‘A-fow possible new terms need initial definition, Sublimation is the ‘changé of ice to vapor. Throughfall is the water not intercepted by vegetation. Buapotranspiration is tho combined consumptive—evaporative process by ‘which water is released to the atmosphere through vogotation and soil, Bxjil- tration is the rising of soil moisture due mostly to tension and capillary forees. Interflow is the water flow at shallow dapths within the soil structure. Infiltration is water absorption by the soil surface. Pervolation refers to water ‘movement into deep groundwater reservoirs called aquifers Figure 1.2 indicates the magnitudes and distribution of global annual av- erage precipitation. In the figure water quantities are measured in volume per unit area of Iand or ocean. For example, 31 em of runoff over lend is, ‘equivalent to 13 em over the oceans, given the much larger ocean area. Note ‘that more water falls directly into the oceans than over land (30% of total surface area). Fifty-seven percent (41/72) of precipitation falling on land never reches the ocean. More water evaporates from the ocean than it re- ceives directly in the form of procipitation. ‘Table 1.1 shows the distribution of water throughout the earth. Clearly, the ocoans and ieeeaps dominate as sources of water. Using Table 1.1 and Fig" ure 1.2, Bagleson [1970] computes that the global average annual precipita tion and evaporation each total about 100 om, giving a global annual precipi- ‘ation volume of 511,000 cubic kilometers, Table 1.1 shows that the-average ce ia ‘28cm Precetcon pecon 7 FIGURE 1.2 Disposition of global anrual average precotation, Source: Eagleson [1870]. Data from Budyko etal. (1962) 1.2 HE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE AND THE MYOROLOGIC BUDGET EQUATION 5 TABLE 1-1 Distribution of Worlds Estimated Water Resoureos SURFACE warex, PERCENTAGE "AREA VOLUME ‘OF TOTAL, Location ‘an ‘tex? ‘WATER Surfoee water Freshwater lakes 1355:100 325,100 0.009 Saline lakes 99'700 3104/200 b.008 Stroam channels : 1,900 0.000 Subsurface water ‘Groundorster (less than Yemi deer) ——_128,5650000 471,400 0307 Groundwater (more than %4 mi deep) 129,505 000 417,400 0.307 Soll moisture, ee 129,585 000 66,700 0.005 Teoeaps and glocire 17,880,000 29,199,700, aia Atmneaphere (at sea level) 610,486,000 12,900 0.000 Oceans 861,488000 _1,892,980,600 grat Approximate totals 1,860,188,400 100.000 ‘Source: Adapted fom RL, Nace, "Water ofthe Weld" Natur, Hist, Vol:79,No, 1, Jennary 1864 atmospheric moisture content is 12,900 km. So atmospheric moisture must bo replaced on the average 40 times a year, which implies « moisture resi donee timo of nine days. Quite an active eyle indeed! The hydrologist usually faces an open systom of tho type illustrated in Figure 1.5. The quantification of the hydrologic eycle‘in such a system be- comes a simple mass balance equation, where inputs are equal to the change in storage. The general water budget equation is then Bo1-@ an where J is inputs and Q represents outputs. ‘The hydrologist must be careful in defining the region or control jlume over which Eq. (1) is tobe written, Only then can the terms comprising the inputs F and outputs @rbe defined. Clenorally, tho mows felano ean fm writen ove suds and uidengrouind Water systems. Using Figure 1.3 as 2 control volume, the surface budget ‘equation is P+ Qy~ s+ QE, -T.-1=A8,, | |se the major inflows and logic eyels In an open system: Dozier, Landscepe: and, Sourop: W¥. Marsh and ight © 1906 by Woy. Ropritod by porise fon to Prysoa! Ge oi Wey & Sots IME of interest, Qu and Quy are surface- volume over the period of interest, @ io surface streams, E, is surface evaporation surface moisture, I ix infiltration rate, a rage on the eurface over the period of intarast. Aetadwatar budget equation is " jon over the perio. Qe By Te AS ayo groundvater lw rates in and out of the control vol oa tS Sr Pave dofinitions equivalent to the surface counter- ter in wad out of the : "Palnnco, obtained by edding both equations is pla Qa) Br BA) 4M) ~ Or = Oa) = 88, + 50) 112 1HE HYOROLOOIC CYELE AND THE HYDROLOGIC BUDGET FOUATION. 7 ‘The units of the sbove equations are volume per unit time. Using net mass exchanges, Eq. (14) can be summarized as P-Q-G- AS, ae Q caer ee irc eipreeopination P-Q-G-ET™~AS, os wwhere ET is « combined evapotranspiration term. “Generally, more than one of the elements of Eq, (1.5) are unknown, mak- ing the solution of the algebrafe equation impossible, Only in eases where reasonable approzimations of the majority of the values ean be made or ‘wttere one or more terms can be related is it possible to solve Bq. (1.5). ‘The simple hydrologic equation cam, nevertheless, lesd to highly signifi- cant and useful results. An example is the shudy of the potontial water yield GFawampy regions in the upstream reaches of the Nile River Basin. The point ‘ot complete utilization of tho Nile River streamflows has nearly been reached. Therefore Egyptian and Sudanese weter planners are seriously studying the channelization and drainage fone such project, the Jonglet Canal, was ini- Gated) of some of these swampy regions in order to decrease water loses and jncrease annual water yield into Lake Nasser (and the Aswan High Dam Sys tem) in Baypt, which is the main weter-storage facility for both countries. The reservoir holds several years of Nile inflows ‘Figure L4 gives the general loestion of the Macher marshes near the Sobat and Baro rivers; the swamps eloug the Bahr £1 Jebel end Babr El Zora tributaries; and the Bahr Sl Gkazal rogion, covered by swamps near its Gutlet to Lake No, where it joins the main White Nile channel. In order to as- seor the potential of these regions as water sources, detailed water-balance studies are required. ‘Chan and Eagleson (1980] used published literature to make en initisl water balance in tho permanent swamp regions of the three areas involved. Thoir mammary appears in Table 1.2, Thoy used average anual quantities; they assumed that over the year, on tae average, the change of storagé in the system is zaro, This is @ ressonable assumption over many years in w bydro- Togie system dominated by an annual meteorologic and climatic cycle, There: fore AS in Eq. (1.5) is taken aa zero, ‘They had no information on lateral roundwater movement. Its then assumed that ether the groundwater ays fom of these hydrologic units are fully enclosed within the chosen unit vol- ime of abudy (hich ifnot really Phe eas inthis particular sitution) or more Teasonably that the groundwater erstem is in reasonable ctondy state and dominated by the other inputs and autputs to the system, These arguments lead to G = 0 in Eq. (1.6), Surface inpuis to the systom are of two types gaged inflow through channels end uncontrolled over-bank spillage romand Eagleson [1980 ‘transpired water depth of 1.5 m for Machar, for Ghazal. || Tre above analysis ignores potentially i | @. Nevertheless, Chan and Eagleson (1960) | serve as checks on the reasonableness of the | | raure 1.4 The Nie Riverin the Sudan, showing location of mare areas, Source: Chan ‘chennels into the swamps. The hydrologic equation for all three systems then | | becomes (in units of 10" cabie meters or milliords (mad): | P-@ er Macher Ta Oi 35-20 127 GebelZeral 15 —G43+60— 310) 142 Ghazal 160 (06 §0~127) 384 | tm units of depth por unit area of swamp, Table 12 indicates annual evapo- “L1 ta for Jebel-Zeraé, and 2.0 rm important terms such as AS and point vut that these permanent | ramp rogions are covered by papyrus plants and tall grasslands. Indepen, | Seat assessment of the evapotranspiration from these plants yields values of | $a for papyrus and 1.9 m for a composite of papyrus and grasslands | reighted by area, ‘Those numbers agree with estimated water losses and ‘assumptions made. ‘TABLE 1.2"ApParont Water Losses from Major Nile Swamps ESTIMATED GAGED AREA OF ‘SPILLAGE PRECIPITATION INFLOW ‘SWAMP i LOCATION md aa 60 Tigh Hore wl always refer to fhe numberof eubie mers per year. 38 60 zo m0 127 15 73 16.0 3700 EF 36,600 Machar ‘ebsl-Zeral ‘Ghazal Source: Adapted from Chat snd Bogleson (i980). SL lind Go)FIGURE 1.5 The Behr El Ghazal Basin and demarcation of boundaries of subeatehments. ‘Source: Chan and Eagleson (1980). (Chapter 6 will discuss mothods to estimate evapotranspiration from vari- ous surfaces and vegetation. Most impressive to the new student of hydrology should be the proportion of annual wator flow in the White Nile that is lost, mainly through evapotranspiration. The last column of Table 1.2 gives the ratio of losses to Whita Nile flow before its junction with the Blue Nile (see Fig. 1.4), Note that in the Babr El Ghazal region losses are more than the ‘gaged average annual streamflow of tho Nile River at Malakal (see Fig. 1.4) ‘und over 30% of the annual average flow of the Nile at Aswan (84 x 10° m'). ‘The potential water gains from reduced evapotranspiration are immense! 1.2 HYDROLOGIC GYCLE AND THE HYDROLOGIC @UDGET EOUATION TY In order to further define how scme of this evapotranspired water could be recoverod, Chan and Bagleson (1980) studied the Behr El Ghazal région as ‘whole, taking into account the central swampland and the feeding tributary catchments, as shown in Figure 1.5. Individual water balances ware per- formed for cach tributary basin, Still taking AS and G as initially ero in Raq. (1.6), the rest of the terms—-P.@, and 2? —were indepandedtly as- ‘sossed, to tho extent possible, using available data on precipitation, seam- flow, evapotranspiration, and distribution of vegetation, The resuitjof this txaroise given in Figure 16, where P, BT, ont @ denote sanual dverage precipitation, evapotranspiration, and surface runoff, respectively. Water spilled into the Bahr El Ghazal system fram the nearby Jebel system is given by Do. Groundwater seepage or unatiributod inflows into the eentral swam land is represented by G,. Gaged surface input inta the central swamgland is represented by ¥;. Subscripts L, O, and B indicate inputs or outputs into tributary systems, the contral swampland, and the basin as a whole, reepec- tively. Numbers in parentheses ere water volumes per unit area (in mil- Jimoters) over tributary, swampland, or total basin areas as indicated by the Sutapt sen aera aa cel warp anal, sacs (a2 -127 1989 351 me (82 a= 843094? Ae =A e96 4 Agr 812386 in? FIGURE 1.6 Mean annual water balance of the Bahr EI Ghazal Basin. Source: Chan and Eagleson [1980].jee 12 compres t /INTRODUCTION subscripts, The hydrologic budget equation as applied to the swampland be- comes, Po ~ ET + Do ~ Qo ~ Ds + Yu = [All the above quantities were independently assessed except G,, which is groundwater seepage Into the central swampland or ungaged surface flows. Substitution of the quantities yields G, = 19.8 mdm*, Evapotranspiration in the tributaries, E7,, was then obtained by solving the hydrologic budget, ‘equation for the tributary systems BY, = P,-Y,- Gs, Teading to BT, = 951.7 mam’. Tr summary, the maximum amount of water (annual average) that could ‘possibly be recovered by intercepting all flows (surface and groundwater) into the central swampland of the Bahr Is| Ghazal is on the order of 32.5 10° m* 19.8 x 10" + 12.7 x 10), 1.3 scope oF WORK In contrast to other introductory books in hydrology, this one intends to em- phasize, at a basie level, the scientific reasoning behind the various subjects, in hydrology. However, this emphasis doos not imply that practical and useful procodures are ignored. Furthermore, there are subjects where empiricism is the only reasonable approsch at the introductory level ‘The first toni chapters cover basic principles, quantifying the parts and ‘the processes of the hydrologic eyele. Chapter 2 discusses solar radiation. This is the main source af energy for the hydrologic cycle. It dictates the earth’s ‘energy balance and also plays an important role in determination of evapora- tion and transpiration. Chapter 3 describes the atmosphere as an equally important partner with the earth in controlling the movement of water. Emphasis is on a global scale, pointing out global patterns and phenomena that can and do influenes local hydrologic conditions, Chapter 4 covers tho ‘main forms of precipitation—rainfall and snow, Their genesis, chetacteris- tics and measurements are detailed. Chapter 6 covers evaporation and tran- spiration. It also discusses the retention of water in vegetation and surface ponding. Chapter 6 deals with the accumulation and melt of snow. Chapter 7 covers the movement of water in tho soil system. It describes the occurrence ‘and dynamics of groundwater flow and discassos groundwater flow under satu: rated conditions and the hydraulics of wells, Unsaturated flow equations and infiltration are studied in Chapter 8. Chapter 9 quantifies surface runoff from srerenences 19 precipitation and snowmelt, Chapter 10,deals with the mechanics of flow in ‘channels and flood routing. Emphasis is on theory and methodologies. In Summary, the first tén chapters provide insight and tools for indeperident evaluation of the various terms in the water balance (Eq. 1.5). Chapter 11 in- froduces the concepts of probability: most commonly used in the anelysis of the frequency of oocurrence of hydrologic events. Chapter 12 talks about river basin geometry and fluvial geomorphology and its implications in hydrclogy. ‘Not all the material presented heros necessary for an introductory study of hydrdlogy. Advanced topies are indicated throughout the book with an as- teriak. The Proface will help guide the teacher, student, and general reader in the selection of topics. 1.4 summary Hydrology is the study of water in all its forms, from all its otigins, to all its dectinations on the earth. Traditionally, hydrologic science has concentrated fon the fluxes between land surfaces and the atmosphere and oceans. Many of the details of the study of the procasses within the atmosphere -and oceans rust be left to the sister disciplines of meteorology and oceanography, r0- spectively. Nevertheless, the expediency of thié separation should not be {interpreted as encouragement for sharp disciplinary boundaries. The earth ‘processes do not recognize such artificial groupings. "This chapter introduces the hydroiogic cyele and its elements, The con- cept of conservation of mass within this truly-active eydle is presented and il- lustrated with.an example, From the example’ the reader should como to the realization thet itis generally hard to quantify some of the elements of the hydrologic cycle. The chapter also intends to provide a feeling of the magni- ‘de, at global and local seales, of some of the elements of the eycle. “Most of the rest of the book will be spent in detailing and quantifying the procasees tliat control the hydrologic esele. We will begin in Chapter 2 by dis- fussing the fuel of this eycle—solar radiation —and the related energy bel- ‘ance on global and local scales % eo REFERENCES Biswas, A.K. 1972), History of Hydrology. Amsteriam: North-Holland Branson, FA, G.F Gifford, K.G. Revard, and R.B. Handley (1981). Rangoland Hy- ‘drology. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Huns. " Budyko, MEL, NA: Efimova, L.1. Zabenok, and L.A. Strokina (1962). “Tho Héat Bal- ‘ance of the Barth’ Surface” Akad. Neok. USSR, 1-2 u Ser. Georer. No. 1:14 onapTER 1 / TRODUCTION ‘Chan, 8-0, and P.S, Eagleson [1980]. "Water Balanco Studies ofthe Bahr El Ghazal ‘Swainp.” Cambridge, Mass MIT Department of Civil Engineering, Ralph M. Par- song Laboratory. (Technical report no. 261.) Chow, V.T, ed [1964]. Handbook of Applied Hydrology. New York: MeGraw-Hill, Eagleson, B.S, (1970), Dynamic Hydrology. New York: MeGira Bazieson, PS, end $0. Chan [1979]. "Water Balance Estimates of a Suda Tributary.” ‘Proe, Con}. Water Resources Plan. Egypt, Cairo: OUMIP Technological Planning Program. June 25-21, 1979, p. 538 Gray, D-My ed. [1973]. Handbook on the Principles of Hydrology. Port Washington, NV: National Research Council of Canada. (Reprinted by Water Information Center, ne, Port Washington, N.Y Hoan, CT, H.P. Johneon, and D.L, Brakensiok, eds, [1962]. Hydrologic Modelling of ‘Smnall Watershed, St Joseph, Mich American Society of Agricultural Engineers (ASAE monograph n0. 5) ‘Horton, R-E, [1935]. "Surface Runoff Phenomens: Part I Analysis of the Flydro- “graph.” Ann Arbor, Mich: Bdwards Brothors, Inc. (Horton Hydrology Laboratory, fering no. 101) ‘Idem, (1828, “The Interpretation and Application of Runoff Plot Experiments with Reference to Soil Erosion Problems.” Soil Si. Soc. Am. Proc. 3:340-249. ‘dem. (1940). “An Approach Toward a Physical Interpretation of Infiltration Capac- ity” Soil Sei. Am. Proc. 6:399-417, ‘Marsh, W.M., and J. Dosior (1986), Landsoape: An Introduetion o Physical Geography. ‘New York: Wiley. ‘Nace, RL, (1964) “Water ofthe Work.” Natur. Hist. 79(1). Linsey, RK. Jr, MA. Kohler, and J. LH. Poulhue (1982). Hydrology for Engineers. ‘Sed od. Now York: McGraw-Hill Reudkivi, A.J. (1979), Hydrology—An Advanced Introduction to Hydrological Pro- ‘esses and Modelling. Oxford: Pergamon. Sherman, L.K, [199da}. "Stream Flow from Hainfall by the Unit-Graph Method.” Zn- ‘in, News, Rec 106:501~505. os ‘den. {1982b], "The Relation of Hydrographs of Runoff to Size and Character of Drain- ‘ge Basian” Ar. Geophys. Union Trans. 15:092-259. Viessmen, W, Jr, J.W. Knapp, G.L, Lewis, and-B. Harbaugh [1972]. Introduction to “Hydrology, 2nd ed. New York: Harper & Row. Ee eee te eeeneee ee eeeee eee eee eee PROBLEMS 1. Unfortunately, hydrologists throughout the world use a variety of units. Although SI. and melzie systems are fairly universal, itis useful to be famil- jar with the most common unit conventions. Some oxercisea to help achieve ‘thet familiarity follow. 8) Volume per unit time is commonly measured in cubic feet per second (cfs). What is the equivalent, in cubie foet per second, of 100 cubic me- ters por second (m's'? Proouems 15 b) ‘The concept of volume is commonly expressed in terms of a volume per unit area, or a dopth. That is gonorally the ease in measuring rainfall over a known area, like a river basin. A fairly wet region ‘may reosive about 1700 mm of rainfall per year. How many inches of rain fall in the area? ©) Boston gets about 40 in. of rainfall per year. How many centimeters is that? @ If 40 in, of rain fall per year over a rivor basin that is 1000 kam* in ‘arva, what is the volume of water received over a year in cubie metors? ©) An acre is about 4000 m* (4047, to be exact) and a hectare (ha) is 10,000 m? or about 2.5 acres. In the United States, a commonly, used unit of volume is the acre-ft or the volume of water required to cover ‘ono acro of land with water 1 ft deep. How many cubic feet in an acre- #2 How many cubic meters? £) Another commonly used unit of volume is the U.S. gallon. The ety of Boston water-supply system car safely handle about 300 million! gal- Jons a day (mgd) of demand. How many cubic meters per second is that? The mile (1 mi = 5280 f) is another common unit of length. How ‘many acres to a square mile? How many square kilometers to a square mile? 2, 1.25 x 10¢ m* of runoff occurs from ¢ 100-ha plot of unifermly sloping land in a cortain half-hour period daring which the rainfall averages 10 embr", Compute the magaitude of change in storage in cubic meters and fell the probable forms of storage into which it goos during the half hour. 8. A lagoon has a surface area of 360.5 x i0* m?. The average annusl rain- fall and evaporation are obtained as 1850.4 mm and 1142.7 mm, respectively. TF the increase in storage is 247.8 x 10° m? yr™, obtain the net annaal inflow into the lagoon. What are the hydrologic components included in the net inflow? 4, Determine the volume of water lost through evapotranspiration during a ‘year from the surface of a 1500-ha lake located in a region whore the arintial rainfall is 185 em. The inerease in the depth of the lake ovtr the year is 10 om. Neglect the effect of groundwater flow. 5. A city is supplied by water fram a 1250-ha catchment area. The average ‘water consumption of the community is 60,000 m’day", The annual pre- cipitation in the rogion is 412 cm. A river with an average annual flow of 0.35 m's~ originates in and flows out of the catchment area. If the net annual groundwater outflow from the eroa is equivalent to a 16-0m dapth of water, what is the evepotranspiration loss in cubic meters per year, which, if exceeded, would cause a shortage of the water supply to the community? Assume that the storage of water in the area at the beginning end at the end of the year are equal.16 cveten / nrposuCTION 6. The following information was either measured or estimated for the Great Salt Lake of Utah: 1584 00.7 28.00 | TOTAL { LAK LEVEL, ANNA i A THE END oral, annual. | Genera annUatLaxe STREAMELOW TAKE. {| GEETAROVE PRECIPITATION "INPUTS EVAPORATION | wan_TSeatevany “Taxerrs) "acim anc | io80 41986 |} isa 41977 9.46 14489000 433 || tesa ‘41994 18.18 24430000 41d | 3088 4203.4 1743 ‘51133900 409 | 63591700 297 | Using the following elevationaren—volume table for the lake, compute the implied unsecounted lake inputs or losses, in millimeters, during the ‘years 1981 to 1984, Tho lake is terminal, ic., has no outflows. State any ‘assumptions you make. Great Salt, Lako Hlovation~Aroa—Volume ELEVATION AREA VOLUME, weaen) (ACRES (ACRR-FHET 970 398090 125564300 43980 900470 19421890.0 4199.0 9609490 142501400 | 4200.0 30792530 168701800 | azot0 s14go00.0 164814500 | az02.0 41750000 176407000 4208.0 010000 18828700.0 42040 1228000.0 20040700.0 4205.0 3250468.0 212758000 | 42060 11350000.0 225419000 | aa070 13750000 238083000 | 42080 4190000 250747000 «2000 114500000 26341000.0 | st100 34990000 27607300.0 | aniz0 15720000 30669000.0 | aate0 ‘23280000 38671000.0 | antso 25180000 43417000.0 7. In 1985 researchers predicted that the total streamflow inputs to the Great Salt Lake for the following three years would be bounded as follows: MINIEUM INFLOW MAXTUM INFLOW YEAR (ACREYEET) (ACREFSEN 1985 +2000000.0 «49500000 1986 '3500000.0 '8500000.0 1987 3000000.0 4500000.0 “ i a | Prose 17 | If rainfall and evaporation conditions for these years are 20% more than the averages for years 1981 to 1964, find minimum and maximum lake elevation profil, in fact, for the years 1085 to 1987 8. A typical monthly precipitation over a 78-mi area is 5 in. A river goes through the area and brings (input) 19188.8 acre-t per moath. River oatlow is 20921.6 acre-ft per month. The arza is much larger than any existing aquifer and there is no sigificant seesonality in the hydrology. Estimate the sony evapotranspiration in the are. Bxpln and justify esamptions. 9. A river basin discharges water at a rate Tinearly proportional to the amount it has in storage, QnKS. : ‘The ony nonin the basin aif Any rainfall wil init, (Ape no evaporation during storm) The rate of infiltration f is linearly proportional to the rainfall fi where K, <1. Ifa rainfall of constant intensity J and duration t, oan at a al, time when the storage is S,, write an equation for the change in stor the basin, Solve that equation and obtain the discharge as a function of time resulting from the deseribed rainfall input, | 10. Go to your library and find recorde of precipitation and streamflow for a nearby river besin. In the United States, precipitation records are published by the National Weather Service. Streamflow records are published mainly by the U.S. Geological Survey. 11. Figure 1.2 showed s global water balance, Rank the balance from least to most uncertain. Give your reasons. 12, Given that groundwater is so eburdant, why is it not the main source of water in the world? 12, Ibis acoptd that ifthe iczaps were fo mel, lange porioas of tho earth land surface would flood. What-does this tell you, in general, af the! land ee? How much would the ocsan slave rise if its area did not change after the icecaps melt? 114, Given the amount of frosh watar on earth, why are there droughts? ° pments of thoChapter 2 Solar Radiation and the Earth's Energy Balance | 2.1 intRobucTION sho bv lke eie pips fle by saint ery from the sun. In fact, all of earth's processes are dependent mostly on folar radiation, with a secondary tole played by beat sourees from within the ‘arth, In hydrelogy, we are interested in events within the uppermost layer of fhe earth's surface and in the lower layers of the atmosphere. The dominence of solar radiation at those levela is unquestionable. Figure 2.1 summarizes the energy flow ofthe earth. | ‘The distribution of radiation over the globe end surrounding atmosphere leads to heat. imbalances that drive most hydrologic und meteorologie avents, Tn this chapter we will study how plznotary geometry and,motions| affect radiation incidence, leading to an ureven distribution of energy over the flobe, and how to quantify the amount of radiation received and emitted by the earth and its atmosphere, | ‘The main fact to remember throughout this chapter is that radiation is absolute temperature-dependent, All objects with a temperature emit/radie- tion: The detaila of this dependence will be eeen soon. Nevertheless, at this point itis important state that the sun at a temperature of 6000°K Tdogreos Kelvin) i the inain radiation source of the earth. Hotter bodies, suck tr other stars, are to far away to play a role in earth’s radiation balance, Given thet the earth and atmosphere also have a temperature (~=287 0, thoy will slo emit radiation. The net exchange of incoming solar radiation 9 EERE EEE EEFIGURE 2.1 Enorgy-fow daa forthe earth as a whcle in magawats ct power per yea {lhustetion by Willam M. Marsh.) Soures: WM. Marsh, Earthscape: A Physical Googra phy. Copyrigns © 1987 by Wiley. leprintod by permission of John Wey & Sons, In. send outgoing terrestrial radiation is critical in hydrology. Figure 2.1 advances some of the nature and magnitude of this exchinge. ‘Béfore éxplaining the details we must establish our units of measure- ment, Temperature will always be given. in degrees Kelvin (*K). Degrt Kelvin are obtained by adding 273.15 to temperature in dogrece Contigras ‘The relationship between degrees Kelvin, Centigrade, and Fahrenheit is summarized in Table 2.1. In converting from degrees Centigrade to degrees Fahrenheit and viee versa, remember the following equations: °0 = (F ~ 32) x 5/9 en "P= (9/5 x °C) + 82 @2 Rediation rate is measured in units of enetyy, usually per unit area and time. The Systeme Internationale (S.L.) for units recommends joules for energy (J), square meters (m°) for area, and seconds (3) for time. Therefore, ‘radiation is given in Js" A joule is equal to one unit of force, a newton (), applied over 1 meter, In turn, a newton is equal to 1 kilogram of mass ‘multiplied by an acceleration of 1 moter per second squared. Power (energy per time) is alo given in watts (W), defined as one joule por second. ‘2.2 PLANETARY NOTIONS AND THE DISTRIBUTION OF RADIATION 24 SABLE 21 Hay Temperatures onthe Centigrade, Fabre, nd Kevin Seales 7 a « ‘Absolute zoro wg6 450670 ‘Normal freezing point of HO" 0 32 MB.6 Normal boiling point of H,0* 100 au. wrB.18 *Atre lvel Sour: WML Marth and J, Doser, Landiepe: An Introduction to Piysial Sepp, rate © sb ier Raita yr ob doh ‘A large body of literature, scientific and engineering, stil prefers to ase te concept fa cnlorie (et) to represent ener. A ealrie is 4.186 joules. ics nore 2 joe is 6.238 calories), Racation per unit area is commonly given in terms of calories per square centimeter (eal em ), One calorie per ‘square centimeter is called a langley (iy). The rate of radiation incidence then appears as langleys per second | ‘(ys”), langleys per minute ‘Gymin™) or lang- leys per day (ly day”). Pe eee eee eee 2.2 PLANETARY MOTIONS AND THE DISTRIBUTION ‘OF RADIATION ‘The earth~atmosphere system receives a small portion of the sua's total energy (radiation) output, afraction equivalent to about 2 % 10 * of the exit- {ed solar radiation per unit area. Basically, the earth is a speck in the part of the universe influenced by the sun. The portion of solar radiation output that we receive ip of reasonably constant intensity, This intensity, at « plane fon the upper atmosphere perpendicular to. incoming radiation, is about 1353 dono, or 1.94 cal em *main-*. This number is called the Bolar constant and is commonly approximated as 2.0 celom{*main"? (2.0 ly min’. But since thé enrth is approximately'a sphére, which rotates on # tilted axis while revolving around the sun, the intensity of radiation received at a plane tan- gent to the top of the atmosphere varies in time and from one location to another. "At any given time, af some point on earth the sun will be directly over. head, so that-a line connecting the centers of earth and sun will be perpen. dicular to a plane tangent to the earth-atmosphere surface at the poiht of {nterest, The latitude at which Uhis occurs at any one time is celled the decl- ration of the sun 8. Figuro 2.2 is a brief review of Iatitudes (parallels) and Tongitudes (meridians) that constitute the earth's coordinate system. Moving ahBade og ae att rnaune 22 Gntttg tos of ate, Unga, and means (0) the eu is EGURE 22 Corea anges eats mesued rower! a sour foe ted aon ag proce (Theo fey lcafon prevents Wenge xu wh oe uta, to orto of tho eth, anh oeten ono eas ote ag a tudo te pina be egal pare, wih bo utes Mt een cra) Snare ro gemetealycoweren oe iat nef on Reel Gooontoy, Goon gana tebe. a0 Teh toa, to peo Malan) Evoy moran a of ea cole re tea ee ator ose Cran Moon, Wich € ut rs Futiscape:& Pye Gograty. Cont © 187 By lng Soe ron ote ly Som re 22 2.2 PLANETARY MOTICNS AND THE DISTRIBUTION OF RADIATION, 23 away from the declination Iatitude implies that the earth—atmosphere sur- face is then at an angle relative to the plane perpendicular to solar radiation, ‘When projected to the surface of the earth the solar radiation (solar constant) ts spread over a larger area leading to lese radiation per unit aren at the sur: face, This i illustrated in Figure 2.3. If we denote the angle of the incoming radiation with a tangent plane at come point on the earth~atmosphersi sur- face as a, then the radiation per unit arva per unit time, or the intensity, will be given by : J,= W,sin a, es where W, is the solar constant, I, is the offective radiation intensity at the point of intarest, and sin a is called the solar altitude. The radiation intonsity 1,38 also called insolation at the top of the atmosphere. Trthe earth's axis of rotation were perpendicular to its plane of revolution (@ plane across the center of the eurth and the sun at all times during the 365.242 days of revolution) then a, at local noontime, would be 90° ~ here @ is the latitude of the point of intorest (see Fig. 2.8). Furthermore, there would be no seasons, since all points on carth (given the 24-hour rotation) would be illuminated by the sun an equal proportion of the time throughout the year. On such an earth, it would be colder (less radiation intensity) as we move toward the poles, but, ignoring all other factors, the temperature would tend to be uniform throughout the year. The earth's axis of rotation, though, is inclined relative te the plane of revolution. The imclina- tion is 23°27 off the (vertical) line perpendicular to the plane of revolution.| (24 CHAPTER 2 / SOLAR RADIATION AND THE EARTHS ENERGY BALANDE 12.2 PLAMETARY MOTIONS AND THE DISTRIBUTION OF RADIATION 25 ‘This in illustrated in Figure 24, During the winter solstice for the Northern | | Hemiptera snes 2 th eatin ‘of the sun is 23°27" south, its southernmost position, At Uae opposite end ofthe revolution, the doclina- tion is 28°27" north (in the Northern Hemisphere). This is called the summer |__| seit, whieh cours arsund June 22 At the autumnal elember 22) onl ‘vernal (March 21) equinoxes, the sun is directly over the equator, a 0° ds nation. Therefore, the sun is moving dow toward the equator between the summer solstice snd the autummel equinox. It continues going down until | | the winter solstice, ater which it starts the trip upward toward the north. |_| ett northern od nator dination arc th Tope of Caner ani the Tropic of Capricorn, respectively. 7 | ‘The variation of declination with time implies that 1. The projection of a plane perpendicular to radiation pn a plane tangent to | the surface is varying in time since the solar angle, the angle between j the noon sun and the horizon, is changing with the seasons. 2, The duration of daylight is also varying, implying that diferent locations receive different total amounts of radiation, resulting in seasonal climate patterns. ‘The second point is illustrated in Figure 2.6. At the equinox with a dectina- tion of 0 the heraispheres have exactly 12 hours of daylight and night. At the ) | winter solstice the North Pole and Arctic regions never seo daylight, while the South Pole is constantly illuminated. Points near the North Pole have very short days, since they aro exposed to the sun for limited segments of | their rotational circles. During the summer solstice the opposite effects arc |] observed, FIGURE 2.5 Potions of the earth urinated by the sun atthe solatices and oquinoxes. Sovce: W.M. Marsh, Eathscape: A Physioal Gaography. Copytight © 1987 by Wiley. } Reotinted by permission of Jonn Wiley & Sore, Inc | Radiation at the top of the atmosphere is finally dependent on the hour anglo of the oun; thet is, the position relative to solar nooo. Using planetary / geometry (Bagleson (1970), ibis then possible to deduce the following expres Ae x Son toler alte, ip Bg 3) FIGURE 24 The evoilon ofthe eat and the soso Note that th angle of ination sina = sin 5 sin © ¥ cos 8 cos Par, as Ofte eats ane ls he sue nal soogons. Souron WIM Marsh, Earthscap: A Phys ‘ al Geography. Copyight © 1967 by Woy. Roped by pormision ct John Wie & whore 6 isthe declination of the sun, © is local latitude, and + is the hour ‘Sone, nc. Adapted from Byers [1874] rie Be in detain theo nari ore || |la6 charren 2 /SOLAA RADIATION AND THE EARTHS ENERGY BALANCE \yoar (List [1963). Curtis and Bagleson (1982] quote an approximate fornmuls rom tie Tennessee Vallay Authority (TVA) [1972)- 250 [2 are -v)}, an 180 where D is the Julian day (1 = D = 365 or 366) and 8 is in radians. ‘The local hour angle, 0 = 7 == 860, is given by Curtis and Eagleson [1982] a5 ae matectod, pa (Bet I2-AN FATS eo) | hen the sun is east ofthe obsorver's longitude, cr | eo Mega r=@,-B-anr atx ¥ en -| when the sun is west ofthe observer's Iongitude. To determine position of the | JR Telative to the observer, keep in mind that Toca time is given in terms of | Mie Ioagtade defining the thre ene, For ‘example, if your time zone | Seine at 75° west longitude and you aro at 72 wet, then at eal noone | She sam ha passed your potion iti at 76°W or & woot of yor postion | ‘This will be made clesrer in Exazaple 2.1. The above equations are valid only for values of 7 such that cos 1 is positive. in Eqo. (2.6) and (2.7), Ty is the standard time in the time zone of the observer in hours counted from midnight (0.00 28.60). AT, is the time dif- ference between standard and local longitude in hours given as i AD, = 7g @o~ 0)» es) here i = —1 for west longitude and i = 1 for east longitude, relative to Geesich, is the longitude of the standard meridian (meridian where the | eeceiuse tie zone is centered), and 6, is the longitude of the observer | easeslan’ Finally, AT; is the difference betwoon trae eclar time and meen | Solar time in hours, which is usuelly neglected “TVA [1972] suggests a modification of Eq. (2.8) to account for the ellipti- | cat nature ofthe ear orbit arourd the sun which leads ovarinble distance from the sun, They suggest reMane an whore ris the ratio of actual earth-sun distance to mean earth-sun distance, given by 0) £22 PLANETARY MOTIONS AND THE ASTAIEUTION OF RADIATION. 27 In order to compute incident solar radiation over a given finite period ‘At = ty ~ f, Bq, (2.9) can be integrated, keeping 5 and ® constant over At ‘The rebult (IVA [1972) is, Ww, FG, ~ &) sim 8 cin @ + 2 eos 8 os Opin) ~ sin} 0 ‘The net result of planetary geometry is the pattern of total daily radia. tion at the outer edge of the atmosphore shown in Figuro 2.6, The most significant features are the relatively constant radiation near the equator land the inereasing seasonal variation as we move to the poles. ‘Radiation at the outer edge of the atmosphere is significantly altered ia ita journey to the land-sea surface, It is reduced by reflection, refraction, and absorption by atmospheric constituents, The atmospheric moisture of clouds is particularly effective in absorbing soler radiation, The following section ‘will discuss how to quantify all these effects, ‘Average annual radiation received at the earth surface is shown in Figure 2.7. Note that radiation at the oguator is lower than at the subtropics ‘This isa reflection of the persistent cloodiness of the region, which can eff tively reduce radiation by as much as 50%, FIGURE 2.6 The variation in tla dally solar relation at th outer edge ofthe amosphere. (itustration by Jet Dozior) Source: W.M. Warsh, Eathscape: A Physical Geography. (Copyright © 1887 by Wey. Reprinted by pemission of John Wily & Sons, Inc| FIGURE 2.7 The worlduide dlctributon of solar radiation in ions of joules per square | ator per yan kocalros po sure cota pa yer, Sorc HM. aren Earthscope: A Physical Geography. Copyright © 1987 by Wiey. Reprinted by permission ‘of dohn Wie & Sone, In. Map ptojéction by Waldo Tober. Data rom, Bucy (1874) ‘The unevenness of inepming solar radiation, eoupled with nonuniform radiating properties of the earth's mantle, leads to the radiation budiet shown in Figure 2.8. The latitudes near the equator have a net radiation ‘gain, The higher latitudes exhibit a radiation deficit. In order to maintain @ {lobal energy balance there must be mechanisms to move energy from the Tower to the higher latitudes. ‘Winds, ocoan currents, and water vapor play these carrier roles and will be discussed in Chapter 3. The magnitude and nature of the energy transfers ‘occurring by latitude are shown in Table 2.2. . EXAMPLE 24 ‘Computation of insolation . ‘The Commonvrealth of Massachusetts is centered at around 42° north of the equator and 72 west of Greenwich, Nassau, in the Bahama Islands, is 25° north of the equator arid about 78° west of Greenwich. The sharp temperature difforences between the two places are known to all those who snow ski-in “Massachusetts and water ski in Nassau. Local temperature is related to jnso- Tation, 9 lot us find its value at Teal noon on a typical January 1 in both places: - i 8 i LR: : timabeee a a No : ut | LL) i a5 FIGURE 2.8 Disbution wih fattude of absorbed and outgoing radiation. Curve | ews the solar radiation absorbed by the earth and almosphere; curve I, shortwave and long: ‘rave raciatonloeving the almoephere, The sceing ofthe lallude axis is roprsontatve of the areas on the earls surface, Source: WML. Marsh, Eathscape: A Physical Geography. Copyright © 1987 by Wile. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ‘TABLE 2.2 Components of the Fnergy Balance at the Earth's Surfaco (Mean Values in keal per em? per Your) CONTINENTS © BARTH AS A WHOLE OCEANS umm: “RB 7S 2 8 7 OR 8 TS RON 8 % 16 2 D @ 6 MM 9-8 60-50 2 99 16 2% 3) 19H 90 2B 18-1 50-40 Bl os 6 16h BAB BT OT 40-80 8 66 18 16 «DB a7 13 89 2B WB 9-20 «113, «105—'=« BTM mio | 9s) TLD] d2_ 1G: BL_ S10 10-0 ms 804 oBLOCAB HST ots sk 4 BO MOS HL 1020 «3 104 4B '8D OB 20-30 «10L- «100 «7-8 10 «8A BD 1B 4 30-40 2 80 9 TRB MO 40-50 bys 9 TLD BG BOD =E 50-60 2% os 8 -l & 2 1 2 MM 8) “I ‘ial 2 & 8 0 @ % “A Bo 2 0 = net radition balance, 1B = lou of beat by evaporation. {P= ‘orbulent heat transfer. ‘5 © seditribation of eat by ocean currents, Sem: WL. adr, Cliete Changes 27,9 98. Cage by th Ameren Geophys tal Usion 297 30 CHAPTER 2 / SOLAR RADIATION AND THE EARTHS ENERGY BALANCE, Begin by finding the declination angle, using Bq, (2.6), which is only a function of the date (end year to be exact). The Julian day of January 1 is 1. Raghu 23.45 180 = -0.4 radians | or 229° south of tho equator. The soni, 2s expected, very neat its southern | ost position, the Tropic of Capricorn, at 28°27" south ‘Global tine le generally measured relative t9 Greenwich, England, at | mention Ur very 15" cant of Greenwich implies a Tead of an hour relative to =~ | GrcenwiuhThere are local variations o this role due to constraints imposed | ty solticel, peogeaphie, and other boundaries. Similarly, there are local | ey eetions, sch oa daylight savings time (Strahier end Strabler (1983). ‘Durung Janvary, both Boston and Nassau are within the time zone cen- | tered at 76° wost of Greenwich; this puts them five hours behind Greenovich | Eine: To find the hour angle, we then use Eqs. (2.6) through (2.8), Using a6), we find the adjustment necessiry to Snd true colar time at the fosa- tion of intrest. Massachusetts: an, = hc5 ~ 72) > -0.2 be Nassau: is — 79) = Fp — 18) = 02 br From Fa, (2.6), ignoring AT,, the hour angle is then: Massachusetts (at 12 noon at the 75°W meridian, the sun is west of the 72°W meridian): 12 ~ 12 — (-0.2)]15 = 3° ‘Nassau (at 12 noon at the 75°W meridian, the sun is east of the 78°W merid- ian}: v2 412 O.aHB ~ 95% ‘The radius adjustment ris obtained from Eq, (2.10) 0+ 001 eof 2089 ~ 3] = 0.988. 2geaniaionemsics 31 ‘The solar altitude for Massachusetts (Bq, 2.4) is then sin a= sin(-22.9% sin(42") + cos(—22.9") eos(42") cos(S") = 042 For Nassau, the solar altitude is sin cc = sin(-22.9") sin(25") + cos(—22.9°) cos(26") cos(857) = 067, ‘Using Eq, (2.9), the insolation in both places is Massachuseits: 20.42 = 0.87 lymin* Tass ly mit Nassau: T= 259087 = 189 ly min © aay 87 88m 2.3 RADIATION PHYSICS ‘There are several basic laws that must be understood in radiation studies. ‘The first one is Kirchhois law, which says that at thermal equilibrium the ratio of radiation intensity (radiation per unit ares per unit time, emiasive power, emittance, or radiant flux density) W, to absorptivity a, is equal for bach body in equilibrium. Two bodies in en insulated box, onco in thermal equilibrium, will satisfy WoAi,=WAxy West, = Wess 7 en whore Wp is the box radiation intensity and A, is the surface area of body # Equation (2.12) leads to the Kirchhoff lew statement, in thermal equilibrium, www, 213) ‘A body with absorptivity of 1 is called a black body. The ratio of the emis- sive power of a body to that ofa black body is called the emissivity, B. Emis- tivity and absorptivity are equal under thermal equilibrium. Planck's law gives the distribution of radiation energy from a black body at different wavelengths, All radiation, as commonly known, has varied82. CHAPTER 2/ SOLAR RADIATION AND THE EAATHS ENEROY BALANCE, :| wavelengths. Define Wadd as the radiation intensity of a black body at Wavelongth band dh, such that [me ‘where Ws is black-body radiation intensity. Planck's law states =Ws, ao Way _ 2ehc*T-* . eo ar 215) Te ema T where ¢ is the velocity of light (2.998 x 10" cms, h is Planck's constant (6.625 x 10° Jo), & is the Boltzmann constant (1.98 % 10 J°K™), and 2 is ‘wavelength in centimetars. Temperature T is in degrees Kelvin and Wa, to bbe consistent, mast be in joules per cubic centimeter per second (Jom *s~) or radiation intensity por wavelength. Figure 2.9 shows the spectrum of thermal radistion from a black body. ‘The maximum of the spectral distribution of radiation intensity oocure at the point AD = 0.2898 em*K = 2698 micron “K. e0 see gees a8 8 FIGURE 29 Spoctrum of thonmal redation trom a black body. Source: W.H. MeAdams, Host Transmission, rd ed, McGraw-Hil, 1954. Reproduced by permission. 2anapinnionssics 38 ‘The above shows that the wavelength of maximum intensity is temper- ature-dependent, since as T varies must change to keep their product con- stant. A gray body radiates a fixed proportion of a black-body radiation in all ‘wavelengths for a given temperature. "The Stofan—Boltzmann law ia probably the most important for applica- tions. It atstos wy f° where o is a constant 0.826 x 10~ calem~*min-**K~‘ (6.67 x 10°* ‘Jms-"K-9, In other words, the radietion of « black body is proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature (in degrees Kelvin) of the body. Based on the above, the tatal energy emitted by the sun is on the arder of 100,000 Iymin", The solar constant, taken as 2 lymin", is but a smell frac- tion of the total energy emitted. ‘As implied by Eq, (2.16), the highe- the temperature, the shorter are the ‘wavelengths that. dominate radiation intensity. Radiation is thon corihorly divided in shortwaves and longwavos. The sun emits shortwave radiation ‘with the wavelength spectrum shown in Figure 2.10. The spectrum of long- ‘wave emissions from the earth is also shown in the figure. Ws, LdQr) =o, ein EARTH at 180) Des 1318 18 20 10 20 39 a0 30 00 Fraction waver monet (ions) Cl ——— — ——“sorrwave + ——toawave FIGURE 2.10 Tho diatibutlon of intonstes of raclation produced by the sun andthe earth. “The vertical axis represents radiation intorsity of output; the Morzontal axs, in micro meters, represents wavelength. Solar raciaion is concentrated around 0.5 jm Gotween the ullreviolet and infrared wavelengths, wheroas earth radiation is entirely inrared. ‘Source: W.M, Marsh and J. Dozier, Landscape: An Inroduction t2 Physical Geography. ‘Copyright © 1986 by Wiley. Reprinted by permission at John Wiley & Son, Inc34. CHAPTER 2 / SOLAR RADIATION AND THE EARTHS ENERGY BALANCE ‘As sean in,Gection 2.2 (Eq, 2.9), the radiation intensity received at the surface of the outer atmosphere (insolation) is less than the solar constant due to the angle between the surface and the incident radiation. At the Tand-cen surface the net radiation is even less. The incoming insolation reflected, refracted, and absorbed. Furthermore, the earth’s surface re- radiates some energy, The following paragraphs will present methods for quantifying thie radiation exchange. 2.3.1 Shortwave Radiation Shortwave radiation, mostly resulting from the high solar temperatures, is scattered and absorbed when passing through the atmosphere. The most com= monly used formulas for quantifying these effects are mostly empirical in nature, As such, many alternative expressions ean be found in the Litera ture, Here we give epproaches compiled by Eagleson [1970] and Curtis and Fagleson [1982]. The following paragraph is as given by Curtis and Eagleson (1982. Klein [1948] and TVA [1972] obtain the clear shy shortwave radiation, I~ after accounting for etmospherie effects, 28 1,_o! + 05(1 ~ a’ ~ 4) - 08d, ae i> 1-058, o +4.) a! = expl(0.465 + 0.194u) (0.129 + 0.171e-*#*"F)]Mg em w = expl(-0.981 + 0.09417,)} 20) ry = m((258 ~ 0.0065.3/286°=2)°"° oz m= [sin a + 0.1500(0 + 8.885) "7 * 7 222) d=d+a, 220 whore a’ is the mean atmospheric transmission coefficient for cloudless, dust free, moist air after scattering only; w is the mean monthly precipitable ‘water content in centimeters; T, is the mean monthly surface dewpoint temperature, in degrees Fahrenheit, measured at the 2-meter level; m is the optical air mass, dimensionless; m, is the elevation or pressure adjusted opti ‘al air mass, dimensionless; 2 is the elevation in meters [of the point of intor- ttl; a is the solar altitude in degrees; d is the total dust depletion; d, is the Sepletion coefficient of the direst solar beam by dust absorption; d, is the de- pletion coefficient ofthe direct solar beam by dust scattering; and R, is the to- tal reflectivity of the ground. TVA [1972] provides a summary of total dust dopletion coefficient at different localions and seasons as a function of optical air mass, m (or relative thickness of air mass). Table 2.8 gives typical values, Other references are Kimball (1927), (1928], and [1930]; Fritz (1949); Bolsenge [1964]; and Reitan {1960}. ‘ABLE 2.8 Total Dust Depletion Cooteiert WASHINGTON, Do. ‘MADISON, WIE, EINCOLN, NEB, ABON med mad om=lek med med Winter = 043 z 0.03 i 3 Spring 009 0x8 008 0.10 0.05 ox Summer 0.08 010 0.08; 0.07 0.93 0 Full 0.08 on oor 0.08 0.04 ‘ours: Adapted from TVA (1972), Walter O. Wunderlich, Tannese Valley Autborly Eagt Dearing Laberetry. Summatied by Bolsage {1964) and Uased on data by Kimball [987 ie Labret 11964 sb sed om data hy bal 198, An alternative to obtain clear sky shortwave radiation is given by Eagleson [1970]. Atmospheric absorption and scatiering is approximated by sxpl—(ay + ay + ag)m] = expl—an), 29 ‘where m is the optical air mass given by Bq. (2.22) or approximated by the cosecant (/sin a ofthe solar altitude a under 1 standard atmosphere. Coefi- cients @;, ay, and a, correspond to molecular scattering, absorption, and particulate seattering, respectively. Bquation (2.24) is also expressed as Le) das exo(-nam), where n ia (o,/,), turbidity factor of ar that vasies from bout 2.0 for clear ‘mountain air to 4 or 5 for smogity urban areas. ‘The molecular seattaring coefficient, is defined as a function of the affective thicknoas of the atmosphere, 4, = 0.128 ~ 0.054 logis m . > 226 Curtis and Eagleson [1982] point out that the form of Eq. (2.25) should nly be valid for radiation at a singio wavelength (TVA [1972). Nevertheless they argue forthe simplicity of its use. Cloudy skies further reduce total net radiation at the earth's surface. Absorption and scattering by clouds cen be significant, depending on cloud ‘ype, thickness, and eltvation. “Bagleson [1970] quotas from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (1956] the following relationship to obtain net rediation I; after accounting for clouds, Le -a-_N, @an € ctouds| 96 crweten 2 (SOLAR RADIATION AND THE EARTHS ENERGY BALANCE || where xis the fraction of cloudless sky insolation reveived on a day with | rrereast cies end NV fs the fraction of sky covered by clouds, which takes « | Satu offer eompletaly overcast skies. The factor X is obtained asa function ct the clouc-base altitude ascording to the formala, eS ee am | where 2 is the cloud-base altitude in kilomoters, The above is a close epproxi- Tnation to the English-unit equation given by Bagleson [1970]. ‘Gurtis and Hagleson [1962] point out that the difficulty in using 12g, @.27 lies in the nature of the available data on cloud-base elevation Cloucbase altitude is only reported when N > 0.50 and for lesser values itis (ven as “unlimited ceiling.” A simples relation, not dependent on = is given by the TVA [19721: & ik ‘The above equation may overestimate attenuation as N approaches 1 for high ‘and thin clouds, To avoid this problem it is recommended to use total opaque SRoud cover instead of cloud cover, This parameter is usually reported in || stations that tneasure cloud cover. ‘Vegetation also reflects and absorbs incident net radiation, If; is the | radiation above the vegetative cover, the net radiation on the ground Tevel can be oblained using, ~ 0.85. a2) Tg Kl, < @s0) where Ris « tratsmission coefticiont function of density, type, and condition | Srevetatinn. Tuble 24 and Figure 2.11 give some values of K, for grass and & | Forost canopy. . | ‘TABLE 24 Typical Extinction of Inspation by Grass | THBIGET OF GRASS am Shem em | ‘Source: Data from 0.G, Sutton, Micro- meteorology, MeGrav-Hill, 1965. d ‘Bispocd Sen Bago (1970 2anaoumioneHyscs 37 of Behe 3 : g i | Shoes oes [FIGURE 2.11 Tranemiscion of insolation by coniferous forest canopy. Canaby density is {hs poroeniane of forasiod erea the! i covered by a horzontal projection ofthe vegetation anopy. Souroes: U.S, Army Corps of Engines [1866] and Eagoson (1970) ‘Albedo is the ratio of rellected radistion to incident r Q i ‘The average albedo for the earth is 0.34, although each individual wiate- rial end surface shows a different value (Table 2.5). Albedo of water surfaces A oan TABLE 2.5 Albado of Natural Surfaces SURFACE ‘ALBEDOA SURFACE ALBEDO A Wit oo ig 29 one generis wats | | Black, dry soil 014 Winler wheat 016-028 : ‘Black, moist soil 008. Winter aye 048-023 i Geay, dey soil (025-080 High, dense grass 0.18-020 \ Gray, moist soll 010-012 ot | ‘Blue, dry loam 035 Ble, moist loam 016 l Desert loam, 029-081 | ‘Yellow rand 035 i ‘Write sand 034-040 0.30-0.22 River sand 043 Rice ficlé Bright fine sand 037 Letince Rock % —oan01s Boots Dentoly urbonized areas + 0.15-05 Potatoes Snow (soe Figs. 2.13 and 24) 040-085 Heather Sea ice 036-050 Sourse Bagieon (19701. oo etn tims sam oa| 1 gp ere 279.08 TIN ARTIS NT BALANCE al 0% che T Seated coats] | oss areaie som s| ine ue i 2 a a Ay Me tego i sun cloud cover and solar altitude Fig. 2:2). Ovr snow, it decreases wee tn maulative temporature index. Table 2.5 and Figures 2.18 and SUE hen ot ; ro iv nang shorbrave radiation is then given. by = Ade ean 8 (930956 BO 500 AO SOD GOT FOE 800 BO TA00 Sannin of daly wasinun fongeaires sige las somal “F ue 218 Varin flo of eon gua wr amie oronrare indox, OEE US. Amy Compe of Engrears [858 end Eagleson [1370 2a nncinrionrivsics 39 080) — 000} § ow Attest si ke y * oso] [Stes | i I oxo] oe] , a a ne of sw sutace days FIGURE 2.14 Timo variaton in albedo of & siow surface. Sources: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers [1956] and Eagleson [1970} “Effective incoming radiation incident on a water or snow surface suffers fan extinction effeet with penetration depth. For water, this ean be repre ee \ pop LAKES eke - I a ipa pes, 239) whore If is the effective incoming radiation; 1), is the effective radiation at location z beneath the surface; and f apd # are parameters given by Table 2.6. ‘For snow, the extinction formula is, L tr 7 230 where the coefficient J is given in Table 2.7 as a function of pack density. ‘The possible paths and disposition of incident shortwave radiation are summarized in Figure 2.15. EXAMPLE 22 Computation of Shortwayo Radiation Boston, Massachusetts "can suffer days of considerable smog and cloudiness. Tt us compere the net shortwave radiation reaching the earths surface in ‘Boston under smogey overcast conditions (cloud base at 1600 m) and under clear skies, Let us assume, for simplicity, the location, day, and hour given for central Massachusetts in Exeunple 21. |140. CHAPTER / SOLAR RADIATION AD THE EARTHS ENCROY BALANCE ‘TABLE 26 Extinetion Coefficients in Water Eee ‘CONDITIONS. eke Pre water* oes 0.052 ‘Clear oceanic water* 064 0.081 ‘Average oceanic water’ 0.680.122, ‘Average coastal sea wotar 0.690825 ‘Tarbid eonstal sea water — 0.69 0.425 Distilled water ‘Natural Tight 075 0.028 ‘Mereury-veper Iamps 182 0.60 Infrared lamps 0.80 Natural lake lear (Lake Tahoo) 0.05 ‘Durbid (Lake Cestle) oz Lake Mondotat 0720 "Trout Lake! 1.400 Big Ridge Lake" 110 Fontena Lake 9.980 Biguation valid afer 2 eter “uation valid ser 3 tar. ‘equation valid altar 2 meter "gustion valid aes 0.5 meter. Souree:Adaplad fra Deko and Horlersan (1965 wm (iaT}; and TVA (1972), Waller O. ‘underich, Tennestae Valley Authority Bgi- ‘eering Laboratory. One alternative would be to use Faq. (2:18), but not enough information is given. On the other band, there is enough information to use Eq. (2.25), 1, i= exp(-naym) ‘TABLE 2.7 Extinction Coefficients in a Snompack SNOWPACK DENSITY EXTINCTION COSFIGIENT @ en) mea 0.280 22 O84 a. 0,08 448 0.108 i Source US. Army Corps of Baginoers, (1956) and adapted fom Eagleson 1970) ee [erat _ FIGURE 2.15 Summary disposition of shorwave radalon, Source: Eagleson {1970}. ‘The relative thickoss of the atmosphere m is defined by the cosecant of a From Example 2.1, sina is 0.42. The cosecant (1/sin a) of is m = 2 ‘Assuming that n = 2.0 for clear skios in Boston and using n = 5.0 for semoggy conditions, tho molecular scattering coefficient is 44 = 0.128 ~ 0.054 logy 2.4 = 0.107. ” ‘Therefore, the net radiation under cear skies is, I.= I, expl-naym) = 0.87 exp(~2 x 0.107 x 2.4) = 0.52 lyin", For smoggy conditions, 1, = 0.87 exp(-5 x 0.107 2.4) = 0.24 ly min”iene 42. coneTene/ SOLAR RADIATION AND TE EARTHS ENERGY BALANCE ‘Updar overcast skios tho last value is further reduoed according to iq, (2.27) ‘The reduction factor K takes the value, K = 0.18 + 0.0853 x 1500 x 10° =031, which, substituting in Eq. (2.27) with N = 1 results in I= 1{L-@— KINI a1 Kk 24 (0.81) ,07 Ty mine ‘at we had uscd eq, (2.26), the result would have boon 0.08 lyin Clon the peanble reductions in incoming shortwave radiation can be extremely signifieant. # 2.3.2 Longwave Radiation “Apeorption of radiation heats up the earth's eusfaeo, atmosphere, and vonet3> tion, The heatod bodies emanate longwave radiation. \ anewave radiation from clear skies is strongly related to wate: content ctéee S61): Incoming, longwave radiation from the atmosphere wader clear sky conditions is given by tt le op= ose, 235) Hf = Be 0740 + 00040 hore Hg is atmospheric emissivity; Wp is black-body emissive powens qeetion of wir temperature IT, at 2-m elevation; and ¢ is vapor pressure im rmllibars. WiberS j972] and Curtis and Eagleson (1962] cite several other alterne- sivos to Eq, (35) some of them depend only on temperate: Brunt [8921 E,= a+ 0)" 238) ‘Angstrom (1915, 1996]: Ec a-be™ aa Swinbanl (19681: E,=aX10-Tt 2anapimionrirsics 43 ‘TABLE 28 Coefficients of Atmospheric Fmissivity Formulas ANDJACKSON UNE 8 INVESTIGATORSITE BRUNT'S FORMULA e ‘Kimball (Washington, D.C) oa “Angrtesin (Califernis) 050 ‘Andereon (Oklahoma) 048 Eckl (Austria) oat ‘Goss and Brooks (Davis, Calif) 0.86 ANGSTROM FORMULA 2 5 yy m8 “Angstrom Gweden) 0.806 0.288 oans Kimball (Vitginia) oso 0.326 0.154 Heke (Anstria) pmo = 0.240 0168 Anderson (Oklahoma) 1107 0.405 0.022 Linke’s Meteocol, Taschenbuch, Vol. 2, Geest and Pertig, Leipzig, 1958, 0.790 0174 0.08. SSWINBANK FORMULA e ‘Avstvalia/Indian Ocean. 0987 {DSO AND JACKSON Us6a1 e a ‘Phoenix, Aria. 0.281 4a 10-0 “ovrns bln Rom VAG, War 0, Wank, Tne Vly Assent Bune ‘ing Laboratory. aut . {dso and Jackson (1959): B,= 1-0 expl-de7a ~ 7.)') asa) aso [1961 B, = 0.70 + 5.95(10e « exp(1600/T.) ~ eso) for 245°K <7, = 926°K, 3 mb = ¢ = 28 mb. Tall the above e is air vapor pressure in millibars at the 2-m elevation; ‘Tis air temperature in degress Kelvin at the same level; and a, 6, end c are ‘empirical constants. Sample values ofthe constants are given in Table 26. ‘Over snow, the clear sicy longwave atmospheric emissivity is taken as ii _ z, = 0781. eanAA. cnapren2 / SOLAR RADIATION AND THE EATS ENERGY BALANCE ‘The presence of clouds increases longwave radiation, TVA [1972} eaggosts the following correction factor for a variety of conditions. T= KET, en “where coefficient K is related to cloud cover by K=(+010N). es ‘Water vapor in the atmosphere is an effective radiation absorber. Because of this, clouds radiate very much ike black bodies. This is the assumption ee dde indor overcast conditions for atmospheric longwave radiation, Hence, ‘ander overcast conditions radiation may also be estimated as I= oTt, aw ivhore T is absolute temperature of air a the cloud base. ‘Longwave albedo for water is about 0.08 and is essentially zero for all ciher granular surfaces. Net incoming longwave radiation is then given by n yoIt= (i AMM. (2.45) For water, a. (245) becomes If = 0.9708,Tt- (2.46) Yor other surfues the rot loigwave radiation is simply, It=oBTt, (ear) where’, is surface it tomporavure nd Bis defined according to Bas. (2.98) Through (2.40), dopending on alméspheric concitions. “Tee iective longwave back: radiation or the net exchange of longwave pack redhtion between the atmosphere and the earths surface is given by Ryn It Tey eas) where If is atmospheric radiation and J; is surface back-radiation. Water Gmissivity is 0,07. All other earth surfaces are assumed to radiate as black Paice, according to the Stefan~Boltamann law with temperature 7 of the surface. Suminarizing, clear sky net longwave ridiation 's 249) — 2a AKDIATIONFNSICS 45 re Paps Py | eldest sean Mat apts |rsina FIGURE 216 Summary aisposton of longwave radaton. Source: Eagleson {1970} ‘The eect of forest cover on longwave radiation atthe ground surf is considered like that of the overcast sky sitantion,black-body radiation atthe temperature of the bottom of the canopy, 7). Therefore, Ry oft} — BE 250 ‘whore 1; is ambient air temperature and R; is net radiation exchange be: tween solid canopy and surface. The total exchange is then proportioned according to eanopy density, F(0 = F = 1) Ri= FR, + PR, esp Figure 2.16 gives the disposition of longwave radiation. EXAMPLE 2.8 Net Radiatlon—The Greenhouse Eftect Given the radiation data seen in this chapter, you decide to go scuba diving off the const of Nacsaun a Jenviary 1 at noontime. ‘There are, as expected, Clear skies and clear water. You dive toa 10-m depth. Assume that the parcel of water you are diving in is in thermal equilibrium with surroundings and- ~ effectively re-radiatas all shortwave radiation it receives. What, would the ‘water tamperature be?{AG cHAPTER 2 / SOLAR RADIATION AND THE EARTHS ENERGY GALANOE From Example 2.1, the radiation ineident at the top of the atmosphere is L.3@ lymin=* The solar alfitude, sin a, was previously computed as 0.97, hich implies a = 42.1°. To calculate the atmospheric effect on shortwave Tadiation, use F, (2.25). Following the stops of Example 2.2, 128 — 0.054 logy 1.49 119 1.89 exp(--2 * 0.119 x 1.49) = 098 ly min’ ‘the above J. is incident radiation and is partly reflected from the water surface, From Figure 2.12 with a = 42.1, the albedo is approximately 0.066. ‘Therefore, the not radiation at the water surface is Tr .98(1 ~ 0.065) 92 ly min” {In going through 10 m of water, the above radiation is further reduced according to Bq, 2.53). Brom Table 2.8, we may use the extinchion coeflisients efclenr oveanie water. This leads to # ~ 0.64 and b = 0.081 m *, Substituting in Eq, (2.88), Ti, = 0.92{1 ~ 0.64) exp(-0.081 * 10) = 0,5 lyin ‘To approximate the water temperature, assume that it is radialing a © black belly everything it receives. Black-body radiation is given by Ba. (2.17), ‘whieh ean be equated to 0.16 Lymin'* (0.15)/o)", Using o of 0.826 x 10° Lymin"**K"* results in, T= 064K ‘or about ~66,7°C, This is an impossible answer! Where is the error? The in- correct assumptions are many; two are as follows: 1. The layer of water at 10 m is not isolated from its environment: There is ‘heat transport from other layers by turbulent mixing, conduction, and ad- vection, es will be discussed in Chapter 8. rererences 47 2, ‘The upper layers of water serve as insulators of the lower layer. The 10-m layer simply cannot radiate everything it absorbs, since there is # net ‘exchange of radiation and temperature with upper layers that effectively ‘Catablishes a higher equilibrium temperature. Thie “greenhouse” effect fccurs because the medium is solective in the type of radiation that goes through. Shortwave radiation can go through water more easily than Tongwave radiation can go out. This effect is also the one that keeps cour planet warm, with the atmoepaere playing the role of insulator, or the glass in the greenhouse. Withrut atmosphere our planct would be frigid. © 2.4 Summary ‘The study of radiation is necessary to understand the energy balance of the earth. As we have seen, planetary geometry conspires to create areas of sur- plus and deficits of energy. The astailished gradients drive global scale Gnergy transfer processes like winds snd ocean currents, as we will sce in Chapter 3. ‘As toon in Table 2.2, large quantities of energy are also carriod by water ‘vapor, energy absorbed Guring the change of phase from water to vapor. AS ‘ye will study in Chapter 6, radiation is agein the energy source leading to ‘evaporation. At that point the radiation physics techniques seon in Section 2.3 ‘will become extremely useful, even at the level of « specific location. pe reetn eeeet eet reenact eee Pee eee eee REFERENCES Anguizém, A, [1915] "A Study ofthe Radiation of the Atmoepes Mise. Cotte. 650:1~159 dem: (1996) "A Sty of te Radiation Dorng the Seva! International Polar Year "Guckhviny Meddelanden an Statens Meteorological iydology Anstls, 08). Bel Mea Doub Some of Glotel Redation for Closets Ske. Hanover, WHT US. Army Material Cosmond, Cold Regions Research and Bagineering Taboretary (uckaicl report na. 160) Brunt D [19321 "Notes on Radiation inthe Atmosphere.” @. J. R. Meteora. So. ‘360-18 ‘Bulyko, Wo. 1974). Climate ond Lift. New York: Academic Pres. Ta Hatt, Climat Chonges, Washington, D.C: American Ganphytiel Union Bs, Mis o a 11960) "Than Heat alana ofthe Surface of the Barth.” Soviet ‘Geogr Res Transl 163-16 Byers HL 1974, Generel Meteorology th ed. New York: MoGra Hi Ghar $0. and P'S. Eagleson [1080], "Water Balance Seaiee ofthe Bahr Bl Ghazal Song. Ganbridee, Mess: MIT Department of Civil Engincering, Ralph M. Parvo Laboratory. Dacia] report no. 261) Smithsonian.4B CHATTER 2 / SOLAR RADIATION AND THE EARTHS ENERGY BALANCE “Gharney, J.G. (1977), "A Comparative Study of the Bifecte of Albedo Change 18 Declaht in Semi-Arid Regions.” J. Atmos. Set. 4(8)1866-1385. Gare DO, and B-8 Bagloann 19823. "Constrained Stochotie Climate Simulation? “Gporidge, Mess: MIT Department of Civil Engineering, Ralph M. Persons Laboratory. (Teebnieal report no. 274) Dek MK and D-H.E. Hariemen (1966. "An Analytieal and Expert) vt, igo of Thora Stratification in Lakes and Ponds” Cambridge, Meee: ST Departinent of Givil Buginoering. CHyérodynas Baglesen FS, and 8-0, Chan (1079), "Water Balance Estimates of 0 Sadi Triiy eer goelings afte Conference on Water owourees Planning, CUT Teck TaDegeal Planning Program, Cairo, Beypt, June 25-27, 1970 Eagleson, PS. [1970], Dynamic Hiydrolons. New York: Met cade aol “Soles Radiation During Cloudloss Days” Heat, Venti. 46:69-74, ree PTta8r) "A Set of Equations for Full Specrum and 8; 34am and 205° “dium, Thermal Radiation from Cloudless Skis.” Waver Resources Res 19):2095-804. sor Band Bei, Blad (197). “The Bet of Air Temporatare Upon Net and Solar "Radiation Raletions.” J. Appl. Meteorol. 1604-605. ae pen RD, Jecsson (1068), “Thermal Radiation from the Atmombere.” "J, Geophys, Res. 74:5997-6403. Kimiall PHL (1027), "Measurements of Solar Radiation Intensity and Determinetion tite Depletion by the Atmosphere” Monthly Weather Ren. 6§:156—169 Laer (taat"* Arsount of Solar Radiation That Reaches the Surface of the Barth 9 eae aaandion tho Bea ond Methods by Which It Is Measured.” Monthly Weather Re, 55:393. 598, Teen igh), "Measurement of Solax Radiation Intansity and Determinations of Hs “Dopletion by the Atmosphere.” Monthly Weather Rev. 5849-62 in BH UDI) "Caleuations of Solar Radiation and Solar Heat Lond on Man” J, Meteorol. 6():119-129. is RL LISGS), Smithsonian Meteorological Tables. 6th rex. ed, Washington, D.C ‘Smithsonian Institution, Marah: W.ML {1987}, Horthacape: A Phyoicel Geography. New York: Wiley. Marat WME, and J, Dodier (1086). Landscape: An Tntreduetion to Physical Geogra- hy. New York: Wiley. Med HCH, 1984), Heat Tranamisson. rd ed. New York: MaGrow Hi Seen) M, (2962). “Prediction of Temperature in Rivers end Reservoir.” Poe “hin, Soc, Cuil Eng, J. Power Div. No, POR, Paper 8200. Beiter Ge {1960}. “Distribation of Procpitable Water Vapor Over the Continents] ‘Tiited States.” Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 44(2):70- Strabler AN, and AH, Stabler [1988]. Modern Physical Geography. 2nd 8. New “York: Wiley, Sotton, 0.€. [1958], Micrometeorology. New York: McGraw Hil aan 9 SiL0, 1068), "Long: Wave Radiation from Clear Skies” @. J. R, Metro. ‘Soe. Lond. 88:358—4%, tensnatee Valley Authority (1972), "Heat and Mase Tranafer Between a Water Sur” settee the Atmosphere.” Norris, Tenn: Tennessee Valley Authority. (Laboratory ‘port no, 14; Water resources research report no, 0-6803) promens 49 srrewartta, 6-7: [1968]. An Introduction to Climate, New York: McGraw-Hill ‘Trowarthe, GT, and LH, Horm (1980). An troduction to Climate, 6th ed. Now York: "MeGra weil US. Army Comps of Engineers {1956), Snow Hydrology: Portland, Oreg: US. Army ‘Gorpe of Bngineers, North Pacific Division EES EEo CeCe eee eeeea CEE Pesce eee PROBLEMS 1. Find the effective incoming shortwave radiation [? in langleys per min- ‘ute under the following set of conditions: latitude, 16°N; dato, July 10; hoary ‘noon; clouds, overcast at 3000 ft; sir turbidity, smogay; surface, gruss-covered ground. (Prom P.S. Eagleson, Dynamic Hydrology, McGraw-1ill, 1970.) 2. Vapor pressure is 36.1 mb and air temperature is 90°F, Calculate the clear sky not longwave radiation exchange between the atmosphere and a ‘rater surface, where the temperature af the latter ie 85°F. 3. Suppose te albedo of tho panel ect x 0.94 with rspat to sla rai epee Shut tho ourth radiates as black oy, neglect alnespheio oe seroe fhe tarsal radiation, and calealte the earth’ Mackay ‘Sipe Cpa ih empl me of 2 se on ec duanred. (fom PS. Eagleson, Dye Hydrology, MeCra- ‘Bill, 1970.) a 4, Large clouds of dust and smoke are expected to occur in the event of a ms- Jor nuclear exchango. In such an event, the total air's absorption—seattering coefficients @, would be 2. snd 13 for smoke and dust clouds. The net radia- ion 7! will be 10% of the incoming “clear” sky shortwave radiation 1, ‘For the location and general conditions of Problem 1 compute the incoming shortwave radiation in the ground for both dust and stacke clouds, “Assume that the atmospheres ozone layer does nob suffer enough to change the earth’s eolar constant. What are the turbidities of dust and smoke clouds? Comment on possible climatic effects caused by a major nuclear war. 6, Bind the net longwave and shortwave radiation on a Take using the fol lowing infermation: latitude, 15°N; date, July 9; hour, noon; overcast (cloudy) ‘with 3000-1 cloud-base elevation; smoggy air conditions; temperature of ‘Water, 18.38°C; emissivity of water, 0.8; cloud-base temperature, 20°C; albedo ‘of waver, 0.1; temperature of air, 26.67°C; relative humidity of air, 0.85. 46, Assume that the ofirth ie a rotating ephere with an axis perpendicular to line from the oenter of the sun to the center of the earth. What would be the ‘annual total radiation at latitudes 0, 20, 40, 60, 80, and 90?150 CHAPTER 2 / SOLAR AMADIATION AND THE FARTHS ENERGY BALANCE +1, Discuss what may happen to the earth’s energy balance if all of the Ams: cr ine le were eat and razed to bare soil. How would the global ws. Fenn ime effected? Are there relations between the energy and water Galances? (7 Shulela cance Minto CI $) 8 Ifyou had a photoclctrc cel that converte solar radiation to eect ichy seeee Uiicieney, what arca would be required to produce 1000 megnyatis “Poowers the eqelvatent of a good-sized fos or a madlear power Plant? 9, Discuss and quantity to the extent possible what may happon if the ‘artis axis tilt were to become 30° rather than 23°37", 10, The hour angle ofthe sun ris given Gin degrees) by the simplified expres sions a (fy+12— ST) x15 east of observer's meridian, t= (fy 12 AT) X15 west of observer's meridian, where T5 ~ standard time at observer's site counted from midnight in hours ost <2) A, = 75s ~ 80) 1 for west longitude (relative to Greenwich) 41 for east longitude; 4, ~ longitade of standard meridian, where the cbsorvar’ time ne is centorud (every 15° east of Greenwich adds an bour relative to Greenwich); and 6, = longitude of observer's meridian. 2) Compute analytically the incident solar radiation over & period heat, — f, in hours) ata specific site and day of the year 1). Obtain an estimate of the daily insolation outside the earth's ata” Gitte at latitude © ~ 20°N on the Greenwich meridian and on May 81. {Contributed hy Dr. Angelos Protopapas, baxed on the work of Curtis and Bagleson [1982]) 11, Assume that some chemicals are injected in tho upper atmosphere. The Tianinais are such that they allow the incoming solar radiation to penetrate fey, but do ot ellow reflection from the spl surface to escape back fo SPs. fully, pot het the effective transmissivity of the atmosphere and chemicals is Phat is, tho radiation reaching the ground is & Xf, where Fis the radia prosieus 51 so pres te oy of he hei ner Te eo eh FP tana ofthe chermeal lager Sede Think of «simplified eon jaation like the figure below. a Seeman A atmotere Aon a) Compute the total radiation flux absorbed by the earth. 1) Sketch the total absorbed radiation flux Ry as we change ar ftom 0 to 1. (Hint: oe Pitatatente <0). ‘(Contributed by Dr. Angelos Protopapas)Chapter 3 Principles of Meteorology: The Earth—-Atmosphere System 3.1 intRoDUcTION In the previous chapter we studied solar radiation, tho ultimate fuel of the hydrologic cycle. The uneven temporal and spatial distribution of radiation loads to an uneven distribution of temperature throughout the earth— atmosphere system and, effectively, « lack of balance of energy. All active moteorologic and hydrologic processes originate in order to redistribute ‘nergy throughout the system. The earth end the atmosphere are the medi through which tho energy transport commonly occurs, involving large trans- fers of mass, These transport activities dictate climate and weather as we know it "The extent to which the atmosphere or the earth (land masses and ocoans) dominates climate is unclear. The land masses are mostly moisture sinks and play a somewhat passive, but important, part in climate through topography, temperature, and surface albedo cheracteristics. Vegetation on Jend is also important in moisture recycling through evapotranspiretion, ‘which will be studied in Chapter 6. The oceans and the atmosphere are more tetive participants in redistributing mass and energy. This chapter will con- Contrate on the atmospherie and oceanic activities—subjects of meteorology fand oceanography. The rest of the book will emphasize activities over, on, or ‘under land, which are more commonly related to hydrology. 5354 CHAPTER a/ PANCPLES OF METEOROLOGY: THE EARTH-ATVOSPHERE SYSTEM ‘This chapter will cover the dominating atmospheric characteristics such as temperature, pressure, winds, and water content of the atmosphere, Ocean currents will also be discussed. Iti intended to provide adequate background for the hydrologic subjects to follow. eae see ese eee eee ee 3.2 COMPOSITION AND GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ATMOSPHERE ‘The gases surrounding the earth are usually divided into upper and lower at- imospheres, the demarcation being st an elevation of about 50 km, The upper ‘etmasphere plays, a8 far as is khowm, a secondary role to climate determination. ‘The lower atmosphere is where most of the critical mass and encrgy transfers occur: It is usually divided in two parts: the stratosphere and tropo- sphere. The atmospheric layers are defined in terms of the temperature dit- ‘tribution, A typical temperature profile is shown in Figure 3.1, "The troposphere is the atmospheric layer in direct contact with the ‘earth's surface. It is the layer whore most of the energy, momentusn, and mass transfer occur. As such, it is where we observe the development of winds ‘and precipitation on the earth's surface. Monaepore af crucaton ish opts hit Oe) 80-40-20 0 2D la ea FIGURE 3.1 Temperature profilo ofthe atmosphere, with subdivisions. This change in temperature wih alte Is considered to bo typical inthe mile lattudes and ts called the US. Standard Aimesphere. The bounderies between the subdivisions are termed pauses, mearing change, Source: Wi. M. March and J. Dozier, Landscape: An Introduction {fo Physioal Geography. Copytight © 1986 by Wiley. Reprinted by permission of John ‘Wiley & Sons, In. |32 COMPOSITION AND GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ATHOSPHERS BB A few tropospheric characteristics are ‘Variable thickness, 8 km at the poles and 16 km at the equator; Decreasing temperature with elevetion; “Well-defined pressure gradients; Generally well-defined distribution of moisture and suspended particles; and . Sharp velocity gradient, starting ct 0 at the earth's surface and develop- ing over e 2700-m-thick boundary layer that seriously influences micro- climatic conditions. ‘The most common gases in the atmosphere are nitrogen and oxygen be- ‘swoon them they compose about 99% of the atmosphere by volume. Table 3.1 TABLE 3:1 Composition of the Atmosphere BY VOLUME as IN TROPOSPHERE, NOTES Nitrogen OND) ‘Tae Oxggen (0) 20.986 Has developed with the ‘evolution of plant life in past billion yoars. Argon (A) os ‘Carbon dioxide (CO 0.33 Only 0.029 in instant contury, absorbs long ‘wave radiation in the 1-6 and 2-14 ym range. ‘Neen (Ne) 0.0182 Helium (Fe) o.000524 Mothane (CH) 0.00018 Krypton (2) o.ano1s Hiydrogen 3) 9.00005 [Nitrous oxide (V0) 0.c09085 _Absorbp radiation above 1am. Important Variable Gases ‘Water vapor (H,0) Oo “Absorbs radiation in the 0.85-6.5-ym range and _ ‘the range Jonger than 4 18 wm. Ozone (03) 9-0,000007 at ground Absorbs ultraviolet Tove (0.00001-0.00002 radiation in upper i steatospbere and atmosphere. smescephere) ‘ounce W.M Marsh end J, Deion Londscope: An Introduction to Physical Geography. Copyright 181066 by Wiley. Reprinted by prmissicn of Joba Wiley & Sons, nc56 crueren a / PANCPLES OF METEOROLOGY: THE EAATH-ATMOSPHERE SYSTEM ives a complete accounting of gaseous components, The so-called permanent eitituente do not show considerable temporal and spatial variations, The Stniable components usually decrease with increasing elevation and vary ‘widely in time and space. saeseecseseeceeee 3.3 TRANSPORT PROCESSES ‘The inequalities in heat balance seen in Chapter 2 drive a series of branspore ‘processes that spread the available energy, 25 well as existing mass and mo, rimctum, over the earth-atmosphere system. This exchange snd transport Secure Hetwoen and within the ceeams, land masses, and alsmosphere. ‘The main transport processes are conduction, convection, and advection. Gonduction is the interchange of molecules between adjacent substances due fe molecular movement. Momentum, energy, and mass can be transported in this amanner. Conduction is characterized by a transport rate proportional and fn the direction of the decreasing gradient of temperature, concentration, oF Mijosity. The proportionelity constant is usually only a function of the eub- stane or medium, "Heat transport by conduction is given by ~haT/dx, on here y ia the rate hoat transfer per unit aroa (heat flux) in the 2 direction; Grae the temperature gradient; and kis the thermal conductivity in calo- ries per degree per cantimeter per second. _yjeMomentam transport i lamina low i given by = -ndu/de, en hore wis local velocity (meters per second); jis the coefficient of dynamic Tyrensity, a function ofthe fluid (newtans per socond per square meter or Kilo- trams per meter per second); and r,, is stress (momentum flu) on a plane ‘portal to z (aewtons per square meter). "Mass transport is given by Fick's law of diffusion, yy = Daz ye, es) where Jup is the mass flux of diffusant in x direction in. grams per square moter per second: C, is the local concentration of diffusant; and Das 38 nelecular diffusivity, e function of the medium and diffusant in grams per meter per second, “Vapor transport in air is partly accounted for by molecular diffusion. Mo- Jecular diffusion also playe a part in heat transport processes. sstransronreracesses 57 EXAMPLES, Shear Stress in Laminar Flow ‘To illustrate transport by conduction, assume you have water at 20°C, with a dynamie viscosity of 0.01 gcm”'s" The donsity of water at 20°C is (0.99821 gem™*. Assume the water is flowing in an open channel with @ veloc ity profile of the following form: w= 100 — 1006", where wis in centimeters per second and zis the depth of the water measured Trom the bottom in centimeters. The gradient of the above velocity profile is du a 100(0,0054)2°°™* = 0,540", Atz = 100 em, that would give, du 4 & = 05158". Uf the flow is laminar, then shear or momentum transfor at z = 00 em will be (using Fa. 3.2), = -0.01(gem"*s7)0.315 =* ~0,00815 gem *s*. # allt Convection may be of a turbulent or a thermal nature, Turbulent con; vecticn renuits from the xandora movements of eddies of various sizes and Titenvitios, Those rotating vortices move about haphazardly, carrying and Gistributing their cargoes of energy, 0088, and momentum, Turbulent convee- Ser gooounte for considerably moze transport activities then diffusion, which fe usually Limited to stationary contitions or laminar flow in fluids. ‘By analogy with diffusion, and resulting from a probabilistic analysis where turbulence is aeon as a random, statistically stationary, component ‘Rporimpoeed on @ constant mean behavior, turbulent convection tales the following forms: For evaporation, a B= - phe ie ) rin tho vr Mo fat apr in lograms pr gee eter et wore th veri vig, vomporal mean mrs of water per Uni sxe Eh i vy in sere els per seo58 cH 19 / PRINCIPLES OF METEOROLOGY: THE EARTH-ATMOSTHERE SYSTEM ‘and p is the density of water vapor in kilograms per cubic meter. The above ‘equation will be discussed extensively in Chapter 5. For momentum transfer, a peg Cc) whore ris vertieal flux of momentum per unit ares in newtons per square Teter (also shear on « horizontal plane); 0 is the time averaged fluid velocity in meters per second; and is the kinematic eddy viseosity in square meters por sacond. Proportionality factors in turbulent diffusion are not only a fune- tion of medium but also of the system state. "Tho rate of turbulent convection is usually several orders of magnitude larger than that of molecular diffusion, Turbulent,transport plays an impor tant role in the redistribution of energy mass and momentum ovor the earth. Turbulent evaporation leads to moisture recycling as well as tremendous atent heat transfers (gee Section 8.7.1). Turbulent momentum transfer seri- ously influences winds and ocean currents, which are the major advective ‘mechanisms discussed in Section 3.6. “The following sections will describe the spatial and temporal distributions of properties that drive the transport processes. 3.4 TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION ‘vue nonuniformity of radiation and beat budgets is reflected in the variabil- ty of tamperatures throughout the earth and the atmosphere. This tempera tute distribution has a great influence on climate as we know it end affects everything from our daily routines to the genesis of precipitation and ovean currents, 3.4.1 Temporal Distribution ‘Usually, air temperature rises during the day and falls at night, the peak temperature lags beltind the peak daily incoming radiation by several hours. ‘This lag is due to the lag in maximum radiation leaving the earth relative to the maximum daily incoming radiation, as illustrated in Figure 3.2. A typical daily fluctuation of temperature is shown in Figure 3.3 for clear and cloudy days, The implication is that cloud cover buffers the maxima of incoming and ‘atgoing rediation. In fact, on any given day the local metoorologic conditions may destroy or even reverse the expected daily temperature fluctuation. The daily temperature fluctuations are, on the average, of larger magnitude over ‘continental land masses than over oceans. An ocean distributes heat more ef- ficiently throughout its fluid mass, thereby preventing large and quick tem- perature fluctuations. ary ts —> ‘Tenpeatre —> Fan ONS | twetone se. —— repeess” Tua oagorg ane (Bes acer FIGURE 3.2 Peak period of daly outgolng longwave radiation. Souroo: After Oke {1878} WM. Marsh and J, Dover. Landscape: Ar Introduction to Physical Geography. Copyright 18 1960 by Wiloy, Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Ine. Degree F Degrees "€ (approximate) 2 6 i is 2 Hour FIGURE 3:3 Dally movement of alr tornperaturé at Washigton, D.C. on cleat and oud ‘Saye The data ropreadht deviations fror tho 24-hour mean. Each curve fs the mean of {days at about the fm ofthe autumn equinax, when days and nights are nearly equal ‘The selected days had a minimum of edvection. Source: After Landsberg (1958), @.T. ‘Trowertha, An nroduetion to Climate, 4h od., MoGraw-Hil, 1968. Reproduced with permission,(60. CHAPTER 3 / PRINCIPLES OF NETEOAOLOGY: THE EAHTH-ATMGSPHERE SYSTEM AVERAGE RECORDED SOLAR, p EMMNEMSRAESRORTR QU, AVERAGE TEMPERATURE AT E PNOVERATERIOD OF VERS RIQSIEGR, Wisconsin oe ee mo Saser Bilder aker ram eles ‘pened 98 yeas E poo z ai 3 4 Lio 3 ecw a a es “PBS ay 68 yg 2 6 g 2oa°3 8 2 2 a ae ‘Week beeing Weck begining FIGURE 3.4 Maximum and minimum temperatures lag @ month ot so behlad maximum EG inimum solar radiation, The sole radiation curve has been smoothed stightly. Soutoo: G. Trewarhe, An Introductin to Climate, 4th ec, MoGraw-Hi, 1968. Repro ‘duced with permission. ‘The seasonal air temperatures also follow closely the annual cyclo of incoming solar radiation. The pattern is illustrated in Figure 3.4. The ob- served lag in peak temperature relative to peak radiation again responds to the delayed peak in the earth's back-radiation, This buffering effect is more significant over oceans or ocean-dominated climates..In such cases, maximum fand minimum temperatures occur in August and February (northern hemi- phere), respectively. On the other hend, continental climates peak in July fand register minimum temperatures in January. 3.4.2 Horizontal Distribution ‘Figures 3.5 and 3.6 give the time-averaged temperature distribution (maps of ‘equal temperature Hines) over the carth for the extreme months of January tani July. The temperatures shown have been adjusted to sea lovel in order to ‘liminate local topographic effects, Except for the deviations caused by laze Tand masses, the isotherms follow the parallels, See to ich ressive equal solar Fuiatoi The effect of continental land masses is particularly important in the northorn hersisphere. The winter-summer drift of the isotherms again ‘oincidas with the general annual movement. of belts of equal radiation in- duced by planetary motion. The maximum temperature occurs somewhat ‘above the equator, possibly because of the cloud effects in that region. The “greenhouse” effect of the cloudy tropics, together with a more uniform an- nual radiation budget, makes this region the one with the smallest termpera- ture fluctuations throughout the year. FIGURE 3.5 Average 20 atures, January, Sour: 6.7. Trewertha, An into 4988. lopeoduiced with permisskon. level tempor Guetion to Climate, sh ed, McGravetih? j Sate MSUTURE DISTRIBUTION 69 the sea-level isothermal mopp shown in Figures 3.5 and 3.6, the results the swaps of temperature anoinalies or jganomalies of temperature. These _, Sfaeaut regions with average temperature that are unusually high or Prt es 8.7 and 3.8 are isanomalies for the months of January axd July. The igri: shown rflers tho oceans’ ability, relative lo the land masse, to #89 feats winter and colder in summer. Most significantly, though, are the tus of ocean currents on air temperazure, (A willbe seen in Seckion 5.62, et poual winter warmth of western Burope is due toa war acean current the unt shores, Similary, the lower Uamperatures of western Chile are due along (4. nteretic currents, Tho largo lund mass of northeastern Asia leeds to cal cant negative and positive temperature anomalies in winter and Summer, respectively. 1 the temperatures expe + from radiation received are subtracted from 9.4.3 Vertical Temperature Distribution in the Lower Atmosphere ‘As montioned previously, the troposphere shows a well-defined gradient of 2s mare, wih the higher temperatures ut tho earths surface, As Wow soon go, anospherie temperature is very much dictated by heat from the earth's surface. “Ths temperature variation in the troposphere is reasonably assumed to bbe linear (or piecewise linear) jy. Source: G.. Trewartna At Inoue ‘oGraw-Hli, 1968, Reproduced with permiasion T- re Os oo here TT is ambient temperature at elevation z, and T, is surface tempore weer mo rate of cooling a is called the ambient lapse rate; it usually varies SCkm, — 4P, w lapas Fate plays a tiajor role in establishing the stability or sea-level temporatures, 28 cnalobiify of air masses, which in turn lead to no precipitation or preciPite; Bs sana ctively, Stability hore refer to the ability of air masses fo rie due ge te thermal convection in the atmosphere. They will rise only if theis temper ze aanermermer than the surrounding air. Therefore, the ratiof cooling of fhe 3s ture ie weTMjative to the ambient af, fsa critical thermal stability factor. S ‘This will be discussed in detail in Section 3.8. 2 z ‘Grusually stable weather occurs when the temperature ofthe ait = in creaming with elovation rather than decreasing; this condition is ealled @ = creasing Wrorsion, in euch an atmosphere, any rising (snd therefare cooling) E (gee Section 8.8) air mass will always be heavier than the ambient oi and ining’ft low elevations, unable to condense its water Vapor-voysenuved tam peonporderd 886}

that DY intopation af i, O.18 we obtain P=P, oo|-“* I. ean Density varios are sid with rss aio by he al En 1 ae esi tho troposphere is then even DY ite a 8) p= Figure 9:12 plot typical pressure and temperature distributions, Prseerintncty 90 oe ae oes 6 8 2 ‘yates — ear” So to 50 AO 80 29 eM FIGURE 3.12 Typical profes of wator vapor, temperature, and pressure In the eimor sphere, Souroo: Eagieson (1970)172. cuarteh 3 / PRINCIPLES OF METEOROLOGY: THE EARTE-ATMOBPHERE SYSTEM EXAMPLE 3.3. Pressure Distribution In the Atmosphere ‘A warning commonly given to scuba divers is to avotd flying shortly after diving beeaase of the very quick pressure changes that occur. Assume You a°= giliver-pilot enjoying yourself in the eunay Caribbean with ground-level ait femperatures of 27°C. The ambient lapse rate is 6.5°Ckm*. After diving io & soe epth you immediately jump into your single-engine plane and fy to 2O00 sn What is the total change in prossure you endure? To answer the atestion you must find the pressure reduction in going from wor 20 m of Sees ta atmospheric pressure at sea level and then the reduction in moving 3000 m up into the atmosphere. Tho water pressure the diver experiences is nearly hydrostatic; therefore Po pebts whore 2 is depth The donsity of water py is about 1 gom'* and the accelera- Yon of gravity is 9.8 ms. Therefore the undarwater pressure Is (1 gem )107(ag g79) X 10%? m9) 9.86ns"7) * 206) 19.6 x i0* Nm? = 19.6 x 10% mb. ‘The pressure at 3000 m of elevation inthe atmosphere is obtained using iq, (616) with P, = 1013 mb and T,~ 27°C. Ambient temperature at 3000 m is T= T,~ oe 27 — 6.5(8000/1000) = .5°C ‘The dry-air gae constant R is 2.876 X 10° erscc-*“K””. Degrees Kelvin are given by "K=O + 273.15, 0 the lapse rate remains the same in degrees Kelvin as sn degrees Centi- grade. Tho pressure at a 9000-m elevation is then (Ea, 9.16) ara.as + 13) mime tenant Ase He »- walsh) =T2mb ‘The change in pressure from sea level to a 8000-m elevation is then 1018 = 712 = 301 mb. Therefore the diver~pilot suffers 2261 mb (1960 4 801) of total pressure change—about 2.29 atm. 116 AOXECTION BY WINDS AND OCEAN CURRENTS. 73, Bi eee 3.6 ADVECTION BY WINDS AND OCEAN CURRENTS Chapter 2 pointed out that, the higher latitudes of the globe, both northern ‘and southora hemispheres, had radiaticn deficits (amounts of outgoing radia- tion larger than that of ineoming radiation), while the lower latitudes had energy surpluses. ‘The presont temperature distributions on the esrth are possible only with a major redistribution of energy—the tropies must supply energy to the northern latitudes to achieve the anergy bslance. Of all the transport pro- ceases discussed, advection by winds and ocean currents is the only possible method of energy transfer ablo to deal with the magnitude of the problem. 3.6.1 Atmospheric Circulation “Atmospheric circulations are generally of thermal origin and related to the earth's rolation. Also, they closely follow the global pressure distribution. A honrotating earth would result in simply north-south thermal circulation, ‘es shown in Figure 3.13. The warm tropics would induss air messes to rise, Jeaving a low-pressure “vacuum.” The warm masses would circulate along « FIGURE 2.19 Atmospheric‘crculaton pation that would develop on a nonratating planet ‘The equatorll bel would hea intensively and would produce low pressure, which would in tunect into motion a gigantic convection system. Each sie ofthe syst wouk! span ‘one hemisphere. Source: WM. Marsh, Eathecape: A Physical Geograpty. Copyright © 4987 by Wiley. Reprinted by parmission of John Wiey & Sons, Inc7A. caapTens / PANCHLES OF METEOROLOGY: THE EARTH ATHOSPHERE SYSTEM FIGURE 2.14 tution ofthe Cros effec. Sua: WM. Mash ane. Coo, Land- 14 Mate > yecalGoography. Copyaght © 7886 by Way. Repteg Py ‘permiasion of John Wiley & Sone, In. the upper atmoephere tothe pols, where they take the pace ofthe cold air fhe woper jriny to replace thera in the tropics. The heavier cold! a HOE aseoy rw hve eurface, In auch nonrotating-earth models, the poles are hhigb-proseure centers. ta el thermal circulation is signiicanty altered by the eas of the die votation: the Coriolis foree and friction of tho lower sr Teaser te earths es surface. The Coriolis effect is really an apparent free Tt wien ttcoan the perception of an observer who moves with 9 rots AOe earth ear holes at an wnattached moving mass. A simple and cleet explanation is given by the folowing example from Marsh and Dosior 13986)" a esonatrate the Coriolis effoct, imagine that you are playing 9 Gi of dase Teepe disk rotating in a counter cloicvse direction 6 3.14] hr pains on the disk havo the same angular velocity Gc he Me umber AL ponte on Ue Minute), but hoso farther from the canter have « 6° a ero eigliy a they travel a grealer distance ia the same anor of time. act eat of tho dart game, to facta must be considered: |) he ‘board is er cia a circular path and will continue to do eo after Yor release the i Spe dart is moving oven before you release Stand wil fete this com- sor of ta velocity afer you throw it, although it will travel straight pone of ak that rotates enuntar clockwise, you will always main She board vine aight, regardless of your position relative to the board.” Figure 3.4 frum WM. Mars and J. Deir, Landtcpe An Introduction o Phil Gvtrophy. Carr, {toe by Witay. Roprsted by perelasion of John Wiley & Sons, Ine- 36 ADVESTIONBY Wn AND OCEAN CURRENTS 75 demonstrates this for throe separate positions of the im Figure 8.14 are as follows: rotation of the edge of the disk over # timo period '; movement of the thrower after the dart is released; movement of the dart board after the dart is released; tive path ofthe dart as seen by an observer removed from the rotat- ing disk; and ‘As apparent path ofthe dart as seen by an observer on che rotating disk: If the disk were rotated clockwise, the Coriolis effect would make the darts tooe to the let. The magnitude of the Coriolis effect dopends on the an ieior veloclty and the speed of the moving objects it always acts op « plane rerpendicular to the axis of rotation. rrrith and Dozier [1986] also explain why the Coriolis effort increases ‘foo tteinely save at tho equator to maximum at the poles, In reality the from pr speed ‘othe sane ot allocations over the earth, go the net Corais rae eee no, perpendicular to the exis of rotation (Pg, 8.15). Neverthe tree oe decompasing the fore in components parallel nd perpendicals 9 de ec ccufar, iti clear thal: the component parallel to the surface dis. seocars at She equator (Fig. 815) Is sis eomponent parallel te he earth's sense thal affecis our peresption of wind directions. Therefore, for our Pu Sates the Corili foree disappears atthe equator, The Coro fores et 18 sree Jeon the northera hemisphere Ge rotates counterelockwioe relative the cbscrver) and to the left in the southern hemisphere, disk, Letter designations yee c-Horzora compare he Coste ecioton eanponert of he Cocos ec FIGURE 3.46 The Coots fect (hea arr is he product of ts horizontal snd Vere! stot te poles, where [ts equal 10 te horizontal campo, ts equal othe vertial component. Source: W. ML Marsh ets a Sgonpo: An trodveton to Physical Geograpy. Copyrant © 1668 BY Wey, Repriied by permigsion of John Wray & Sons, Inc,“76. cxwpTens | PRNGPLES OF METEOROLOGY: THE EATH-ATHOSPHEE SYSTEM ‘The noed to conserve angular momentum ao alters the idealized scheme of Figure 2.18. ln parca, the cceuating xls extending m8 ‘the equator Sr ees are st pocsble. Also, the doftctin given toe ‘winds by the Coriote force would imply, without proserretion ‘of angular momentum, ‘bands of accelerating air m: ing the earth. : The not effect ofthe Coriolis force and engalar moments sommarized in Figure 3.16, whore a circulatory model over a homegensous smooth sphere shown. The main features are Convergent winds on the equator of easterly evigin, These Convergent in 2 Tan eovergs inthe ow prone belt cede Tauatoril convergence zone also called the ‘iatertropical (equatorial) com vergence sone. a, Areal letitudes we Sind the prevailing westerly winds ascociated ‘with high-pressure centers. eae wide eae ae ewes aman i ) lat Ab Fa ronsnsvocilon =~ pemceertes FIGURE 8.18 tose crouton ofthe almoephore a the ears suiee showing the Principal areas of pressure and bets of 2 iia se Copyright© 1087 by Wey Roped by pemision ot mn wiley & Sons, Inc. ‘a6 AOVECTIONY WINDS AND CCEAN CURRENTS. 77 3; Counteracting the westerly winds are highly variable and relatively un ‘known polar easterly winds. 4. The poleward circulation of tropical air masees is broken into limited gyros, Keaping the banded or tubular structure around the earth Tn reality, the topography and variable thermal effets of the land masses ‘and abe conte farther alter the pattor of Figure 3.16. Figures 3.10 and 3.17 Show the prevailing mean wind patterns in the extreme raonths of January arm ay. Besides the yeneral zonal kehavior already described, the moss ane eaature is the rotating Winds around the somipermanent high and sreteeuren already described in Section 8.5. Rotating winds around lo roeuure points are called cyclones. They rotate counterclockwise tse ero ern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern hemisphere. Winds aoe clockwise around high-pressure arcas, anticyclones, in the northore TeeNS nove. The opposite rotation is observed inthe southern homisphere, As tee eittsare contere, these eyelones an antieyclones represent averdges over Jong periods and are of e semipermanent nafre, ‘ike cowiperinanent wind structure of Figures 8.10 and 8.11 do much ‘9 establigh the mean weather patterns over the earth, The tropical easterly cea a convergence rone of air masses of similar temperatures and rand er Tide results in ill-defined contact surfaces. Air is displaced upward, dene indate inflowing mances, resulting in high cloud formations end + ration, This ia why the tropics ere charactarizad by a igh frequency of ‘ratpitation of a showery nature, short duration, and limited exten. hls airs prediction of weather in the tropic fairly difficult. Note that the eRe rteopieal convergence zone migrates northward during the noxsherr Hrvnlephore summer. Because of the Coriolis force and low-pressure een}2rs teieiale latitudes in this season, zhere are somo significant components Stitvopleal westerly winds. This behavior explains some of the well know® cease or wind reversals over continental Hand mastes: Monsoons in south aeaeeee particulary evident in Figures 8.10 and 8.11 Inthe winter, a args setepclone sila over contral Asia, directing winds in an easterly Shion ancy (he Indian Ocean. Tn the swamer, the high-pressure center bas mi tawed northeastwerd Ia ite plac thao ik a more outherly (also migrating rated not) low:preavure center. At the seme timo the intartropical conver, oe dine moves north, The Coriolis free and the cyclonic formation the sees cat reverse wind direction. Tropeal, warm, and moist air flows inte coisas ‘Asia rom tho Indian Ocean, resulting in stormy and wet weather. “The bigh-prowsure gents in idl latitudes also affoct average wee her pattchas is olor way, The easter, iden of the antegclonas usualy brig aa rater air af diveraing nature. This commonly Teads to very low an ce eo eraperature inversions thet prevent rising air and lead to stable strong temPhr ttle procipitation. Some of the major desert regions in the mates rn Sahara in northwestern Africa, the Chilean-Peruvian Desert wee America, and regions of southwestern United States—are on the astern side of semipermanent-anticyclones.ues OF METEOROLOGY: THE| EARTH ATMOSPHERE SYSTEM se anncnon ey wos AND ocean cunRENTS 79 | 78 coyerens /PRNCH nesta on fre rom Gueis trip over the tropical ‘oceans. This leads to canst ible rising eix ‘which yield good amounts ‘of precipitation. ‘This SESE SSE EE owes sie nh recs on th wn side of the ‘anticyclones. Saon apnea tester rn SST “en te orm et See ot vena of a me The mest ae Arforent temperatures and Benaies fe ‘the warrd air to rise along extensive ‘well-defined bounds Eee cS a ce ey ne a eC a ir masses ti ‘a front commonly result in con- la Th weston tc tn fe wate rota or AES Sar a ited ressure, adients, Coriolis force, and friction on the o = ‘The net effect of Pr of pregnte, radeon Ged rlais Se agit votes cst aCe higher leytions, th iene Fey Ow reset: he mv ig tate by a balance bebmata Cot 7 WE Pe ate eramen Sn ned neni SO) of bel eaten preawure. THE CIPS of PStnematieal arguments leading 6 ee t19701 nears of geostraphic “winds is that they move almost ere, paricalariy i regions with ‘portant Cori- Sas * . ee ‘at elevations corresponding 500 eee of sare and ‘higher, there are high-vel locity wit sas gem tates esc rma cose ie shown in Figure 7 Speads of 160 to 240 kur * ere ‘common gen ga ms a othe i 4 streams are ofa ‘wemipermanent ‘nature and play a major role in, grwuntevel id patterns and weather. "The winds exhibit 2 counterclock- FIGURE 2.18 Upper.ar waves on tho jt stroam, which bing parade Cf ry FLOUR sr mare, The typical sequote, cafe an fx oy 8 abe? wont Pe unlting jt () goes ito eves age cetafions 25 North of perigee polar a, ar sth o warm topical a, The en, Se cary tras te Tdi ana flow tts end trp a a the ‘and high lat pola a ro Tend waves re ci of, aang cals of cok he and ces, ray, Be enh (2), Source PS. Eagison, manic Myre, Mere Hi, 1970, ‘wige circulation in the northern Hemisphere, The owilations observed 1 i cece alco tory corr. These istabites ean be Gomer Figure 9.17 9 produced it lboratory experiments Baglsn> [1W701 cr) cxpleingd amd pro nG80). At high levations and high spean the cxoe- Trewartha oMtaet break dows into self-contained ells, asin the sequence shown in Figure 3.18, wo in Figure fluence climate and weatherby moving large mass of cone et Sea ES their associated eat contents, Eneursions of te i emt the lower ltatudes imply the transfer of large cold Bove streams do us effi on tmperatre. These excursions to [ow alitutes wre generally centored around a high-lttude low-pressure cont ‘rough. are generally cy evens commonly develop abe ofthis tough, Sn 8 Gramm ve te iopical wasn ait masses aro moving toward the Poles vane sr apemperatg at alach eets cee rants) Serna ay. Ses eae the eee al Saatchi omne omerrewertha and Horn (1980). The jet stream plays an important sole Creare wot of aycoate evens. At the peak ofthe jt treanls osc | Gon warm at reaches the higher Iatitudes, Whon the et sree ‘breaks into |) an ar ty of cold ait tay be found at lower, oberwige warm latitudes iRise warm regions may be confined to the higher ltitudes || eo. comeruns emacs oF VEEOROLOGY: THE EARTH ATHOSMERE STON | \ 3.6.2 Circulation in the Oceans | Oemn caronie and crclation are dominated by wind fess, cnr rvs Ceca cares tbermal or density currents aro of seesndary nature Wich and ar T davulation pattems, Figare 3.19 shows a theoretical creular the be gr iealized ocean basin limited by an lita boundary. Te pattern jn oy follow wind pattarns and form gyrations and ovuntercorrenis for conservation of mass and raomentur. | forcanery a creation (ig 8.20) every sma, wih the continents | sin tet forcing oveanie gyrations. The establinhed current are SoS ‘ting low rang to the latitudinal path of the water Tho oeean currents FET frelon Ret istrioutors, moving hea othe higher Iatitudes Fo% 8 | | epic sone, With fovorable winds ond contrasting tempore the opie eignicantly olter temperatures and climates en the contincot Soa oan athe North Atlantic current makes western Burope's Winter For example, re od, given its high latitudes. A significant ocean influence sallder them Ooo meatorn coast of South Ameria. ‘The Pore current males FIGURE 3.19 Surface cucents fr @ hypothetical cosan surrounded by land, Bearer i wort Weds . sply: an iroducton to th Marino Envrcrmert. Gopyight © 72 ey Repented by pemiasion of John Wey & Sone, In. March and Dever (1986), rewartha, An intro= on. 968. Reproduced wit permiss £ Ee 8 8 8 g é é i FIGURE 3.20 Generalized scheme of ‘duction © Climate, 4th 60, McGraw-H(82. CHAPTER / PRINCIPLES OF METEOROLOGY” THE EARTH ATNOSPHERE SYSTEM the coast of Chile and Peru much colder than expected. The cool California current effectively reduces summer heat in that state. 3.7 ATMOSPHERIC HUMIDITY ‘The most variable atmospheric component is humidity. It also plays the otar- ring role in elimate and weather determination, with obvious hydrologic ‘offocts. Water exists in the atmogphere in all three phases: vapor, liquid, and solid, It is the vapor phase, though, that is most prevalent in the atmosphere. ‘Ap already seon in Chapter 2, water vapor ia a very officient absorber of radiation and o is very important in the incoming and outgoing radiation balance, Ite movement and phase changes are crucial to earthwide heat and ‘mass balance, Upon evaporation and condansation, ‘heat is absorbed and released, respectively. Since both processes rarely occur in the same location, ‘Vapor is a carrier of energy and mass from one part of the globe to snother. Tt 3s the liquid and solid precipitation of vapor that ultimately controls the land: ‘based hydrologic processes that we will study further in this book. 3.7.1 The Phases of Water ‘The transitions of water between liquid, solid, and gaseous phases are shown in Figure 8.21 as functions of volume, temperature, and pressure. Solid lines represent oquilibrium between phases Dashod lines represent isotherms iat votme #54 og" (ities i samc ss Vie a \ FIGURE 3.21 Tho pheses of waler. Soureé:S.L. Hess, introduction to Theoretical Metoo- flay, Hot insert and Winn. Copy © 1980 y Seymour ‘Hess, Used by a7 arwoseentc Humiorty 83 (equal temperature lines). It is important to study the conditions under which ‘condensation and evaporation may occur Point A in Figure 3.21 is in the vapor region. Moving along the corre- sponding line of constant temperature will result in a volume reduction Gnereasing density) and inezessing pressure. At point B, condensation starts, fand occurs with minimal changes in pressure as the horizontal line implies, ‘At C. all vapor has condensed. Due to the incompressibility of water, fur- ther increases in pressure barely decrease the volume as the nearly vertical dashed lines imply. ‘A rising air mass suffers changes in ambiont temperature as well as pres sure changes. Clearly then, the condensation path is not generally so sizaple. "A particular condensation path—that gt constant pressure—results in the definition of dew-point teraperature. Moving horizontally (from right to eft) in Figure 8.21, along a line of constant pressure while reducing tempera ture, results in a volume reduction. The tempernture at which saturation ‘occurs is called the dew-point temperature (P.). "A few interesting points in the phase diagram are the critical point and the triple-state points. Only at the critical point are vapor and liquid indisti guishable, At the triplestate point, ice, water, and vapor coexist. “Any phase change (represented in Fig, 3.21 for water) results in a release cor absorption of heat, This latent heat does not necessarily change the tem- perature of the substance, but is necessary to meintain the overall energy Palance. Hach state has a different lovel of internal energy and each state change involves some work resulting in density (unit volume) variations ‘Tabig 8.2 gives the signs and nomendature of heat production during the ‘phase changes of water. The sign is postive if heat is absorbed by the chang ing substance. ‘The unite of latent heat are calories per gram (cal g") or joules per Kilo- gram (J kg"). Latent heat represents the amount of heat exchange required for inducing, the state change per gram of subetance. Latent heats are a func- ‘tion of temperature. TABLE 2.2 Latent Heats STATE ‘STATE? SION OF 1 Liguia ‘Vapor T= latent heat af evaporation (vaporization) + Vepor Liquid Ze ~ latent heat of condensation - kee Vopor L, = latent beat of sublimation + ee Liguid 1, = latent heat of melting + Liguie Tee T= latent heat of freezing Gsion) - ‘Sure: Buyeson (1970)184 cxarren / PANCIPLES OF METEOROLOGY: THE EARTH-ATWOSPHERE SYSTEM Common approximations ta Jatent heat are (in calories per gram) Evaporation LZ, = 697.3 ~ 0877 = Te Sublimation: DL, = 677 ~ 0.07 a) Melting: Ly = Ly 198.0 where Tis given in degrees Celsius 3.7.2 Vapor Prossure and Humidity Imagine a closed container with equal volumes of water and air at Ube oosmo fonparatare. If the air is initially dry, evaporation will take place. Watts aereeries, vapor, will oscape from the water and into the air. Some of the wiejesules return from the air and condense, but the net effect will be evapo: Titles until the air becomes saturated. Saturation implies that for the given Temperature the air is holding the maximum possible amount of water vapor. ‘Kt this point, the vapor behaves as an ideal gas. From thermodynamics; We Soe thet ine gaseous mixture each component contributes proportionally to the total pressure. So, at equilibrium, the vapor pressure is the maximum ‘ovsible siainable, or the saturation vapor pressure, At this pressure, walt Praporating and condensing through the air-wator interface yields zero not Carat an open aystem, this balance is hard to attain, particularly whee’ other transport methods —e.g., wind—remove the water vapor fom, the aiz Under guch conditions, evaporation will continue, ‘Avalying the ideal gas Inw to Water vapor, we obtain en expression for ‘vapor pressure, RT, 20) where ¢ is the vapor pressure (in milibars) p, is vapor density in mass per wag Golume (gm), Fis absolute tomperatare (assumed the same as that of Tree te mized with) in degrees Kelvin, and 2, ie the vapor gas constant, ‘The vapor gas constent ie Felaled to the universal gas constent, Re (2.9887 cal mol") 2M, 2 ie 20 where M, is the molecular weight of the water vapor, M is the molecular Wueht of dry ais and Pio the dry-air gas constant (2876 x 10° ensec °K) ‘Therefore M gp asst. ase 7 ATMOSPHERIC HMO 85 p= OSG ea) ‘The vapor density p, is also called the absolute humidity of the atmo- sphere. The idoal gas assumption is good under moet conditions, with the Creoption of the point of condensation. A curious and useful implication of fq, 6.28) is that it ays that the density of water vapor is 0.622 that of dry air et the aame temperature T and pressure c. SEP represents the total atmospherie pressure (including only dry air and ‘water vapor) then PS Puy te. 20) "Tho density of tho mixture of dry air and vapor is given by equation (3.25) shows the interesting result that’ moist air is less dense thon ary air af the some temperature and pressure. Pause and think about the ‘meaning of the above statement. “Virtual temperature is defined as that temperature required for dry air to achieve the density of an air mixture (moist alt) at the sunie pressure, Virtual ‘temperature is then Tt = T/(A = 0.878e/P) 22) p, Relative humidity is defined as the ratio of the vapor density (or pres- sure) to the saturation vapor density (or saturation vapor pressure) at the same temperature: r= 1002 ee oof > am Note that p, and e, are functions of temparature only. Specific humidity is the mass of water vapor per unit mass of moist air: fn 0.628 gp0% a= Be = pa ~ 00025 - 628 ‘The mixing ratio is the mase of water per unit: mass of dry air:86 charTen.s / PRNCIPLES OF METEOROLOGY: THE EARTH-ATIVOS?HERE SYSTEM 3.7.3 Measurement and Estimation of Humidity and Vapor Pressure ‘Saturation vapor pressure can be obtained from tables (see Appendix A) as fa fanction of teinperature, dew point, andior wet-bulb depression (a concept explained later in this section). There are several simple approximations, ‘Over a temperature range of 25 to 55°F (U.S, Army Corps of Engineers [1056)) Gai + 0.3397, ~ 92), in millibars, Gao) as baglecon Gui3 eon 0480 + 0.017, 82) ein inches of meroury, where Tiris the dew-point temperature given in degroos Fahrenheit; Satura tion vapor pressure over water can be approximated within 1% in the range 50 to 55°C (—58 to 131°F) by «¢, = 98,8639[(0.007387 + 0.6072}* ~ 0,000010|1.87 + 45| + 0.001316] ean (Bosen [1960), where e, is in millibars aiid 7 is ambient temperature in degrees Celsius. ‘Seturntiou vapor pressure over ica end water are not the same, being longer over water than over ice for temperatures below freezing. The ratio of over ico and water ie given in tables or approximated by * fei = 1 + 0.009727 + 000004277, 37 svheree, isin millibars and 7’ in degrees Celsius. Aocuracy ofthe above js to Within 6.1% of the true ratio for the range 0 to ~0°C (82 to ~58°F) Bosen 1961). pee “The dow point can be approximated in the température range —40 to 50°C (-40 to 122°F) to within 08°C by 1 Ty~ (455 + OMET)x + 1S + 0.007T HY + 059 + O1TTT 39) sihere T'is ambient temperature and x is the complement of relative humidity expressed in decimal form, z= 1.0 ~ 1/100. Relative bumidity can be approximated from air temperature anil dew point, (Bosen (1958) by (ata) 00 ash 12 + 09T v sr amwosnicnc Humor 87 FIGURE 8.22 Sing psychvometer. The wet-bulb thermometer is covered with the gauze Fock Soutoe: WML Marsh and J. Dozier, Landscape: An Inroducton fo Physics! Geog ‘pty. Copytght © 1986 by Wiay. Reprised by permission of John Wey & Sons, Ine Humidity is usually measured with a psychromoter (Fig. 8.22). This is an instrament with two thermometers. One is e wet-bulb thermometer, coverod wri cloth saturated with water, The other is dry. Ventilated, by rotation or Mihvewise, tho temperature reading of the wot thermometer 7, is lower bo- cance of evaporation, The difference between the two readings is called the SrSttbulb depression. Appendix A gives a table (Table A.2) relating wot-bulb dopreseion to relative humidity. wR simpler and mere emveniont kumidity measurement can be obtained with o heir hygrometer. These instruments depend on human hair or other Tiutinic matarlal that expands when wot and contracts when dry. Although of Thalted avcuraop, these proceduras can be useful in remoto sensing applications. EXAMPLE 84 Distribution of Moisture end Evaporation Our diver-pilot is also a runner, Ho is given the cheice of running marathons fe two locations of equal temperature (T' = 21°C). The diffeyence is that in. the place tho peychrometer shows a wet-bulb depression (7 ~ 7) of FC and Sere cther depression of 7°C is cbserved. Both placee are equally windy 1 Gotherwise similar, Which should be a more comfortable place to run? Tp study the situation we should find where evaporation is larger. Given = 21°C and using Eq, (8.31), we find that e, is about 24.9 mb in both places, ‘The relative bumidity in both locations can then be obtained as a function of ‘wet-buib depression fr8in Table A.2 in Appendix A. The table yields Location 1: 0.75, Location 2: £ = 0.46.BB. CHAPTER: / PAIVOFLES OF METEOROLOGY: THE EARTH-ATHISPHERE SYSTEM “the corresponding vapor air pressures are then Location 1: 0.75 x 249 = 18.7 mb, Location 2: 0.45 x 24.9 = 11.2mb. From Bq, (@.4) we know that evaporation is proportional to the gradiont of spesific humidity. Given that the locations are similar and that prossure does not change much with elevation, Eq. (3.28) implies that evaporation is effex Gvely proportional to the vapor pressure gradient, We can. assume that the ietdhion cunner will effectively be a continuous, unlimited, source of water Taweat) in both locations. Since everything is the samo, it is reasonable io ‘State that the vapor pressure at the skin level e, and the constant of propor. fonelity in Eq, (24) are the same in both locations. Due to the amount of Gator 2, =e, The ratio of evaporation in both places’ ean then be approx mated as 249-12 249 - 18.7 22, ‘Tho runner should be cooler in Location 2 because of the heat removed by the evaporating sweat; nevertheless, he may be better off in Location 1 in terms of energy and body-fluid conservation. ¢ 3.7.4 Distribution of Atmospheric Moisture ‘As stated proviously, humidity is a highly variable atmospheric component. Nevertheless, itis possible to make several statements relative to average nelsture convent, Generally, water vapor, by volume, reduces with elevation fae chown in Table 3.3, Temporally, specific humidity increases and decreases seasonally with temperature. The daily variations are masked by local «ir Terbulence that may transfer moisture away from a site, particularly over Jand areas. ‘Specific humidity, a measure of absolute water content, is highest in the tropies and low latitudes, sharply decreasing toward the poles (Fig. 2.20). Relative humidity, because of its temperature dependence, shows peaks in tthe tropics (high moisture and temperature) and in the poles (low moisture with lev tomperature). Two minima are found in the middle latitudes, coin- Zldent with the high-pressure anticyclone regions. This is jIlustrated in Figure 3.24, Note that the large desert rogions exhibit low relative humid. ity_-e.g, the African Sahel region, northwest Mexico, southwestern United States, central Australia, and west central South America —although their specific humidity is relatively high on the average (see Fig. 3.28) Since rela: tive humidity measares not only water content but the ability of the air to sr arwocercnicHuMinmy 69 TABLE 9.3 Average Vertical Distribution of Water Vapor in Middle Letiadas HEIGHT WATER VAPOR Ge ol ia) 00 13, 05 116 19 101 15 ot 20 08 25 ot 50 049 35 oat 40 037 50 oat 80 os: 10 0.09 80 ‘Source: Landsberg 1968) and "reward (106) Parerenrearee ee Goiotase to a0 oto wo SOO Neg Sout FIGURE 3.25 Distribution by latitude zones ofthe water vapor cortant of he a, Space Frwy i highest In exuatori atudes and decreases toward the polos, Source: & © aaeiey ea noduotion to Climate, ath ed, MeGraw- Hil, 1968. Reproduced with Per risoion. (Alter Hauratz and Austin [1944))= = =r | go. comerers seniscie eS 0F METEOROLOGY THE EARTH-ATIACEPHERE SYSTEM a7 arwoseuenic HumorTy 91 i —_———$——$___—-— ‘The above equation can be integrated analytically if we know the ¢ — P | ® pohavier, Numerical intogration is always possible by summing over diserete 2a) ayers that are taken to be of constant pressure, Diseretizing Bq. (8:57) and i introducing conversion factors leads to } a) | i ur inches) ~ 0.0004 5 AP, \ Wicd sae a ae Oa 50 TID ae Neri south Latina w, (mam) ~ 0.01 YG AP, | FIGURE 3.24 Distrbuton of relative humity by latitude zones. Note that zonal Nt, Fear soictvo humiy is gull cflerent from distfoution of specttchumidly. Govrce: tor clcantia, An lroduction to Climate, th ed. MeGraw-Hil, 1968, Reproduced with permission. whore Gis the mean specific humidity (in units of grams por Kilogram) ber twoen @ layer with a pressure change AP (in millibars). It should be empha- ‘sized that for the above potential precipitation to occur, al! the moisture must condense and fall to the earth. This would be very raro and difficult. Chap- hold moisture, it plays an important role in the condensation process. This ter 4 will discuss the necessary conditions leading to precipitation will be discussed in Section 2.8. The knowledge of the vertical and spatial distribution of moisture per- smite the computation of the potential precipitable water in em area. To com ‘ute the total amount of potential precipitable water w, in @ layer between ‘elevations 0 and z, we need to evaluate EXAMPLE 35 Computation of Procipitable Water ‘Assume that the vertical pressure distribution and corresponding moisture distribution of a column of atmosphere is fines, : (235) I PREssURE VAPOR PRESSURE ‘oo evanox “SS hori te cnet ope dnt nth eam, suing ee es Tee ste datbation, 3 ee 3S Ed % ui i os e - Z wo Ms \ i 3s 3 a | erp ta int ef nny =p no Te a oe 8 . | zt 36 50 103 7 me 7 | ahem oan $ &s iu | & 0 5 c. "0 os iis 2 fqar, am % aaa as ee ‘The precipitable watot is obtained by first compuiting the specie humic, Jn grams per kilogram for each layer. Specific humidity would be given by Bq. (3.28) (eultipliod by 1000 to convert to grams per Kilogram), After the average % for each layer is obtained, En. (8.59) may be used. The following table summarizes the computations. where qq is the specifie humidity. Simce q, ~ 0.622¢/P, gaa (6, oP e239) w,(92. cHAPTENS /PRINCELES OF METEORQLOGYSTVE EARTH-ATMDSPHERE SYSTEM other wunvaTTON sf OP carer nao cet wa 15 1985 0s 6 ni 5 815 1 us no 15 1680 15 04 10 38 1500 20 26 oa 1640 25 a e4 1260 ; 30 1 115 Meo 3s a oo 35085 40 8s a) 50 56 sis 1185 60 “ 42% 160 10 a ss a5 80 22 paar ~ 10888 ; —_———... far ondevsson! “Te potential prespitable water is thon + [Pt ve wpe 001 18585 — 184 ae te / 3.8 ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY AND CONDENSATION Precipitation depends, among other things, on the condensation of ats Tinetie moisture. For endeasation, the moisture-laden air mast lowes is ‘eraperature, increase ‘or reduce volume according to the phase dia- teaeetpown ia Figure 82 Ia the atmosphere, condensation generally occas ey by temperature reductions resulting from the ascent of air masses, ty By loton of Gh rising will be further discussed in Chapter 4. Here wo ail lacie how the rising is enhanced or restrained by convective, ther- ‘mally induced turbulence. anc arsity or instability of an air mass depends on ite rate of cooling relation tn tho afanosphors lap rate. The rato of cooling ofthe air mass de- pends on whetber condensation occurs or not {38 AINOS*HERIG STADILIY AND CONDENSATION. 99 ehh 3.8.1 Adiabatic Cooting “Assume we have a parcel of dry oir that is heated. Apply the first law of ther Shodynamice under adiabatic (no heat lost) conditions. dQ. = db + dW, Gao) “hare dQ is net heat received by the system, al ie the jnerease in internal Thargy. aud dW is the work done by the system on the surroundings. Tn oxpanding gas with no external forces aw = d(PAz), ean where P is the pressure and Ax is the displaced volume, For small volume changes, aw = Pav 342) Equation (8.41) must have consistent units to be used in Ba. (40), Dealing Equation (tance, and dividing by mess, Eq, (3.40) can be expressed in unit mass terms, dq, = de + dw. a9) tn the absence of motion, gravity, electricity, and magnetism, the interna! enor ie just a fonetion of temperature and volume, Refer now to de aa dis then dg, = du + Pdv, aan ‘whore w is the specific volume p ‘For perfoet gases, tbe internal energy is only « function of temperature, ‘and under constant voliime conditions, we have 4 (ou/aT), = C, = specific heat at constant volume. 80, dq, = 0,40 + Pao’ (945) where df is the change in temperature 7 ofthe rising air mass. Using the Tiemon equation or a perfoct gas Pu = RT and differencing, Pdv= Rd ~ od, 46)(94. chApTEm.s / PRINCIPLES OF METEOROLOGY: THE EARTH-ATMOSTHERE SYSTEM whore B is the gas constant of dry air in equare centimeters per square sec ‘ond per degree Kelvin (cm#s"?"K" and 7 is absolute temperatare in dogroes Kelvin, Substituting Eq. (3.46) into Hg, (2.45), we then have da. (0,4 RAT ~ vd? = (0,4 RAT — RTD an ‘but by definition C+R=C,, as) ‘where C, is the specific heat at eonstant pressure. Then, a, = C47 - RTE. ea Since we are assuming adiabstie rising, da. at Rae TGP , which results in 60) ‘which can be integrated to obtain r_ (py me qh . e asp where 1 — n = R/O, ~ (CG, ~ C,)/C, or 2 = C,/C, = 1/141 for dry air, Ti beolile temperature at absolute prossure P, 7 is also refered to as the po- tential temperature @ at mean sea level (P, = 1000 mb); therefore r_ (Py (fa) osm aoe ‘ofpolantil temperature ¢ remains onan: dating cess [This implies that on cooliag heating) the air parcel will return to its original, initial, temperature. If a percel of dry air is moved verticelly, it will expand or contract be- cause of a change in atmospheric pressure. Assume adiabatic conditions; then, using Bq, (8.50) and difforentiating with respect to 2, Gsm) |38 ATMOSPHSRIC-STADLITY AND CONDENSATION 95 where 1” is the absolute temperature of the ambient atmosphere at elovation 2, and substituting in Bq. (8.68) restilts in, a -et- T : e pe 50) dT [dz = Vis called the dry adiabatic lapse rate or the rate af which a rs ing pareal of sir cools with elevation under adiabatic conditions, The dry adiabatic lapse rate I is approximately 10.0°C km *. “The relation between I'and the ambient lapse rate a definos static eon- vective stability in the atmosphere: Tlal < [F, tising air cools faster than the atmosphere so once the lifting force is removed, it will sink (aince it is denser) to a stable equilibrium. If a > [C, rising. air is always warmer 90 it keeps rising once given an initial impulse, This is unstable equilibrium. If Jo| = [f], the rising air parcel will remain in indifferent equilibrium at any clevation. ‘The above discussion dealt with the rise of dry air, If moist, unsaturated air rises at the adiabatic lapse rate, it will reach a position where the relative hhumidity becomes 100% and saturation is established, Further cooling by His, qng will result in condonsation. During condensation, latent heat is released Gee itis ubsorbed in evaporation [see Sertion 3.7.1) resulting in a warming of tho air and a reduction in the lapse rate. The resulting lower rate is called the saturated adiabatic lapse rate I". ‘This condensation process, which will be discussed in Section 3.8.2, results in precipitation. Precipitation carries heat, brealsing the adiabatic ZJecumplion. Nevertheless, removed heat is small end the temperature lepee {rate is close to I” and the process is also calle’ pseudo-adiabatic ‘Onee condensation oveurs, sf the parcel of air descends, it will heat-up at the foot ary adiabatic vate. This is because moisture has precipitated out of tthe aystom, This nonreversibility results in the observed behavior on Or0- raphe barriers like mountains where the lee sido is usually warmer than the windward side. Figure 3.25 illustrates this. 3.8.2 Condensation by Pseudo-adiabatic Cooling ‘The following paragrapps tse some of the terms defined in past sections to describe analytically the pseudo-adiebatie condensation process, which was defined when discussing the adiabatic lapse rate. ‘Assume that a unit mass of dry air saturated with p, grams with a temperature T' and pressure P is forced to vise in the atmosphere, The Tsing will rule in w presbure drop dP and temperature change a7 with re- waite, condensation du, whore 1 isthe original mixing ratio w, ~ p/p =196 GHAPTERS / PANNCIPLES OF METEOROLOGY: THE EART ATMOSPHERE SYSTEM FRQURE 2.25 War ot moist air through orogranhle precipitation, Source: Eagleson 1970}. pa since we are deoling with « unit mass of dry air, Assume, es before, thet Poe peat of condensation is entirely absorbed by the 1g of dry alr and ie Seroved by the condensate, An energy balance (Bq. 3.49) of the process ‘will result in In the above equation, the leftchand term is the latent heat of condone. tion: remember that £, was previously defined as negative. The firs term 0° TEE Lieut accounts for internal energy and the second tern for work due to volume changes. We have previously seen thet ase) So, Bqs. (855) and (8.56) can be jointly numerically intograted. An Sppr=RI so ae ype above is obtained by ignoring e, relative to P, This resulta im Pe SF sn Recall the dry adiabatic temperature-pressure relation, "Pr, 58) 3.8 ATMOS: ERIC STABLITY AND CONDENSATION 9 bere @ is the potential temperature, From the above and using the defini: tion of a total differential, 2p. % ao Baw Bar, aso itis easy to see that = rT i @P sap pein — TGP PPT ar ap Fao 7 een by approximating die,/T'~ d(w,/T). Equation (3.62) ean be integrated to obtain 8 (Hee) 660) a7 GT) ‘vers 0s the equivalent potential emperataro ofa parcel of ar after 2 e ee eee ae condenged and precipitated out, and all Intent heat retained 6s vanible beat. In using Eq. (8.63), remernber that L,,rmust be talsen as & neg: tive number; and hence, 3, > %(98 cHAPTENS / PRNOWPLES OF METEOHOLOGY:THE EATI-ATHOSM-ERE SYSTEM Figure 9.26 shows a diagram of pressure, temperature, lines of potential temperature for dry adiabatic rising, lines of equivalent potential temperay ture, and lines of water content (mixing ratio). This diagram is obtained eing Eqs. (056), (658), and (3.68), a5 wel asthe temperature~prossure rela: tions seen previously. "The peoudo-adiabatic condensation diagram is « very useful tool in the prediction of precipitable moisture, Example 8.6 will serve as illustration. EXAMPLE 36 usration ofthe Use ofthe Pseudo-adabatc Dlagram Assume 2 mase ofa ot 24°C hits a mountain barrier and is forced to rio. JRE fate relative humidity of 75%. The mountain range has an elevation Br 1S00 fe After elnring the mountain tp, the air mass will go buck down fo sha level, whore i started. Using tho previous information and fe pecudos sSiabetig diagram. it is thon possible to obtain precipitable moisture and temporetare ofthe ir mass at various locations ins Totus find te mixing ratio. To do that, use Bq (8.20). The required vapor presgure is abiained using the relative humidity and a table of sabx- YeRa Vapor preacues (or, alternatively, 2a. 831), From the tables in Appon- Tk the eltuatod vapor pressure at 22°C can be interpolated to be about go i, Wie salntve humidity of 75% tha implies an actual wapor pressure Sean mb. (015 x 80), From Bq. (6.29) the mixing ratio is then approxi= Stately (0.622 x 25/1000) = 0.014 gg! or 4 eke” “Te yscudo-adiabatie diogram is then entered at the intersect 1000-mb pressure with the isotherm (solid lines slanting to the right) of 24°C. ‘Thus ls pein A in the insert of Figure 426. From this point the sit rses and sans Following the dry adiabet (slid line slanting to the Tef) thet crosses Seine A, This dry adisbatorisopotential temperature line (Eq, 2.62) glo cor- raetors to 24°C, Rising continues along thi curve until tho 14 Bkg ” mixing Tots Line i eraced (nizing ratio lines ae dotted, slanting to the right). Thio Tenis lily guicly, at an elevation of about 600 m. At tis point B in the seca condessation begins. The condensate releases heat, which reducs the Teneo hat of the king air mass, Further rising oecurs along a Line of eon- “itt oquivalent potentil temgeratore (Eq. 8.62), erossing point B. The iso- SMuNelent, plectial tomperatare lines are shown. as dashed curves slanting tthe left Iotarpolting, we choose « line of @, = 20.5°C. The isothermal line at the point indicates a temperature of about 18°C, The chosen pseudo-adiabst is then followed to the maximum mountain height of 1500 m. At that point (point C in the ingort) the mixing ratio is bebween, 10 end 14 gkg™', approxi- nately 12 gkg'* The air temperature is about 14°C. The implication is that in rising, ebout 2 g of water por kilogram of rising air has been condensed. ‘At the lee side of the mountain, the air will descend to sea Jevel. No fur- ther condensation oozurs, 20 cooling follows the dry adiabatic Tine Gnopaton- {Gal tomperature ling), eroseing point C. This corresponds to approximately Temperature, © Stratton Satgcationminiog Siimats eae, BOI Be FIGURE 3:26 The pseudo-adabate amram. Souos:Adapad fom WM. Mar Earth. ‘scape: A Physical Geograpty. ‘ohm Wey & Sone, Ie. "Gooyrght © 1087 by Wiley. Repitod by permission of4100 ciaPten 9 PANCHLES OF METEOROLOGY: TH EARTH ATMOSPHERE SYSTEM the 26°C line, When sea level is reached (D), the air is warmer by BC OO" — aoe ae Uehavior was already illustratod in Figure 3.25, The conditions fF aoe ale are somewhat analogous to what occurs on the island of Puerto aa ee he teade winds sopply the moisture that falls on the narthery Be ae gland, which is closely approximated by @ £0- to S5-milewide rectangle divided lengthwise by a mountain range. ¢ ‘the ealeulatod precipitable water can be converted to an approximaie Fain aie per unit area if we knew the veloityv of the rising alr. The formula would be ost) “here Aw isthe condensate in gram per kilogram, 7,1 the spesific weight of weet air in kilograms per cubic meter, vis updraft velocity in meters per S05 sane the specific weight of water in grams per cubic moter, and Ps ittaion rate im masta (of watar per socond, Details ofthis calculation end {ts limitations will be given in Chapter 4. 3.8.3 Further Comments on Thermal Convection and Stability in Section $8.1 we diecusted thermal stability of alr masses by compatiog aa ec lapee rate to the dry adiabatic hapse rate, Due to the smaiier, te fin adiabatic (or wet or saturated) lapse rate, the concept of weil pooado- saa od Tu poeible that an oir moa i initially stab (lol < Ih aa oe table when forced to rise or example, by an obstruction) an mn may be such that ‘vos the pseudo-adiabatic (or satur peratures and pressures. “Up to tis pont the stability arguments have been basod on the behave ofe parcel of sir with no vertical dimensions. In reality, thoagh, 8 ms of oa eT extend vertically and will have elevation-dependent. tempereinrss air wi Gui conditions, The not effec is thet afferent partons ofthe Sir ana Tei follow efferent cooling paths, Sequently redueing or enhancing instability at aa ond Horn (19801 give two examples of enhanced instability for sing air masses with extensive vertical development, The fist ove it for rng ay Figure 8.28. A dry air mass originally extends from point A ‘a0 ATMOSPHERIC ABILITY AND CONDENSATON 101 983 3000 \ weet 2500 ose ausaotice Pp : axis ; East is E 3 a an veo * va sm ‘9 , “Temeratuc,"F § o Bee “Tempersture, °C (approximate) FIGURE 9.27 Conditional instabilty. Air that was originally table is mado unstable By forced sevens, suring which neat of condensaion le added. Cource: Adapted from oe Rewartha, &tlntrodvotion to Climate, 4th ed, McGraw-til, 1968. Reprocuced with permission. ‘TABLE 3.4 Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate (6/100 x) PRESSURE (nb) TEMPERATURE CO) 1000 360 70” 00 o =030 0.29 =027 20 043 040 037 032 ° 065 0st -05t -051 2 086 084 -081 0.76 40 =0.95 =0.95 ~084 = 998 del eat ct eet eg rr eee Cee tere um ALvoy Uid pple srt ope ran gl ey ae ee a eG i00 m. At higher femperatre, the difloence is mych greater ‘renune more water i condensing Sous Undertanding Our Atrespheric Braronnen by Morris Neltbarges otal. opreght © Oris ions, 18s by WH, Freeman un Company. Used by permison4402. creer / PRINCIPLES OF METEOROLOGY: THE ENTIM-ATMOBPHERE SYSTEM rercnonces 103 7 _ —J | Net 7 “ s, cores, NY aa heat Ny S r9f dy son Se 3 PANE pecp pat Lae é eae etl os cae fs ae wha « Hae ca ow 2 0 & aS empee ve cam Ne URE 9.28 tt upon een es fhe tig and sbedoce of atk a ma crane S. FOUR pled from 7 Tewarte, At Induction fo Gla, 49%. woGraw-H, : sso S 4968. Reproduced with permission. | Dry adiabat —s\ 199|———1- 1-1 A ely ce Rh ee “Temperature {000 ma to pent B (G00 mh. The air exhibit avery stable tomperatore A (3000 Parmer ait oi tthe mma 8 forced ori, points ong version i Ml the dry adiabatic lapse rate to punts A! and B”. There's Me onion of the air column (Gu o lower pressures), resulting an cbvious oePeporatures for B’ than for A. Te original inversion £6 for colder fins te ificant redvetion of temperature with height, which 1s ‘prone fo instabilities within the air mass oa aio in given in Figure 8.29. Hare, the original afr mass is oh ary larger moiatre content ia point A than in point Bs 9 Sm sharactriaod © "Upon rising Of forced to do so), eit in point A wil Yogte aa ares than air in point B. At the condensation point, one canteen adnbeti (een wet or saturated) lapse rate, The nek Toole fa pie Beane ch more than point A. The new profile A Svs is that point B cteravre gradient, which is more apt support instil foo of rising air parcels within the system. FIGURE 2:9 Musureofocte on convaave ntaity. Source: Adapted NS FOUR ei docn to Cina, ath ed, MeGran-Hi, Yebe, Represieed wit permission. ‘This chapter is intended to provide the necessary meteoralogis framework so ene eke ultimate origins of the hydrologic process 49 Be studied tee Obviously, its goal is not to train meteorologists THiaphaaia has boen on the earth-atmospheric parssne\er and patterns Co aie cal weather the mest, Atmospheric moisture fan result in 40cm in 12 to 24 hours seul in 40 ong ress from conworgnce of sir matin ot Te Fete or abaros and of different character They generally 9500 ferent empetmone due to the convergence of Polar easteles GT rmiddle- emperate THe pigare shows the concep of frontal 56% latitudes Wwestears when warm air impinges on cold it: The warn OP sar at oe ively ger slop of 1: 100 ta 1400, Boma of over tho old ec, ara fronts have associated beraling owas 02 stow, Taiow extending 800 to 600 kana ofthe curfaee fot pation neg cold sir moves under o warm st me ogg yee Smper ping nteriace (1:26 f0 1100s nerve. leat sae iemal are inited to about 80 kan abead ofthe font rainfall aeang are steady and extend over large eres, The) AP erent eaten with el fronts esing more Waal fon so rainfall of shorter duration. fal of shorter ef cyclni or frontal weather pattern is pices A Fie Soe that the soem dovslps tro fons, a war fons SOS Figure 42 Notch tend to converge. The fronts rotate in o avclonie BAST cold font, which ory contr. "he fstor- moving cod front Sally exee 9 around Toy er ererutting in an ozchuled wave. When this occurs thO-Wa ‘hoist ai i effectively separated from the cold tr at a catalyst tat induces (by iting) condensation nF ean ca pom the warm ai. Tbe moment ocluson occurs this ener reiecoing mechanism stope andthe system begins to die, ae esti ele dnappear when they move away Gum ‘her ere of ee oT enol warm a sees roof marie end mae of tropical origin. the more extensive cud caver develops M. Marsh) Souree: WM. Marsh and J. ‘Geograpiy. Copyright © 1908 by Whey. ‘of Jean Wiley & Sons, nc ut erm front, and associated features of middle latitude oyetone, stration OY Intracicton to Physical ‘long the coi to ission FIGURE 4.1 Cold Front, we Turbulence is greatest along the warm front. ( Bozler, Landscape: An Reprinted by per‘The path followed by cyclones was studiod by Klein (1957), Figures 43 wi tracks for the months of January and July, respec- th the observation that cyclone tracks are Yery sre controlled by the osillagions of the upper atmosphere'sjot streams iat Bash Fecuawod in Chaptor 3, The fast-moving oscillating streams provide the ery anion to remove the rising air masse ofthe cyclones, encouraging tele Govelopment. Like the jet stre ‘west fo east, moving south during during the summer. ‘Orographic cooling occurs when stroctinn ke a mounigin. Figure 45 illustrates the process. As discussed in condensation and rain in the windward side of and 4.4 show the prineip tively. The figures agree wit ‘Godske etal. [1875].) troduction to Physical Goo Chapter 3, the end result is the mountain with eotrasting srtant orographhic effects exhibit relatively high precipita; ea mel as ineroased frequency of events. This is an overall vr te effect, t should not be construed as bebavior that ean be easily de- avers ealyele af point precipitation ofan event. The spatial variability of weit ecpitaion ean often obocure any elevation effects on the intensity oF focurnulation of an evant. rape: An I tion eeeumulation ‘Sons, Ino. (Aer Fe ‘42.co0uNe ANDUFTIG FRoceSSES. 113 jams, the preferred cyclonic tracks are from i the northern hemisphere winter and north, masses are farced to rise over an ob- dryness in the Tee side of the mountain. fa cyclone. Source: W.M. Mash and J. Dodi, Landso “ploy. Pepsnted by permission of John Wiey by era We FIGURE 4.2 Development of FIGURE 4:3 Pipa wack o northern hersphere sectevel cyclone in anuary, Sd tos donc mest requ, wel Ses donot mest Kesmeed rons ot goes ae Indcaled where tasks tei A efi a par eye roquoncy i @Tocal mim, Source: Ken (1857) ‘raphy. Copyright © aww414, cyuren « /FAECHTATION OCCURRENCE AND MEASUTEMENT soe Low sow FIGURE 4.4 Principal racks of northem herhere sea-level cyclones in Jy, Soke nes crue ae oaent, wo-dlined tacks, dashed fies, less frequant and loss wel Cerone ate aly preted regione of genesis are indicated whero tracks Pegi. A evneads snd wore ojtone frequency Is @ local minum. Source: Klein (18571 Convective cooling is caused by local differential heating of air masses, qeading to air instabilities (Chapter 8) and updrefts. Thunderstorms or Sm eect dorms They are high-intensity, short-duration events and are common yreNThe topics, Because of their high intensity, these events are important ‘in urban hydrology. Maen argos develop in stages. The cumulus stage is characterized by the Frention of cumulus clouds (commonly excesding 8 km in elevation) seen atzeng updraft at velocities of up to 60 km hr. Air entrainment dariog Thi Niod provides moch of the required moisture, The second stages te this period Piven condensation and growth occurs. Updrafts and downdrafts) aaaereth winds up to 115 km hr in the former and 30 kan kr in the Iatter! cae Ti ny, This stage laste 16 to 90 minutes and isthe period of peat pare istonsty, Dazing the dissipating stage, dawndrafts predominate antl Tocanvertive eell disappears. Figure 4.6 shows the history ofa thunderstorm, Ganvoutive lifting commacnly occurs in conjunction with the other fing mechanisms, In particular, once condensation occurs and the temperature profes are unstable, continuing rising and condensation follows the eonves- tive pattern. (scape: An invaduoton 9 Physicel fission of dan Wiley & Sors, Ic. Ysvende the leeward slope and heats acia- 1986 by Wiles. Reprinted by pet Lands on resus when moist at Is forced over a mountain FIGURE 4.5 Orographic preciitat ange, lative humiily drops wines ‘he alr do WAM. Mareh end J. Dozier, batoaly. Source: graphy. Copyright © 1FIGURE 46 Formation o a thunderstorm ture, and dlssipating. The ft is charactor Grats, and heavy ran, and the third by dowr IM. Marsh.) Source: W.M. Marsh, Eartiscape: by Villy. Reprinted ty perrission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc. cen be described in three stages: cumulus, ma rized by updtafis, the second by updrats, down mndats, ad light ran, (Uustration by Wiliam 'A Physical Goography. Copyright © 1867 Sec eee eee 4.3. RN INTRODUCTION TO CLOUD PHYSICS arantee precipitation. Within the cloud f thermodynamic and me- “Lifting of moist air masses does not gu system, there are several complicated interactions of chanical nature that control the occurrence of procipitation: 1 Without the catalytic effect of nuclei, the efficiency of condensation would . Hiydrometecrs must grow in or will be blown off the cloud ‘must be large enough to achiev ‘velocities of upflowing air. . Precipitation particl ‘occurring in the path between cl A brief discussion of argely based on Eagleson [1970]. The discussio in the second half of Section 4.8.2, and Sections and quote large portions of Georgakakos and Bras [19842] size, otherwise they will remain suspended updrafts. The hydrometeors sve terminal fall velocities I ies must be large enough to survive the evaporation loud base and ground level. ‘the above points follows. Sections 4.8.1 an m of hydrometeor distribution 43.3 and 4.3.4 closely follow 4.3.1 Nucleation Condensation under homogeneous conditions require conditions and high activation ene dynamics of nucleation. Any change es bremondous saturation srgy. Bagleson [1970] discusses the thermo- ‘of phase involves a change in the energy Aa AN INTRODUCTION To cow eHVses 117 state ofthe aystem. The portion of the energy eapable of doing work is called ‘ee snergy. The added free energy involved in condensation of vapor to water tr sublimation of vapor to ic is ealled the activation enctpy. ‘Reactions or phase changes move in the direction of minimum free en- ergy Under coniitions of no impurities, and if vapor pressure ¢ is loss than Srey. ation, minimum free energy is achieved with zero radius, i-e.,no com Jenation or nucleation of vapor orsurs. Ife > ¢,, minimum activation energy een be achieved by no change of phase or by droplet growth beyond a eritical sate Ser which requires a minizium level of activation energy. The rate of Bee fen or drop formation, goes up as the squaro of tho degree of super ‘Pituration, Bagleson [1970] states that under conditions of no impurities, the Tate of nucleation remains small until e/e, approaches 4 “the introduction of impurities or nucleating sites reduces the amount of activation enorgy required for condensation. As stated above, degree of seporsaturstion of is demanded by the homogeneous (no impurities) case. In Jeasegencous conditions (impurities), the change af phase occurs with ¢/¢, near Iya more typical condition in the atmosphere. Tn high clout aystems, with below-freezing temperatures, ic particles may be fermod by freezing of liquid droplets or by direct sublimation from sr again, the phase changes are aided by nucleating sites or irapuritios. Far ecarsple a Iya (eicron) ice particle is formed from water under homoge; regan conditions if the temperature is about ~30°C or colder. The same-sized seetle may form under he:erogenevus freezing at slightly below 0° ‘Homogeneous sublimation of ie from vapor would require temperatures of about “80°C, Under heterogeneous conditions, sublimation of a O-1-ym Grasticle may oecur at temperatures a2 high as ~4°C (ove Eagleson [1970] for Aetails leading to previous statements). ‘Vertuaately, the atmosphere is relatively rich in nuclei that assist in phase changes. Nuclel are mostly soil particles (clay, foosl-fuel combustion reducls, ammonium slts, and seawater salts. Condensation mucle! must be larger thon ebout 0.1 xm. src elevations where iemperatures are below freezing, lngesized nuclei ‘are scarce, As the temperature decreases, though, freezing begins to occur nto emaller particles, and many more potential nucleating sites become ac. Ge, Nuclel us large as 10 pam, mostly sea nalts, can bo vory effective in in- ‘acing condensation under werm clouds (abovo freering) conditions 4.3.2 Growth and Bistribution of Precipitation ‘Before falling, droplets forined by condensation, ot ice particl fg size and weight capable of overcoming updraft velocities in the cloud. Tni- tial growth is achieved by condensation due to supersaturated conditions in the vicinity of the droplets. This mechanism can be reasonably effective in the case of ice particles. Supersaluration is small inthe atmosphere, so it cannot support continu ing growth of the type just mentioned, The mostéffective growth:mechsnism118. cyarteR 4 / PRECIPITATION OCCURRENCE: AND MEASUREMENT tn alld conlosance and results fom repeated collisions and aggrogations of fang preiplaionGeinly mater) putils, The eoalescono or collection ef- || alongs of partes tn measured in tor of efelivecros-aectional area fhept bys flling particle. Assume there isa larg particle of radius rand a Small paste of sdioe f, Tho falling lange pare wil overtake, collide ‘ich, and potisy aborb the small price if he stall parle i within Tedtun tare, ofthe contr ofthe lange patil. The collection eiciency isthen defined a 2-8 an ‘The rads of inttuence is ry + ray if the éynamics of particle mo- tions do not af. clliion probability Le, «stati aalogy. In fact ela {ve partite motions and sizes may induce or prevent callisions effectively increasing or reducing 2. ‘Under th stati aoumption, Eagleson (1970 pointe out that B-> Las rite amd B+ tan y/femrt, The maximum eficenses ecu £0 /r, ‘Be larger thon abnut 8.6. Bicone of ellison goes to zero ifthe large fertile are ama (20 po) and tho radi rao i Toe than 0.3. Ilo goes to Tero if eal and large purces are of similar szo and have diametars Less {an about 0 um, Parts Larger than abot 80 pa become vory ecient al coalescence as he pares distribution becomes vniform (y/r > 02) ‘The previous ciscussion refers to couosconce of woter droplets. The sew of sinks some to recut mostly fom olisions with ic crystals (@agleson (1970). Ste roaling distribution of hyrometeor sas resulting fom the growth sechaninms is fairly undofined, Nevertheless, can be inferred (Mason {ists Prappechor abd Kiet (1878) that the disibotion MD) of tho mun. | ber of particles per unit volume of diameter within the interval (D, D + dD) |S ese dat Se Snecetenstooply for amallD to reach a mgximum and pos- || sesses a very mild slope for large D” (Georgakakes and Bras (1982). ‘Several forms for N(D) satisfying the above characteristics have been | suggested (Mason (1671, Pruppacher and Klett (1978), but they are all tainted by the dificltes of massuring hyérometeor cio in the flea. Errors te induced boeaue of inability to measure particles smaller than a given ft, inbity to measure simultaneously at diferent locations, or toubles ‘vith inalrarmentcalibrtion and relibility under freeing enditions ‘Many inveatigetars have then suggested the use of a simple exponential form fo he hydzemeteor sive distribution ata given elevation. Th form ND) = Noe? (4.2) (see Fig. 4.7) has been used by Marshall and Palmer [1948], Gunn and Marshall (1958), Georgakekos and Bras [1984a,b] among others. The pa- fametar cin Bq (4.2) i the Inverse mean diamler eta given level "The pons objection to. (42) is that it inplin hySrometoors at di ameter approaching zoo. The aractiv alternative would be to use a disti- As auintRooUucnON rocLowPisiCs 119 ution starting at zero and peaking somewhere in the small-diameter region. Georgakakos and Bras [1964al argue that given the acknowledged uncertain Gos of measuring the number of emall hydrometeors, Eq. (4.2) is in fact ade- uate, Furthermore, ehey argue that the swnall-diamcter region plays a small Wie in the macroscopic meteorologic and hydrologic behavior. For example, the water-eqaivalent mass due to hydrometeors of diameter in the interval (D,D + dD) at a given level per unit volume is 5D) = pNDED*. as) “The corresponding rate of mass precipitation would be PD) = ND) EDAD) ~ VI, “a where p, is liquid water density, V>(D) is the terminal velocity of a bydrome- Tae elon Dr and V is updraft velocity. Assuming (ee Section 43.8) that Vp(D) = aD, where « is a coefficient, and normalizing Eq. (4.2) by N, and Eqs. (4.8) and (4A) by xp.Ns/6e° and pyN,«/6c*, respectively, results in the curves shown in Figure 47. FIGURE 4.7 Normalized umber of hydromoteors N{O), water-mass content X(0), and - precptation rate P(D) due to Fycromoteors of diameter in the range (D, 0 + dd) versus {he normatizod diameter oD. Source: K.P. Georgakakos and R.L. ris, “A Hydrological Useful Station Precipitation Modo: 1, Formulation,” Water Resources Fos. 20(11)1588, 1034. Copyright by the American Geophysical Union. sit Se1120 cHarTEn A / PRECIPITATION OCCURRENCE AND MEASUREMENT ‘The normalized size distribution, liquid moisture content, and precipita tion rate are given a¢ a function of the nondimensional hydrometeor size setoure cD. The result is that most of the moisture and precipitation is due Jp dinmetars well above the mean of 1/e. The peak liquid water equivalent oc; QQ at D = 3/e and the maximum water-oquivalent mass precipitation at We Only 19% of the total liquid water equivalent is contributed by hydro: vvioieors Tees than 1/e in size, The equivalent figure for the precipitated mass rate is 0.37%. “The mean diameter of the bydrometeors should be larger near the bottom of a cloud and smaller at the top. This is a reflection of the expected nuclel Sise distribution and the coalescence mechanisin, This distribution is very Hard to establich beeause of the sampling difficulties. Georgelakos and Bras [1984a] suggest a simple linear distribution for the value of 4.3.3 Terminal Velocities of Hydrometeors ‘The fall of hydrometeors in the cloud system can be reasonably essumod to ee fall theiy terminal velocities In quiet air and for an isolated bydrome- Goon Pruppachor and Klett [1978] do argue for a constant terminal velocity, ‘geoct solutions to the equations of motion for a felling hiydrometeor do not eniet, Nevertheless, experimental and approximate numerical studios of Tingle particle behavior do exist. Beard (1976) compiled data on free-falling Sg Groplets im sir, Droplet sizo varied from 1m to 7 mm, He obtained wpRsions for yolocity Vs a2 a Fonction of dinmetar D, particle density Py, Gre tho tomperature (T) and pressure (P) of the ambient air. Figure 4.8, aaesee and'2, show bis results for T = 273.16°K, P ~ 800 mb (curve 1); and Prego. 15°K, P= 1018 tab (carve 2). Terminal velocity decreases as the temperature and prossure increase. Feateary to lguid precipitation, solid precipitation paricls of the same nse chow a wide varity of terminal velocities. This is du to their varied ad Stputer shapes. Figure 4.8 also shouts observed terminal velocities for Reidue types of slid prosipitation. Curves 3 and 6 are Beards [1976] results sealed sohores of densities 500 and 100 kgm‘, respectively. Curves 4, 6, ees T are dimple power fonctions Vz = aD*, Curve 4 corresponds to results by Tocatellt and Hobbs (1974) for “lump graupel.” Curves 6 and 7 are for. "be Ugonal geaupol” and aggregates of “dentritc crystal,” respectively. Tho re- sults are elso from Locatelli and Hobbs (1974). in reality, the velocity of particles in groups may be larger than that of jsolnpod hydrometeors, The terminal velocities increase as the particles be- rane clocer together. The effect is also influenced by the Reynolds number cout the total number of particles. Particles separated by distances larger {han 30 or 35 diameters behave very much like single particles, 4.3.4 Evaporation of Precipitating Hydrometeors Hydrometeors exiting through the cloud base will suffer evaporation throughout their trip to ground level, Evaporation is driven by the difference aa ANiNiO|UCHION To GLOW PavCS: 121 7 Daa 7 oe, @ ‘6! ¢ aeaeeeeaegtaty ee sa FIGURE 48 Terminal velocity as a function of rysrometeor diameter. one 1 cure 2: curve 3: ‘Ouro 4: Cur 5: une 6: Cuno 7: Raindrops, T = 273.15°%, P = 800 mb (Beard [1876D. aldrops, T ~ 298.15°K, P = 1018 mo (Board (1876). toe sphore, p = 00 kart’, T = 273.15°K, P = 1013 mb (Beard [1976) ‘Lump graupel (Locatelli and Hobbs (1974). toe sphere, p = 100 kger®, T = 278.15°K, P » 1018 mb (Beard [1976). Hexagonal graupal(Locatelt and Hobbs (1974). ‘Aggregates of dancitic crystals (Locatall ané Hobbs T1874). Source: K.P, Georgakakos and R. L. Bras, “A Hydrologiealy Useful Station Precstaton Jewett romulation Wator Resources Fes.,.20(11):1091, 1984, Copyright by the ‘American Geophysical Union ‘between the vapor pressure at particle surface anil that in the ambient air. At the particle surface, the vapor pressure can be assumed saturated at the wet- bulb temperature r,. In the ambient air, the vapor pressure would be equive Tent to that at saturation et the dew-point temperature T,. Since it expected that T, > To, then e,(T.) > e,{7), and the vapor-pressure gradient fs favorable for evaporation. This evaporation is enhanced by the ventilation tffect on the particle moving relative to the surrounding air. “According #0 Byers [1965] a motionless droplet with surface temperature 7, loses mass at the,following rate: as) where D is the droplet diameter; tis time; 9, is the droplet density; Ris the ‘gas constant for water vapor (461 Jig” } and D* is the diffusivity of ‘water vapor in ait.422. CHAPTER « / PRECIPITATION OCCURRENCE AND MEASUREMENT Pruppacher and Klett [1978] give the diffusivity as where D* fs in square maters por second when 1° and P* have values 6 seer oe igI06 gms (1018.25 mb), rospectively, Equation (6) 27 a ambient air temperatures 7, botween 293.10°K (40°C) and 313.15°K (40°C), oe ean fora hydrometeor moving at trminal velocity Vo(D) a venti lation effect factor is introduced into Eq, (3.5) aD _ 4D*f(D) Pe tT De R, Based on experiments, Board and Prupgacher [19715 euggeat the fllow- sng forma for the ventilation factor acting on falling apherical meteors for WSR" = 14 for NERY > 14 f(D) = 1+ 0.108 NER 18 + 0,808 NER where Reynolds umber R is defined as n= 2D ws 7 ont ree a we In the above equations, p (kgm) is the air density at temperature T. and prousure Pend ji he alr dynamic viscosity (eg '=°) at temperature ‘Ty The dynamic viscosity can be obtained by perma (a) Gfogers [19T9), whare the ambient temperature, is in degrees ett. Be Ie Spange of tho hydrometaor postion is given by the termine? select deft = -VetD), Using the above in Ea, (41 yields an expression in Yelecty @e(Srotion and dizimeter that in turn can be integrated betweon & a. 7 aa) “ag ANINTRODUCTIONTO CLOUD PHYSIOS, 123 indl diameter Dy at clevation 0 nd an inital diameter at the loud-base ole vation Za: Av, apt [ose) _ (ta oof PP a = | Bele) 8 Ha wan ite utc hana side of, (4.1) is reasonably approximated by a cosstnt soe ee epproniustion i good fora range of a igetlooi precntation Georenkakos sormparatnas 5 Qing Unt epproximatin on B40) rnin p= i ee [eae ee a ia 410 ot Georgnkakeos and Bras [1984] further approximate Hg (4.12) by foes” sng that Tr and 7, as wel a prossure conditions, do not changeover te elo: ing Cnet sd bago Zs. Under these isothermal and isobaric eonditions, Bq, (4.12) becomes D}= D3 Note that Ea. (4.18) can be expressed as By = GD) As (Dey oo -1- ). we were D, isa eitical diametar such that particles smaller than D, completely erMporate on thelr way to the ground. The eritical diameter is (Ts) * oa) 7 It ie assumed that during a storm 7, ~ To Ba, (419) simplifies further: eT — A , ao4124, cHABTER 4 / PRECIPITATION CCCURRENDE AND MEASUREMENT aaaninrmogucrion To cLoun arses 25 precipitation as a function of eloud-base elevation, relative ity, and precipitation © tuo ngure results from Eq. (18) with 7. ~ 7, and the val- tues of C; previously discussed. | EXAMPLE 41 Evaporation of Hydrometoors srrne you have the following meteorologic conditions, The everage 1 ‘peettare ap to cloud base 7, is 90°C, the cloud base is of 1008 7. relative bu- rere 70%, and average ground pressure is 1000 mb. A drizie falling. rlbity 2 fe required water-particle diameter at cloud base to suryis) Sct What i the et ul op ground level? The question really is: What i the eit ‘al diameter D, defined in Eq, (4.15)? Seometge do not have the wet-bulb temperature, we eit mate it rom 7, and relative humidity r or essume that 7s reste Moually not a bad assumption during periods of precipiatice Ta this cane, though, it is not very compe Srey may uso the ties in Appendix A giving the relative humidity timate Ta Me of wet bud depression. From Table A.2 for 7 = 70%, and a5 8 funtion vet a depression of 4.6°C, which would imply 7. 2% Fayre The saturated vapor pressure 7, is obtained from Ba. ( 31) ‘a5 a function of Ts: FIGURE 49 Inia daretor at oud base D, os a funtion of for arent valass ot FIGURE to ty sumo rigrtioneeouts in Batt and Prunpacher {0711 Dashes Sol Late) wih Dy = D2 Mn, 7,~ PTGS", ond P, = TOS mb, See: Fe aoe ale ane FL, Bras, “A Hycrolgicaly Useful Sion Precptaion Mods Fe || anata Aesouroes Res, 20(V1) 1585, 684, Conant by the Amarcan Geo ‘physical Union. where 7 is the fractional relative humidity 2 Ta) re eT.” Figure 4.9 shows numerical ~osults (Beard and Pruppacher {1971) ofthe ini Fee tguired to end with a.0.2-mm final bydrometeor diameter nfs tial diame Fhe nero level is the ground. Also show in the figure are the aeemations reslting fom Fa. (416). Figure 4.9 corresponds te anid ‘oplets and uses a C, value of 7 % 10" kgm "= Me an eof C, depends on the nature ofthe bydrometeor. Georgekalce and Tees 11082] argued that an approximate C, valu for snow i8 14 © Bo bene te! Figure 410 gives the ertcal diameter D, roguire for nonzero a(n) = A. a639(10.00738(90) + 0.80727 ~ 9.000019)1.8(80) * 48] + 0.001318} = 4241 mb = 424. kg [Again fram Bq. (8.31), we obtain e,(Z.}: e(P)"~ 88:8690(0.00798(25.5) + 0.8072) ~ o,000019)1.8(25.5) + 48| + 0.001916) : 32.62mb ~ 8262kgm0" ‘The saturated vapor pressure at dew-point,vemperature e,(7.) ip simply Ai) = 0.70142.41) = 29.69 mb = 2969 Kem”! tne of Bq, 15) requires a factor Cy which we take 08 that vee the text for rain: Cy 4p’ kgm *6 The diffusion factor D* comes from Be (6), where 7, given in degrees Kelvin, 7) = 808.485: FIGURE 4:10 Ina! diameter Dat cloud base, ofthe largest completely evanoretng Insenriaeicdp le2 aa into of 7, for cere vatuos of = Pye a ingrpe, T= 20 15%, P,~ 1019, For sow parle: ey cae ny Fi mb. Gout: KP. Geogattios and Fu. Bre, Myton pb ont x 10°(2838) 018s Zaay Dselut Stallon Precipitation Model: t, Formulation.” Water Resources Fs = 2.617 x 10m"s* : f20(11}.1594, 1964. Copyright by the American Geophysical Union.1126 cHAPLER 4 /PREGIPAION OCCURRENCE AND MEASUREMENT assronwstrucrune 127 Now, evaluating Ea. 15), 0 1» 1 4(.617 x 10° zea __2069.\|" 2.x 10% = 02mm. i Had we made the assumption thet T, ~ ‘T,, the answer would have been taal 0 § Osman. # g perenne eee joe 4.4 FORMS OF PRECIPITATION 5 3 Classification of precipitation forms is generally by size of the bydrometeor a 0 ‘and state of the water, usually Tiquid or solid. Table 4,1 gives 4 ‘summery ca npr Se i a at Me tocsing bydrblogis-engineor is mosty concsfned wits rainfall and pn athey provide the loads to common structures. As wil Ae discussed aa pers rainfal in of interest ab the place and time of ocesn 2 ee aan anow becomes important daring its melting Peon, which oo ae stcurs lng after inital aecumulation and isa funtion of ‘tho history cof precipitation events. recipiation orf rainfall or snow and the shape and sie ofthe byron teeny ear Touch a function of the meteorologie conditions a5 te place of Hot ie We iaad of the texsporature profile in the atmosphere, Nevertheless, 7a 0 RM BO [FQURE 4.11 Frequency of octutenes of rain and snow a various termperatixes, Sree: US, Amy Cores of Engineers [1856]. ‘igure 4.11 shows the frequency of occurrence of snow oF rainfall 8s & fune- Biewre fund temperature. Clearly as a rle of thumb, snow gocurs When the temperature is below 0 to 1°C. TABLE A Forms of Precipitation 4,5 STORM STRUCTURE “Any given storm can be classified according to identifiable component ‘and in NAME DESCRIPTION Sze ue —_— Sea acee eeeTEGaE Any given sum? gland spatial characteristics. Houze [1968] bas confirmed Driale ‘ister droplet, low, 01-06 mm ar ine ave compocee of well-defined elements of different fimes end spa Intorsity (Liab) tial extents, ain ‘Water/érope 05 mm orient sccolo is composed of convective ces of short duration, gener ally about half an hour, The spatial extent of ces ison the order of em in ally about oa gutve cells, as handoretorms, ar fairly violent in nature, Re- saat ralfal intensities aro very high and sporadic, Small s=l's move St, Light: =25 mmbr* ‘Moderate: 2.57.6 marr"? Heavy: >7.6 mabe cine co coating, formed bY Specific gravity = 08 culling ive largo calls deviate tothe left of uppar-layer winds (et sear) feeding of rain or Arie Gants, watkern hemisphere, They Go not follow the general storm direction Rime ‘Omaue, granular ie deposit Specie gravity = 02-08 Fa aa the order of 30 to 60 kan br. Cells follow a seauce of shaw deo eryetals, hexagon! average spect gravity = 02 frowth, mabority, and death typical of eomvective disturbances, fan aia a nae ae "febonate activity gposists of a unit of developing cll, each at ditesort Pale ce crecsr0 eaeieerrs 5 epee dovelopmontat stages end moving in tnison isa preforred direction, Mae cee {foeot defined small and large mesoscale, The large mesoscale covered an sa pala = (19 aerG0 to 700 Kast whale amall mesoscale units extended over 150 10 Too pelts, ‘Transparent, Fane = = im G0 kin?, Rainfall intensities aro moderate when averaged ove: ‘the mesoscale sree’ Figure 412 illustrates the movement of a mesoscale with = member Toa R R Tinley, fn, McA, Kotler od JL H Poulbus, drole for Bs are apy and moving to the left in the northern hemisphore) of the average Sours: Sour, i, Coil © 1982 by McCraw, Used ky permision sasemaaiaiuabenecvacinainliocin «. osrase puma tpiaiiainmaatetleyatie Pets ee428 HAPTER 4 / PRCIPTATION COCURRENCE AND MEASUREMENT Hysrology, WeGraw Hil. 1970. ‘conglomerate of colls. The fami spond to the mesoscale. FIGURE 4.12 Cel gronth and propagation within a storm, Soures: PS. Ea jeson, Dynamic direction, A thunderstorm is a typical mesoscale unit, composed of an chive rotating arms of & hurricane also corro- "The conglomerate of mesoscale units forms the eynoptie seale, This is he ‘rackground climatic disturbance of very large events. The synoptic scale ca | ee eereverel thousand square kilomoters—for example, a typical hurricane ‘Figure 4.13. Houre [1969] studied several event in Table 4.2. | FIGURE 4.13 Typical instantaneous Eagleson, Dynamic Hycrology, McGraw Hit, 1970 cereal hundred kilometers in diameter. Frontal climatic events are aleo WHEhin the synoptic scale. Average rainfall intensity ovor the synontic area is mall. Velocities and mean travel directions are also clearly ‘maekly, mewostale unite form bands within the synoptic seal, as illustrated in ‘discernible. Com- ‘New England and obtained aver- age characteristics for ther eomponents. Some ofthese results are compiled TABLE 4.2 Charactariatios of General Storms DURATION DENSITY INTENSITY ea (On the order of a few days 0.01 to 0.08 ia.he* (025 to 02 embe“)) "0" wo 30° mit (26,000 to 260,000 kes?) Synoptic 8 40,8. = s58 E 3 fe i aeae 4 Hoine yy ba 2ege2l a Bee a3 Eb 2 8 &8s ag 2) i fpf as #2 a%e Lbs ea, bee REE tH al i z- anienel putea a age il 83 32 35 (a 88 38 Ze |? aay (8 si ai 2 it Hae Ul 129480. cHseres 4 / PRECIPITATION OCCURFENGE AND MEASUREMENT ‘The previous physical description of storms has been weed 43 the ase for angi vimatbtion exercises. Among the investigators explicitly Hong for raingel sim Gaayman end Engioson (1972), Amorocho und Slack (10701, eebte and Waymive (1979), Waymire etal. (1084], and Rodrigues Ju and Eesloson (1987) The details of those simulations are beyond the ste of this ea aeibeless, they all rely on the random occurrence of the different storm structures. Fare oteorological structure previously discussed storms of 910" eatin waa bo described by thelr “exterior” and “interior” statistics, Storm o> cation cam ily refers io total depth of, duration of, and time betwesn stor tert ruresteristics are generally eccopted to be probabilistic in. navars ‘Thay ean be described by loeation and seasonally dependent probabilistic dis- They can be charactareticn are generally not statistically independont {tibatigns Maries in space and exhibite spatial corelation between point ‘Donth is related to duration. Large duration is generally associated with Pree epi although the opposite relation exists between average inten: sity and duration. ee Mntrior refors to the time and spatial distribution of inteneits® turowgout a ator, Iti observed that for given locations and eimat® condi- throughon’ foe of events exhibit similar histories of rainfall cccurmulat on fone Srcemtaye-mase cazve i a plot of normlizod cursuative dep by Se a ee aaron, Figure 4.14 ahows how typical eurves are obtained “oF aan ar gad eyelonie ovents. The derivative (elope) of those curves is & tragh of intensity versus time. This graph ie veferred to ex the hhyetograph 00 = arte a a Puceniny ct erm duran FIGURE 4.1 Typical peroantago mass carves of afl fr understonns ar for topea jeomes, Soutes PS. Eagleson, Dynamic Hyratogy, MoGraw HH, 1970. ascrommeucione 131 inal scamoltion ‘a Te FIGURE 4.15 Typical storm hyetagraph in histogram (ot bar dlagram) form. and is usually given in histogram lorm (Fig. 4.16). Note that, eccording to Paha fla, taundorstorms have triangular (or moundlike) hyetograph treulca eylonos exhibit intensity diagrams that resemble a distor bell wih long tails to the right, nore interiors are important in urban hydrology, where histories of sninfal sad flow are required, Thay are also becoming inereasingly more n- ted coneeptu- aera ef conot-generation, mechanisms that will be seen later. Severs] aaa gators Plgrim ot al. (1969); Marsalek (1978) havo attempted 6 de invostigetmmvage interiors for design purposes, with some success. Others dara 1a/abh Bras and Rodrigue ture (1976) have hypothesined ob craatfal and time strucburo of storm interiors, suggesting some eave ta erenten the histories at diferent points in space, all related by an aver- age velocity of translation for the ovent. SeeGtig: storms generally exhibit one or more contrs of maxini: depth. The tolal dopth of point rainfall over an area is then a decreasing func~ deen rHatance from the storm center. Lines of equal precipitation, isohyets, thon form close loops around points of maximum precipltation vserral equations, mostly of local natare, have been suggested 69 Tero, soit the dosey from the point of maximuim preciptation. Some relations are Sorm-centered and others are geographicelly centered. racer ered Precipitation is usually expressed as a percentage of She so er ectibe, The difference between the area-averaged depth and the storm-conter value 1. decreases with inereesing total rainfall depth, which implies bigher mnie ormity of heavy storms; src obit4182. chAPTER 4 / PRECINTATON OCCURRENCE AND MEASUREMENT ‘TABLE 43 Formulas to Compute Average of Precipitation ovar an Area A or wit ree ermetat Radiue nas a Paneion of Maximum Droxipitation Pa inthe Region [AVERAGE PRECIPITATION AREA Pal 0346") 16 Py BAM 5-280 (@ = 0.038, 0.08F=) Pa exp(-kA") = Pa exX-0.01A") _ 20-20,000 pp gbrte a ~ (1+ bed expl—ba)] @ = 00285) >100 (aPy/Aaby(1 = exp(-Anb/at) ——_* Any ots « ond define scale and lips. When = by The facyet ao relar ‘Sour: Cry {1973}, Reproduced by permission of the atonal Reesreh Couns of Canad. 2, deoreases with increasing duration, again implying that long storms ere more uniform; 4 ts mreater for convective and orograpbie precipitate then for cyclonic ttsemer this behavior ig zelated to pointe 1 and 2; and 4. inereases with increasing aroa. ‘Table 4.3 gives some formulas based on storm conte, for the wrest over aye ofa storm: Rodriguez Ttarbe and Mefia (19741 argue that 5 he statistical ae eer plats tm space is known, then itis possible 2 obtain theoretic tally the areal average of precipitation from point data, Sa aeeeeagt see eeeeeeceseeeeeee 4.6 MEASUREMENT OF PRECIPITATION 4.6.1 Gages Prospitaion is usualy measured at «paint hy collectors of very sme 0 ara Mroontialy, any receptacle with a reasonable opening will #0 dann ce af ema ing the rainfall Ylurao per unit area aecumlniad 0, he Poor cn event. In practic, rain gages aro of standardized dimensions jas ars control parpoees, Each country defines its own standard gous sor a ates, the Netional Weathor Service utilizes the standard 8 tescigeation gage which a th mare inplies, bas an 6. (20,Qm)iate re isthe callotar or receiver. The reeiver is like a funnel feeding penne emer ee eee ee eet “ABMEASUREMENT OF PaECIPTATION 133 ‘nother receptacle with one-tenth the cross-sectional area of the receiver. ‘This implies that rainfall depth is amplified 10 times, easing the measure: is et creasing its acruracy, Measurements are made with a calibrated Thick. Theoretically, the measurement can be mado to the nearest 0.25 mm {001 in), The measuring tube is inside another container that will eate, any Reflow. The whele sotup rests on a stand. This technique only records total seeurnulated depth. The intensity or precipitation rate is lost ‘Instraraents that measure the procipitation intensity are called recording gages. The most poplar of Shose isthe tipping bucket gage. A 0.0L-in. bucket Eile with rain, which forees rotation and spillage of the water and exposes at Uther collector: Every rotation is recorded. Knowing the time between rota loos and the spillage volume (0.01 in.) permits the rainfall rate caleulation. ‘Weighing-type recording gages measure rate of accumalation in terms of the increasing weight of procipitation. Float-type goges respond continuously ‘to water depth in the float container, "Toe accuracy of rain-gege information is influenced by many factors. The elevation and exposure of the rain gago clearly play a major part, The Sieorded precipitation depends on instrument exposure and angle of incidence of rainfall, Gages should not be shadowed by obstructions. ‘Wind is probably the single most important factor in rain-gage accuracy. Upérafts resulting from air moving up and eround the instrument reduce the Taafll catch, A number of studies have attempted to quantify this error and Telate it to wind speed. A common approach to reducing wind-induoed errors ‘th wind shields (Larson and Peck [1974)) and posi toeved places, Figure 4.16 gives expected catch or ‘Seow is commonly measured in the standard &-in, ovorflow can. Preven tion of ice accumulation in the rim is important to maintain a constant col- Jecting area, Snow accumulation is usually reported in tetms of equivalent Trater depth, the proportionality factor being the density, on the order of cm Urvainfell per 10 em of snow. Snow is also commonly measured in situ by eir- Sly recording accumulation with a calibrated staff. The local nature of this Pie of measurement and the influence of wind and topogrephy on its acca Tey are obvious. Snow accumulation can also be medstred in terms of Uso Tidtion of gamma or other types of radiation (Smith ot al (1965); Peck and Bissell [1973], Zatimov [1968). Satellites ean be utilized for estimating snow: peck depth and areal coverage. Albedo and heat content are some of the prop- var that may be correlated to snawpack deptl and ago (Sebneider et al {1976}, McGinnis etal. [1975]; Peck etal. (1981]; Johmson otal. (1982). Tt is important twemphasize the punctual nature of commen precipitation measurements, Spatial variations are important. Ignoring them ean intro- Thee considerable error in the computation of total rainfall over an area (Bras ‘and Rodrigues-itorbe [1976] and misrepresent the distributed response of & ‘asin.Gage catch decency, po 7% eto 1 1 Smo oF ef ae Se 72S me ‘id speed at ice Bight FIGURE 4.16 Effect of wind speed on the calch of prevptation gages. Sourme, TW Caer oa EL. Peck, "Accuracy of Precipitation Measurements fr Hyerolagio Madea Hau Resources Res, 10(4/859, 1976, Copyright by the American Geophysical Union 4.6.2 Radar ‘The use of radar for precipitation measurement is not a new idea. Tt hus beer san lored ever since the inception of the instrument, The advantages of ‘Sadar precipitation measurement may be suramarized' #s 1. Increased time and spatial resolution, in theory a continuous description of the precipitation. 2, Ability to handle all types of precipitation. Operationally, radar also provides sing! Tn practice, the exch yet to be achiowed. Generally rin gages or oher punciual systems (Lo. drop wer tnensurement apparatus) are required to crlibrate radar. Most of the fol- Jeng discuason of the operation of precipitation mgasuring radar is after iedur omits electromagnetic energy in narrow bands. Upon hitting pre- cipitation tis partially absorbod, scattered, and refleced. Some of the re fected energy returns to the transmitter, the total travel time being 24~ et i the time the signal tok to reach the target. Electromagnetic waves caet at the speed of light. Because of attenuation of the signsl during inter~ writen with the etorm, the reflected energy must be normalized (adjusted) and implied to make the comparison of reflestion from different ranges possilo. ‘Tie range is the distance from transmitter to target. This procedure is lus: “So MEASUREMENT OF PRECHTATION. 135 Lecaion st er o ° ‘Rfige ‘Timer re Nonmataed vefece ery e FIGURE 4.17 Essentials of radar detection of rainfall. Source: Grayman and Eagleson wart trated in Figure 4.17. Note that there is always some background nolse before and after storm detection. The rader reflection ean be presented in several ways other than tho one itlustrated in Figure 4.17, which emphasizes the one-dimensional range, o jiepth of the event. By Tolation of the antenna, it is possible-to indlose he seriial exteat of the precipitation. Vertical tilting is used to quantify “49 Fright of the storm, Two oommon types of displays aro the plan pesiton ind Reight PPI) and tho range height indicator (REID shown in Figure 4.16, Sreont day woather radars digitize the reflectivity information. Therefore aaa ace given for intonsities instead of relying of varying-intemsty vie sual displays. ee "The average returned power of electromagnetic signals is elated t0 pre- cipitation by S30. wn eee ee eee a eee136 curr Range markers HOURE 4:38 The moce commonly used fomns of radar lays, Lo te eh oso FIGURE 46 Tine range Regt ndater. Sources: Adeped from Batan [1975] and Barrett anc Custis (1876). whore dis the diameter of partcalar patil @eop). The range er ond © wher deat "dependent on sigual wavelength, beam shape, wih; Bites a coe teansmitted power, antenna gain and terget refractive index” length: an and Eagleson (1971). Kt ean be determined for @ giver equipment, configuration. Fguretion tion ofthe sixth power of drop diameters is called the refee- tivity factor Z a [ptm ass ‘onaly expressed in units of miliaters to the sixth power par cubis nese’ aan SED is te particle size distribution (se Seetion 4.3.2) The rain- fall rate is related to Z by anak, ao) “which is referred to 28 the ZR relationship and is the heart of the Bross phic se aro two ZF relationships. Tho theoretical alternative roses Z, ican in Bq, (6.18), to the rainfall rate, as given bythe integration of Bru, vn the drop-ize distribution NUD), dadrorcer messes dzop- ea. tion. The value of paramotors a end b vary widely wit lemons Boe arp iz, ei, Linsey otal. [1982} quote values varying fom © store Se end 12 to 32 for b, for rainfall intensity in millimeters pot to 100) erage values of 200 and 1.6 fora and 8 respectively, are assay #=- opted (Marshall and Palmer (1948). ee oeewflake aguregntes, «commonly suggested relationship is (Carlson and Marsball (1972) = 2000R*". (4.20) ‘The effective reflectivity Z, measured by the radar itself can be comparod ‘with rainfoll-intensity measarements from rain gages to obtain an alterna Tre completely empirical, Z,—R relationship. Austin (1987) studied storms {Yow England using the weether radar at the Massachasatts Institute of Technology and suggested the uso of @ = 230 and b = 14 ina ZR relation Jipvrathr than the Maraball-Palmer values. She divided her data by stom {ypes und conclided that significant improvements could be obtained by Ye 2yg = 400, b~ 13, and a ~ 230, b ~ 1.2 for thunderstorms and convestive inf @ Tesociaved with cold fronts, respectively. For drize she suggested a = ON ad pn 1A. The effect of using different ZR relationships is tlustrated bby Wyss [1988] in Figure 4.19, ‘Gaibration with punctaal ground data may be in error because of the different nature of the radar measurement. Radar samples a volume at vary- vag elevations, nota point at ground level, Some of the diserepancies may be 4. precipitation formod at low altitudes may go undotected by radari 2, detocted precipitation at a given height may never reach the ground be- (Cause of evaporation or winds carrying it to a different Tocation; 3, vertical variability of precipitation type and intensity (Le, ioe versus lia, {Sd may ead to incorrect integration of echoes and incorrect estimates of precipitation; and 4, surface evaporation may lead to false radar echoes. ‘Phe probloms encountered when the radar signal hits the freozing layer up in the aumosphere, resulting it increased reflectivity, go by the mame of bright- FIGURE 4.19 Areal average rainfall rate measured with radar over the Sounegan, Her B CIOURE aw Cngtend on dune 27,1967. Z, = 230R"* (ool ne} Ze = 400R? (8a- fronds); Z, ~ 28077 (crosses). Source: Wyss {1988}4438. crue; / ECEMTATION OGCURRENOE AND MEASUREMENT ‘agueasunewent or precirtanion 139 stain gages ove commanty use fo calibrating ade" To of rain ere cst of retin to variance of aoastrement eFFOF ggg ne th fers is the amal-scale cox, the mean of the ratio o/2 ‘yas found to be A x) seas wan a5 @ l-e 1 ere A ip rein-gage density, or square Kilometers Po ES) Ris distance at te A al eorelation of raatll Begins ONSET tandord der hich the spt rn elortig EOE T= SER a standard de- Maton of 9 when gaorating sae aro avayayas ‘A square ceeeters per gage; and, a} is the average ‘pand efecte, Point 4 shove is commonly called anomalous propagation, Rede a et inbod upward inorder to avoid surface obstructions, oF radar terminology, ground clutter. oe err leeyifer vetweon radar-sgal attenuation, which favors longer ravehungth end reoloion, which fevoresborter wavelengths, Reding aba wavelength treater than 6 ca io recommended. At S-om wavelengths, the wavShoant atlgnuation may opcur during intonso precipitation “At wave jeegihs on the order of 10 cm, attenuation is generally not ¢ problem. The lengths 9 ee renter radat go bythe flowing names: S band 9th 5.77 conanen R7Pesyelongh, C band with 7.69 to 8.84 em of wavelength, and X and with 2.75 to 5.77 cm of wavelength. ‘errors in Radar Measurements : Cretan end Eagleson (1971) developed models for samoling SS duced by the oso of radar. Radar errors were divided into large, ‘and small- duced ye pnccuracies in measuring large area and time-seale overt ach ee otal over a large catchment area are called largesctle errors. ‘This error was represented by the ratio EXAMPLE 42 ‘Calibration of Weather Radar Given below is a spatial correl ‘area of 10,000 km". tion function of rainfall accaraulation im em = Yadae measurement of storm ot i ‘rue storm total - ‘the random voriable x, was tuhen to be lognormelly distributed with met pee TD and standard deviation o,, ~ 0.5. (See Chapter 14 for @ review of ‘nasi probability theory.) etavalecrrors are du to local variations inthe relation belwecn ste) Fae radar reflectivity. The eror in measured interme of tho ratio radar measurement ‘ein-gege measurement ste ratios in also w random variable log-normally disteibuted, The mes is Thon by she large-scale errr. The variance was found to be « fancion af ae 1. averaging time of echoes 6 tion, we will make use of 2 2, utea over which echoes are averaged Serio mone brated standard deviation of 3, distance from radar to storm (range) rs and 4, spatial storm characteristics ‘Tho standard deviation ¢, obeys a relation of the form wy 80 Vy — groan] = 05. arnt Baha) the number of stations to 10, we get re want to reduce 0” to 0:25. Increasing Te to00 ta tiation into Bq, (4:22) yields Te To00 kant per station, which on subs (gal"e-emmnn om Log o2 = €4 + &2 Login € + C1 lOBe a + OF aan “The affects of different storm characteristics were found to be nedligible The eat tho parameters ofthe above equation was (~1,0) (-438,—0.28, (o.db, 20.28), (0.01, 0.03) for e, Eo ea, and cy respectively“ae yeasUrENENT OF PRECIPTATION, 141 per station or 80 (_o_\M yy — -resenaoty (Ga) ou For A = 1667, sx stations, o} = 0.27. Therefore te answer should be seven stations, yielding A = 1420 and oy = 025. # in and should become & dominant sensing technique in the future. Satelite ine fy work on the principle that the atmosphere selectively transmits r6- sensor a warious wavelengths (see Chapter 2). Most satellites rely on detest qeevraiation in the visible and thermal infrared: wavelengths, The vsibG see rraietins are on the order of 0.77 to 0.01 um and the Uhormel infrared Wane 20 to 9.2; 10.2 to 124; and 17.0 to 22 (Linte and Simonett (1076), Phe Sra ae a rages from the reeoived radiation, The images are made ar. = se. oe ae et capy form andor digitized for computer processing me cet Oo ‘Existing weather satellites are either polar-orbiting or geostationary. The West ast ‘Ocean i '| 4.6.3 Satellites | the se of meteoroloyi satellites for weather studies is continuously Inewas- polar orbiting satellites circle over the poles usually about twice every S65 2 cana gone on the order of 1000 km. The geostationary satllites have a high carrer esound 96,000 kam cuch that their translation around the earth is ayn- Gfeonous with the earth's rolation around its axis. This implies that they Fo- chronows jlonary in space relative to a point on the eurth's surface, This ‘arma the frequent production of images, commonly every belf hoor of oven | Hom to evary five minutes, which is ideal for watching quickly doveloping sgrovide global coverage ot he 1@URE 420 Fe geostationary meecriogi Ses woather. coy auggest a relation botmeen cloud Sp txoyical, convective air masses, they Sof a oe ea gry haighd and retain, incr atte tr ow or aac of he SONS MF oe | weather pattems, ‘clouds. | the GOES (Geostationary Opernionsl Baiconental Sash) ser are then Tord natare of the COUGS. ajumbia, Canada, Ingrabarn of the United Statng, together wits simiiar satellites of other countries pro ae ang precpation over British CNTY grave ving GOES ta9e01 suggested a simple preci raeeiite data, She hypothesized that gqautely represen : @ -EpwV, a2) | ide an almest continuous view of global weather, except for serious distor~ wee Mopond 60" latitude. Figure 4.20 shows the general location of the Seotioual geostationary satellites. The GOES satellites mensare albedo | Geib light reflection) from 0:5 to 100% and thermal infrared radiation for 8 raterature range of ~93 to 42°C. Their resolution is ebost 1 km in the vis ble range and 8 km in the thermal waveband. With the resolutions given above, GOES satellites are potential tools to “define storm events in the mesoscale Fafge. There have been considerable of Sones develop toole to infer precipitation accumulations from remotely sensed satellite information. The implications of such approaches in éreas |. ‘wth sparse or no ground-date-ollection, networks end for Improving our sP- precialion of the epatial extent of precipitation events are obvious. Tngraham (1980] gives a good literature survey of existing precipitation | estimation methods, The technique of Oliver and Seofield [1976] and Scofield Gnd Oliver [1977] is probably the most well-known one. Their provedure is |, Bosod on subjective and empirical eriteris. Using observations of behavior of sam Munfall rate por unit area is ade 5 pais the den ‘of sir going into the cloud systems Pa : Going rreity of the rising moist sir masss 1 fapor that, ache vino w isthe mixing ratio Bio ot the moist air; Vis the updraf. re rnd E is an efficiency factor toy : 86 condenses in the cloud. Presipitation 's BE ally cometh ee SequiTe a n unl of eit that this equation is esata Te proposing Ba. 4.23), there ore Obi dessin ri a, We may mention te SNP PoN : coud ten sag th an ec, enone PSS ‘iste4142. ciupten « / PACCIPTATION OCCURRENCE AND MEASUREMENT TABLE 4.4 Average Bificioncios and Water Content BPFICIENCY & WATAR CONTENT wt CLOUD TYPE, fs a fraction) iw Sen for ea Stratus 0.05 Orographic Glawsi) —_0.05-010 Small comulus 010 ‘Cumulus eongestus os Gamulonimbus 020-020 “Suna egos (107), Fete (1962), and Rogers (1979) io, terminal velocities, and the pseado-ediabatie process, The mone) sso ial evaporation below cloud base level: Precinta'on assumed 0 0¢- ignores aller ery with mature input and condensation. There is no Sine {elog built into the model behavior. en ir aspumed known or esly obtained). The ee re vow Ee G22) paramct; typical vals ar give im Tube 44, ten ie cary gn be fined ot typeal values for @ rion end OE Teer ibe 4) of more adequately monrured at ground We Te relative topo Tube A) oF enpratre) Th polar orbiting stalite TROS TY 2 amity, dow De pert prpitable water Gntagrated water content) eVH57 six hours. He atlas ean bowl im etiatig tho upd alos fp eq h28h Ingram 1980} present tho fllowing arguments, igure 421 Ghat = NIA NG etn feweriesel (Sovergence ‘Avcendiog a Beis AWN pee aT Surface FIGURE 421 Scheme dagran of ar crelaon ding a meer storm. The Hee =ore! FLOURE 4.21 Sv 0 0 1010 10m, we vocal sais aro ~ 101m, Source ‘Adeptod ftom Ingraham [1980) AG MEASUREMENT OF PRECIPTATION 143 Attimer +e vear AROURE 422 A colin of bowesn te lve x nz + de as and + ‘Sourea: Ingraham {1980}. a shows a hypothetical cléud system. There is a convergence of air at ground jevel ond « divergence at cloud top, Somewhere in the mide a narrowing ‘ointof zero air divergence exists, Figure 4.22 isa simplification of the cloud Trom the point of zero divergence up at two times—tand¢ + At. ‘Conservation of mass M within the unit volume of Figure 4.22 implies, Mu a Rod di) ~ pVAl, ~ PVA ‘Expanding the second term in the right-hand side in a Taylor series, keeping only linear terms, leads to a a toads) = ~(0VA)ds. Ignoring changes in density, and for a fixed unit volume, the above becomes A oA aA or a ae Sinco V = dz/de, the leftchand term is the total derivative of A with res 18 srivative of A with respect fp ime. Trwe further assufhe no acceleration of updrafts (ie., (@V/at) = ae sate ‘where the first term is the horizontal air divergence o, 28)414 compen 4 / PRECIPITATION OCCURRENCE AND MEASUTEMENT “Equation (4.24) can be integrated between the point of zero divergence, 2, in Figure 4.21, and the cloud top 23 £ a page ‘Since at 2 the vertical updraft velocity must be zero, the previous equs- tion reduces to which relates updraft velocity to the growth of the clouds’ cross-sectional area divergence). Since the rising air cools, assume at the adiabatic lapse rate GT -T-de, then the limits of integration can be converted to teraperabures: m1 1dA ved = -[ raat 425) whore 7; is temperature at level . Substituting in Ba, (4.29) results ian ox wreclon relating precipitation rale lo the integral of divergence over two fomperature layers oP __Bupg (1 dA a ae we a20) Ingraham [1980] argues that the integral in Eq, (4.26) can be considered tinearly proportional to the divergence at the top of the cloud. Lumping the ‘proportionality factor in , we then obtain aP __Bivpy 4 dA(T ot) at T Aye dt ar, aan whore the oxplicit dependence of A on time ¢ and temperature 7; at the top of the cloud is shown. AT is the difference in temperature between levels 2 and 8, AT = Ty ~ Ts Tf Eq, (4.27) is integrated over a time interval At, we obtain the accumu- {ated precipitation during the time interval soo Hazen ae. ss In theory, Eq. (4.28) is easily evaluated using images from the GOES satellite, All that is required is two consecutive pichures of the satellite from where A(T,,¢ + At) and A(Ts,¢) can be estimated. “Ingraham (1980] developed the practical tools to process the GOES visible and infrared images that are needed in evaluating A(T, ¢). She tested rainfall yrewent or RECITATION 145 | Freee Age, (igo? Stich ra aa a Mens 20 Pein geiRied ita q20- spe oi Sepa a poe eee ol Sha Tea C0 DH 1200 1H ana. 916 Nov. 1978 ‘tse (GM Point ane Terrace Alport: layne 423 Estate and observed RAPHE ‘at Gospel Pot Source: Ingraharn [280], cotambia, Canada, with good results 8 shown in Fig- jn British estimation in 6 rm at two stati0ns. See 4.28 for a particular sto EXAMPLE 43 eM atimation rom «sett He ar are following the development of roast sation eared re l etelive images. The fOP 0 Oe Pirages, the cloudtap oe ig ered ol pe an etre anu Te je measured as 100 kin’ AS ae bet the Per rated at O° The eiioney i mega at So pint of 280 ESAs the adigbale Pe vamgorma in the ares i8 w iho cloud formation taken as ae ae sCkm?. A meteorologic statior ear te sures. v1 erature af 10°C and 2 ground ¢ ea Fe 2 ae renee esse ome 5 conditions: measured at ground level estimated? She cloud, Prom Eq. 3.4), wo obtain te ane tnt tho eitoire ieee nn tative of moisture supply to We retie hums nag oar el ate r=\"qig+098r 4 “Tia + 0.90230) ~ = 0.10980) + 20°C)"446 chaste 4 / PREGPTIATION OCCURRENCE AND MEASUREMENT “The saturated vapor pressure at T= 29°C is given by Ba. 2.31) e, > 89.8699(0.00798(29) + 0.8072] = 0,000019|1.8(28) + 48) + = 28.0 mb Combining the two results, the air = (0.89)28.0 = 29.2 mb. ‘The mixing ratio is then (Eq. 8.29) 2 w= 082s ayG 7 OOS 0.001316} ‘vapor pressure is, ag [Approximating p. by the density of dry air at about 78.4°F and 1000 mb, which 1185 gmv*, and multiplying it by w yields humidity in grams per cubie meter of dry air: 0.015 x 1185 = 17.8 gm. From Eq, (4.28) the estimated precipitation would then be ©2078) 45) tn) ® Se ob f = 5.2.x 10" gm‘ of water i = 5.2 mm in half hour. # 120) 400 in balf hour Seen 4.7 PRECIPITATION DATA ANALYSIS Precipitation data anelysis and handling should be made with knowledge of Statistical sampling theory, applicable to any other data-collection experi Thont, The goal of the hydzologist isto sample and study as rouch data as Ye, ‘Tuned to define sufficiently, both temporally and spatially, the sampled process—i.e., “fall. The definition of “sufficient” is ultimately a function Tf the objective and goals for which the data is being used. Many books have Jeon written on hydrologic sampling. Nevertheless, this book must be limited jn swope. A few of the common hydrologic data-handling techniques will be entered, Wherever possible, brief reference to more-sophisticated tech~ ‘niques will be made, hopefully Yeading the curious reader to further studies, The techniques to be seen deal with completion of missing date, check on data consistency, estimation of mean ereal precipitation, frequency analysis, ‘and network design. Before going into data analysis techniques, it is useful to emphasize the ‘usual variability of precipitation i Spilation varies widely. Figure 4.24 gives the mean annual precipita fn time and space. On a global sesle, pre-148. craven /PRECENTATION OCCURRENCE AND MEASUREMENT throughout the world. Two of the most important features are the large ex ppanses of desertic regions (occurring almost at all latitudes) and the consis ‘ently wet tropies, particularly the Amazon basin in northern South America ‘and the Pacific oeeanie regions like Japan, the Philippines, Malaysia, ete. Spatial variability occurs on a much smaller scale, Figure 4.25 shows ischyets of the annual mean precipitation over the Nile River Basin in the FIGURE 4.25 Rainfall distroution over the Nile River Basin in the Sudan. Source: ELHerny and Eagleson [1880], after Olver (1968), arpntcemaTONONTA AWS 149 Walnut Gute, Arann Storm day ~ Avgt6, 170 CConturinverva 2m syne utcmcat fSouneary a Kiometers FIGURE 4.28 Toial canal cistibution of a storm over Walnut Gulch, Arizona. Source: Fennassey ota [1986] ‘Sudan, Note the sharp drop of precipitation as you move north, At a storm level, the spatial variability can be larger. Figure 4.26 shows a storm over the Walnut Gulch Basin (uly 154.2 kun") in Arizou ou August 18, 1970. In time, precipitation is also highly varisble, Some regions show strongly seasonal precipitation and others almost uniform behavior throughout the your. This is ovident in Figure 4.27, where the moan monthly accumulations ‘are shown for various parts of the United States, Within a storm, precipita: tion intensity is quite variable. Figure 4.28 shows the history of a storm over the Souhegan River Basin in New England. The time step is 30 min and the rainfall was measured with weather radar (Wyss (1988). The basinwide aver- ‘age and the histories at three points in the basin are given. Although the ‘three points are only 13 km apart, the variability in space is evident. 4.7.1 Estimation of Missing Data ‘The most common method for estimating a missing data point in a rain-gage network is tho "normal ratio” method. Throe indox stations, next to the miss- ing point location, are defined. The missing precipitation value is given by Mep Nap Ne nein Basta), S where P, is the precipitation at the missing location, P, the precipitation at index station i, and WY, the long-term normal precipitation at station i.152 cHAPTER 4 / PAEOIPMATION OCCURRENCE AND MEASUREMENT RGA 223 RGr Lalem RG? 2a9em RES 2Sem BGS GERRGELE LES chen ananas Bs boe So 15) BO) M0 8A AS SOD S50 6H GST 700 7H ive (ints) FIGURE 4.28 Rainfall rates on June 27, 1987, Bold lines (RGA) represent aroal average falta ates over tho Souhegan as determined by radar. Total rina depth is indicated fn the lagend, The other three curvas correspond to tre rainfall ate measured by the radar at select sites 19 km apert. Soures: Wyss [1988] ‘Equation (4.20) is then just a weighted average of chserved surrounding stations, To bo useful, the index stations must be near and highly correlated ta the location of interest. ‘The National Weathor Service uses another weighted average to estimste missing records. Precipitation at the four stations adjacent to the missing point, im the four quadrants, are weighted by tho inverse of the square of the Cistance from the location of interest. The result is normalized by dividing by tthe eum of the weights. Other investigators have proposed using other powers of the distance in the weighting algorithm (Shearman and Salter [1976]; ‘Dean and Snyder (1977; US. National Weather Service (1972). "Rogression tochniques are clearly applicable to the missing-data problem. Careful consideration of the obvious correlation of the independent variables is roquired. Investigators have euggosted many and varied regression schemes to fill date gaps and complete data series based on complete index series. As ‘methods become more advanced, statements on the goodness of the estima- tion beeome more readily available. ‘interpolation, both in time and space, plays a major role in completion of missing data. Gendin [1965] has used linear interpolation between adjacent points and derived expressions for the accuracy of the interpolation. Numer~ ‘ous surface-fitting techniques are also available to complete spatially varying {AT PRECIPTATION DATA ANALYSIS 183 data sets. Rhenals-Figueredo ot al. (1974) have used double Fourier sories ce multiquedratic surface to fit rainfall in space. Chua and Bras (19821, Tonton and Rodriguez-Iturbe [1977], Delhomme and Delfiner (19731, and ofh- ca have used a method called “Kriging” for fitting rainfall and other geo- Shysieel processes im space. As the techniques become more sophisticated, {hey require information like the process spatial correlation 4.7.2 Consistency Checks ‘The double-mass analysis is the technique commonly employed to detect Ghanges in data-collection procedures at a given location. These changes may Sonult from changes in instrumentation, changes in obsorvation procedures, Ehanges in gage location and induced (manmade or natural) variations in process characteristics “The double-mase plot essentially compares, in a diagram, the records of ‘wo gages, One of the gages is the standard or base (which could be a combi Mition of gages) while the other is suspect. The accumulated rainfall (or ‘Whatever quantity) of the suspected station end the base station(s) are the vee, Under unchanging conditions the two quantities should show a well- ‘behaved (hopefully linear) relation. Any effect that.changes the historical be- havior of the suspected location without affecting the standard will result in f change of slope in the diagram. This is observed in Figure 4.29. If such a Slope ciange is clear, the reasons for it must be investigated and the record corrected, $e S00 Acute al peitation, ees ‘andar or eference stators) FIGURE 4.29 lstration of double-rass cure.1154) HAPTER 4 / PRECIPITATION OCCURRENCE AND MEASUREMENT |ATPRECIPTATION OATAANALSSS 155 4.7.3 Mean Areal Precipitation ‘there are two common spatial averages used in hydrology, the mean areal precipitation of a storm event and the time-averaged mean areal precipita ion over a given period of time. Mathematically, they are defined as ‘Areal mean of an avent: po pe An | foe aso) Long-term seal average iy P=ELS | patdde, an where /(a) is the fonction describing a storm total accumulation at all points and f(e,) is @ function describing total precipitation at x and period f ‘Since rainfall observations are generally point values, imperfect for that ‘matter, we do not know the function /(x). Generally, the spatial integration is then appreximated by some sort of discrete weighted average. The weights ‘would he one over the number of stations if observations were uniformly dis {ributed and the rainfall process is completely homogeneous in space. This is certainly not the case. ees soothe ‘PRECIPITATION, ?, THUSSSEN SUMMON" GNCRES) "WRIGHT, p ‘Raowing a spatially verying mean behavior andor the spatial corela- 1 19 aus ‘tion of the rainfall process, optimel weights could be determined (Lenton and 2 23 0.1611 Rodriguez-Iturbe [1977], Bras and Rodriguez-Iturbe [1976]; Delhomme and 8 at 0.0540 Delfiner {1973}. The weights would be optimal in the sense that ‘the mean A as 0.0708 ounze error of epproniating Bas, (439) ad (481) ie miniznzod. The mean : 22 oxeor Square errr is defined as B(P ~ BP], where P is the desired statisti, Pinite : a ose SMimete, and B isthe expectation (computation ofthe mean) oporator. i ro noe Gon, fn oerentpso ooin eel averages of erm a vents are tol. Tho first mtiod i the Thiessen weighting scheme, Fig- aoe ‘ure 4,30 illustrates the method. An area with eight reinfall stations is shown. een Ae mateo ot reer era ss Rainfall values at each location are also given. The weighting mechanism is of the form polygonal pattern, shown in thick lines in the figure. Bach station is sur- rounded by a closed polygon of given area. The weights p, ere given by A,/A, where A, is the area of the polygon around station ¢ and A is the total area. ‘The area of each polygon ogn be estimated by planimeter or any other valid approximation. Here, the area was measured by counting the small squares of the superimposed fine grid. Tho reader is challenged to repeat the exercise. ‘There is a good chance of proving me wrong! The obtained mean areal pre cipitation was 2.2 in. 43m whore p; is the weight applied to observation P,. In the Thiessen method, the ‘weight is a measure of rain-gage contributing area. In the procedure, all rain ‘gages are connected, shown in thin lines in the figure. Connecting lines are ‘bisected and extended until they intersect other bisectors. The result is1156 cHAPTEn 4 / RECIPRTTION OCCURRENCE AND MEASLFENENT ‘The second common methéd is the isohyetal method. An isohyotal map is one showing lines of equal pret nual precipitation Gaohyot) In this me we ights Ps are again Aj/A, ee oe the Teiltea recitation vluse are tho average bebr ‘equal precipitation. This is i ee Shee tro eaiyels every 01 i, for ‘hme by equal pesptation ca Sere aatrad by counting enclosed squares of 0.0965 0.0483 9512 aoa7 0.0287 0.0563 oorts 0.0138 1 20s ons x = 2 ee ee TM = (245 0016s XM 245 W228 odes XI 256 Vo 235 o0ox? XIV. 2.25 VE 215 02982 XV 225, VII 225 00a XVI 215 Vu 288 0870 XVII 205 x 215 0.0776 1c FIGURE 4.31 llustration of the isohyetal method for computing mean areal precniaton. “arenecestanon para analysss 187 ion of the two boundary isohyets. .gned the mean precipitatic ged the monn Jary was given a value 0. im tess than Me se eee he obta:med mean areal precipitation, Wet Srp aery clove to that resulting from the iossc® ‘polygon method. Given 22 i vee storm we are oaling with, Gls is PAE surprising, spaforty Of thod is preferable and more aerarat, Ts Wer Timita- ‘the craving of contours tin that it requires enough observations to perm tin i oreipitetion. On the other hand, e byarlogis ‘knowledgeable of the GLSRIT precipitation patterns in @ given aree con obtain a better estimate of ‘mean areal precipitation. ‘each aroa we asti ‘Wrere necessary, encompassing interior is ‘Depth-Area-Duration Curves Dept fon 2.5 wo saw that the erca-avereged rainfall depth decreased vite nsesgesing area. We nso mentioned that as dept ‘snd duration increase, TeOURaT average increases and the accamulasion generally becomes more the areal *Yoace is aometimes wseful to quantity "he relationships for vom ator ot aot of starmas, The result i the depth—area—duration curve 31.Bin this curve for a given storm, we mist 2076 ‘he storm history, soy Faas fora large numberof stations within the are ‘A normal pro- “Fedure would then bo Select intarvals of area SA such that the total are m AA. Define A, =n AAs 1 = Mm 2, pefine the precipitation over the erea at all Se intervals At. 4b For all time intervals Af, find the eaaximam, esr areal precipit For a eraron of ie A, arbitrarily Located within the Te Tn order to over agus Une racan aroal precipitation over Aw iti ‘recommended that angial maps of pracpitation at time interval Af be prepared. Repett Wie step for all subareas Ans = 4s ---+ ™ 4, Repent Step 3 for accumulations over tine, intervals 2.¢, BAZ, and 66 0m, aren fod equi ta the storm duration is covered, 6, Plot the maximum areal averazo depth foreach poriod £06, £ = Ls e--> eae eerie storm duration divided by Af) agsinst iis corresponding Aw uration curve is shown in Figure 4.92; If Spe gare be anelyzed by centers and the results com> sa is given by A= L ‘A typical depth—aree~ storm has multiple centers, ‘bined at the plotting stage. 4:7.4 Frequency Analysis ‘gveporation, and all other hydrologic and €69° ‘Physical processes can be characterized <6 Mandom occurances. Tt is ixapos- Bhysica Prost wat the fature realizations of the PLA, “will be. The Spl gels of precipitation data should then follow, ‘well-established etatisticel procedures. For example, ‘tiga (IED) eurves are & Precipitation, streamflow, Gntensity-frequency-curatSat 3Ge ea. ko oS 0 FIGURE 4.92 Diagrammatic prosentalon of madimum daplh-area-duraton curves for @ tatchment Symbos indicate separate storms. Note the enveloping of data pons. Source: ‘hud. Raudkiv, Hydrology: An Advanced Introduction to Hydrological Processes andi ‘iodeling. Copyright 1978 by Pergamon Press. Fepritod wilh permission by the author ‘classical rainfall analysis tool that relates the probability of occurrence of Storms of given duration and intensity. Probability of occurrence is usually measured in terms of recurrence interval (return period), The recurrence in- terval of a storm is the mean time that will go by before an event equeling of exceeding the storm magnitude occurs, Mathematically, it is equal to the inverse of the probability of equaling or exceeding the event in a unit time period. For example, a 50-yeat-recurrence storm is one that has a probebility Of being equaled or exceeded in any one year of 1/50. On the average it will take 50 years before that occurs. [FD curves and other probabilistic and sta- tistical aneasures will be studied in Chaptar 11, ‘They are discussed separately jnorder to make a more complete presentation and to emphasize their appli- ‘ability to all types of data 4.7.5 Network Design [As remarked by Lenton and Rodriguez-Iturbe [19741, it is necessary that ‘al aspects of data management be integrated — the initial collection of data canaot and should not be treated separately from the later stages of data ‘analysis and synthesis.” The data management. and collection procedure fnust be defined in terms of the final obj information. 5, goals, and uses of collected ‘7 pRECRTTATION DATA ANALYSIS. 159 Hydrologie-data-collection networks have been divided into various levels, (Rodda [1969), Levels I and Tl can be related to problems of regional estima ‘ion—i.e,, there is no clearly defined final goal or use for the collected data. ‘The problem of rainfall monitoring for estimating the total precipitation aresl average for a storm event snd the problem of finding the long-term (dime) mean areal precipitation fall in these two levels. Level TIT networks fare those designed to eollect data for a specific, clearly defined, objective, “hich would imply known net benefits or utility of the data. The problem of {rainfall monitoring for use together with a flood forecasting system theoreti- cally fits this framework. Historically, network design has been strongly influenced by issues of ‘convenience and cost, ignoring the issues of required accaracy. Network de- sien should involve stating the number and location of stations necessary for fachioving the accuraey demanded by a given data use and under stated bud- getary constraints Traditionally, the above objectives were accomplished using heuristic criteria. For example, McKay (Gray [1979]) mentions that for standard pre- Gpitation gages a 15-mile eeparation is adequate for Canadien conditions. Following are a few traditional dosign criteria and results. ‘Tho "index approach” requires the logical condition that sensors have the highest possible correlation with the effects that are being measured. One gage should be located in each “homogeneous” area. Each station should be highly correlated with surrounding effects but uncorrelated among, themselves, ‘Govotal experiments heve bean performed on very densoly gaged regions. “McGuinness (1963] suggests the following formula for Coshocton, Ohio: B= 0.03P a", 43) where B is the absolute difference in inches between abserved and true av {ge rainfall; P is the rainfall in inches forthe “true” dense networks and G is the network density in square miles per gage for a reduced ngfyrori, The above formula was developed from dala of watersheds less than 25x” but ‘was found to be consistent for larger areas, Being of locel origin, extrapela tion to ather areas is speculative. ‘Hershfield [1965] suggested that the average spacing between gages should be that required for obteining a correlation of 0.2 between station Values, He related this epacing and correlation to the two-year recurrence, Dchour duration rainfalltand the two-year recurrence, one-hour duration Tainfall. Figure 433 gives Herebfiol’s results. Holten et al. [1962] recom tnend various rein-gage densitis for agricultural areas. These are given in ‘Table 4.5;4160 charter. / PRECIPTATION OCCURRENCE AND MEASUREMENT o t 2 7 a “Twergear 240 ela (ies) FIGURE 4.39 Diagram for estimating the distance between gages as a funcion of he ree jear, 24-hour and Wo year, one-hour rinfal, Source: Aer Hers (1065) "07 ersea ot Rain Gages’, In Symposium on Design of Hyreogical Networks, vol. $, pp. 72-81. 1AHS Publ. no. 67. ‘A-well-known study in the Muskingum River Basin by the U'S. Weather Bureas {19471 resulted in Figure 4.34, giving the standard error of estimat- ing mean area! precipitation as « function of gage donsity end total ores, Thee following minimum densities of precipitation networks have been recommended for general hydrometeorologie purposes (Gray [1970). 1. Flet regions of temporate, mediterranean, and tropical zones, 600 to 900 kmn* per station. ‘TABLE 45 Nambor of Rainfall Stations Required size OF ‘acta MaNINN SANkGr AREA “RATIO. NUMBER OF (aces) oatfgege) STATIONS 0-80 0051 30-100 0082 100-200 on 8 200-500 016 Lper 100 acres 500-2500 040 1 per 260 acres 2500-5000, 100 per square mile ‘over 6000 3.00 tL per each mi Source: Hotan 862) Standard err, percent oan Oh 6 7 2 Sat 7 PUTTS 7 bb ‘Ase per ges 200 , FIGURE 4.34 Standard oro of storm precipitation averages as a function of rotwork sar FEO URd aro tor te Muskingum Bosin. Sour: US. Naina! Westner Senos [5972 2, Yor mountainous regions of temperate, mediterranean, and tropics] ‘zones, 100 to 250 kin* per station. 4, Bor emell mountainous islands with irregular prespitation, 26 em" per station. 44, For arid and polar zones, 1500 to 10,000m" per station. *gonoratized Network Design eoreretied and theoretical approaches to rainfall network design exist “Aithtugk different in techniques and assumptions, all procedures reaire tao elas of che rainfall-procass spatial correlation. The spatial corre: etios monsares the lovel linear dependence of precipitation at two poise sate fod dstancav from each oUt. A crzlaton of 1 (or 1) wil IBY a garity. For prociitation, correlation is goneraly between 0 and ae gets mailer as tho points are farther apart. A point is perfectly corre- lated with itself, since vis zaro in that case, Tongue Teurbe und Mejia (1974) developed design curves for he mean equate ror of estimating the areal average of precipitation (a. 4.30) vais aria rey ling technique- Figure 4.20 gives ono such curve, correspond fogs random campling snd expanential-type correlation function 9 spate 22e Mtg tbat the corelaon falls exponentially with distance betwoan #8 ary eestrapic, homogoncous random fea, tho correlation js just a fone dione ec austence betwoon points v, The results of Figure 4.35 correspond to162. cyspTER 4 / PRECITATION OCOURFENGE AND MEASUREMENT FIGURE 4.36 Variance reduction factor duo fo spatial sampling with random design used faite estimation of areal mean of rainfall evant with r(v) ~ 6°". Source: |. Rocrguez- Tutto and 4M. Mejia, “The Design of Rainfall Networks in Time and Space,” Water ‘Resources Res. 10(4):725, 1974. Copyright by the American Geophysical Union. a correlation of the form e“™, so v = 0 implies that rainfall at a point is per- feelly correlated with itself. The correlation decroases as the distance be- twoen points v increases. ‘Tho parameter h (km ") controls the decay in Conelation with distance. Random sampling implies that the observations Gan be anywhere in space. ‘The ratio of mean square error (MSE) to point ‘variance Gis assumed that the process has the same variance everywhere) is tiven in terms ofthe numberof stations N randomly looted in space and @ non Gimensional area AA*, where / is the parameter of the correlation function: MSE = FIN; Ah%)o*. aso ‘Figure 4.86 gives a similar curve for stratified sampling, Stratified sam pling refers to random data collection within prespecified strata or regions. Note that the sainpling error is smaller under these conditions. Rodriguez ‘urbe and Mejia [1974] assume perfect observations. To the same work, Rodriguer-lturbe and Mejia developed curves for evalo- ating networks designed to obtain the long-term areal average as defined pre- Viously (iq, 431). They assume a separable, in time and space, covariance tracture of the form cov(r,) = a*ruip’, where a” is the point variance of rainfall, ro) is the correlation due to distance v between points, p is the lag- one serial (time) correlation of data, and r is the time between data points, ‘The results are thet the MSE of estimating the long-term areal average is given by MSE = FTRUN; Aho", 435) |AFPRECOMTATION DATA ANALYSSS 163 FIGURE 4.36 Varianco reduction factor due fo spatial sampling wth strated design used in the estimation of areal mean cf reinfall event with ¥) = 0". Source: |, Rocriguez: lturbe and JN Moja, “The Design of Rainfall Notworks in Time and Space,” Wator Resources Res., 10(4):726, 1974. Copyright by the American Geophysical Union. where F; is @ factor function of the number of time periods of observation 7 ‘and the lag-one autocorrelation of the process. The dependence is shown in Figure 4.37. Figures 4.88 and 4.39 give F,(V; Ah”), which is the space- dependent factor, for random and stratified sampling and exponential-type spatial correlation, The variables are the same as for Figures 4.35 and 4.36. FIGURE 4.37 Variance reduction factot due to temporal sampling used in the estimation of fong-erm mean efeal rainfall, Sour: |. Rodriguez turbe and J.M. Mejia, “The Design of Rainfall Networks in Time and Space,” Wator Resources Rs, 10(4):718, 1974, Copyright by the American Geopiysical Union.464. CHAPTER 4 / PRECIPTTATION OOCURFEENCE AND MEASUREMENT “47 REGETATION DATA ANALYSS 165 ‘ie, not only nunibor but station locations are specifiod). Bstimation theory Was used to find the mean square error of estimation expression and include Jnstrument errors in the enalysis. Tho interested reader is referred to Bras land Rodriguer Iturbe (1985) for 2 complete view of the sbove procedures. EXAMPLE 44 Monitoring Network Design Rodtiguer-Iturbe and Mefia (1974] illustrated the notwork-destgn exorcise with an example from the Central Venezuela region. The region is shown in Figure 4.40, together with the location ofits 26 rain gages, over its $0,000- Jon arca, Also chown are the mean annual precipitation isohyets. Table 4.6 fives the stations’ annual means and thei standard deviation computed os i 1 Sax”, FIGURE 4.38 Variance reduction faclar duo to spate! sampling with random design used In ihe estimation of longem moan areal rainfall wth (v) = e°¥". Soutee: |. Rocrguez- Mutbe and JM. Mejia; “The Design of Ralnfall Networks in Time and Space,” Water [Resources Ras. 10(6):719, 1974. Copyright by the American Geophysical Union standard deviation = 6 where Nis the number of yoars of data, X, is the data point for year i, and X isthe mean for the particular station, Bros and Rodriguez-Iturbe [1976] developed a method to handle the sys- tematic sampling condition and instrument error. Systematic sampling im- plies that stations are given known positions in space. The procedure usos fstimation theory and solves for the optimal network to obtain mean areal precipitation of an event by minimizing an objective function of mean square ferror (accuracy measure) and cost, ‘Bras and Colon (1978) address the network design for the long-term areal average under the previously mentioned systematic sampling techniques on SAS cen l FIGURE 4.39 Variance reduction factor due to spatial sampling with stratified design used in the estimation of fong-tem mean afeal rainfall with (v) = 0. Source: |. Rocigvez- tturbe end J.M. Mejia, “The Design of Rainfall Networks in Time: and Space,” Water Resources Fes. 10(4):721, 1974. Copyright by the American Geophysical Union. FIGURE 4.40 Central Venazuola region (Portuguese state) used in the exampte of mon fii network dasign. Soure:. Rocrguer tube and J.M Mega, “The Design of nia P _ Nendbrrs in Time and Space," Weter Resources Fes, 10(4:75, 1974. Copyright by the ‘American Geophysical Union.4166. CHAPTER 4 / PRECITATION OCCURRENCE AND MEASUREMENT [TABLE 465 Description of Rainfall Date Used inthe Central Venerucle Example ‘The objective is to study the trade-off between number of Wale and years of data wheh it is desired to design a sampling etwork that will soannanD ‘yeags or MEAN’ DEVIATION i camo’ HEGOD am) tm) | en | 2 jsotot i2 | 3 1955-1965 1260 24 \ + isaet oT | 5 Tooaert 1500188 5 Tea, 19a | 7 josiont | 15824 i 8 jew a, 8 Hl 9 1964-1971 1244 195 i 10 joan «Mak {I a Yessir: iat 228 il 2 1960-1971 1427 261 H a ioucion, 1318200 i ime 20 ' 6 iso 108 25 | 16 qgei-1971 1240 228 " jogae, | 1255 | 8 jeocigrt 1155 BE 1% Jospae 18250 AL 20 isan, 12526 a Yoooiert 109 28 2 inion ss 318 B iets G2 288 4 Yous «15019 1 2% Joorisss a9 1k i 25 joue-ss65 452188 \ ‘esses Reiger tu nd JM, Mf“ sien Sear eee eeerks in Te a Space” Hotere of Rasa rr, tt Cera byt Ameen | Sebaeal Uno i \ | sear es given level of accuracy in computing the long-term Ter Siitadon Cag, 431). Tb achieve this, we will make ves O° Oe a3 i rvolving the number of stations in the region F0%, Ah’) Pisses the mean aquare error of estimation as « fone\ty ‘of the point vari- \ serra factr involving the number of years i the reson 'P(TY, and a factor ong he ees ust compute the pin variange ove $3) TEs» toe nes (one yar lag) eatocorrelation concent, andthe spa correla” «47 PRECIPTATIONOATA ANAS. 167 sion, Computing the variance of all records ofall stations put togethen, we fet i na xe 10"mm?, A study of the correlation between records one YEE Jpart indicates that there is no linear statistical relationship boos the seriall accumulation of two adjncant yearn, ie, p = 0. We wil susie that. Tal dat correlation falls exponentially with distance between points rv) ‘The question is what value to give the decay paresneter i. In thein work, Face tarbe and Meiia (1074) argue that the spatial eorrelation show! Soar pesied to a typical distance in the area in quostion. Their uggestion 15 ve calibrate the correlation between bvo points chosen randomly in the Aro 1 i rance between bwo random points in an area obeys a precomputable jrobsbilise distribution, Details ure beyond the scope ofthis works DEY su arate the following. I is the ratio ofthe side of « rectangle, then the moan distance between two points of « rectangle of unit area is ‘Uni Area Rectangle 1 oat 2 0s6s1 4 ons? 151.3428 \ Most basins are reasonably approximated by rectangles. The Central Yone aaa is well represented by a rectanglo of side ratio} =. Tule se retyould have a diagonal (maximum distance) of 265 kan." ob the aa eee blaveen two points forthe Venozelan region, we need ony ran i a aren Tootangle resalts by the ratio of diagonals, The unit o-c% see arte with \ = 2 has diegonel of 1.58; therefore the Central ‘Venesuela ‘region bas 2 mean distance between points of + (265/1.58) x 0.5691 ~ 100m RodriguerIturbe and Mejia [3974] computed the sample spatial correletion beemeen prints ‘f00 ira opert as 0.21. Therefore the correlation function must satisfy * nm = O21, (200) ‘which yields h = 0.0156 km" and Ah* ~ | Il 1 |the cue /pRECIATON COCURRENDE AND MEASLFSMONT | que 47 Verianen Reduction Factor Duo io SPavct ‘Sampling Fy; AR with pt = 73 in the Central Venezuels OP pte. Bxponential Correlation, Random ‘Sampling Fasano Bors ab ost 033 oat the vaviance reduction factors due to spatisl sampling, F,(N; Ah*) are given fn Table 47 and emme for Figure $3 (assurning random sampling) sien il reduction factor is obtained from Fine 4.37 (p = 0.0) and is igiven in Table 48, ning Tables 47 and 48, we can ostinats the efficiency of different neteal aheanes forthe area considered, fn Ue SO ‘of one station in opera= etaruring 20 years, we oan expect « total variance ‘eduction factor of ID) * Fis 7.8) = 1% 0.050 = 0.080 his network will produce an estimate of long-term areal im other words, In obo cepitation with variancoom the sn dor of 5% of the variance of the -qApLE 48 Veriane Reduction Factor Doe to Tenperel Sampling with p = 0.0 roam TAM T1000 150.087 2 0500 200.050 3 0593-90 0.088 5 0200 © 500.020 7 0140 7% 0018 10 0.190100 9.010 ‘ourve, . Roazjgueettarbs and Seu ifejiey “Tue Design of ‘Ratetatl Netwosks in ime 2 Spuce,” Water Resources Bi SResviza 194. Copyright by the ‘Anedienn Geophysiea! Union: “Ar PREGIPTATION DATA ANALYSIS. 169 point rainfall process. Hf we wish fo accomplish that type of precision in & Tapee of 10 years, we will neod PAN; 7.8) = 0.060/F,(20) = 0.50 ) thin corresponds (o N = 4 stations inthe cao of rand sampling. oar mtoreating 4 observe that the same Presi ‘of 0.030 cannot be ob- aloe ina lnpeo of five years bocause it will be ResesS21Y for BARN, 13) ~ 0.050/0.20 = 0.25, ivich is avalue smaller Ube the napmplatic wa of FIT 1) when N which i Sy. From Pagar 498i nn b sen ca "Ak? = 7.30 and Fe eg, the cores ae oe than 100. We HAN: 12) © OE portant contusion that trading Hine er hydro Bs He clletion cab done when dO" re interval 00 Tag at cea” eap be expced in ako timer even Fem the most Manse of ail possible networks. mal posse og embed factors FT) % BUNA the ox- aoa A metdoton, This product eprosent the 0s) reduction in ple under coe to variance of pent rainall when the ong ST areal mean variance roaring T years extmtod: can be seen oe for quite wih satan ara ke 2 6 30 genre, v9 stato wi ‘accomplish {TABLE 49 Total Fuctor of Variance Reduction Doe to Temporal and Spatial Sampling Fat) 2 PV,Ar?) inthe Contzal Venerle Rage ‘Constructed forthe Exponential ‘Conelation Fonction with & ‘Designed Network y pHe Tes TH T9600 0.200 0.100 * 2 0825 0.190 0.085 3 027 0.108 0.058 5B 021 0086 0048 jo 0185 Our 0.087 20 0165 © 0.068 0.083. soo 055 0.062 0.08 cL ileate Soar | Rodeiguer-Thmbe and 1M. Sige, ae Design of aint Mois ja dime and Space’ Water +i ae aT, 1. Cs ‘Geopiystee igh by tho American ‘hie4170. charte3 4 / PHECIPAATION OOCUBRENDE AND MEASUREMENT ost of the possible reduction in variance, and there is little justi oe pve thi number 1¢ ca eleo be observed that (7) weights mare Shan Bene ain the reduction of the variance ofthe long-term argal meer: wen se eA) ~ 0.200, yet an equivalent value of FAN; A) = 0.200 con sok bevebtained in this example. This shows again that trading time vorsus vetoes, although itis possible and in ome stances necessary, is #s expensive proposition. # 4.8 Summary Fiyérotogy has traditionally studied the Ouxes of energy and water between Bycrology Neves and the atmosphere and oceans. Atmospheric prospitstion eS or ella key element of the hydrotogie cycle, the major water inp 910 +n ae sces For too long hydrologsts have been content with jost mea- ae cipitation an ieiting moterologeta be presecapied withthe mecha; carne ree oad 10 its formation. This must change. Hydrologiste mast ‘isms Ht wledgoable about atmospheric procesees, particalarly those infiy caer cipitation. This hes become apearent as hydrologsts realize thet cae recy precipitation models and meteoralogic predictive tools ara in- aos sible wih the time and spaco scales require by representations of foe TrreSogl land processes of interest. Iti also now clearer that the atoo- tien gurface process aro interdependent with nogstive and pasitr® ‘pact becomes explainable, Tn essence, hydrologists and meteorologists must crrare aed begin to cross the artficil disciplinary barriers that exist TGnaptare 3 and 4, probably a very modest beginning, intended to intr divce hylnoogists to some ofthe meteorology that relates to precipitation, & Sree tant amount of pace is dedicated to cloud physica in this chaphor 7% geiher with the stability issues disoussd in Chapter , this hates provides gether 190) iigousion ofall important convective meshanisns that control most precipitation. ‘Ele chapter also introduced traditional and modern ways of obtaining and enalyzing precipitation data. The issue of monitoring networks dois aoe seine length, f anything to point out that it pays to thine ae renee on @ monitoring experiment. Unfortunately, ip traditional by- aoe ais amon important slap is moze often. than not skipped, common! esulling in inefficient or oven useless data-collection exercises ‘Chanter 5 will talc about evaporation, Use mechanicme that provide the atmotptorie moisture Una Teads to precipitation, ‘The reador is ot 9 lose sight ofthe fact that precipitation and evaporation are much. ceijers. They are significant energy-transfer mechanisms. During pretibt ra latent heat ie released. Without it there would be little precipitation, cain ct heat drives the convective mechanisms thet lead to further conden ‘more than mass ererences 171 sation, During evaporation iatent heat is absorbed. The fact that evaporated seater ata site genorally has litle influence on procipitation at the same site plies that energy is then transported lataraly as well a vertically, &re- (quirement of the energy distributions discussed in Chapter 2 SE ePEEEEEERERRERERS Seep REFERENCES ‘Sinlation of Cyclonic Storm Pield for Hydro- tooling of the American Geopbysi- 3070, Washington, D.C. ‘Austin, PLM, (987), "Relation between Radar Reflectivity ‘Monthly Weather Bey. 15:1053 1070, Bares and Lo. Cutis (1976) Iniroduction to Rnvironmental Rernote Sensing, Tandon: Chapman and Hall Rattan, L. [978], Radar Observation of the ago Press. eas KV, 1876). “Terminal Velocity and Shape of Cloud and Precipitation Props "Aloft J. Atmos, Sci. 83:851-864 Bean eV, and HR. Peappacher [1971] "A Wind Tunnel Investigation of he Bate we vagoration of Small Water Drops Falling at Terminal Velocity im Ais” J ‘Atmos, Sel 28455-1464. ent, P.B. and W.C. Haber "Mass: Addison-Wesley. Beta 1968). “The Aci Observation of Sow and Rain Clouds” Prose has F Mermationel Conference on loud Physics, May 24-Sune 1, 1965, Tokyo ‘and Sapparo, Japan. eae Levin R, Colon 1978}, "Dime Averaged Areal Moan of Precipitation: Bstinse “hon and Network Design.” Water Resources Res, 14878-8586. ea ns 1 Rodeigaoe Seurbe (19761 “Network Design for the Estimation of SAR noon of Rainfall Bvente” Wator Resouroes Res. 12(6)1185-1196, Tae HBG) Rondom Punstins and Hexdrology. Reading, Mass: Addison Wesley Tpedvie, ML, (1958), Atas ofthe Heat Balance, Leningrad: Gidrometensdn pada ML Leet al, (1962), The Feat Balance ofthe Surface ofthe Eph.” Soviet ‘Geograph, Rev. Transl. 183-36. + yon TR 96s), Hloments of Cloud Physic, Coesgo: University of Chicane Tee, Pee EE poand J-5, Marshal [1972]. “Measurement of SnowTall Ly Rader” ‘J. Appl. Meteorol. 1:494-500. ca a MEARCL, Bras (1962) “Optimal Fatimatars of Mean, Areal Presipitation 9. Stations of Orographie Influence.” J. Hydrol. S1112)25- 48. ona ee S gra eh Slchastic atnfall Model and Staten! Anaya of Hero “haha Pastors" Runnston, lL: Northwestern University (Ph.D, thesis) con ee SE and J Warner (1976). “ASrerafs Uneervations i the Suliogs Ease’ Iman, CE Paogrine International Cloud Phyriea Conference, July 26-30, 1976, Boulder, Colorado. eee oe EM, Snyder (1977). “Temporally and Arelly Distsouted Reif” “J Irvig, Drain. Div. 103(UR2):281-220 ‘and Surface Rainfall” “Atrmosphere. Chicago: University of Chix (1988), Hydrology ond Fleadploin Analysis, Reading,Aye. canoren a /PAcCPATON CCOURAENCE NNO MENSIIEVENS I | Application du Krigeage a Optimisation Perene Campagne Piusiometrnue om ms Ae roa. Symp. Design Water Re- || She Prop. Inadequate eta 238) 2 "ilarid: UNESCO. ae Reta Demy (1868). Thermodynamics of Cows “Translated by M. Smyth Peesna A. Beer. New York: Academic Prose (agit, PS {1967}. "Optimum Density of Rainfall Networks.” Water Resources Res. [PS saqyso2s 1038. | ec Panay Dynamic Hidroagy. New York Meee 3% em tp Bagloon U080). “Wate ae of the Macha Tey, 1 deuaidge, Moss MIT Department of OFil Bneineerihy Ralph M Parsons Leboratory. (Te oper o.260.) | puartdge, F.. 11957). "Measurements of Cloud Prat 58-59. Fonnaey, WM, P.S, Bogloson, W. Qinbians, an ‘Rodrigue Beurbo [1988]. "Spatial || °°" Characteristics of Observed Precipitation Fields: A Catalog of Sumner ‘Storms in | Sze Dintibations” J. Meteor So artment of Civil Baginecring, Ralph M rican ratory, (ecaneal report no. 307. VOLT) 1) snes eemen x taseal "he Physics of Rainlouds. New Yous Cambridge University fhat the come spetil corelation is applicable, 18 ore 35 0.2 and low many years of data would you need £9 achieve the oie Beiacy as in part (a) when computing the Vong-term real mean of an event? Theo $2,000 por year, annualized, to place and maintain 8 normal rain gage ima basin 2000 kin’, The rainfall accomdation jn the area obeys an. ete i ial corzelation fanction wit parameter © Cu im”, The point cep of & procipitalion event is 100 mu. As e decison maker, you feel Natiance of (duction in menn square error in your estimate of Ys areal Peetipltation of an evant is worth $360.00 annals, ‘What is the number pret ons you would locate in the basin if you want ‘minimize total cost to you? ‘the updraft velocity in cloud system is related to the PSST and tem perature differentials betwoen the bottom and 0p of the cloud. A reasonable Raramoveriation for updsift velocity Gm kilometers Per hour) is Vg K VEE. “qhore Az isthe difference in elevation between cloud top sei ‘base (in kilo There c= 7, Assume that the raindrop-sio diseryation 1 ‘uniform Fre ht tte height of the cloud and is given by Ba: 2) NO) = Ne. With No = 1.05 em", ¢= 2mm proses 177 ‘the terminal velocity of drops can bo estimated from Vx(D) = «D with a = 8900 5°. p= 2000 © ures the cloud-top temperature os 3°, The mixing ote of intoming air at the cloud base is 14 gisg™ and the surface air ‘temperature (ea Tevel) is 25°C: er ea ecipitation rate if tho “efficiency” of the cloud is 02- The solution requires uso of the following fact: [erwe- 1. Total rainfall accurnulation from a single storm over 1 s0 obeys an. exponential correlation function with parameder 0 ‘km, The point, vari cxponen te ance of tlal depth at any pent tho basin) is 100 mm*. The ence i 00 Kia. The "eost” of ollecting deta to you fs 8 Pe of the basin or F the rain gags (annualied, o per your) ps $90 00 per every total st mean equare error. If your annualized cost per Sach $1,000.00, _ bint of meet iene (assuming random sampling) would you }9s0 the how many tmnimize taal cost of estimating the meen areal precipitation ‘ofa rainfall event? 3 Consider the rectangular area below. In a particular man‘ precipita eeemmee one 1,2, end He py ~ 8 ites Pa 74 a Po > By ‘A river ton through the aren as shown. AE stations A and 0 “monthly flows are pos throng iy 90,000 acre, respectively. The srea = much Target than wa existing aquifer and has negligible waterstorag? capacity. Determine any oe putranopiation in the area during that month, Explain and justify tuiy assumptions. Ifthe spatial correlation fanetioh of monthly rainfall is 208 Beet (pin miles) and the variance of monthly, rainfall at a point is TOs “estimate a roazonable upper Tirit of the relative variation in your ehranspiration estimate. (fints: Relative varictien ‘standard devia Gea eatimated value; there are 2.29 x 10" acres per square oot; there are 15280 foet per mile.) *4178. cnrnen 4 PRECIPITATION COCURTENCE AND MEASUREMENT prostens 179 9, Ont of « long-term record of precipitation forfour adjacent stations you ce iket records of one station are missing for the sfmines ‘months, June, sly. and August of a given year. For those toro0 ‘months the other three sta- eae, amsorded the following total depth in millimeters. STATION roe) ~ Some HTS july aT 84S ‘hagust 454088 Be LL Beh 28k ash] geo Beebe) ne so, Using th contour method comps the sean areal recitation dat oF BREE Sen in Figure 425 Ta ay averoe anal for Nevo anita of depth fr He the Arno Basin at Plorence, ‘Ttaly, by (a) arithmetic mean, (b) the Thiessen Se th fon BD tp mato wn dr ban, Coa, im 8 € 8 & Fay tek pnd Ge et Mere Sn ww, Boa oo aii of uch eh ain en Ue elevation crest met © 1 2 ele ore he ee sten acco over the ne ‘timate the missing precipitation if the long-term averse ‘precipitation for {fae three months in ell four stations is staTiON eeeateia die Sesion with sing rors. 10, An otarnative way of estimating a missing rons SS bby weighting obser 10, An alta inverse equare distance to the point ofthe missing record. The ‘expression would be phere ry isthe distance betwen station i and station whieh is the one where record Using the date and statement of ‘Problem 9, and the follow- Tre distaness rq = 5 Xm, r= 1 Rom Ta = 10 "an — compute the missing records. I Locate at east 36 yeare of anal prociitaton i 6% different stations oor area, Perfara a double-mass analysis f one ‘Of the stations using the in Yigg’ of toe other three as “index station.” (isthe tae | tase 415, Discuss the relationship between depth, duration, and area of rainfall for particular storms, + ‘Tho treo points in the following area record precipitation of Py ~ 8 ins y= tin. and P, ~ 12in. Estimate the mean ‘areal precipitation over the re- ‘gion using Thiessen polygons.4180 ciWFTER 4 / PRECPTTATION OCCURRENCE AND MEASUFEMENT 6, Enumerate the relative avantges and disadvantages of diferent ainfll- ‘measuring technologies 17.Jn an area about 90,000 km* in Kaypt, Shere are Yor anaual mean. Svaporation measurements of 287, 283, and 289 ‘Wan? with a variance of scape ah The three poinis are widely and randomly separated in space. 1800 ed that evaporation estimates are exponcntiaty correlated in pace with a correlation eooficont ranging from © ‘high of 0,005 km * to & Sra QO fat, Basod an these two extremes, what js the Tiree of moan are error you expos: in computing the mean arent ‘evaporation over the ‘whole region? ve Accame that the gages sbown inthe figure below are used f9 Set 18, Assume ht cn of event, Als ase thes bey a SBA 0) mas roal Dread type with poametar = O1 Rn he toe Ose ton of the x aciance of rv is given a8 9 int. What is te0 500 roe (MSE) of stating area! peciitation asin 2 ‘random sam saare igue? Assume now tint the nebrork sie Be Oost obéaining pling teresa averages, Serial coeation Botwean annual Yo 02. Tanger Sn ry ae nand foto given nebwark (SSS SN How many Joa the MB to Of of pint vasiance! Why is (he ‘random sare eacuraption not really applicable in this ease? proses 181 19, Using your knowiodge ofthe types of preipitation and fos 58 ‘that pre- 48 Cron occurs, anggest a rain-making machine, Use YOUr ‘imagination! ‘Justify your invention. op, Using tho information from Problem 1, obtain the areal SvEToH using 2 ae formas relating storm canter to mean areal presipitaion ‘Obtain the Thiessen and isohyetal averages. ‘21, You have a circular area of radius r = 3 ken. Leobyets 2% also circular, 2 yee tare coinciding with that of the total area. Soe ‘correspond to sith cantare cndius from the conter; 2m at 2 kan; and om ab 3 km. Esti- 3 Ste the mean precipitation over the area 2. Draw the Thiessen polygons forthe station configuration shown below. ‘The following information corresponds to the igure. ‘THIESSEN,AREAS PRBCTPITATION ‘on cx) STATION A 2 3.50 B ue 448 c 38 428 D 0 5.90 E 6 634 FB 2 582 @ 46 520 H 0 526 r 86 3.86 a 6 3.30 COblain the average precipitation over the area tp, An aren of 100 kris gaged y sree stations as shows p 1 following 2a A The even is a auare 10 kin by 10 ken Aes the On ofa large erSonie event, stations 1, 2, and S-recnrded toe! ‘depths of 106, 152, and gqelonic ever Svely, Batimaate the mean areal precipitation Wt the 221 mm, Fepmrynn method” Assume that cytonic storms in ths TEC) have Paice ea earelaton function in space with couirens ‘km Bat 2 eee bound ofthe nt accuracy (reduction in MS) ‘gained if tro 9 tate love dy mere added. Th point variance of total precipiation ofan event is 2000 mu.482 crapren ¢ / PREOPITATION OCCURRENCE ANO MEASUREMENT asin, 25im, \ ke 24, Assume that the net veloct of the form vad ="), ‘where D is diameter; Vj and c are constants, Assume that the constant ¢ dae i. Ghat eppearing in the exponential hydrometeor distribution fame, the ae oe ealue of eD is the rate of mass precipitation per unit volume of tien. At weed? Using the data on terminal velocities from Figure 48 (ase aa raay would the implied values of ¢ meke sense? Is this result consistent ‘vith the arguments presented in this chapter? , terminal minus updraft, of hydrometeors is Evaporation, Transpiration, Interception, and Depression Storage NN 5.1 intropucTion TBraporation refors to the change of water from its liquid tots vipat phase, Te the space scales of hydrologic processes, it usually refers fe fc Sor TRorayel vertical fx of vapor. Evaporation may oocur from sole? bodies, arora vor from unsafareted surfaces, Potenal evaporation is the o> saerraly controlled rate of evaporation from a given surface that ocsire matic re ad rate of supply of water to the surface ip essentially ‘unlimited. > ‘Transpiration stomatal openings. Again, given an u ‘one, the potential transpiration ‘The actu sponds to the difficulties in sep: spon te are vegetative cover is pot complete, In such cases transpiration aera plane or tree, while evaporation is oocurring from eoil, water oF other surfaces.484. courten s/ EVAPORATION, TRANSPIRATION, INTERCEPTION, AND DEPRESSION STORAGE [Asimplicd in Bg. @.4), evaporation isa function ofthe gradient of Vapor preesure concentration in the vertical direction, jon eame from Pere transport analogy to molecular diffusion In fact in perfectly lt arial ke etal convection) evaporation would indeed accur as moleetar aaepeae vat least until the vapor gradient disappears, when evaporation aaa enase, ‘This elosed-container analogy of evaporation, leading <0 ore TN ction when the air in the container becomes saturated, was desex bd reparation 72 while defining vapor pressure. In nature, flows are generally aaa ee sud the transport of Vapor is turbulont, as stated by Bq. (3-4) seeeyeition in a turbalont meaium is #funetion ofthe vapor eddy diftsieiy anata ot the vapor gradient. This factor i dependent on the degree of Sus rare ae oe in tam lergely a function of climatic conditions, mostly Wine vent Gatcil this dependence when we study the Dalton analogy oF mane transfer approach to evaporation in Section 5.23. Tieporation and transpiration can also be abteined by direct or indir oe tirect methods are mostly dominated by point sampling ox in- Teenated measurements over small areas, mostly with evaporation pens © {eEibcters Those wl be daseribed in Section 6.2.6. Indirotly, evaporation of ‘yeerytranypiration can be measured by performing a water Balance of he =, cere qdetion, as discussed in Chaptzr 1. Since Iatont heat is remulsod Bn lon an alternative i to do an eneray balance of the region fn order creeicalate evaporation or evapotranspiration indirectly. These last vo Pro- 2 Jaren will be discussed in Sections 6.2.1 and 5.2.2, respectively. Tne discussions on evaporation to follow will be grouped in two main s8¢ tiooe Sennion 6. deals with evaporation from free water surfaces Section 5 aie soeentrate on evapotranspiration, largely from the point of view of agri cultural water needs. ‘Benlinns 6.4 and 6.5 will describe the processes of intersoption and sor face setention, which in urn provide an opportunity for imereased evapora- ‘ion from a region. arene eegoring into detailed descriptions of the evapotranspiration process, we should emphasize its importance in the hydrologic £¥Ce In "Doe saw that 57% of all land precipitation evaporates while oceans ererrcate 112% of directly received rainfall, Tablo 2:2 also indicat shat Ie caption of condensation and evaporation played a major role in global en. (eey telanee, In a semi-arid climate, about 96% of annual precipitation may sre pate (Branson (1976). Figure 6.1 gives estimates of mean annual eves, cere tion throughout the world. Figure 6.2 shows the mean sanvat eranee on rom hallow lakes and reservoirs-over the contiguous United Seep Daily evapotranspiration may vary signiGivently. Figaro 5.3 shows fe fhomaeney dietibation of daily evapotranspiration throughout the year ip Danis, California, over a 10-year period-(Pruitt ot al. [1972). Values range Bazi about 0 mm to almost 12 mm per day. During a storm, evaporation is re- so hea minimum because of the saturated air conditions; nevertheless, areas anspiration betmesn storms is usually sufficient to deplete added t t { 5 ( I wed i ny H q f z g g ‘ é 5 a i i § = i 3 g 3 i 3 3 2 e488. GurTeRs / EVAPORATION. TRANSPIRATION, NTERGEPTION AND CEPRESSION STORAGE 2 EVAPORATION FROM FREE WATER SURFACES 189 5.2.1 Water Balance Method ‘This method was discussed in Chepter 1 during the discussion of the Iydro- Tene apcle The hydrologic budget equation written there included 6” ev=re, veg orm, Bseentialy, if for a given water body, the hydrologiet Hows Troe oltved volume of water, th surface inflow and outflow, te Stee: tee Pred iltajion, and the change in storage over a given period of Hone: tion ae es moat bo able to calculate the net evaporated and transpired than by ore tuarcae may be possible when applied in well-defined and wel: eae ai vonions and when averaging over relatively long periods of time, startle cuoraging period for ssing this techaique is one year. Month'y reer nee wc sortnuly affected by uncertainty in seasonal values of the ele, caas fn the hydrologic budget equation. Daily estimates of evaporation Were TMompted in the well-documented Lake Hefner, Oklahoma, sty (arbeck ater Harbeck (1954) wih estimated eccurasis i the range of 6% cae eever, this is an unusual situation. The estimation errors >saine wees lange as tho magnitudes of the difficut-a-mensure terms {> tho ‘hydro- Joaze balance equation getto be on the order of the evaporation, is sumiisey do eet iocall and inaccurate under most conditions, partioalariy fF sre re veraging time periods, Some of the hardest terms fo measure Sf Shange in storage, seepege, groundwater flow, and advected flows. 40.9909, 0,30.0, 98,0, 20.0.8, 808 2 A aR uly 1959 November 1999[ 12 bavi, call oo ae = = Sais ep Ray Tone Tuy Avg: Sept Oct Nov. Dee FIGURE 6.8 Frequency cstbution of daily evapotransplration (ce perennial Floss uly 1959-September 1969) and Ale Fescue ores ons, “1964-November gees (ay TOA.O. Prat, 5, Voretinges, end O.. Morgan, “Cena Callfornia Treprivanepiraon Frequancis,” ASCE Proc. 982): 177-188 EXAMPLE 5: ‘Evaporation from Lake Nasser Tres proviouly sated that evaporation in Lake Nasger is on the oder of 1 ws ho Nile annual flow. This is about 13 x 10° mi of evaporated Wee Peually We can use the density of water and the Tatent heat of ‘evaporation annually. We uantity to equivalent energy wits. The density of water ip Soe gin, The latent heat is approximately 600 eal” or abou! 2590 gt ‘tacks ure 4186 joules per calorie), Therefore the energy expended in evahe- ration is smvisvare completely in arid rogions and to havo a significant influence om soil rane carlaseodtated future hydrologic response anywhere. ‘Tins evaporation estizoates are critical in resorvcir $06)" and in agri- culteeal planning, For example, evaporation om Lake Nassee ‘behind the cana igh Dam in Egypt, ison the order of 18% of the sve. ‘Nile ennual evra gh Paaos of ts magnitude must influence roervolt Gesidhs eT : flow. Water sone management, which commonly, a8 at Lake Nasser affects ‘many countries = (13 x 10° m') (0 em) (2500 Je) 25 x 10" Sy ee 5.2. EVAPORATION FROM FREE WATER SURFACES ‘There are about 31.696 x 10° seconds in a year; therefore | Qurdetaied discussion | free water surfaces: 1a : | ___fioe water eure not only have the obvious applications to ko 00 > | dat Te pa wl have implications in potential ovapotransis esti | sdrolegy, ot ean aosurnpkion inthis section is that water rust be avail: aes limited amount aad rate of supply for evaporation = 1.03 x 10 Js" or watts, ‘A megawatt consists of 10".W, 60 the energy equivalent is = 1.03 x 10° MW.4190 HAPTER / PORATION, TRANSPIRATION, RITERGEPTION. AND DEPRESSION STORAGE “Arctativoy large power plant wil produce 10" MW. In terms of mass, C8 ohn lat to evaporation is about 24% of the actual annual water constz=P~ ton of about 55% 10m’. & 5.2.2 Energy Balance Method Yatlowing the samo idoas as in the raase balance, on enerdy balenee €&f be Pole given oreu, particulary for # defined water body such as @ Take. "The equation locks Tike this: ee on ‘where Q, is the change in system energy; Qi the incident sola: radiation; Girt reflecod sola radiation; Q, is the incoming ‘mpewers ‘atmospheric See ric is the reflected longwave radiations Q, is the nwa radia- Taino OF by the water body because ofits temperature: Qs ie the net seagy advected by moving water, Q s the energy wand * covaporation; and ererE a yest romoved fom tho eystem into the sir as emable heat. Soa aa edhe akgve equation aust be given in eoramon units puch calc ins er unt imo, calories per unit aren uae centimcter) Po unit CERES Matt por tn area. The equation ignores chemiea) ‘and biological tine, oF Tocssee, heat Lost by conduction through the botiom of ‘water peer Rell as explielt accounting of possible eneray transiore ‘during eny condensation. seh vadiation terms can be determined from the equations discussed sn Chaptoe or olhors. Preferably, though, radistion is measare} te site se catia Radiometers exit to measure total incoming oF ne shortwave ‘and longwave radiation. ong aval ator bods the term Q, is mostiy due ta sensible hens ar for through the water-body surface. This ignores heat flse ‘through the ‘Goand. The sensiblesheat term is dfficlt to measures Hone, y is commonly errr the energy wood in evaporation. Bowen (1926] saggests the se ofa ratio of @, to Q a paeg-np aT) Boor x wo Ea G 62 ‘wre P is embient atmospheric presure at the water surface 7's the met where P is ambion’ pare; Tis the mean air temporature at elevation £3 7s 7olghdvation vapor preasure at temperature T,; end é, ie the tocne, Tate ‘Pressure at elevation 2. The origin of the Bowen ratio wif bbe explained later. sing the Bowen ratio, the energy balance equation beoornes QL +R) =F 4 @- A> 6 ee evaroRATON mHOM FREE WATER SURFACES, 191 gore @ is the not radiation (shortwave and longwave) Solving for Qin Bq. (6.8) leads to B+ @- a) : co) LR whore G = Q,- Q + Qe = Qu = Que : a aton is generally expressed in terms of volume PEE ‘unit area ‘(dopth), e-& 65 ple _qhore I is evaporation in centimeters of water pet Ja Qs the energy used there Focoton in calories per aquare centimeter per Any 0 the density of in ovaporation per cab contimoter, and, i the Intent eat of evaporation 4 calories per gram. ‘Depth of evaporation then becomes G+ @-@) pEAL +R)” B= 6 sill undefined in Ba, (6.6) are the eneray advection Sete Q, and the storage torm Q,, To obtain these we neod an estim of the water balance. Tt storage frm ghasized that in porforming the energy balance, Core must be uken to guarantee that mass is conserved. tne civection end storage terms in Bq. @.6) can be obtained as = a2 Beovite+ HVT, Vee 2. = puVsTo— eaVaTa * Wits ~ MET» on whore Gis tho specific hoat at emstant pressure of (iene tos where Cr ie of component i; Vis the volume of omPeROT end 7 i 3 the eo eozponent i The subsets oe a (1S surface socks fre aioy dh rartace ofl, by SePREE COW To ody at Solow: Pe Be me tava Af and 2, water toy athe oP of time inter- the beeing rm i Bi.) acount fr fhe ohm, of removed Yel St Te er - ti atent heat of evaporation and Fe ontative by evaporation, Toperatare (aay be oe everays) AM emperor ie in Jaa entigrade, implying that Feference ampere of 278°K i4192. cunvten 5 / EVAPORATION TRANSPIRATION, NTENOEPTION, AND DEFTESSION STORAGE in Fg. (6.7) the temaperature of precipitation may be faken a5 Wet, pall temtoratare and that of toopage flow as the teraperatare ote lowest a te ine water body. I temperature profiles of the water body oe avail level of Wal os relationships between watar depth and surface aren, © 709 {ere Ette to deal more accurately with the change in sures Mr The BE Rh of the body of water can be disoretizad in n layers and enerky content is, calculated for each depth interval: S4(5 emirians 3 ominian), a) whete superscript i refers to the ith layers Ahi rofers ta the thickness of Tiger fot the beginning of the period (subecript 1) and Af is the average se Srontal aree eovered by layer i at the beginning of the ‘period. For the eave teelmique to be useful, temperature profiles must be av ilable at differ: aa veeations and the equation preferably applied for subregicns Subregions Should be grouped by mean depths, assuming ell regions with similar depth ell have emilar temperature profiles and hest content. ereces where maas balance is not very accurata, it is posible to at- tribute a temperature and hence a heat content to a mass cosnre Sr "Tho energy balance procedure has been used ‘successfully to estimate evaporation on a wockly, monthly, oF longer time scale (Kohler (1954); Srakecr et al, (3968). It is not revommencied for shorter time, periods when aerrGora lumped system ai doveribed here, In most cases, i accuracy is igor han thao a a previously stated, raciation ‘measurement Trea @SEinates. Gunaji et al. [1965] have pointed out that results may be more sensitive to Jongwave radiation esti pointed san ta other terms in the radiation balance. This rey simply bo @ saris ion of the importance that the water temperature has throughout the Toumalation, including its effect on the Bowen ratio. This sensitivity to water Temperature may be much less important when the method is used within a crenata dynamic water temperature model, 0s wil be discussed in the allowing let of advantages and disadvantages of the enersy ‘balance method (Gelfrich et al. (1982D. : Advantages: 1. With good measurements it is usually quite accurate (<10% error). 2, The concept can be implemented and numericelly solved ie study the spa- ce cnet horas distribution of temperatures in a lee, This is the basis Sfhydrothermal models that eombine hydraulic and ‘thermal properties of ‘water bodies. 3. With » hydrothermal model the energy balance equations car be solved for short time steps. This tase of the energy balance with 2 madel {hat computes surface temperatures leads to compensating errors *, the 2 EVAPORATION FROM FREE WATER SURFACES 199 evaporation computation. Too large surfac temperature incroness 6, aaa vadlation, which in tum works to redice temperature in the next time period. Disadvantages: 1. Relles on the Bowen ratio concept, and is therefore dependent on the Re etty of this idea during unstable boundary-layer conditions (see Section 5.2.3) a. Aczuracy may be compromised by uso of empirical and/or analytical expressions used to obtain the radiation terms. 4, Th time sale of application, when used for a jumped system, shoold et Tie Sint io one week. Results obtained should not be used in, comput: te ess ime scales smaller than that of original calibration date, EXAMPLE 52 ‘Evaporation Using the Energy Balance Method Pramples 2.1, 2.2, and 2.8 established some hypothetical condone for a Frames oy in Boston, Lats assume that thor conditions are repose sea etane houre for the month of January. What would be the ecwreges eje hllow (vell mined) lake evaporation at Boston? Following #6 8 72 aaevilntion ofthe past exasnples’ results and somo other necessary data. Mori AVERAGES = BOSTON _ ‘Glear skieo, shortwave radiation 0.52 ly min ‘Solar altitude angle, 24.83 degrees Preaguro over lake 1900 mb ‘Water-surface temperature 7, BC ‘ic temperature Ty aC Balative humidity at same clevation 60% “Vio ae to estimate evaporation using the energy budget method (Ea. 5.8) ‘Tho Bowen ratio was given by + (,-T) @-@) R= (0.61 x 10°C). ‘Tho saturation vapor pressure at lemporature 7, can be obtained from ante nL to Appentix A. For T, = 6°C, ¢,~ 8.72 mb, At T= SO, fhe se Table As in Aber is 759 mb, which, when multiplied by the relative bur ‘ity, results in 455 mb fore, "The Bowen ratio Unea becomes it 6-9. R= (061 x 10° N00 Fy — Gm” O28"\|Farthermore, we will assume that water inputs éne ear rer asgentially the same temperature, euch that Q, = 0 ‘The energy 4Q4. CHAPTER 5 / EVAFORATION, TRANSPIRATION. INTERCEPTION, AND DEPHESSION STORAGE Inne specific hent of watar at constant prossars O calg C7 at 15°C; this value will bo used as an approximation at al! tempers te for this ‘example. Only at below freeing temperatures = ‘his epproximation in sori fous error. semperavre discribution) and that its vemperaturo does ‘change much ). SOF soume that the shallow lake is well mixed (uniforn vertical semper the month. The essumplions lead to no heat-storags CAs ESS @. ‘badget simplifies to = = G4 Gm Vr Me MW For Boston, incoming clear-sky shortwave radiation Wes obtained in Chaptar 2 a4 0.52 iymin’*, To abtain Q, we require an estate ‘of the albedo. Charter Piination of 24.83 snd clear skies, Figure 2.12 gives A= 0.09, s0 Q, = 0.05 ly min’ “Tho lotgarave emissivity ofthe atmoophore i a function of is apo Pree sure tetatfon (2.8) gave one soch relationship. With ¢ = 4.55 my B, = 0.740 + 0.0049 = 0-76. ‘The longwave albedo of water is about 0.03. Therefore ee with 7, = 216.19°K and o = 0.826 x 10" catem’ pin” *K4. The above Decomes Q.— Gey = 0.35 Lymin™. ‘Tho water radiates as a black body, 50 Qe, = (278.15) = 0.49 Ty min” [At the watar tomperature T, = 5*C, and using Ba. (3.38) 04.5 eal L, = 6918 ~ 0.51T With a water density of 1 germ, Bq. (6.6) can now be evaluated: 005-4035 049 435.30 emmin” ieee 52 EVAPORATION FROM FREE WATER sunACES: 195 If we assume most evaporation does occur during daytime hours and that sn ease Thave about nine Bours of sunshine (see Teble 6.9), the implied daily evaporation is E = 0.23 emday™. # ‘The Bowen Ratio Recall the turbulent transport equations of Chapter 3. Evaporation was given as R= -p.Ke 69 ‘Turinalent heat transport can be similarly expressed as aT PO Kr ae and moment transfer 28 eat = pth, ean ihero pis moist air dent; Ky Ky and Kare turbulent eddy dieivites here o,f mele ranmenturn, respectively, 7. is tbe mean specific uml: ity (see Chapter 3); 7" is the mean air Yemperature; 2 is the vertical coordi- 1 ta ete fara constant presure;and U, 8 he Sra wae ion velocity” From Ba. (6-10 x,-u/(). xp ‘Rquation (6.10) éan be multiplid and divided by Ka to yield Kays Oe Cae ot : ee ‘To proceed further somiething rust be said about the velocity profit turbu- To roeee ar flows over water, a boundary layer form whero the ratte ser oem he contact point of air and water js 0 and the mean vest oocyte gration until che point where boundary effects are lost. ss crete Tayer ean be several hundred meters thick. Ifa layer develops fully as eiubte (urfaces and conditions are not changing), the velocity profile is Togarithnule, following the general form T@ = y, Inle/s,) + Ca 6.4)|| 496. canetens / EVAPORATION, TRANSPIRATION INTERCEPTION AND ePRESSION STORAGE szevaronsTion FROM FREE WATER SURFACES, 187 sere Pigeon iosphet pres atte water sued an weHT where {mp temporal mean values in imply tempted nn prmnsre ued gerne Ba 60) 08 68 2 ne aying and viding Be, (620) by Kew a8 BE a2). St pe elo pre expression Ea 644.12 cine the nt Thee gr elocty Uy. The ress 8 oe 3 \ aT Ke poy Ge Qe EB = 06RD RE POLED Generally, Cy = «= 04 and Cy = 0, where xis called ‘the Von Karman’ con Generally Cr roughness height, 3 characteristic eleven ‘of the surface at Thich paint the velocity is effectively zero. Papalion (5.13) ean be appresizanted in Brite differences 08 Ky Qn = PoC UT ean “phere subscripts 1 and 2 indicate measurements of 7) heights, and wetript 2 stands for the higher point. Bvsluating Eq, (6.14) at bwo points ad subtracting leads to orming the ratio Qy/@, (Ba, 5:39 over Ba, 520) ssl the Bowen ratio GaP Ky TT R=. > De2mL, Ky ~ “ U,- 0, = EE inte 618) ‘Squaring leads to which Bq. (6:2) gave 88, 2% om x tore n= Boar x wor Gra” W.- UF Swe ein the above result axsumnes that turbulent transfer of ent ‘and water vapor are The ce act, i implies Ky ~ K., Tho equality of 6847 diffusivities and the Spplioublity of the Bowen ratio is somel mts ‘questioned, especially when aericarwith boundary layers that are not fully Geveloped or stable. Equality aca itfusivities simply states thatthe wind elas) Theat and mass of ey ave the same. Monin and Yaglom (1971) and ‘Dyer (1974) angue for Cranet values of K and K, oven. under mnsteh'e ‘conditions. Bowen (1926) sag, /K,2 0.92. Ina related conctosion Morgan al, (3971) gave SURES 1s. From Eq (6.6) it should be lege ‘shat evaporation car be wT), 69) ole caitive to the Bowen ratio calculation, TH ‘unfortunate since it ele.) wey eMdopends on quantities that aro not always ‘accurately obtained, in arn pe to bo enpocted, particularly when and 5% ‘of equal magnitude. Errors is ronson tha parallel computation of surisce ‘water) temperatures Tee to pera! model cen improve the zesuls of 9 ore ‘baliace caleula- With a aammoretion. Although the controversy aves the Bows ratie continues, dio oad tn vote Q, and Q, iver the difntties in Girectly measuring Qn ‘Ging Bg, (6.17) to press Uf and enbsiatng in Ba, (629 results im wee a9 Iz is taken as the roughness height Z1 which implies Uy reduees to 0, Hq. (5.18) @,-T.) Ky = oC Te ahere 7, is now the water-sunfuce teraperature and "Tis the mean tempers tare at elevation z, ‘the energy consumed during evaporation §5 obtained from Eq. (5.9) by multiplying by the latent heat of evaporstoe Expressing Gy in terms of by pressure and assuming reasonably consiant ‘pressure (see Chapter #) regults in 5.2.3 Mase-Transfer Methods: The Dalton Law Analogy ‘Yrom Ba, (621) we can see that evaporation (in grams PES ‘square meter per Pe ‘secon of vapor) can be expressed a Q.= DB = ~ 0.622: 7 Ku Pe 620 w= 002g Oohefay” 2)‘200 cuaprens / EVAPORATION, TRANSPIRATION INTERCEPTION, AND OEFRESSION STOPS 2 EVAPORATION FROM FREE waren suRFACES 201 “which is « Dalton analogy formula not dependent on wind speed, where A is ‘calibrating constant. rating const fic convection effects were to be added, evaporation could bbe approximated as REFERENCE (COMMENTS Gooding et al. (1976) 02 ‘Semitheoretical development. Be (Arn + FIG — Wegeneld and Plate (3977) 08 -——_—‘Tabortary and field dat, = VA Cloyne {19711 a2 Circular areas Fetch Dependence of Evaporation O11} Rectangular stripe Entre Sc shows the expected relative behavior of the evapesaion 8 asch end Selva 19791 oo utes as. and Bu. development of a boundary layer over a body of waicr, Basis ft Oe development, the velocity and vapor gradients are ‘sharp, resulting in bigher ‘arbeck (1962) oO. bet from lake ad reverie sere atign han when a more stable boundary layer is otabsbod ‘This ar- erepogt would imply that erea-averaged evaporation shout ‘be Tess than aint evaporetion, particularly for points near the water body ‘boundaries. SO aore e, Rience of evaporation has boon argued by Haxbeck (196°) Geadling eta {i976}, and Reach and Selva (1972), axnong others. The conclu: coats chat is inversely proportional to the fetch length ¢ ‘Source Heiich etl 11982 8.2.4 Combined Mas ‘The Penman Equation ‘Temperature and vapor pressure data necessary to compute evaporation Se semPeshen than not collected over land close to the water body of inter, mer phic is in conflict with the requirements of both the energy method {Gestion 6.2.2) and the mass-transfor methods (Section 5.2.3, Bq. 6-24), Those fechniques were developed assuming that the water temperature was avail” eee {hal o saturated air zone exinted over the water, at the woter tem: etsture, One way 10 deal with this issue is the Penman [1948] equation en Hs modifications (Anderson (192); Van Bavel (1966), rater jatenducing the concept of a roughness height, Hy. (6.21) stated Transfer and Energy Methods: EWt, ean “pore th factor n wavaly takes values bebwoon 0.1 and 0.2 Table 6.2 foe Hare (2082), summatiees and comments on some of the existing results. ‘ike difficulty with fetch dependence adjustment ties in the venyng ‘nature of wind direction and speed and in the irregular shapes ‘of natural and nalare over bodies. Under such conditions tho definition of fetch Tength Thay introduce uncertainties that make the ealeulation questionable. Q, = LB = LB — &)> 6.32) “where B is evaporation in grams per square meter per second and @ is in carne por square moter por sozand. Overbars are dropped from here on for cart bias influenced by turbulent fluctuations lke e, for the sake of nota- Sanat simplicity. The factor B-was a function of velocity and was given by ‘apo boundary aye = oman Xe Pour, pnt B= ound ie* U.N G/s)- rom the energy balance equation FIGURE 5.4 Evaporation versus ftch. Source: Heli et al 1982) Q= OP -Q%h, 6.33),‘202. caveTen§ / EMPORATIN, TRANSPIRATION ATETCETION AD DEPRESSION STORAGE where Q* includes the radiation, advestion, and storage terms and Q, is the wpetpeheat term, Using the Bowen ratio concept 22,K.,, in Ba. (6.32) results im Q¢= OpPL BWP, ~ T) = HBT, ~ 7)» 63 whore 7 = CpP. Define the slope of the relation 25 scaration vapor pressure—teraperatte eats 7 atk 635) where e, and T, are saturation vapor prossie ef lovation 2 with tempers where ovation zis short distance above the suxaee “Ueing Bq. (6.85) in Bq. 6.84) revults im = thw, ‘Adding and subtescting (7/)E,Be., = LL,Ble, ~ 6) ~ XLBlew~ (6.36) y= LLLBle,~ 6) ~ ZEB %s 638) eno ein he vapor prosare ait teraerain ata elavation = above the surface. ce urmn im Ba. (6:6) in, according 0 Fa (62) (y/8)Q., Therefore LL Ble ~ & o = FQ - FLBlee = %) oan Using the energy balance equation (6.38), a= gr -&% = Qt LQ, FE Be #) 638) szpiponaTion from eee Waren sureaces 203 Beg a [Sart eBene Ly Aad y Gav “where is praporation in grams of water vapor per Un StS Fr unit time. If weer ere density of water p, the rosut is # volume of water POE ‘unit aren per unit time. + er i tun, hence not roguring ealcuation, the modified Pena equation elimingtes tho noed to meusare the water 8a temperature. Gantdes the radiation terms already discussed, the only Ho ‘component is the Besides th rio the ratio of Ue cop af hoe, — T relation Cay "This ratio darn NT fiction of air temperature 7, io Table Ven Bavel (1966) 3 eta only « minor eror is incurrod in using only he 2 ‘serperabure t0 sro egy carr, Also appesring in Sq, (6.9) is the water cE deficit at Obtain i Sehich is easly blained and requires measarements at ‘only one int. Me isnot known oF mensured, the water surface temPessine would still oe ncaded to compute Iongwave back-radiation. To avoid ‘this depen- sa Pe poronimato relations bebwveen not radiation e=-hengh ‘and air tem: oetatar exist. Section 5.2.6, Bq. (0.48), gives such 9 relationship. A nportant is that Eg (6.99) can be manipulated into 1_} sgn o Ba Eyelet he, 640) whore Ris naw interpreted as any estimato of eveporstion (i the same units wee) melting from a Dalton law analogy. Pestively thet, ‘Penman’s equa- 5 B) resale fe energy and mass-ransfer techniques, As wit ‘bo seen in tion come advection arma in Q* ate many times ignored ‘and accounted fer iy udjustent factors analogous t the Bowen ratio. 5.2.5 Empirical Equations [Hydrologic practice usually zeies on the empiri! evaluation of the coeffi syste ee Delton’s law analogy Cg. 6.26) Helfrich of al, {1982} state that over clon 0 Mavoretion equations have been identified, ey ‘point out partial Tatings in Paily et al. (1974), Ryan and Harloman {1973}, and Wunderlich aa qvuilable ompiical equations result from, the analysis of limited (A972) AT jate sole. This combined with inconsistent 208 @ifforent data- and Tosa Setices always makes the general uso ofthe fequations open to suspicion. Some equations wore originally vcalibrated with data collected over caret surface, Others relied on data over land, sometimes not so near toTABLE 6.2 A/y versus Temperature 7, °C aly hy 670 588 5.96 5.09 63, 6a 651 685. 6.80 on ‘357 3.68, 315 84 3.83 405 42 492 432 443 453. 464 475 sy 214, 220 2.26 alr 1.23 321 1.30 134 138 ate emt 896 94 938 9.52 92 992 10.10 1030 1050 10.80 1100 11.20 1100 31.60 1190 1210 12.20 1260 1380 509 505 510 518 520 525 530 535 540 545 55.0 555 56.0 810 516 58.0 585 500 595 720 7136 tal ast 13 190 207 aa 580 40.0 05 410 a5 420 425 430 435 40 45 455 460 465, 470 408 480 49.0 495 4gt 5.09 530 545 587 Baz 300 308 310 315 m0 10 335 240 MB 35.0 355 360 968 310 318 380 385 300 395 232 2.38 245 aah 264 27 2.85 292 3.00 3.08 345 333 331 340 348 an 21.0 aL5 225 23.0 235 mo 245 250 255 26.0 265 70 m8 280 285 290 296 200 iz 150 155 150 1.68 168 173 178 182 1.88 198, 198 2.08 2.09 100 405 9 15 320 Bs 130 135 40 45 160 155 360 365 170 is 180 185 300 i aE sl! q a | i il ae als i } 2 i "Ganpiyicel Union $B5s: Corin br the American “S2EVAFORATION FROM FREE WATER SUPFAGES 205 the location of interest. The elevation of temperatures and vapor Picst tae or iepats vary widely, Tio definitely affects eatimates of molars Trdiont and of velocity, Some equations modify the Pett" analogy and add Senden terme in the wind velocity fenetion oF introduce nonlinear ‘depen- ‘ence on vapor prossure gradients. St i porsible to make adjustments for clevation differences wind and ‘vapor pressure gradient measurements, ‘The adjustments or ‘based on the aatidhmie profiles for wind velosity and humidity. For ‘neutral, stable atoapher, he orertion ‘Rom a wind speed measurement U; to a value Us ‘would be Uy _ teed U, In,/2)" “where 2, isthe roughnoss height for wind. Hicks otal (1977) sugnest oan avi th, “ghore the constant a takes a value of 0.009. Helfrich of al. (18501 si where. iosible values of s~ Kobler (1954), using Lake Hef’ ete, 2 ited 2, = 0.0046 to 0.000 m over water, Harbeck of 9 {1958} reported rete) 0015 m from Lake Mead deta. ryan, and Tarlenee [1973] used x 0.001 m for wind specds less than 2.25 ms" and #2 = 10,008 m for higher edge Helirih o al (19821 show thatan order of magnisnds °°" > rae ree 9.0001 m) inplies a 4% error in the adjustment of wine speed from 0.01 oro oOslovatian. They also argue that additional corrections on 212 Om wo Fee nonneutral abmosphere are generally not warranted ‘Vapor pressure gradient adjustments between two elevations cit be rade wsing = _ Inle/ea) : a= 6. ne, Waele)" ‘ oe phere ge Une roughness eight for water vapor, given hy Hicks tal. (19771 a KU, where Dy is the molecular difusivity of water vapor, Helfrich et [19821 Tote 2, 0.000061 m and 0.000009 m forthe Lake Hefes on ‘Lake Mead ote Fo actively, The extors of specification of 25 are comparable fo those ‘fication in the velocity profile equation. rong Spe ga) compiled 10 evaporation equations snd converted then th, eight measurements and to metric units, These are the rst| |) 206 ciarrens /VAPORAHON. TRASSPRATION, NTERCETTON, AND DEPESSON STORAGE 10 ener yelfich eta (1962) fora comparison ofthe St 1 equations in reer ja predicting cooling-pond behavior togetnes Wi & dynamic hydrothermal model, Among their conclusions we can ‘highlight the following: general statements: + ost equations overestimated evaporation and required eustments 7 & Reed factor, effectively @recalibrati Fara evaporation equations behave very well when wed with Se | Calibrated ereponger vrms thn originally intended, For example Ser oy goal, or annually averaged mrtoroogi a id. se of daly a romiseexirates of evaporation fr those period. 1 | 4, Ununtainy or erors in parometrs oF metooalogis S958 7 consider. peor de feedback effec: bebween temperature and evpersio™ ably dampod bY gre wand win e dame hydrothermal mode | \ 10 equations in Table 5.2, along with a few other ‘alternatives, The reader is EXAMPLE 53 ‘Gomparieon of Empirical Evaporation Formulas co rga to study the variable resulta of the various Delon: oe Co a Tes aoa friable 8.3. In order to do thet, assure the following daily averaged conditions: u,=19 ms" = 22mb 7, = 26°C, which implies e, ~ 31.6 mb | Equation @.19) can be usd to obtain the latent heat of evaporation, evaluat ing at To \ 1, = 5913 - OSTT = 5973 ~ 0.57125) = 588 cals | tbe compatible with the unite of Table Bi the sbove has to be converted Te pe eiper gram, There are 4186 Jal "therefore he = 2441 Tg. Now we sev Gvaluate some of the available formulas. : ‘Take Hofer: | Q, = 3.75(1.9) (91.6 — 22) = 684Wm? | tm order to convert te above to evaporation in cantimgiars par days me | estima vide by Zand by the density of water, 10° gm. 68.4 5e 7m, — 9.28 x 107 ms" | Em pai ig? 0 em tier BE EVAPORATION FROM FREE WATER SURFACES 207 ‘TABLE 5.3 Brpirieal Bvaporation Equations TABLE 5. Bapirical Pranoration Parte nm “Fas Bro 10 equntona wore compiled by Walch et l 1982) Units are. ToS The fee eetr) cin ilibars Gn dogs Celis) A Gn bese, ‘and U Gn er ts eta, Subuetips in U and esdicate the elevation whers 214 No meter pe sein ur to dol of evaporation, dive by Intent Heat Le and density of water. 1, Lake Hefner (Kebler (1954D (om Take dota) Q.= B18UYe, - € 4, Moyer 1945} ovloped for sma heated pond water, 6 on pond dala) a 79 + 220 03 ‘throne 1961) veloped for email heated pod water, 5 fon pond dat) a [66 + a.8URVe ed iasbeck (1963] (several Inkee, o2 pond data) =e) Brady fa 1969} (rom snderaelyBentd cooting ponds riginally calibrated ‘with mixed data on and off ponds) = 69 + 049UD(e,— 2d» ima and Donchenko 1967) (harmally loaded ver, water-surface ts) Q,= 60 + 0.26a7 + 5:10)(e.~ 4) are T,-T a ‘yen end Harleman [2978] (cling pond: orignal, pone data ct 19 = fa26arny* + 8102} — 4) are = TY-Tt. 8, Goodling ot al, [1976] (theoretical, no data verifiation) deo" 4 es where R, = Waf/ol ¢ = fetch distance: v ~ viseott.| \ ‘TABLE 83 (Continued) 4g, Weinman and Bratsnert (1973) and Websman 11978) (ihooretical, no data verification) anon" q.= specific humidity af water surface emperors de = speci hamiity of it € = fotch length (Ge and n axe ceficionts dependant on stability. 10, Hicks et al (1975) (cooling-pond date, on pond dala) LepyUAgs 99, Qs Fine) — vollinG/en) ~ el Bq, 622. he flowin forelas were apie fom results by TVA ISO snaking eon 13 mb and specific eran tendiped arg = OG2z/ Rvapraton B and eee axe given, 01 aoe es dard atmospheric preseure was taken cs Fe jn meters per second. 44, Penman (fom Priestley {1969 ata on land) B= 1.69 x 10°%0.93 + UN ~ 69 42, Marciano and Flarbeck (1954) Lake Hefner dats) (ridlake seedings, originally 8 =) B= 1528 x 1070s, ~ 69) ogorssixport data for Uae oorake data fo 6) = 136 x 107ULe,~ &) (gnidlake data, 2m) B= 1672 x 1970. - «2 1a, ‘Torner [1966] (velocity on Take, vapor pressure on and) B= 287 x 10"Usle— ed 14, Kasterbrook (1968) Lake Hefner, mise tower) = 1326 x 1076, ~ 6 208 2 EVAPORATION FROM FREE WATER SURFACES, 208 since there are 86,400 seconds in.a dey and 10" emm the above is equiva Dane to an average daily evaporation of B= 0.24 oméay™. Brady otal Q.= [69 + 049 FIGLS ~ 22) = 32 Wm? E = 0.29 emday Penman: B= 028 emaay™. Turner: B= 087 emday” Basterbrook: B= 0.25 emday This obvious that there can be significant dirences blag TO fa we er ey, whenever poole, equations shouldbe we with, rminini fhe same natare es that used in their development. of th sme ntaresting comparison is the evaluation of Pf 629), “aia tata eal origins. Todo 0, aovure R= Ken ky P= whlch hae eae eity of ar at 25°C ia about 0.0071 ER 0.0011 1000 em; THyom able 5.5, 2 8 talon a8 0.004 om oF 0.002% 10° m. equation (6.28) then becomes, 2 : (0.0011 207 4 gy OLS = 22) EB = 0.62204" —“Fo99 (1.9): 7n*02/0.00001) = 0013 gars" of vapor st convert to centimeters per day of water, we mast divide UY oe density ot ac gam mltiply by 10° ema" end by 86,400 say This yields B= 0.1 onday™. 1 \ \240. canrTER / XAPORATON, TRANEARATIN, RTERCETFICN AND DEPRESSION STORAGE Had wo used Kiy/Kr, equal to 1.18 as stated by Moreen ct al, (19711, the result vould be B= 0.3 emday™, sft considerably less than tho empirical equation resulta, An onder of magni stil eosroane in the roughness eight to 0.04 om “will inerease the evapors- fon to = 0.17 day. # 5.2.6 Direct Measurement of Evaporation vie na widely usd and prowen monitoring acne 315 evaporation soa widely Woe nor wt controled #24 on “quantities, ‘The pans are ‘exposed to climate and weather in the jocation of interest. Pan he pan fon celatea with to peta evaprsh® from a natural sratar body. ‘vaporation is commonly 36 only used on08 872 np Weather Dares Css A Land Pas. Tie nH rade of galvanized iron 4 ‘fe (122 em) in diameter ‘and 10 in. (25.4 cm) deep. It is ported on a ‘well-ventilated wooden ‘frame about 15 cm above ground surface. dane ey Plon Industry Sunken Pan Tasspan SGT en) in diame Barwa Plt ne ed iat ont A ep, bare more than jn. above or below ground swater surface 9 S0PPO level 4. curado Sunken Pan This pan is male of pest galvanized iron, 3 Cotes. en) with a dopth of 18 i. to 3 45 “I is buried in the ‘round to within 4 in. of rime 1 os Genogiol Survey Plating Pan, Tis iekeooee 8 (O15 om) square and 18 in, (46 cr) d 4 ent inthe watar body in the contar oF Sa df (427 cam) by 16 fe (488 om) 5, GG1.3000, the USSR. Standard Por. This galvanized iron instrument GET, yan) aid as 2 dept of aout 60 em. The Pe is instelted sunk ia the ground. 6, The Young Pan. This pan is 2 (61 em) in diame and § (1 em) deep. The Young Pon Tees tat iis covered by 2 inchopening O° ‘AT pons measure more evaporation Shap, ‘naturel water bodies because of shel smaer size, boundary effeets induced DF ‘heat éransfer through Pan thelr Sry and wind effects eausod by the conesine ‘teelf. This leads to the material arccepted pan coeTicients, The cocficiens ‘which vary with pan {5p and location, multiply the pan records fe Sbtain actual evaporation est orily used pan in the iy stable coefficient. Tt is near Webie be gives several observed pan coef 152 EvAPORAT Jon Fnow Fae waren sureaces 217 United States, the Class A pan ‘0.70 under average conditions. cients. The Young pan shows ‘coffcint values eloser to unity. ‘Ths is due t9 compensating (evaporation Setuction) effect of the covering vei ize and inateriol, The mes itself sass The sunken pans—BPL, Colorado, and cates Jinear unity. ‘Their drawback is main is is effect, though, Will vary with ‘can also lead to mainter ‘GGI-8000 —also tenance and possible debris ance diffi bit coef ficients gufon Floating pans face the most realists ‘conditions; nevertheless, sccumnntid access i aiiclt, and problems. thelr Ur gan shows reasonable variation of {he aable over time at a given location, but Tales serv to be reasonably sensitive to loestion Gale. Coefficients tend to be less Kohler et al. (1956] developed for lend pan evaporation, B= (e~ e)O42 + 0.002905)» where B is in millimeters per d#y; Velocity in kilometers per day, at Jobler and Richards (1962) used Ea, ‘an elevation of 4g) and a pan coefficient of 0.7 to derive Gauly sballow-lake evaporation as Gh) mean daily wind velocity, daily eo} CTE temperavure (T,). Obviously, the terms ay ne pressure gradiont are being related i ‘tho above-mentioned three YaPPT das, Linsloy etal. (1982) show how thie Yq, (8.31). Their results are sures in millibars, Q* in eguival In the previous equations, all temperatnires jent millimeters ich waves are common. ThE ‘coefficient around a 0.70 ANS evssful raodifiod Dalton lew anslogy 649) pressures in millibars, and U; is wind "160 mm above the pan rit. “-43) in the Penman formulation ‘Figure 6.5, a graph giving ‘a Ganetion of mean daily sir temporstnrs far radiation, and mean daily dev, (d+ 7), net radiation, and Ye done, mostly relying 0” n= @oosisr, + oss" = T= 250 648) a 0.68, 7 A oi 2o- [+ wascttoml os y 1-4 e : as 6.48) 39,86((0.007982, + 0.8072)" Sooner, +0807] Tee ~2TC oan Qe = 11d x 107Q, + 826 x 10%QT, F a8)" THe ox 104g? — 29 x 10°QHT, ~ 72) — 10? (6.48) are in degrees Celsius, pres ‘of evaporation per day, andems gp oops a ‘MEDORA 8) PS ssnginna Hr Pee IIe VIE ass "nis Aoqeoescs woe 98830 rey) sondess | = cryourumap Span en} Sm TLRA OSETIA NE PAT oes Be ie ~ ret yo nyo seg OH OL 395 26) WTSI cy non soe ype wreaodean Th SSH, 3999030005 inom em a oF HoH IN AOL SHE "WORE “oj09 ‘som 3 Fw OT IPL ote 39809 wo : ™ erro ‘seer NOEIVOOT wee OSCR Ma v ora 59 onto ENva NINDS ‘smunSOaKs OVENS ‘ogee ung Jo Arwurmns ¥'9 STE[SE EVAPORATION FROM FREE WATER SURFACES, 215 214 cuarTen s / EAPORUTON. TRANSPIRATION, BTERCEPTION AND PEPAESSN roRace \ A ° 3 \ ‘i 2 I z FIGURE £5 Shalowlako evaporation a a function cf ela each ernperature, Feria and wind movement, Sources: U.S. National ‘Weather Sorvion, and Eagleson {1970} \ 4 Frevtion 100 Frevaton = 1600 hove mean slo [above means (eee above memset hy ee ee EME ahs eo 04s 56s HO Lake water temperate iaURE 5. Proportion of advected onary eo a ke) Wee eveporation. Souree, cea Roprocuces by pervasion of re National Reseach ‘Counc of Canad. @, (ehortwave radiation) in ealorios per square condone Note that while ye cetom equations use metric units, Figure 56 wee English units. igure 5.5 is not valid for deep lakes, locations ‘and time scales that involve significant advected energy, andlor enenky SOT changes. Kobler invele Sig apgent that the proportion of advected and stored enon cused in Svaporation is given by a factor az, This fete derived using an approach srartar to the Bowen ratio eoneept, is given in Figure 5.6, or as given by Linsley et al. (1982): [Note thatthe units of Q, and Q, rust be in onlvalen: evaporation units. The evaporation E can be obtained by any, Wcthod that ignores advection and Storage changes, for example, Figure 5.5: Agate, Bq. @.A9) is im mobic units wee Figure 6.6 is ils English-units equivelen® De eree al, [1966] also offer a mthod to comes Es evaporation for fy mney + 27a x 10-1077 was] afer ‘SRajotam, depending on water and ai vrmperan es Going a basie pan coef She stare noy then suggest that lake ovaporstion B is related to pan evaporation £, by where P is atmospheric pressure in millibars, Ty is water temperature in Weigoee Celsius, and U, is the 4-m wind movement in ‘silometers per day. Given az, the adjusted evaporation i= Et = E+ a,(Q,~ Q)+ (6.50) B= OE, * 0.00064P a,(0.87 + 002660, 7, ~ T.P*1s ead216 cearrens / EUPORATION. TRANSPIRATION, INTERCEPTION, AND DEPRESSION STORAGE, where evaporation is in millimeters per day, P ia atmospheric Press™ in eae ae Drie wind velocity 6 in. above pan rim in Rilometors po 86%, and rlibars, Uri wy 7 and oir temperature 7, aro in degrees Celene, Whey yeeros edd tho second term in the equstion Chess ve from the pan). Foret Sis we subtract the eosond tere, Equation (5.51) does 0% ‘nelude enn ection effets. Tho coefficient a, is given in Figure 6.7 (asing English vinits) and approximated CLinsley et al. (1982) by = pad + QUITE, — 35 x 107%CT, + 178 + 0.0195(U,)% 7) “which ignores pressure (levation effet) ho unite im Ba, (6.52) are mesic ah Bota ia oe ad | ; os eae ea ie —s—8 rc ea se mk BD OKs SH GURE 57 Proportion of advected anergy (mio a Cass A pan) ted fx evapo en RGURE 8:7 Proper oproduced by permission of the Natonal Research Counc of Gerad “Sz EVAPORATION FROM FREE Waren SURFACES, 217 EXAMPLE 54 Design of Cooting Pond See oatant 10 2 uty, you aro aed to estimate the aros of fhe cooling ‘pond required to cool water at 36°C down v9 21°C. Whe Rots plant discharges: aor orig a0 mrs? at 38°C, Design exiteria require that the ‘pond operate at gate ing 04 lyri ok shortwave radiation on 2 lath 26 ‘when the Fl ee ee 2OMC and the relative humidity is 60%. Wied speed is 3h kan per day (2.3 ms), You can assume that the sysiort Of steady 2a ae Paying uo changes in energy storage in the pond, The ‘pond is well ae Tending to uniform vertical temperature distribution, a Teang ory pet unt area of yond is taken to be dominated by {tho torm = CypViTe — Toad/A» hare V is an aaramed eonstant flow through the eystem pe water weekly: rie specie heat; 7, and Tare the incoming an Og Oe water dens Crem, Fespetively; aa A is the area of the pond. Given that C, Lealg C7 and p = 10° gm”, we get (4 (4040095 — 21) _ 560 410° gpg? 9, = AONE AD = EE ale 9.86% 10" taint = SI cali Now itis necessary to compute the longwave-radition comport ‘Atmo- spheric radiation dopends on vapor pressure #4 ‘Bxample 5.2. Saturation sae pronpure at 20°C is 23.87 mb. With « 60% rales Thumidity, ¢ = Te par = 14. Atmospheric emissivity is then (Ba. 2.5) B, = 0.74 + 0,0049(14.0) = 0.81. ‘The longwave albedo of water is taken as 0.08, hence + Q.~ Gr = O.9E.0T, swith 1 = 298.15°K (20 + 273.18); ¢ = 0.826 x 10°” calem 2 mpin 7K % and EB, as above, wo get 4g 108 cal *min™*. Qa ~ Quy = 0.48 Iy twin” ‘To obtain the outgoing Iongwave radiation emitted by the waist, Te need 8 To obtain perature daat we wil take asthe average of the input (35°O) and218 cruerens / EVAPORATION, RANSPRATIN, NTEPCEPTON, AND DEPFESSION STORUGE utput (2140) temperatures of the pond, which is.28:0, Biting 05 ® bleck Pocy at temperature T, = 901.15°R, the water radiation is (0.68 x 10° eal m-* mi Qu = OT = 0.68 ly min” Now we have all Use components of the encrny balance evapora formula TB So) except forthe area inthe advection term and = ‘actual evaporation se tal eatimate the latter with the Ryan and Harteman (1973) formula appearing in Table 5.3: Q.= 226TH + SAU — 6» whore T* is the virtual temperature difference. The virbaal temperature eer tment is quive ema, so we will use the messed temperatures. Henee, adjustment i Giosing U; = 23 m8” and the anburation vapor pressure at 28°C, which is about 38.1 mby (pnsci4y + 3.12.8))68.1 - 1) 303.1 Wm? etm") ‘phe latent heat of vaporization is about 600 cal”) = 251 TE “The evaporation in eontimeters por minute fs then Sigan = ©0007 emia 27x 10% min" Finally, we need the Bowen ratio to evaluate Ba, 6.6) 0.6128 - 20) _ 99 = oon x 10° - R= (061 x 10") ores ene) sation 6 boomes coa.s 04s ons x ot + S20 blade Toso + 02) Solving for A ‘A= La x 10" mt = 2750 acres. sa TRANGARATION AND eVAPOTRANSPRATION 218 Jirka ana Harloman (1970) indicate that typical eX" propored cooling ponds in the United States require about) sere Po ‘megawatt of elec cooling pond ty Naturally, actual values will vary devending oP conditions. . eee 5.3 ‘TRANSPIRATION AND EVAPOTRANSPIRATION atednepration isthe process by which vapor i dschasyed the atmosphere area rant stamata. The stomata, intercellular Oeming the lower side through plant suring daylight fer mast plants) to allow in hs cearbon diox- of eavee, Shy for photorynehesis and respiration. Water 07h from the ido mecesnar) fou in thin process. A. pnsiderable amount we reaching roots i alae ese aporated from the leaf surface. The rate of evaporation fhe stgmanger than the rate of consunaption in the formation of vegetative matter. Wer qual vate of transpiration is function of the tYP. fe: and mobo of th plants a8 well as of ol type and mlsture ‘and climatic conditions Lito ny potentials caused by leaves iniarolulas opening send osmotic rosa resulting from the diffrence in molstare barr ‘at the roots rete ounding soil favor transpiration. Working agpinet ‘transpiration are an dey and eapilary tension im te sil, which SHereteeS ‘with soil dryness. Tf gravy ged effect ofthe above processes is that the Wty supply to the the com gr than the evaporative capciy of the atmoxE ber Ga terms of eaves i erestes hor presure gradient, varbulent sdvection, 6) then tran- Biration is said to be at its potential rate cine ‘controlled. Otherwise, (Guns). Figure 6.8 gives the seasonal vatuss ofthe Blaney crop arowih stage coe oe Dereantageof growing sete" 20 layne 5.18 Sesconalcistbuiion of erop cooticons fr appicaton wih the Bley crise equation. Source: Hea et a [1982 by pemision For he ASAE.290 cuaPTEn® / EVAPORATION, TRANSPAATION, NTERCEPTION, AND DEFESION TOMS 54 EVAPORATION FROM SNOW 231 cqatercelivery systems can be vary ineicient. Losses of 50% in dana, for ater del rough eveporation and abepage in open canals, sre 5 ‘unusual. Tibet additional water may be required to counteract "oe ‘effoct of salts Finer ated during agricaltare or to Teach them. This mby ‘demand irriga accurnulated mes of apparent surplus in actual practic, thous, crop like Son evith well-developed and deep root systems, can make substantial use of coe ea one stored i he stil pri to the beginning af the growing season. . riddle equation for various crops The local and experiments! navttt of Griddle ante should be considered before extrapolating to other areas: | EXAMPLE 55 | Eallmating Evapotransptration of Com se mes fons Kaneas City, Missouri (~40" Iatitode), wants co estimate i A farmer ogo water he will require for ie planaod corn exmp, 0500) mach erga go that the growing season of corm is about 4 moi Wy. oe | Tobe 58 we ioe Tone, July, aod. August. We will use the Blaney Cos \ a (G56) to eatmate toonthly consumptive se, From Set 13 ibis \ aeate ty abtain reasonable monty coeticients fr the equities “Using the « sei to obit estimate K for May (he frst quarter of the growing ) ce cy e086, Similariy: une, 085; July, 1.04 and Augual 0% \ 22 be about Ge), we now need the mean monthly tamperalres an ae erate Pa. tage of daytime hours. The later are obtained fom | tee aot The teraperatures are assumed given a8 shown below. MAN ‘CONSUNPTIVE USE 5.4 EVAPORATION FROM SNOW {Adapted from Gray [1973]) Computation of evaporation from sow fellows tho sanie concepts Oe discussed [om sections, Poeily, the energy balance is most wa for snow studies; Fae mesa ta larger extent in Chapter 6 when we address Sos 1 reps main differences of snow bebavior from past surface- water studies tre highlighted by Gray [1973] as 1. Snow surfaces have high and variable albedo. 2 Bvaporation from snow requires a three-phase change of 55 from a ‘Tenparetare % Destine oon Ne Evaporation fm ote [ane net of eablmation smh higher han May, 8 wom 88 solid to Laud 8g ao tha ue later i a proferred proces ay F wae tt at at teroperatres blow OC; The eaaratod vapor pete wt ae Snow exits ot em Pepout 6.11 mb, In order for evaporation to 5 these tomporting mow surface must have & 10Wet vapor proerite, This tarticuasly difficult to echieve. Since waturatod vapor Pstir> increases partcworty Gare, the maximum relative homidhty possbie obtain Whur pressures below 6.11 mb falls vary rapidly. For vasoe tempere- qt CO From Figure 4.27 we can estimate the masn precipitation in Kansas City during each month of the growing season. Therefore \ ‘MONTH in) dn) _DEFICIT/+SURPLUS D Eth tures, Gray [1973] gives relative humidities as: for 0°C, 99.9%; for B°C; _ ore 10%; for 10°C, 49.7%; for 15°C, 35.7%; and for 20°C, 26%. i pera 4. Chen a favorable vapor pressure gradient, evaporation of 90 will con. ' Mos 35 e og Given vray Pent doce ot suppl sient hes, The nan r oe ss 7 a8 non even fh mo ea elt by eng Ry Ge fe } ean B 30 oe sary ton potential iz reduced due toa lower vapor aden t ms 80 5 duction and heat absorption propertas of now are dilren ra ‘those of other materials. Cray (1973) gives three mass-Aransfer formulas to compute evaporation from snow: ‘Sverdrup [1946] \ we ignore the moisture storod inthe sol at the beginning of UF ESE, t ing season, irrigation would be needed, on tho average Yow, the last t ins oot of the growing season. Particularly eitical is the month of July. t 8 month oe Brak be aveilebie for irrigation will actually be more theo ' The water tees uown. These amounts correspond to en average Year; $6 | the amortl cobably want to hedge aguinst the risk of drought 3 the 5%: won farmer wil Roy designed for a more critical rainfall yoar. Furthermore,232. cunrTens / EVAPORATION, TRANSPIRATION NTEROEION, AND DEFFESSION STORAGE ln wine i 04; zis 0.25 ca; in evaporation in cantimeters per second fs fe rihoro x 2 0 2 [pn grams per cubic centimeter); Us the wind soaed at 2 ‘titmmetare per second; eis the saturated vapor prossure rmillibers) at (eontimeters We aporavare and ey isthe air vapor pressure in roilbar®) tt seer ovation, The above equation is valid for favorable vapor Prossive radi ‘ents and small radiation exchange. Kuzmin (4957) 7 7 Fe = (0.8 + 0.0980) (@ ~ 50) ‘wboro F {sin millimeters pot day; the velocity is in metars per second; end the pressures in millibars. Ccenteal Sierra Snow Laboratory (US. Array Corps of Engineers 1956) E = 0,006842,26) (es — eo)Us» 663) “yhere Eis in inches per day; Us a the wind speed in miles per hour at evs: Tuan ect above the ground; e, is saturation vapor pressure nt sOw surface tion sre in mailibars; and ¢ is vapor pressure (1 mlibars) at clevalich 2, (in feel). Tene previous discussions it should be clear that snow evaporation is rarely dominant process. It is certainly overshadowed by the significant snowmelt activity. 5.5 INTERCEPTION = o Interonption refrs to the exjount of water rolained in. vegetation. Ssr> tion of stor character, vegetative species, density, and s639°r In Tay account for Up to 26% of annual préeipitation E the toginning of storms. Many times, i Fe eae MMteeccount bya lamp subtraction at the early stages of storm x talopment. The usual expression for total interception 1=8,+REt,, oo) phere is the total interception for the projected canopy aren in uni of Teeth! Sis storage capacity of vegetation for projected aren of cantor, ser 610.05 im, (.025~013 cm), R i the ratio of vegetal surface 08 © aaa at aren, Bis the evaporation rate during storm from plant surfaces fend f, is the duration of rainfall. fis tne eat igators have observed that storage inereases with rainfall. 79 account for that behavior, the following equation is used: 1=8,0.- e*) + REt, Ge where P is the total precipitation in consistent units with S, Toa + BP ‘Tobie 6:1 gives typical vale of «and b for different types of wots! I Crops under different rainfall conditions. i erp oat MiGeant for eoall accumulations and storms of short dose crv iroe of vegetation i fasly important as well es the canory ‘1 Son Pe teeth snow may be large but relatively unimpartant the Trteroertin ele Sinco interception is largely dependent on the sense GrPet glorms, where te capacity is renewed befare the next stom, Far caption on the order of 20% of precipitation or more Bae pee eed in the literature for a few particular locations: "he reader is, ee Pee Brangon etal. [1981] for a more extensive disoussion of interscP- tion in general {TABLE 611 valuation of Constants , b, an nin an Intereption Hauation 11 Bvaluation of Constants 6) 0) = senrescernon 288, | ever nterceptinn within ator 8 expreed hy canto of He | oo | Me 61 gies Pal values fr intaroepiedreinall by diferent under ferep jour that knowledge of intercoption losses je Ligh ale can be concluded that within « storm, inbresption (percentage: Capacity of vegetation, it boeomes more important in Tego of infrequent TNTERCEPTION + «+ BP ‘VEGETAL COVER e ® ' Orchards ood 018 100 ‘As, im woods, coz = 0B 4.00 \ Beech, in woods Doe 0B LOD Oak, in woods 00501800 ‘Maple, in woods oot = 08.00 ‘Willow, shrubs 02 = 401.00 Tamtet and pine woods 0.05 0.20, (0.60 Beans, potatoes, cabbage, ‘and other soall crops 7 town on ills | ooah 0.458 1.00 Glover and mesdow grace 9.005 0.088 1.00 Forage, alfalfa, veteh, ‘millet, ee oth = 0:10h 1.00 ‘Small grains, rye, wheat, barley 0.0058 0.05 1.00 Cora S.oogh —0.005h 1.0 Co ‘Note: Interception ip im inches for P in faces. The symbol rele fo che eight of plant in ft ‘owen Gray (1978), Reproduced by permiason ofthe National eveasch Counel of Canada, _piisastsnnonsta nes ssaainr citi i Atte234. cowmprea s / EVAPORATION, RANSPRATION INTERCEPTION, AND DEPRESSION STORAGE ‘TABLE 6.12 Interception under Natural Rainfall for One Square Moter of Area ‘Therefore seDePRESSIONSTORAGE 235 yee dP,fdt is the rat of rainfall excess or the rainfall ate minus the infil tration rate, i ~ f " PRECIPTEATION = [TEROEPTION a ‘yeceTAriON ies Chanter TARCENIAGE BG pem. a West 0.02 One very light shower %0 E 8.00 One very eht shower 0 ‘Bquation (668) canbe uted to obtain sn expression forthe overland flow Gor One vey Hight shower m supply vale, OOF One vry light shower 1 0.24 ‘Two light showers 1t eo a 032 One short shower 2 Using Ba. 6.68 35 One shar shoner ee Os Onebard shower % ao _icf-v infin Dy 7 wicfey fide ono) 6:20) 080 Three showers a int” t-f TF $48 Hoary vein flowed omned 30 Figure 6:14 shows a plot of Bq, (6.70). Note that inthe Hit rina fe Hees pena HS cna a etensan the ratio of 9) ~ 7) besomes 1. The vertical line in O15 Several ight showers a Oirk Hy ran followed by co oms ox ass oso(tut) ght owes «6 sta ever fw ad derenion rae sory =) Slough gress 0.02 Very light shower fe . ORI 050.938 _O.15 (Evens) 0.06 Light shower a ‘Alldepressions | QOT Light shower 6 sgl ied bore Bol 07 ~ Tight shower 76 2 [Sundin | re 035 Hed shower 8 ee be i 030° Hard shower 8) exponential | ie 04 Hard ower 2 | sim t bm te iste sites 9 4 a Ss ae rn : VA cmane P" |e oe ire a | 1 Be Yoon ais hs los £5 5.6 DEPRESSION STORAGE - 3 | de ! gba dow 312 ‘the amount of water thet is rotained during a storm event, in the suriace ge nH ee arnntta afte tol ig called doprnsin storage, Again, St may be lakes Vox loa08|E | RarTump arama, apiying st tthe beginning af tho warm, but generally pec iz I its total volume is expressed as i ah 10.20 it = eis em) 7 v= sl Salt ys Gen Bd ae yore ¥ isthe volume of water store, Si the maximum storage capacity, i and P, is the rainfall exoess (gross ‘rainfall minus infiltration, ~ F) (seo if ee 7 ry Chapter 8 for a discussion of infiltration). ier to of depression storage is given by the time derivative of Eq. (6.67): ar ibe ‘Mean depth asa percentage of coveraldpeh of depression sora FIGURE 6.16 Dopth-detibuten curve of depression storege. Source: Reprinted from a tT Santary Eng.. ASCE, March 1959, p. 60, wth permission,1236. chaPrens / EVAFORATION, TRINSARATION NTEFCEPTION. AND DEFEESSON STOTAGE tne figure represents a sop Function, where oll depressions are S68 before the ee oe begins. The S-type curve is a suggested middle point between Bq, (6.70) and the step function bine. Ba re mre 1d usos values of Sexual to 0.0625 and 0.26 in. for pavements ond turf, respectively. rae areal supply rato given in, (6:10) is the net result fier o> traci Sfinfilration and depression storago from gross rainfall, This ov, traction of Soy ral, ae shown in Figure 6.14, becomes runoff and is rowed den oe peerland and stream segments resulting in the streamflow by rograph, « topic of discussion in future chapters 5.7 suMMARY ‘Evaporation in an extremely important component af the hydrologe ese yet seteingly litto attention is given to itn Chapler ¢ ve ‘mentioned the saree poor coverage of basins with rain gages. Evaporation eoveroes generally Poith whole states in the United States without any continuovs evaporation measurement ae yod evaporation from two major points of view: emery ene nae Secs tranoport, Radiation (Chapter 2 play a raj role in 106 balance nd ant mus in a tarbulont environment wit che transport of ‘erme' goportonal to the decreasing gradient of vapor prosmure (Nene of apor properictinoaphere) and #0 the Tovel of turbulence, peraneterizod rater in the a rptty (Chapter 8). Ail empirical oguations used to compute term dom ara based on tho two idess of hurbulent mass Wane Hevanaptration is closcly related ‘o evaporation. The crucial formes that ane oer depends onthe active control by living plants (wereus te Fos Bhat the orm ore in evaporation}. The mechanisms by which plants ine sive contol Oy eepirasion are not well underatod, jet alone quantified GFaquestionably this Js an area of active research. Trenspisaton ‘through lanis ina very large portion of the Hydrologic balance, Is inten slobal Plas er fale oval conditions. Chaptsr provided wn example of how evapotranspiration in a fraction of the Nile ‘River Basin amounted to 0% of the present mean annual flow of the Nile River, sae er and trangpiration are cricial to the farmer, sinc cop YM taprmutional to actual teanopiration, Eveporalion over the oc crucial te rpeecismtologiat trying t predict ocean-temperature anorneites roe cjobal climate ard weather changes. To the clmatologist vapor tion and transpiration are very in ‘clomonts in energy and mass bal- Mion ae rooration is ercil Wo the hydrologst trying to predict foods fom ® aoe epi rines he ov she noods to specly bow diy ot wot the oi She Seren vane condition of the sil is moslly a function of evaporation. BYaES asi i alto the engineer trying to design a reservoir for water SUPP ererences 237 te would bo emberrassing ifthe reservoir never filled or if evaporation fom The Inego surface area of the Jake resulted in very serious net yield reductions the arte Civor system, In summary, almost everybody could benefit from im- proved quantification of evaporation. “Chapter 6 will discuss snow and snowmelt. It should be clear a8 you Pro, cood that snowmelt analysis is anelogous to evaporation anlysis, The enesey care raat tho key to understanding. Energy is required for Ube change Of ate from liquid (or sold) to vapor involved in evaporation. Similarly en bray ia noeded for the solid phase of water (ice) to melt. SESE Cee EEE ESE eee REFERENCES “Anderson, BR. {1962}. “Bnovey-Budget Studies, frm Waterlos Investigations’ erect FX, Heiner Studies Techneal Report, U.S. Geol. Surv, Cire 2297100, pian HE and WD. Cridde (1950). ‘Determiaing Water Reguiemonts A Ara from Ciaatloges! ana Iergation Data.” U.S, Departasent of itr warfare Sel Conservation Service. Technical document no. 96. nasa oro), wOptnal rigetion Decisions with Limited Water.” For Collins ‘Golo: Colorado State University. (Ph.D. dissertation ) owt HaDEh "Te Ratio of Hent Losses by Conduction and by Pvoperatin fo ‘Aniy Water Surface,” Physics Rev. 21°779-787. eae WL, Graves, and J.C. Geyer (060), “Cooling Water Skadig os fneh Sy Witte Pre No. RP.49—Surféce Heat Bachange at Power Plant Cool Lakes.” Baltimore: Jobns Hopkins University. Bee A (1976), "Water Ure on Rangeland” Watershed Management on Tan aan aires, Pree ih U.SiAustelian Rangelands Pane, Utah Water Rex Search Laboratory, Logan, Utah, pp. 198-200, Ba terse Tied, KG. Denar, and RE, Haley (1961) Rengsland Hy “Grology. 20d ed. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendalliunt. Be Se LOT Flux Drofie Relationship in the Atmospheric Solace ayer” J. Atmos. Se. 28:181—182 on ge 8: SET L, Bran 1079) "Sioehatl Contra of erigntion Systema’ Os toon 3 Sanat MI Department of Civil Enginoering, Ralph M. Parsons Labor: tory. (Poshnial report no. 284.) 140 tt Pilly Bend Probabilistic Models of Itcation, Soil Moistere and "cewal Bvapotranspiration.” Water Resources Res, X7(1:38- 106. a ERITH Thompuon L007. "A Comparison of Mths of Estima ng Fy a ofsangpiation from Climatalogicel Data in Arid end Subhumid Soe, eatin ee Washington, D.C. U.S. Geological Survey water supply peper no. 1899-M. Den gM ad REL, Shaw (19621. “Availability of Soil Water to Plantae AF oe et Noisiare Contents and Meteorological Conditions.” Agron. 54:385-£00, yen nd 197d. “A Review of Hx Profile Relationships” Bound. ayer Meteorol. 736-372.298 CHAPTER / EVAPORATION, TRANSPAATION, VTERCEPTIN, AN OSPTIESSION STORAGE | aslowon, B.S, (1970). Dynamic Hydrology. New York: McGraw Hit } Bran Slmant, Sl, and Veysiation, 4, The Kxpected Value of Annual Bvapo "zanapiration”" Water Resources Res. 14(6):731-799. i] Fee OcG. OGG] "A Study of the bilosts of Waves on Bvaporation om Pret teri, Cor Washington, D.C. U.5, Department of the Interior, Bureass of Fedemetion. (Research report no. 18) aR as Jury, end J. Knight (19751. "Wator Uptake by Vegetation, | anes WR A INCH. Afgan, ed. Heat and Mase Tronsfr inthe Biosphere, | aoe erie Proncsses in the Environment, New Yorks Wiley cian Rw TTT, “A Note om the Measurement and Estimation of Evaporation” "Meteorol Mog. 100(189):222. oo at, and Wed. MeCobo (1970). "An Byaparatin Baution fs $0 ey of Water Expoted to the Atmosphere.” Water Resourees ull 12hay848-858. rat BM od. O79. Hondbook on the Principles of Hydrology. Pat Washingt ater Information Conter an MN LOGE], "Benporaton Investigations st Elephant Bute Teorvar in New i eco Int Assoe, Sei, Hydrol. Publ. 73:908-828. oe ae A tise. “Braporation Reduction Investigations Elophas Sote : ahs NN eg Mexico” Bagineering Experimental Station, Los Cruces, I NRL: New Mexico State University Technical report no. 25. | aa NG BSSenaon, and DL, Brakensisk (1982) “Hydrologic Modeling of if ‘Brit Watersheds." Ar. Soe, Agr. Eng, Monograph no. 5. Bar Woke bet, "Bstinating Potential Benpo Transpiration” Pree, ASCE J. Hy- “Grau, Dix. S1GAYS)101~120. (Paper no. 2817) ee Pe agen wine Lake Hefner Water Los Invnatizations” U.S. Gelogisl ‘Survey cizeuler 228. Taare obs Caraminge Radiation Tntogration in Wator Lote Investigations 1-00) i aoe eoan Technical Report” US. Geological Survey profesional paper 295, : ten at) tn Practieal Feld Teehaique for Measuring Reservoir Braporatien "etl transfer Then? U.S. Geological Survey profeonal reper no 272-5, i ‘Harbeck, GLE, et al. (1951), “Ut ‘Water Laas Studies.” U.S. Geological Survey circular 108 Te LE et a T9681 “Water Loos invosigetions: Lake Mead Stadion” U.S ‘Geological Survey professionel paper 298, Hatfich, KB, FE. Adams, A.L. Godbey, end DROS Hal ris fodale for Predicting Evaporative Weter Loss in Cooling Impoundments davoeelif Electric Power Research Insitute, Cnterim report no. CS-2925) Bids, B.B,, and ML. Wesaly (1870), ty of Select’ Western Lakes and Reservoirs rational Laboratory. @aport no. ANL75-60, Part IV) tory. @Report no. ANLTS-60, Par: IV). tan arty on Soady of Heat Transfer Processes Above a Cooling Pond Water Re ‘sourees Res. 13(6):901-908." Hoy, RD, and 9.K. Stephens [1979]. "Fi an (3982), "Raluation alo tho Examination of Some Bull Formulae Used Sara tv Perfarmance of Industrial Cooling Ponds” In: 1974 Ansual Re- ‘or Ao Rrlisogeal and Eneironmental Rvenrch Divison. Argonne, ls Argonne iss BSB MIL. Wosly, and C.M Sheth (1878), “By Correlation Manure ents cs BB Ming Pond with Limited Fetch” In: 1974 Annuol Report of Redicagica! wer Fcbonnental Research Division. Argonne, fil: Argonne National Labora: 4 Stody of Lake Bveporation— Analysis of rerenences 239 Field Data from Phase 2 Storages and Summary of Phase 1 and Phase 2.” Austra: Tian Water Resources Counell technical paper 41 irks, G.IL, and D.R. F Harleman (1978). “Cooling Impounémonts: Classification and “Analysis.” J Energy Div. ASCE, 105(8Y2)291--308. : Kohler BA. (1056) “Tike and Pan Evaporation in Water Loss Investigations —Lake ee MA tuetin, Techaieal Report.” U.S, Geological Survey professional paper 268, Kohlen iM,A., 2. Nordonson, and W.B. Fox (1956). "Evaporation from Pans and rien Washington, D.©. US. Department of Commerce, Weather Bureau (e- search paper no. 98.) Hohior M, Anand M.A. Richards (19621, “Multicapacty Basin Accounting for Pro racking Runoft rom Storm Precipitation.” J. Geophys. Res. 670851875191, Kramer, Bd. [1969], Plaat and Soil Water Relationships—A Modern Synthesis, Now “York: McGraw-Hill Kristensen, KJ 1974], “Actual Evapotranspiretion in Relation to Leaf Aroa.” Nordic, “Hydrol. 5173-182. arr ad SGT, “Hydrophysica! Investigations of Land Waters." Int. Asso. Sc. Hydrol. 468-478. Line, BB, Hicks, G.R. Sainy, and G, Greuze (1970), “The Evaporation from ‘2 Swamp.” Agr. Metsorol. 7376-886. Linsloy RC, Je, MA. Kobler, and JL. 1%. Paulus (1949), Applied Hydrology: New "York: MeGraw-Hill. ‘Hdeme L998], Hydrology for Engineers, Ist od. New York: McGrew Hill Iam, (1982), Hydrology for Engineers. 3rd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Mariano, TT, and 6-2. Harbock (1964), "Mass Transfer Studies in Water Loss 1p> cart gations, Lake Hefner Studies.” U.8. Geological Surrey professional paper 268. Meyer AF, (i942), “Bvaporation from Lakes and Reservors.” St, Paul: Mixmesots ‘Resourees Commission, Monit A Sand A M. Yaslom (3911). Statistica! Fluid Mechanics: Mechanics of Tur- nuance, Vol. 1. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Prese. Morty Ln WO. Prat, and KL. Lourence (1971), “Analyse of Energy, Momens Pree ad ase Tranafers Above Vegetative Surfaces.” Davis, Clif: University of Cuttoonie Department af Water Selence and Engineering, (Research and Devel- ‘opment technical sport ECOMG8-10-F) Negiuue EM. (1974 “Crop Water Use in Yield Models with Lilt Soil Moisture” ‘Fort Collins, Colo: Colorado State University. Ph.D. dieertation.) Nordesuon, TT, and D-R, Baker (1962). “Comparative Evaluation of Bvaporation In- struments," J, Geophye. Ree, 67671679. Pail, PP EO, Macagno, and J.P. Kennedy (1974) “Winter Regime Surface Hest oes fom Floated Streams” Towa Tnstitule of Hydraulies Research report 20, 15, Panofiey, H. A. (1983) "Determination of Stross from Wind and Temporatare Mes- ‘surements.” Q, J. R. Meteorol S02. 62:85- 94. Peck EL. and R Farnsworth, “A Dual-Purpose Evaporimeter.” U-S. Natfonal ‘Weather Service unpublished manuscrint. Peunen HI. 11948) "Natural Evaporation from Opes Water, Bare Soil and Grass.” "Pros. R. Soe, (London) {A}. 198:120-145. dem. 1965) "Vegetation and Hydrology.” Harpenden, England: Commonwestth Bur eau of Sols. (Technical communication 53.)i \ 240. caurTER / EVAPORATION, TANSPRATION. INTERCEPTION, AND DEPREESION STORAGE Priastey, €.B.B. (1960), “Turbulent Transfer ofthe Lowor Atmosphere” Chie ‘cago. University of Chicago Press. Pricstiey, C.ELB,, and B,J. Taylor (1872 ‘and Evapotranspiration Using Lenze Seel 0081-92. prone 3. VonOetinger, ond D.L- Morgan (1972), "Central Calfrnia Brepe ‘Yeanepitation Frequencies” ASCE Prec, 980R2):177~164, quing EL I9TS}, "An Improved Aeraynanie Byaporation Technigns Lage? aa rece rilentio to the Inlrnatonal Field Year fr the Great Laken.” Wor tar Resources Reo. 15(4) 936-940. Retr peplovem (1955). "Balan Litvennogo Laser Zimnig Peed” ‘rae Bked, Navk. USSR. Ser. Geogr. No.4 ed Sad elva {1979} “Turbulent Ai Water Mans Transfer Under Varied ‘Sratifeation Conditions” J. Geophys. Res. G4C7)2206. Finn nd RV. Donchonko (19871, “Th Investigation of Heat Lom ara V dooce in Wintertime® (in Russian). Trady Leningrad Gooub-Gidrol Tat. 64, Fat Et and, Darset (1071. "Dryland Evaporative lux in ¢ Sub-Horid C+ tmrte: Plant Infivences.” Agron. J 68:56-62, vO the Assessment of Surface Heat Flox Parameters.” Monthly Weather Rev. Bye and DALE. Haviznn (1973). "An Analytica and xporimestal Sy of me Pa ag Pond Behavior” Cambridge, Mass: MIT Daparzment of iit ‘Gralnecring, Ralph BL Parsons Laboratory Technical report no, 161) Sen denon, and BH, Shaw {1874), “Modeling Bvaptrenspiration sons Soil Moisture’ Trane. Am. Soe. Agr. Eng. 1():673-617. Soe eG og), formal for Commuting Erapartion with Allownass for bynkovshy Gz Free Water Sustoce” Soe Hydrol. Sled Papers, 386 078 Sane Ty 946) “Tho Humldiy Gredient Over the Sea Surface” J; Meteor: 31-8 Sui 6, Badrodl, and 8. Tichman (1960), “Aerodynamic and Surface Factors Feaparation” Water Resources Res. 5(2:980-204- Feary nergie and Wasasrhanshalt Versciedener PDensenbesande aaa Von” Manish, Germany: Universitat Munchen, Ph.D. thesis) an eee tana WAL: Pelton (1960), "Potential Evapotranepsation Fetinatss oy mata Energy Belanee Method of Penman." J. Genphye, Ret 6:9501- 848. tenn valey Authority (1972). "Heat and Mass Transfer Between. « Water Sar ae Te eeebere" Norris, Tenn: Tennesowe Valley Authority Division of Water Control Planning Engineering Zaboratory (Report no, 14) oe oad Cad. Refer 19591, “The Hydrol of Urban Rano” Poe, Des "ASCH. J. San. Rng. Div. B5(5A2}41-308 eee Erin (hide) "An Approach Toward a Ratlonal Classification of C+ imate.” Am, Geogr. Rev. 98:55-94 That T9511 “Tow to Prdict Cooling Lake Action” Power. 95:80-50, PE dnd Le. Horn (1980), An Introduction to Climate, 6th od. New "York: MeGraw {4 rac 1008), "Braporation Shy in a Hamid Wagon, Lake Micke, N.C." US ‘Gealogical Survey professional paper 272-6. ee ond JL. Weight [1964 "An Experimental Stay of Air im she Com ‘Vlont Aix Layer” Bull. Nott. Inst. Agr. Si. [A]. 1:18-68. proses 241 ‘ys. Army Corp of Engineers (1956). "Summary Report of Snow Investgetion.” Pertiond, Oveg.: US. Army Corp of Enginsers. North Pacific Division, ‘us Department of Agriculture, Se Conservation Service (1967) “hrigation Water ‘equirementa,” (Technical report no. 23.) an eG L960), “Potential Beeporation: The Combination Concept and Hs i” Water Resouroas Res. 28):455-460. yan ae Honert, DHL, (1948), Water Transport as e Catenary Process.” Trans. Fere- day Soc. 3146-153, ee yes. W. Knapp, and TB, Harbaugh (9721. introduction fo Hyarolay. ‘New York: Intext Educational Idem. (1077). Introduction to ‘nd ed. New York: Harper & Rom. aoe ee Puand Bd. Plate (19771, “Evaporation from n Water Current Under Se ental, Pind induced Waves” TAH Congress, August 16-19, 1977, Baden, West Germany. Wein san HEN, {1975}, “Comparison of Warm Water Evaporation Equatio "J_Hydroul. Di, ASCE. 101(11Y10):1908-1818. Hee EN, and W. Brtener (1973), "Evaporation and Cooling on « Lake Under Tautable Atmospheric Conditions.” Water Resources Res, (6):1242-0200, “World Mateorologieal Organization (1966). "Measurement and Estimation of vapors "Gon nnd Evapotcanspiration.” (WMO technical note no. 83) ee gral "Teal and Mase Transfor Between e Water Surface and the nic uve?" Tennessee Valley Authority Engineering Laboratary. Gab r=por ne. 14) your AA, 1047). "Some Recent Evaporation Investigations.” Trans Am. Gaphre ‘Union, 25:279-284, oe PROBLEMS 1. Find the evaporation from a lake using the following information: lat: hae Wy date, ly 1, hour, noon; overeast (cloudy) with 8000-oot cloud, dae levation; stnogey air conditions, water temperature, 185°C; emissivity of water, 0.8; cloud base temperature, 20°C; beat of water, Leal **O°%, crete aibedo of water, 0.1; temperature of sir, 26.67°C; temperature of srenowated water, 32.2°C; and relative humidity of air, 085. Ignore clovd Sheuis in net longwave radiation. Assume no precipitation, ‘no seepage, rat oi flow, and no net increase in stored energy in the lake, Can you estimate ‘the average daily wind speed at this site? 2, The Machar Marshes lie in Southern Sudan near the confluence of the Taree MiGlue branches of the Nile River. The marshes and surrounding Vidins cover an area of about 25,000 km. Typieal yearly characteris o8 Plains crvind velocity of 0.2 ms" (2 m above ground surface): vegotation is aan, with effective roughness of 10 cm; average air fomporatie ak caer ound surface is 28°C; surface temperature is 30°C; ralative hamidiy spctei at 2 m above ground surface; average cloud cover, 0.60; longwave Ta ii ation cloud effects coefficient is 1s net shortwave radiation is 0.82 ymin;242. cuabieis / APORATION, TRANSPIRATION, NTERCETTION, AND DEPRESSION STORAGE shortwave albedo is 0.2; latent heat of evaporation = 597.3 > 0°67 cir ey colar ic, eouicient im logarithmic wind velocity 18 2.6) = 0.4; ro 96 10" calem*min’ “K+ dry-air gas constant = R= 2500 9 cote2K"% and saturation vapor pressure ¢, = 39.8630100.007387 + Aromat ooo0ot9[t 87 + 48) + 0.001316), Find the yoarly petentiel svepe- sae ration from the area. Compare this to tho evaporation from shallow Jake in the same area. “h Conaider a small folly mixed pond for which the enorgy balance is stud- epee has volume V = 2500 acre-ft and surface area A = 50 acres. 1h Tauowing iable is obtainod after analyzing monthly climatic dala: MARCH APRIL-MAY JUNE_—_JULY ‘Net solar radiation dy day") see R89 ATT Atmosphere longwave yday") os ots 7088 Back radiation ‘ayésy") 095 | 772 -84B 807 Bveporative heat lux yday") 44-9 =1TB_ —950 Condtctive heat flux ‘Gyday") 166 9% a 72 Net heet influx yang") Pond veraperature 0) 2 Complete the table by computing the not heat Tux into the lake and fhe average lake temperature for April through July 1) RMalyeing many years of deta, i s found that the nat ext fox into the lake is given by an(0) = € sin(ot +), ‘here o = 2a/z,1 in days, and C in Iyday". If at ¢ = 0 the lake tem- Westie is 7, had the variation of this variable during a period = Pare = 300'iyday’*, + = 865 days, and 6 = —7/4, sketch the net ost flax in the lake and the tempefature during the your. (Contributed by Dr. Angelos Protopapas.) 1 Copsider an agricultural field in which the erop covers 40% ofthe sureee on consid eat only transpiration occurs from regions covered with acrejation, Aa irrigation echeme that moistens the whole area is being Yeeetatie? the particular crop being grown ia most efieient when the sol coon content, ae a fraction of total volume, is 0 = 0.2. Therefore iiuo- aaaararee are se to keep the soil at this moisture content. The actual evap, diet re feom mast oil is directly proportional to the level of saturation, Using var owing parameters compute (he rate of evaporation from Uhe sail end Paostems 243 the rate of transpiration from the crop. Use this to compute the volume of {Pigation water required daily per hectare. You may neglect loss of tigation ‘watar by infiltration to groundwater. Parameters ‘Air temperatare, 25°C; Relative humidity, 0.6; [Not radiation exchange for cropped area, 250 ly days ‘Net radiation exchange for bare soil, 300 lyday™% Latent heat of evaporation, 697.8 — 0.577 cal g™ (Tin degrees Celsius); ‘Atmospheric pressure, 1000 inb; Specific heat of eir at constant pressure C,, = 0.22 eal gO" Crop vapor flax resistance r, = 0.5 sem’ Saturation vapor pressure in millibars for Tim degrees Celsins, ¢, = ‘Misesotto.oo7a87 + 0.8072) - 0.000019). 87 + 48] + 0.0018361; Dry air doncity 1.15 x 10 gem; Soil porosity, n= 0.45 and Plant roughness and wind conditions such that the atmospheric diffusion resistance r, = 1.6 sem, the same as bexe soil 5. A location receives 300 ly day” af net shortwave radiation. The air tem- perature at the alte is 26.640 end the atmospheric emissivity is 0.74. The Bineen ratio is approximated as 0.1. The observed evaporation is 100 emyr *. ‘What sould be an Toh in the area fon the average the change in energy storage is equal to all the net advected energy in the yeas? 6. NASA reports that remote sensing information (satellite-borme radar sia) leads te a precipitation estimate of 0.4 mmbr-* during the manth of ‘Kagust, over a large tropical ocean area, The mean daily air temperature ie TOP the mean colar radiation is 600 ly day” the dew-point temperature is BorR, end the monthly mean wind speed is 100 miday *. Approximate and aint comumptions far evaporation over the ocean. Does the estimated precip tation make sense relative to your evaporation estimate? Bxplain. 7, Consider a reservoir on a river ab $0° latitude. The minimum flow occurs during Soptember and is 4000 f5" at a mean temperature of 60"F. Con: Gtruction ofa proposed steam plant for power generation requires diversion of Sooo fe" of this flow for eondenser water. The condenser water undergoes & femperature increase of 25°F. It ie proposed to build a reservoir to dispose of tho excess heat by evaporation from the reservoir surface. Two geometries have boon suggested: ) The 2000-f? condenser discharge and the 2000-ft°s * unheated ‘Water both flow into the hest-oxchange reservoir, which has 4000.8 «outflow.244. CHAPTER 6 / EVAPORATION, TRANSPIIATION, (TERGEPTION, AD DEPRESSION STORAGE condenser discharge passes through the heat Guahange reservoir. The 2000-f¢ s-' outflow from this reservoir is hea recombined with the 2000-f.'s" unheated water, For each case, estimate the required surface area so that the mean tem- perature of the recombined streamflow will not exceed 70°F. Assume Tho reservoir to be in a steady thermal state, the average September air temperature to be 66°F, tho relative humidity to average 60%, and the mean Wind’ yelocity to be 5 miles per hour. Metcorologic variables axe measured Gin above the lake surface and the wind velocity vanishes at 0.5 in. above fhe surface. (Prom B. 8. Eagleson, Dynamic Hydrology, McGraw-Hill, 1970.) ‘8 Derive Bq, (6.21), giving the heat of evaporation in terms of vapor pres: sure differences, wind velocity, and roughness height 1b) Only the 2000-f 9. Measurement of evaporation from a vegetated surface yields 0.6 emdey-*, The average wind speed, temperature, and relative humidity Bf above the surface are 6 fte", 25°C, and 60%, respectively, while the cunfoce temperature is 28°C. Estimate the magnitude of the effective surface- Toughness parameter if the net energy influx is 400 lyday °. (From B.S, ‘Bagieson, Dynarsie Hydrology, McGraw Hil, 1970.) 10, Derive a general form for Eq. (6.49), giving the proportion of advected ‘and stored energy used in evaporation. {1 Oraff and Thompson [1967] performed a comparison of methods yielding ial evapotrenspiration. For a growing season from May to Ostaber Tos Angeles (about 35°N latitude), they give a mean temperature of 66 Ting that information, estimate the potential evapotranspiration Guring ‘he rowing season using the Thornthwaite and Blaney—Criddle methods. As- Same that the vegetation is alfalfa with a seasonal K value of 0.90. 12, Construct a nomogram for the solution of the Thornthwalte equation (a. 5.58). If needed, you can refer to the original reference, Thornthwaite (1948). 419, The growing season of corn in a northoast state extends from May * through August 80, The average meen monthly temperatures are May, 507; Sune BSE July, 70°F; and August, 72°F. Estimate the seasonal potential cevapotranspiration, 7 14. Over a 20-year period and using rain gages over & 1000-km" terminal Ho Over a lot gon compute that the average precipitation over tho take is see oo ne paint variance, 0, of the precipitation enywhere in any ob year is 100 cm*. Similarly, you have estimated mean evaporation over the Free pe 100 cm using five evaporation pans with 10 years of data- The ‘point variance of evaporation is 80 ‘em’, Average annual lake net infliw is ‘estimated as 50 cm by averaging 20 years of ‘records. The streamflow osti- ‘mate has mean square error of 10 em’. ‘Annual precipitation shows a lag-one correlation p of 0.1 and an exponen tial correlation in space that decays with a parameter f = 0.05. Evaporation fs either more or less correlated by a factor of 2 in tho parameters than rain- fall (jou must decide whether itis reasonable to expect that itis mare oF less correlated both in space and time). What will an estimate of unsecounted Somes or inflows into the lake be and what is the mean square error of that estimate? 45. Using the data of Example 6.8 on « lake approximately square in shape, Joo kin! im area, and air temperature at 2 m of 20°C, find evaporation using equations by Meyer, Throne, Harbeck, Rimsha and Danchenko, Ryan and Harleman, and Goodling et al. (00 Table 5.8) 16, Consider a reservoir on a river at 45°N latitude. The minimum flow deours during September and is 30 m°s” at a mean temperature of 20°C. Construction of a proposed steam plant for power generation requires diver- sion of 15 m's"” of this flow for condenser water. The condenser water under foes a temperature increase of 10°C. It is proposed to build a reservoir to Sispose of the excess heat by evaporation from the reservoir surface, ‘Only the 15-m?s-* condenser discharge passes through the hest-exchange reservoir, The 15-2"s"' outflow from this reservoir is then recombined with TS-mis" unheated water. Estimate the required reservoir's surface aren s0 that the mean temperature of the recombined streamflow will not exceed D5°C. Assume the reservoir to be in a steady thermal state, the average Septernber air temperature to be 15°C, the relative humicity to average 60%, aertehe moan wind velocity to be 2ma Also assume 50% cloud cover and ‘smogay conditions. State any other assumptions you make. 17. Assume that the average summer temperature in July in your home tnwn is TO°® and daily solar radiation is 650 lyday *, The mean dew-point temperature is 60°F und the mean wind speed is 60 miday”. You busld a wining pool 80 ft by 75 ft. What would be the minimum amount of water ‘you would noed to add during July to maintain a constant depth? 18, During « month five rainfall events oocur over a forested area with a leaf deca index of 2.5. Evaporation potential is on the order of 0.5 mmbr *. The forent has a storage capacity of 0.05 em. The five storms had the following depths and durations DEPIH DURATION storm (en) Gr) i 1 7 2 05 5 3 1 4 4 2 % 5 02. 2 Estimate the total amount of throughfall to the ground during the month.} ‘2AB CHAPTERS / EVAPORATION, TRANSPIRATION, INTERCEPTION, AND DEPRESSION STORAGE 19, Find an expression for the rate of runoff production at a point below forested canopy. Take into account interception and storage 20. Over a large region, which of the three depth-distribution curves of Figure 5.14 is more reasonable? Explain. 21, A simple model of soil moisture depletion at the root zone weld be ao a-P- Br, where P is percolation to deeper soil znes and ET, is actual evapotranspiration. ‘Percolation is given by PO) = de and similarly, actual evapotranspiration is BT, oto BT ae 05055", where 6 is a threshold moisture (see Ea. 6.60). ‘Write integral expressions for the total actual evapotranspiration between tan iniliel time ¢, (with initial moisture 0,) and an arbitrary time ¢ in the Fature, Garry out the integrals for the case when P and BT, are linear. Chapter 6 Snowpack and Snowmelt 6.1 intRopucTION Snowmelt plays a major role in the hydrology of midlatitudes and of rivers Suiginating im high mountains, Even tropical rivers like the Amazon at saaineiifcant snowmelt components originating in the Andes, In comsrast eye Rl, snowfall has a delayed effect on river flow and hydrology. Aes: +e rs ceeurring during winter months will become important during the Tllowing epring months. Meltwaters are crucial for water supply Ge igs showing errand midwest ofthe United States) and can also cause serious sence partictlarly when compounded with spring rainfall. Tn rangelands, ceomenett can be fairly important in the replenishment of soil moisture cru: seem ctop dovelopment and in the recharging of groundwater supplies Unfortunately, wow hydrology has lagged somewhat behind obey bran neraF the Held. This can probably be attributed to difficulties of Geld ranches emote and to the inherent slow response of snowmelt systems. 1 is saree ts meagure and obtain good data on the extensive and highly eps ily variable snowail, particularly given the usually barsh weather cond) Hats at prevail duriag winter periods. Snow hydrology also reauites Teneserm commitments to study the snowmelt process months after the snowfall, year after year. ar ineledge of suow hydrology has been significantly advanced by the U.8 deny Corps of Engineers, Cold Regions Research Laboratory, together ve the U).8. National Weather Service. Their report (U.S. Army Corps of Bngincers (1956) i still tho keystone reference in the field. Sderste aacrrer and Crewford (1964), Anderson (1968), 1973}, [1976), (1978) and {tavah) has probably beea one ofthe most influential researchers on the sub 287re ‘248. CHAPTER B / SNOWPACK AND SNOVIME-T ject, having developed snowmelt components for two of the most popalar seettalivunoft models in existence, the Stanford Watershed Model and the National Weather Service River Forecasting System Model. Other works of significant impact have beon those of Winston [1965] and Amorocho and Sepiidora (1966), The following sections will follow closely the work of Atlorson but will also rely on a report by Laramie and Schaeke (1972), Ba ‘deson (1970), Branson et el. (1981), and Gray [1973] will lso be sourees of material ‘Showmelt effectively is delayed precipitation. As such it could bave been disonseod within or immediately after Chapter 4. Many authors put it within Gheverimn of runoff, a concept we really have yet to discuss, Here it is studied ther evaporation beeause, as will be seen, the tools for analysis of snowmelt fare analogous to thase seen in Chapter 5. Spee eee 6.2 SNOW ACCUMULATION AND MEASUREMENT In Chapter 4 we mentioned that the nature of precipitation is very much dependent on the history of hydrometeur development and cloud physics J evertheless, Figure 6.1 (also Fig. 4.11) indicates that air temperature is ¢ teasenable index.of precipitation type. Chances axe that snow will occur for Temperatures bolow O° to 1°C. The density of new-fallen snow is also a fune- tion of multiple factors. Generally, the wetter or wermer the snow is, the Gcnoer it will be. Figure 6.2 illustrates this general behavior, relating density te uarface sir temperature, Note that the density of new-fallen snow ranges oe 109 a ny E t Fol sue los i 7 Fal 40% i a “t 0 cM 1 a ae as Fe oY RM eR “FIGURE 6-1 Frequency of occurrence of rain and snow at various femporatures, Source: US, Amy Corps of Engineers [1856]. FIGURE 6.2 Densly of nowfatlen enow. Source: Gray [1873}, Reproduced by parmission ‘Of the National Research Counc of Canada, from about 0.05 to 0.2 gem’, with @ concentration near or somewhat below ‘the commonly used value of 0.1 gem™. Snowfall over an area tends to be more uniform than rainfall (Gray nova. On the other hand, snow accarulation is largely a function of sleva- ton, slope, exposure, and vegetative cover. Snow accuraulation generally ine cetser with elevation because of the combined effect of the prevailing lower Grmperatures and the increased frequency af precipitation events caused by cromraphic effects. Figure 6.8 shows a possible distribution of precipitation aaa eee pasin, Branson et al. (1981] give results af Melman (1968), which in- Mate a 8 to 200% inerease in snow accumulation per 1000 f. The water ‘quivalent ofthe snowpsck (.e., snow-water equivalent) decreases with slope Gu} exposure and increases with eviation of aspect from the south, in the antthern hemisphere (Laramie and Schaake [1972)). Neverthelose, topogr= “hy is generally too complex to obtain widely applicable relationships. Again Bry Moiman (1968), @ study of seven sites indicated that northern exposure setlted in 3 to 188% more snow accumulation than southern exposure. Tnterception of snowfall by vegetation can be fairly effective: In forested areas, this may lead to direct sublimation of snow from the forest cuno Soe of the interoopted snow is redistributed by wind end melt. Very litte Lame about the amounts involved in this complex process. Most researchers ore this issue and prefer to treat it as part of the general error in snowfall ‘measurement. Dillerent surfaces have different snow-retention capacity. Twble 6.1 gives now retention coefficients from Kuzmin (1980). ‘The snow retentiva cow Slant ie the ratio of snow eatch in the surface in question to the accumulation fn an oshorwise virgin soil. Note that forest openings or cuttings are particu: lorly effective enow collectors. Gullies and surface depressions are also sfmi- larly effective. This mostly responds to the interaction of wind and topos:250 HAPTER / SNOMPACK AND SNONMELT und § Lm pa . [) | (eas pe! | F] ace! eva Eo ee ow Patent fares FIGURE 6.3 Various conditions of preciltation (ran or snow) and snowmelt thet may ‘cour elmultanoously as 2 function of elevational bands within & basin, Source: U.S. Army Gorps of Engineers {1971} raphy. Tn forests much of the intercepted snow is blown off and ecttles in ‘openings where it is shaded from further transport, ‘Transport by wind is fairly common, particularly after fresh falls of light ‘snow. Given # smnooth surface of frosh, light snow, Figure 6.4 may help in ‘TABLE 6:1 Snow-Retention Coefficients (Open ice surface of lakes 04005 ‘Arable land os Virgin soi io ‘ily dintricte 12 Large forest tracts 13 to14 River bed 30 ‘Rush growth near Iskes 30 ‘orast cuttings of a radius of about, 100 to 200 m and edgos of forest 9.2 to 8.8 ‘Source: Ruin 1960) {8 2SNOW ACCUMULATION AND MEASUREMENT. 251 tt speedo ot im FIGURE 6.4 Total snow transport. Sources: After Komarev [1954] and Branson et [he81) computing total transport. Ib gives the amount transported in grams per 90¢- ‘ond per centimeter of width perpendicular to the wind, as ¢ funetion of wind speed. Much of wind-carried snow may sublimate. Schmidt (1970] and Tabler fand Schmidt [1973] developed a model of this process and give the distance a particle ofa given diameter may travel before it sublimates (Pig. 6.5). The re Eilts comespond to a site in Wyoming. They also studied the relative influ- tence of numerous variables in the transport process. Figure 6.6 gives the percent distribution of total snow transport as « function of wind speed, air Temperature, incoming radiation, hour of the day, and month. Note that most transport occurs at low temperatures (ow-density snow), at night, in Bebra- ary, and at wind speeds above 7.5 ms". ‘Although all the factors discussed up to now conspire to make the quan- tification of the spatial variability of snow very hard, most Tocations show persistent patterns of snow coverage and of snow ablation. Figure 6.7 gives {ppleal relations between percent of basin area covered by snow and the rat of liquid water equivalent eovering the given percent of the basin to the total showpack liquid-vater equivalent when the basin is fully blanketed, Ai, The shape of the curves are related to topographic and snow-accumulation pat terus, The meaning of the curves is best explained by Anderson [1978b}* Curve A indicates that bare ground appears at a continually increasing rate as the snow cover ablates. Such a curve is typical *E.A, Andoein, Hydrologic Research Laboratory, National Weather ServiceNOAA.252 CHAPTER 6 / SNOWPACK AND SNOMIMELT (62 SNOW ACOUMULATION AND MEASUREMENT. 253 wt ——— foe arpa mvindged .f ° : é teste \ # ¢ i it 7 100 ied 3 ins . ~ q Hae 15.0 gE pi as : au ri g Peet 10.81.86 go 1 ‘al a is aa a3 semen Paces pk ey | — £8 a af—ty——a» cages 3 pean : is os FHGURE 4 Srow tans dtr anton of pre dart, ag th meen 8 a3 ‘values for winter conditions in Wyoming during drifting over the 1970-1971 winter. Source: a s Toe ee one ein tyoraogy. woe Copyiaht © UnescaWMONAHS. (Aico z 3 er een Rk coma) a ay of areas in which there is variability in accumulation and melt, but a eae Tin sedbr ven seatered ovr the aon, Cur B Is tng tin oa ee boganing ut atte lover end the rae at Y : cl which bare ground appears is reversed. This ‘reversal indicates that a Oct. a vie bare ound 2Pesralaen much more snow of hae sill So 2 Name Pert Sets ore combinain of ath fatas) Dan he rest 2 aia Gf the area, The reversal may be caused by forested areas with north: ge. eo Ee ar Mane conifer sande within am aren with generally tc es | oy epee ae culations cfenow init ravine, ie ua ae a ein elo porararars| ian ‘at the lower end. In the beginning curve C indicates that the areal 0 Pa ia! 4 portion of the area accumulates much less snow or has @ much higher melt rate (or both) than the remainder, This may be caused by ‘open areas with « southerly aspeet, open arcas within a forest which eonsists mainly of conifers, areas which are typically blown free of snow, or little accumulation of snow at lower elevations. Curve D is for an area which can be basically divided into the extremes, i... low ‘accumulation and/or high melt rates end high accumulation and/or {ow melt rates. Normally if such a curve is required, it would be pref cover drops off very rapidly when ablation begins. This indicates that ome heen tl i Percent of et! uansport FIGURE 6.6 Percentage distribution of total snow transport per select factor during all ‘oy. val. 4. Copyright © UnescolWMOAHS. (Atle by B.D. Tebler and R.A. Schmit.) equivalent when 100% cover is expected) is greater than the largest tvable to subdivide the areas and model each portion separately since they are so distinctly different. Both curves C and D generally exist only in areas where the SI value [author's note: value of water ‘water-equivalent that occurs during most years, From this discussion and a knowledge of the area, the user should be able to select an ini- tial estimate of the areal deplotion eurve. If the area is properly sub- i ting events over the 1970-1871 winter. Source: The Role of Snow and lee in Hydrol- | i fi ier-equivleavA, Mea aeat ‘eal extent of e300 cover) FIGURE 6,7 Characteristic shapes ‘Anderson [1978b}, Hyerologie Rose of snow cover areal depletion curves. Source: Att arch Lsboratory, Nationa! Westher SericanNOAA. divided, the most c curve B. However, location to location. ‘ommon depletion curve is one similar in shape to ‘the position of the reversal point will vary from Snowfall ie usvally measured with the same recording oF goges that messure rainfall, The i that snow measurements are consi Underestimation cerrs, This was ilo ‘vent this type of error have been a the moet common solution, These are prot tlfce that slow dawn and direct wind so the gaye, The most popular shield shield Figure 6.8 shows a pair o tqoging practice responds to eta fom to shielded and unshielded fempts to correct catch oro (Rechard and Larson [1971]; [OTED, Unahiolded enow gages mey sh that of shielded rain gages (Gray [197: fone outstanding differe jerebly more sensitive to wind-induced strated io Figure 4.23. Methods to pre- ding preoccupstion. Shields are jective structures around the gage ‘as to minimize snow drifting over s are the rigid Nipher and the flexible Alter ff shielded and unshielded gages, This dual tical attempts to correlate “true” preelpita- ‘moacurements (Hamon [1972)). Other at- wed fences surrounding the gage ‘Larson (1971), and buried installation (Jairell ‘ow deficiencies that are three times 3]; Larson and Peck (19743; Larson ‘Once the snow is on the ground, it beco Jest of the following su! ‘new snow. Old snow su denser packing), freoze and thaw eycles, mes part of the snowpacks, a sub- beoetion. Snovpack is the amalgem: (fara changes induced by added weight (resulting in ‘and rainfall. The end results aro tation of old and FIGURE 6.8 Picture of a shielded and unshielded rain gage a used on the Reynalds (Creek Excerimertal Watershed near Boise, kao. Source: Rengolend Hydrology, 1881, by Branson, Giford, Renard, end Hadley. Sociely for Range Management Pub, changing density, waler content, albedo, and othor characteristies. It is the relting of the snowpack that is most interesting to hydrologists Showpack is measured in sevaral different ways. Some techniques are geared to estimate the snow-cover water equivalent; others jus} attempt to Geta feeling for the depth of snow. By making assumptions about the density, the latter methods also yield water-equivalent estimates. The following de- scription of the methods is adapted from Gray [1978] Water Equivalence Sampling Procedures Show surveys eosist of soveral core samples along course. A cours i a prodaterminod geometry of samples, somtimes aligned. The sarplaft are bole Tow tubes with sutting edges that can bo driven into the snawpack. The re- Micng snow core can be weighed to obtain water content, The method is Sissy’ depondent on the choice of course. The sampling locations sbould be Tepreventative athe region and good indices of whatever the ultimate objec TRvof the water equivalant estimate is. For example, some snow courses may256 CHAPTER 6 / SNOWPACK AND SNOWMELT be closely related to runoff or river flow production, others may be good in- lions of the average water equivalence of snow over the whole region. Errors of this technique aro due (o both instrament limitations and the inherent bias in selection of a site ‘Snow-water equivalent can also be measured with radioisotope tech- niques, Given a source (gamma radiation from cobalt) and a reveiver sane Jistance above, the snow-waler equivalent (or density) can be related to net {ransmitted radiation. Disadvantages of this technique are the cost and the Hime consuming procedure of moving source and receiver along a profile. An fdvantage ia the potential of remote aerial readout of radiation from fixed ‘Saiiece Some instruments have both source and receiver in a single unit, but Gray [1973] argues that these noutron and gamma gages are not cocurale. ‘Direct measurement of snowpack can be achieved with pressure pillows tant measure the weight of the accumulated snow above them. These are flexible containers of antifreeze solution. The pressure change in them can be tirectly related to the weight of the overburden. Their main advantages are that they can bo instrumented for telemetering operation and are reliable and fairly easy to operate. Snow-Depth Sampling Procedures ‘The ruler or snowstake is the most comyaon instrument for measuring snovr depth, It ean he fixed or movable. The main consideration of fixed snow. ‘Stakes ip that they are in representstive locations and that the stake itself oes not affect the pattern of snow accumulation. “serial snow markers are stakes with markings that can be read from air- planes, Readings are usually confirmed through photograpby. "aerial photography is the most comprehensive method of measuring the spatial extent of snow cover. The spectral distribution of radiation emittod by the snow offers potential opportunities to distinguish botwéen the type of snow cover and its characteristics, Photogrammetry, uged with ground truth depth measurements, can be used to obtain fairly accurate estimates of the Gepth of snow cover over large areas. Photographie remote sensing proce- ‘Guros are limited by weather (eload cover) and encumbered by farest cover. 6.3 SnowPack ‘The accumulation of enow on the ground—snowpack—suffers a continuous change in properties, or motamorphosis. These changes respond to com- action by weight, percolation of rain or meltwater, freezo—thuw cycles, wind, Jind other climatic changes. Aging of the snowpack involves a change from crystal to granular structure, an increase in density, a chenge in albedo, hove toward homogeneous temperature distribution, and sn increase in its Tiquid-water content, When the saowpaci becomes nearly homogeneous and contains all the liquid water it can hold against gravity, itis roferxod to as ss eNowrnck 257 “ipo” or ready to produce meltwater. In the following subsections, we will de- tail some of the snowpack properties. 6.3.4 Density Generally, the density of the snowpack increases with depth and as the accux mulation season progresees. Figure 6.9 shows a typical vertical density pro- Sle, Figure 6.10 illustrates increased density with time. Typical densities are given in Table 6.2 for snowpacks under various conditions and origins. "Anderson and Crawford [1964] give the following relationship for the re- duction in depth of the snowpack due to compaction by new snow PxD/(D\* P22, 7 where AD is the change in depth; P is the water equivalent of new snow, & function of its density (Fig. 6.2); D is the present enowpack depth; and WE is the water equivalent of the snowpack. The above equation assumes inches as ult of depth, The dosty of now snow is also parameterized by the same authors as py = 0.05 + (T,/100)*; for T, > OF py = 0.06; for 7, 5 OF, 2) ARaUnE 9 Deray west na winter enowpack Soe: U.S, Amy Cas of Er ‘neors [1958]. pears258 CHAPTER 6 / SNOWPAGK AND SNOWMELT Se a4 Southerg Msitoba Lf a Ace Achill Raging Se / a appa Sa sws Sows FOS Febnory Mare pail May FIGURE 6.10 Seasonal variation In typical snow densities from various geographic areas. Source: MeKay and Thomescn (1957) where 7 is nit temperature and the density py is in grame per cubie conti- Thofor Using Bq. (62) would imply that the depth of the new snow is Dy os) Pu ‘TABLE 6.2 Snowpack Densities DENSEEY SNOW TYPE, (gem) Wild snow 001-003" Ordinary new snow, immediately after, falling in still air 0.05-0.088 Settling snow Settled snow Very slightly wind-toughened, Smmediately after falling Avetage windsoughoncd cnow Hard-wind slab ‘New fra snow 0-055 “Advanced fira snow 056-065 ‘Tanwing firm snow 06-07 ‘Seow poriy consolidated int ea Sources: MeKay (1968) und Branson ete (96%) sa svowrack 259 and the new depth of the snowpack becomes sD =,D-AD+Dy, en where ,D and ,D are the old and new depths, respectively. The water equiva- lent of the snowpack can also be updated 28 WE = WE +P 65) and the new snowpack density relative to that of wator must be oe re) 6.3.2 Cold Content In order for the snowpack to produce meltwater, it must have a temperature ‘above 0°C. Where this is not tho case, a certain amount of heat input is fe- ‘quired to raise the temperature before any melt occurs. This threshold enerey is called the eold content, To obtain it, we require the snow temperature and density profile, en @ ~ foot, ce calem ‘where D is snowpack depth (in centimeters); z (in centimeters) is the vertical coordinate, measured positively upward from ground surface; p,(2) is the snowpack density as a function of depth (grams per cubie centimeter); (2) is the snowpack temperature profile (in degrees Centigrade); and C, is the snowpack specific heat (calories per gram per degres Centigrade), which takes a value of 0.5 forall practical snow and ice densities. Rarely would o,(2) and 1,(2) be known. At best. we can hope to obtain depth-averaged values ‘The eald content would then become Qe = —PpC,DT a) where all quantities are now depth-averaged, and D is taken as a positive snow depth value, Remeraber, T, < 0°C. Once the snowpack is ripe, it may be ‘reasonable to assume that the col content is concentrated on any surfaco ico crust, since any deeper the snowpack is probably still at 0°C. The snow- surface temperature and depth of the ice crust would then be used in Eq, 6.8).260 CHAPTERS / SNOWPACK AND SNOMMELT “he cola content is commonly given in terms of the depth of water at O°C, which upon refreezing will raiso the snowpack temperature to 0°C. This depth can be expressed as a. Dp, == em, 69) Poly whore Lis the latent heat of freezing (79.7 ealg”!) and py is the density of water at T = 0°C, 1 gem”. Using Ba. 6.8), ~B oh, 6.10) Pe Lr which on substituting values for py, Cy, and Ly yields epDT, PDT, Dn 159.4 160 om. ay Given new snowfall at a given temperature, its cold content can be obtained uD Ty Dg = —PuDu te, : a 61) share subscript NV implies new snow properties. The snowpack ald content can then be updated by Dg Dut xDer 2) 6.3.3 Thermal Quality ‘The energy required to produce meltwater from the snowpack is equal to the cold content plus the latent beat demanded by the amount of melt produced. ‘This total energy for melting the snowpack is then a where Ly is the latent heat of melting of the snow. The thermal quality is de- fined es the ratio of @, to the energy consumed in producing the saine amount ‘of melt from pure ice at 0°C. This latter quantity is @ where Z,, is the latent heat of melting far ice. pDUns + Qe oo 1,DLms a) easnonpack 261 ‘The ratio of Eq, (6.14) to Hg. (6.15) is the desired thermal quality 6 G18) where temperatures are in degrees Centigrade, For subfreezing snowpacks (Z, <0), Lg, = ni therefore 0 > 1. For ripe snowpacke with some water content, Liq, es are wan with p, = 1 gem’ and L, = 80 calg™, = & (contimeters it Hy = gpg (Centimeters per uni it time). (6.22) ‘Anderson {1968} points out that except for the Q, term, Ba. (6.20) repre- sents an energy balance of the upper layer of snowpack. This is true if that Tayer ahsorhs the incoming solar radiation, which is the case of layers on the order of 16 em or so. The terms af Eq. (6.20) will be discussed further in the following subsections. 6.4.1 Net Radiation "The computation of net radiation follows the concepts given in Chapter 2 and does not require Farther discussion except to state that the longwave albedo ‘of snow is nearly zero and can be neglected. 6.4.2 Advected Heat in Precipitation ‘The heat carried by incoming precipitation depends on its temperature a ‘ePwPP 623) where P is the water equivalent of precipitation in centimeters per unit time, 7 is the temperature of precipitation in degrees Centigrade, p. is266 CHAPTERS / SNOWPRCK AND SNOMVELT the density of water (1 grem”*), and Cp is the spécific heat of precipita Hon (0.5 cal g"™°C" if itis snow or 1.0 calg "°C" if it is rainfall). The tem perature of the precipitation can be taken as the wet-bulb temperature it is Pefnfail, Snow occurs ifthe air temperature is below 0° to 1°C; this tempera- fare eam then be assigned to the precipitation. Note that in the case of snow, {is most probably zero or negative and may contribute to the cold content 6.4.3 Energy Consumed in Evaporation, Condensation, and Sensible-Heat Transfers Thos doo terms are computed in oxacly the same way as presentad in out ‘Taeso three fora rion (Chapter 2), Evaporation wil orcur given a docress- Fst aee rom the sna surface to tho ovriing air. An iavere gra ee as aa renoation, Assuming the ‘urbulent dffasion analogy for ens ad costs tn the genotal Daltontype equation B= [Be |e.20e = ees om él P where en tho vapor pressure at elevation ,¢ isthe saturation vapor pres: Te ear ees is the wind velocity at elavatjon b,P is presrre, Fa pe ao alovatons, abd E is dapth of eondensation a= evaporation pat 2 a ercrag an the gradient eizection. A six power la fr velocity aa ase iued in Be (6-24) allowing e, and Uy to be measured at a a eee ae I presgures are measured in millibere, elovations infec aan ie eg pe hour, the U.S. Ary Carps of Engineers (1956) col Tapoce Bq (628) into B= KZA). - eodUes 25) swith K, ~ 0.00636 in.ft!*hrday“! mb"? mi“, is thon im inchos per day. For Jin centimeters per day, elevations in meters and velocity in kilometers per Jone ie 0.00601 emi hr day*mb™ km". To convert to enorey units, the “Dove chould be multiplied by the density of water and hy the latent heat in- ‘alved in the change of state. Anderton (1966] points out that if the snowpeck Joie and melting, then the latent heat of condensation (evaporation) is in. “Yolved, about 600 eal g*. However, ifthe snow is not melting, the latent heat Steabkimetion, involving direct changes between the solid and gaseous Shaves, should be used. This is about 677 cal g-!. Tn practio, though, only the Tatent heat of condensation is generally used, sinee the melting period is the the of interest, and the maguitudes of divect sublimation aro euch that the crise becomes acceptable. Sinea the latent heat of condensation is 7.6 times thet of melting (600/80 = 7.5), its commonly quoted that @ unit of condenss- tion yislds 8.5 units of melt: ilelf plus 7.5 units of melt produced by the re- {eosed 600 cal ¢". Evaporation, though, uses 600 eal g”*, oo it can freeze 76 units of liquid-water coniant for every evaporatod one. eS ee GAENERGY BUDGET AND SNOWMIELT 267 ‘Again, based on turbulent diffusion analogy, the sensible-heat transfor ‘becomes proportional to the temperature gradient (as in Chapter 5). The US. Army Corps of Engineers [1956] suggests = LR sD, ~ THs 29 “where P, is the surface atmosphorie pressure, P, is the sea-level atmospheric pressure, Tis air temporature at elevation Z,, 7, is temperature at the sur- face, D, is the latent heat of evaporation, and U is wind velocity at eleva. tion Z;. For temperatures in degrocs Fahrenheit, clevations in feet, and ‘Velocities in miles per hour, the constant is K, = 0.00626 in. ft"* hr day* "Pm (US. Army Corps of Engineers (1956). Q, is in ealories per square centimeter if L, = 1624 lyin. +, With L, given a8 600 ealg’'; temperature in degrees Centigrade; elevations in meters; and velocities in Kilometers per hour, the eonstant K, should he 0.00357 emm"*hrday"!*C"an™. "Anderson [1968] and others simply use, in operational models, empirical ‘equations of the form @.=/WLwpoles— 6) F512 1G ean Q= POL puT. — T), (6.28) ‘where /1U) and f"(U) are empirical wind functions. In fact, once Q, is known, the Bowen ratio concept seen in Chapter 5 would be applicable to obtain Q, as a function of @,. Since the Bowen ratio states a @ at aa (e29) substitution of Bq. (6.27) in Ea. (6.29) yields = CoP MUPLAT. — Ts 30) vwith Cy = O61 x 107°C*, 6.4.4 Heat of Conduction from the Soil ‘The heat flux from the soil to the snowpack is given by ar a- Ky wan where K is the thermal conductivity of the soil, and d7'/aZ is the tempara tue gradient from soil to snow, This quantity is generally much smaller than the rest of the surface-energy transfers. Laramie and Schaake (1972) use a268 HAPTER 6 / ENOWFACK AND SNOWNELT constant value of 0.17 lyhr“ for this term. Ragleson (1970) estimates even Smaller amnounta, on the order of 10" ly day”', Anderson [1968] assumes that this effect eauses 0,01 in. (0.0254 cm) of melt a day, which implies about 2lyday* 6.4.5 Energy Released by Freezing of Liquid-Water Content 1 the cold content is positive, the snowpack’s temperature is below freeing ‘The freezing of any exiating liquid water will release Jatent heat. The «mount released can be computed as 2, DW 6: a 632) a sere, as previously defined, W is the liquidewater content (Ba. 6.17), D is The snowpack depth, pp is the snowpack density, Lyis the latent heat of freez- ing (80 eal g-, and’ At is the period of computation. ee ____ 6.5 Ain TEMPERATURE AS AN INDEX OF SNOWMELT ‘The encray budget procedure requires deta commonly not available. Tdeslly, vadiation measurements exist, but generally, we have to rely on the radiation quations of Chapter 2. Even then, the energy budget requires vapor pres- sure, wind speed, precipitation, and temperature measurements af various Shevations. Most locations will have precipitation and air-tomperature cetenrements, In order to deal with the sparcity of data, many empirical procedures have been developed to relate snowmelt, runofl, or energy trans, Jor to easily measured indices. ‘Tho most common and successful index of snowmelt is air temperature. s ‘Anderson [J978e] presents one of the most successful air-temperature index methods, the one used by the U.S. National Weather Service. The fol- Towing is adapted from that source. ‘Showmel is divided into rain and no-rain periods. The separation is due to differences in the magnitude of the various energy transfers, knowledge of tthe dominant transfer procedure during rain on snow periods, and differences jn the seasonal variation of melt rates {ur the two periods. ‘During rain on snow, it is assumed: that the incoming solar radiation is negligible because of overcast conditions, the cloud cover radiates as a black body, with a temperature close to that of air, and there is very high relative ‘humidity. Anderson (1978a} assumes 90% relative humidity. 185 ARV TEMPERATURE AS AN INDEX OF SNOWMELT 269 Under the above assumptions, the enorgy balance takes the following form. Net Radiation B= Q- Ae o(T, + 218)! ~ off, + 278) off, + 273) ~ o(273)* = 0.896 x 10 (7, + 278) ~ 0.45 eal em”*min = 49.56 x 10(7, + 273)! = 27 ealem”*hr*. eas) ‘Advectod Heat In Precipitation Q.= CrpyPT, calem*hr*, esa where Cp is the specific heat and P is precipitation usually given in cen- timeters per hour, ‘Condensation and Sensible-Heat Transfers ‘Since snow is at 0"C, the saturation vapor prossure at the surface is 6.11 mb. ‘The vapor pressure in the air is 0.9¢,, using the assumed 90% relative humidity, Using Eq, (6.27) and the Bowen ratio concopt, Qe + Q = MU) Lel(0.%ue ~ 6-11) * CoP. To], 635) whore L, = 600 cel”, pressures are in milibare, Op = 0.61 x 10°°0) 7. isin ogres Centigrade, = 1g emt, and /(U) isin contimeters per millibar per hour. ‘The function /(U) is taken as a calibration constant or 28 Ky(Z.Z,)"" Us, corresponding to Bq. (6.26), if a wind velocity measurement exists, taking care of unit consistency. "Anderson [1978] suggests as an initial estimate of the wind function, AU) = 000207, where U is the wind in kilometers per hour at 1-m elevation and f(U) has ‘units of centimeters per millibar per hour. ‘Adding Eqs, (6.38) through (6.35), the change of energy available is, Q. = 49.50 «10° CP, + 279 27+ PY, + FU) 600{(0.9¢. ~ 6-41) + 0.61 x 10° PT) (630 in ealories per square centimeters per hour.270 CHWPTER 6 / SNONPACK AND SHONMEST ‘Anderson (1978a] suggests that the saturation vapor pressure in mil- [bars ean be estimated from ay ~ 2.749 x 108 on ares 30 Tose with 7, in degrees Centigrade. "he pressure is taken from the following elevation-preseure relationship oad ~ 11.842 + 0.007452, (638) Pe where zis elevation in hundreds of meters “There are no simplifying assumptions for snowmelt during periods of no rain, During those periods, the complete energy balance must be known or Computed, Unfortunately, the varisbility of the energy exchanges with the Conditions of the atmosphere are too large to account explicitly for ench term Srith a simple surrogete such as air temperature. The commonly chosen alter. Native is to relate empirically enowmelt directly to air temperature. Most ‘equations are of the form M=MAT,-T), ‘ 639) where M isthe melt in millimeters of water over a given time period, 7, i air Temperature in degrees Centigrade, and Misa "molt fector” in millimeters tartogroes Centigrade. 7, is a base teraperature below which no melt oc- vere Generally, 7, is taken as OC. Mathematically, this implies that melt oc- sure only whew > 0°C, which is not always true, Using the energy budget, STopould be easy'to see that snowmelt can occur for air temperatures below °C This is particularly true during clear, calm days when solar radiation Gominetes the energy budget, Conversely, on clear nights, when outgoing longwave radiation is significant, the energy budget may imply that no melt eaeepven though air temperature may be above O*C. Those casce, though, gm not the dominant ones. Should a given location exhibit a persistent bias rune snowmelt calculation, 7, can be adjusted to something other than 0" ‘Since the melt factor encompasses all energy transfer effects, it mast re ‘ect some seasonal variability. Certainly, sqlaz radiation is an important sea- ‘onally varying factor in the energy balance, The seasonality of My will be di ectly related to the importance of solar radiation in the eneray budget of Jocation, Anderson [1968, 1978a] indicates that the eeazonal variation in the malt fagtor ean be represented by oe (6.40) p= MEME ol es where Mp is ¢ maximum value M; may take and MP is a eorrerpond- The miniaum value, and nis the day number beginning with March 21. ‘Coniguoas Met factor ‘Oct Now Dez. Tan Feb Mar. Apt May ane uly Aug Sept FIGURE 6.15 Seasonal variation in met actors used during non-ain periods, Source: Aer ‘andereon [1878a], Hycrologie Research Laboralry, National Weather ServioaINOAA. “Anderson (19786) points out that the above melt-factor variation proved in- adequate for Alasken conditions, An adjustment was suggested using data from Fairbanks, Aleska: fp = (My — Mp) B+ Mp, at) where M? is the modified melt factor end F is an adjustment given by F-00 for X = 0.48, =10 for X= 0.7, X= 048 . soe ose soimoisire —> ygroscpic yposcoie | _‘ipimasore Peery [peop Fplbcorasty a FIGURE 72 Soll noise profiles. (2) mmediatey after a drought hes boon broken by & ‘bstaialranfll—inftration water has reachad 25 em of sol, and wih the uptow of molsute from the lower reservor, the desiccated layer is being recharged from two direc- tions 45) After the coll ha Deen recharged in xcess fed capacity and is incapable of re- taining addtional water—the surplus 's tansmited dewnweard as gravity water. Sours: iM Marsh end J, Dozir, Landscape: An Introduction lo Physical Gecaraphy. Copyright (©1988 by Wiey. Reprintod by permission of Jonn Wiley & Sons, inc moisture front at some depth. Effectively the dry region is “pinched out” by tho two gradients. After sufficient moisture input, a single gradient, with ‘moisture decreasing with dépth, is developed and water percolates further down. bE "After cessation of rainfall, the drying process may look something like Figure 73. At time 0 the wet front was moving down. Immediately after the rainfall stops, drying begins in the upper layers. The bottom part of the wet font continues moving down, At some paint, no more water moves down and the gradient is completely negative (moisture uniformly increasing with depth). A “dry front” is now established. The lower zones are being depleted in order to satisfy an evaporation potential at the surface. The dry front will continue developing until the capillary forces are unable to move water to the surface (profile 7). ‘As previously mentioned, exploitable groundwater reservoirs are called aquifers. A saturated formation is exploitable if it can release a considerable amount of water with relative ease at reazonable expense. This is « property dependent on soil types and formation origins. Figure 7.4 shows a typical soil profile illustrating the most common aquifer types; these are confined and ‘unconfined (phreatie or water table) aquifers ‘Upon drilling a fully penetrating well through a phreatic aquifer, water will rise to the water-table lovel, which defines the piexometric surface or head of the system. An unconfined (phreatic) aquifer has a free water surfuce. ‘This free water surface may be directly connected to a stroam or other surface 72 HESOL-FOCK PROFLE AND SUBSURFACE WATERS 287 Moistare Dept FIGURE 7.9 Hypothetical upper-soll profes (me progress shown by numbers) duting & ying period. waters, The water in phreatic aquifers comes from direct rainfall recharge ver the aquifer, from connections to surface waters, and/or from other aquifers, Figuro 74 shows a confining hed separating the phreatic aquifer from a lower confined system, The confining beds may be completely impermeable (arquifage) or “leaky” (aquielude). The confined aquifer doas not have a free surface. Upoa drilling a well through # eonfined aquifer, water will rise to the B j6-!piezometric level, which is qual to the elevation above a datum plus the brossuré in the aquifer. This plesometrio level may be shove ground surface, In which ease a flowing artesian well results. Confined aquifers recharge through formation outerops—areas whore the soil system is exposed ta the surface —or through aquicludes, This type of recharge may be limited. Many fonfined aquifers contain “Tosil waters” deposited in past geologe times. "Whether a rock or soil formation is an aquifer, aquifuge, or aquiclade de- ‘ponds largely omits geologi origins and history. Geologic information tolls ws uch about critical hydraulic properties like permeability and porosity, sub- jecte of detailed study further on in this book. Table 7.1 gives possible rock classifications und their water-bearing potentials. “Aquifers in bedrock ars generally not very productive. Sandstone—consoli- "| dated sediment deposits —might be expected to have the best equifor poten: tial, Sandstone and other tightly cemented sedimentary rocks have @ propensity ‘to crack and fracture, Fractures or erevices may also develop because of solu- ee1288 chIPTER 7 / GROUNDWATER FLOW IN SATURATED POROUS MEDIA sansiration FIGURE 7. Schomatc cross section showing oceurrance of groundaater, Soures: FL. ‘Brown, A A. Konoplyantsey, J. ineson, and V.8. Kovatevsky, Groundwater Stucies. Copy- fight © Unesco 1872. Reproduced by permission of Unesco tion of cementing material. The water-bearing capacity is largely propor. tional to the degree of fracturing. Sedimentary rocks like dolomite and limestone may have very little inherent permeability through pore opesings, but are prone to solution and the development of fractures, crevices, or even cavities: Karet regions throughout the world are tremendously water rich 72 THE SOL-ROCK PROFILE AND SUBSURFACE WATERS 289 ‘TABLE 7.1 Rack Classification POROSITY —————__ TPE OF. Primary Secondary WATER-BEARING ROCK TYPES. Gein) Gecured UNIT Sediments, unconsiidated Gravel 30-40% Aquifer Coarse sand 30-40 ‘Aquifer Modium to fine sand 50-35, ‘Aquifer Silt 40-60 Oceeasional “Aguiclude Clay, til 45-55 ‘Rare (mud cracks) Aquielude Sediments, eonsolidsted ‘Limestone, dolomite 1-80 Solution joints, Aquifer or planes aquifige Coarse, mediuia <20—Toints, fractures, Aquifer or ‘sandstone aquiclude Fine sandstone, <10 Joints, fractures Aquifer or argilite aquifuge Shale, siltstone = eints, fractures Aguifuge oF aquifer Voleanie rocks Basalt = Soints, fractures Aquifer or squifage ‘Acid voleanie rocks = Auifuge oF aquifer Crystalline rocks hatonie ana Westhering and Aquifuge or metamorphic fractures aquifer decreasing 2s ‘depth increasas ‘arly exeeoss 105. Source: RIL Drown, 4, A, Kosoplyentoer, J noson, and V.S. Kovatsy, Grounducter Studies. (Copyright © Unens 1972 Reprinted by permission of Uneaee and consist of highly weathered (dissolved) limestone, sometimes forming true underground river systems. ‘Other bedrock formations of voloanie or erystalline structure have tittle inherent permeability but eould potentially contain and transmit water through cracks and fractures, Another transmission path may be the bounds ries between strata of different. geologic origin. Folding, faults, weight of overburden, and other sourees of geologic stress may conspire to reduce frac- turing or £0 increase it in a given rock formation. Unconsolidated sediments are generally the best aquifers. These sodi- ‘mont deposits are usually of alluvial or glacial origin. Alluvial sediments are deposited in and around former or present water courses. Sinco water-oo RSET 1290 ciwrTen 7 / GROUNOWATEA FLOW IN SATURATED POROUS MEDIA pee carrying capacity depends on the sizeof particles, alluvial sediments a0 Yew Sily well graded and layered. This enhances their porosity and hydraulic con ductivity, making them good aquifers. Tee atare of glacial sedimentary deposits depends on their history and ‘chvonslony relative to glacial formation and movement. Por example, glace! Saree ch like alluvial fans. They occur downstream of where meltwater vaee gel from a former glacier. The glacier had to have been stationary f= Teng fine in order to produce extensive useful fans. On the other batt eae moraines eau from the deposit of mixed up material by = guicy sro alacier This ungraded deposit will usually have poor water-holding ‘and water-transmission potential yo’ 7.3 DaRcY’s LAW ‘The dynamics of flow in a saturated porous mediuin are described by Darey's Law. Using an apparatus similar to the one shown in Figure 7.5, where a com war water heed is maintained aver a medium of thickness é, Darey (1856) Si@istuded that the voluine of flow through the medium is given by Vol = KA(h, + €~ Adtle ay where A equals the cross-sectional area of she medium, # oquals time, and FC ea proportionality constant. The average velocity of flow over the cross soe tion is then ge Kt e~ hye a More generally, Dery's Lew sttes thatthe velocity of flow through & porous medium is directly proportional t the gradient of piezometric head, Tn ne dimension, where h equals z + P/og, P is pressure, zis elevation, g is gravitational acy Mrleration:p is density of water, @ is direction of flow, q is velocity (length per {ins or diucharge per unit erass-sectioual area, and X ie the hydraulic con- ductivity (length per time) or “permeability.” Sra a (7a) state, flow is in the direction of decreasing piezometric hend cand is perpendicular to lines of equal head (equipotential lines). Keep in mind that gis the average velocity over the cross section, Defining 1b ~ q/m, where n, is effective porosity, we get the average velocity in the Jeiudl pores of the cross section. The efletive porosity is the ratio of the vol- rooancrsuw 291 FIGURE 7.5 Darcy's apparatus. Soureo: Gray [1873] ume of voids available for flowing water to the volume of the soil, This seep- lage velocity is greater than q and will correspond to that of « nonreacting, Conservative tracer in tho porous mediwm. Daray’s Law can ta derived from basie principles of flow in porous media (DeWiest {1066)), and it is applicable tnder most conditions eneauntered in practice. Essentially, these are sits tations whére viscous forees predaminate over inertial forces leading to lami- har flow. ‘The Reynolds number (commonly used in fluid mechanics) is the ‘ratio of inertial to viscous forees and is defined as # cA aa whore p equals water density, q equals velocity of flow, d equals maa par. ticle diameter, and y. equals dynamic viscosity. Darcy's Law is applicable for Reynolds mosber velues loss than 1 aid has been observed valid for values as high as 10. ‘The hydraulic conductivity appearing in Eq. (7.3) is a function of both ‘medium and fluid properties. For example, it can be theoretically shown that laminar flow through straight capillary tubes is deseribed by the Hagen— Poiseville equation, ped? dh ‘B2u de” asL 5 t serv orenesimntere rtm (292. cHAPIER 7 / GROUNOWATER FLOW IN SATURATED PORCUS MEDIA whore d equals capillary-lube diameter and dh/d@ equals piezometric gradient, which implies oat ao i Hydraulic conductivity can be expressed as x=, an sihre iis the intrinsic hydraulic conductivity, theoretically « function of the inedinm only, The intrinsic hydraulie conductivity is elso expressed as hood’, 08) where c is a proportionality eonstant function of the medium, Intrinsic hy- Graulie conductivity has units of length squared (Le., R", em). To avoid deal- ing with the usually small values, another unit, the Darcy, is defined as 4 Darey = 0.987 x 107 em! 1.082 x 107" fe Hydraulic conductivity has units of velocity. In English units, itis some- times given in terms of gallons per day per square foot. Table 7.2 shows typi- cal values of intrinsic hydraulic conductivity and hydraulic conductivity (water as fluld) of different soil types, Also in the table are corresponding val- ‘ues of porosities n, Porosity, in a representative elementary volume, is the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume of the materiel. ‘Darey’s equation can be extended to three dimensions. By carefully orienting coordinate axes s0 at to agree with the preferred direction of flow ‘TABLE 7.2 Hiydraulie Properties of Typical Soils kent) KGme} Gm Km ed Clay axio™ sax? 99 045 O44 15 49 Silty loam 4x10 «Ax 10S = 45 0H BAT BB Sandylam 4x10 34x10? =H BB BK 2S Band jo? 8x10? 1500 BA ‘See Section €.2 for definitions of #2, mand ‘Sout Entelihabl (1958 = ES LS Ee EO TaOARCrS LAN 293 (.e., commonly the layering of geologic strata), the fux.in three orthogonal directions becomes a as) ah, ei qn where K, Ki, end K, are conduetvitis of all dzetions, A porous modia is called isotropic? K, = K, = K,, If the conductivities do not vary from point to ce eee ife iediin is homogencous, Mathematically, that implies HK _ aK 28 ety a Pan aie whore Kis tho eptduetvity im tho ith-conrdinate direction. Tn anisotropi fields, the flow is not perpendicular to the equlpotential lines (lines of equal piezometrie head). It is nevertheless possible to ‘transform the scalo ofthe x, , and 2 axes so that tho resulting problem looks mathe- {tically isotropic. "The transformations in the three coordinate directions ae yo $ ao 5” K ‘The flow across boundaries, perpendicular to the gradient, can be expressed in terms of the new coordinates x’, y’, and 2’ as a=vE EVER de = VEER 2 ay'te',- kK, ae! i ah ah VE, |e VER gr iv'te! = VERE, 5020s! ast Tp Bgayte ah perayt VE VE, | Ex 2 satay’ = VIR gp By ‘Equation (7.11) indicates that the change of scale has resulted in an equiva- an)(294 CHAPTER T / GROUNDWATER FLOW N SATURATED POROUS NEDIA {tie mote important to point out that the rotation of axe to obtain Ba, (7-8) sa not always possible, In such eases, Darcy's Law tales a more complicated form: ah (119) or, using matrix notation, q~-KVh, ao where = (9404 Raa Ky Ke K=|K. Ky By KK, Ke tate K is symsmeLscal and io called the tenerr representation of hydraulic vandstivity. Readers are referred to Wang and Anderson [1982], Appendix A, fora more extensive, but simple, discussion of anisotropy and tensors. eee 7.4 MASS BALANCE EQUATIONS—FLOW SATURATED POROUS MEDIA ‘Derey’s equation is the basic expression for momentum balance in flow Dresugh perous media, Its combined with continuity or mass balaneo expres: Sree Mprain full descriptions of the flow felé. The derivation of the basic fgroundvater equations in saturated media follows. 7.4. Confined Aquifers Figure 7.6 defines a unit yolume in a saturated medium with no free suriaso, The foxes at the center of the unit volume are g., gy and g, im the three ‘rthogonal coordinate directions. Writing the not flux inthe x direction yields (Che folowing argument is a nonrigorous application of Taylor’s series expan- sion of flux for a small volume) {[e- 5 Zonas] - [owe +3 (oaps]} ava 2 ondav, eu aoe) pa 4 MEE as Bf MO ay eas} 2EED ay FIGURE 7.6 Mess fuxos ina unt vlume of salureted sol. Source: Ater Gray {1873} where p is the density of water and AV = AxAyAz. As in previous sections, a, jis the flow per unit area perpendicular to the face Ay Az. All other directions yield similar results, When added, they must be equal to the chango of fluid Jrass in the systom, defined here as aMf/at, Using the offeetive porosity to ‘express M and adding the net flux in all directions results in a a a - fg on) + (000 * ye tons} av = 2 (pn, AV) 36) wl ‘Under saturated conditions, the change in fluid mass can only be attributed to water density or porosity changes. Changes in water density ean be gener Say naglected when compared to changes in porosity caused by compression af the soll-rock metrix in the vertical direction, Define a coefficient of spe- Sine storativity 8, as the volume of water released from storage per unit vol- time of aquifer per unit change in pressure head. Then, using a tivdrostatic Treesure assumption, P = pg(h — 2), where his the piczometric head and 2, San arbitrary datum, Eq. (7.16) con be simplified to * — (2% 4 (ea a ‘he specific storativity S, has units of inverse distance. It s a property of the ‘aquifer and is usually taken as a calibration parameter. The form of Ba, (7.17) fand the origins of S, can be obtained using theoretical arguments. Appendix 8 presents the arguments used by Jacob [1949] to arrive at Eq, (7.17). “Under steady-state conditions, Eq. (7.17) becomes 20s 4 2A 4 Oe 8 4 Ms 4 28 Gg = She 5 He Fe va= 0, a8)296 crarteA7 / QROLNOATER FLON IN SATURATED POROUS MEDIA where q is'a vector of volocities in all directions and ¥ is the divergence operator a vestate Substitution of Daroy’s expression for the fluxes, Eq. (7.9), in Bq. (7.18) results in a a fg) 4 2 (ge i E(e8)+5@ 2) +2 (2)-° ‘For an isotropie and homogeneous medium the hydraulic eonduetivities can be taken out of the derivatives and divided out, resulting in the well- Jnown Laplace equation, wh #h th _ oye Be Rp ten. ‘The Laplace equation is common to all problems of potential flow in fluid mechanics as well a6 in problems of electricity, magnetism, and thermal Folds. Note that the terms of the Laplace equation are the curvature of the plezometric surface. A nonzero total curvature implies failure of the hora feneity and isotropy assumptions os ap 720) 7.4.2 Uncontined Aquifer ‘The unconfined-aquifer problem is complicated by the presence of a free gucface, Although Eq, (7.17) would still be valid in regions of complete satura- tion, it must be solved with variable boundary conditions associated with the phreatie surface. The boundary condition is one of atmospherle pressure over a rvariable (dynamic) interface between the water and air. H must elso foclode the potential input due to direct aquifer recharge. The analysis is not simple, the interested reader is referred to Bear (1972). The alternative simplified approach is to intograte the equations in the vertical and deal with a two-dimensional system that assumes horizontal How and that there are no fluid particles moving along the free surface gradi- cent. This is ealled the Dupuit approximation. ‘3 Horizontal-Plane Flow and the Dupuit Approximation Figure 7.7 shows a vertical, full-depth column of a phreatic aquifer. A useftl ‘sumption is that the slope of the phroatie surfsee is small in comparison to the total depth, so that vertical components of flow can be ignored. The Dapuit approxisnation then states: q, = 0 and ag,/2z = 29,/02 ~ 0. Aseum- ing horizontal bottora end eonstant hydraulic conductivity over dopth, the uh —| FIGURE 7.7 Control volume for the derivation ofthe Dupult approximation. mass flux in the x direction is (see Fig. 7.7, again using a Taylor expansion concept) a a pahay ~ [oss + Heal scty| ~2tpamaray on Adding a similar resul in the y direction and equeting to the change in sass leads to a a a -[Zcoaa + Ztoan nay + pRAxby = Fon AV) + ‘The term i(pn, AV) represents changes in mass due to changes in porosity ‘and density of the matrix. This term is several orders of magnitude smaller than the term n,2}p Ax Ay, which accounts for the change in the surface eleva- ton, The first term in the right-hand side of Eq, (7.22) is therefore ignored. ‘The last term on the left-hand side accounts for the recktarge rate per unit area of the aquifer R. Introducing Darcy's expressions for velocities 4,» 45» fand q, and assuming that water is incompressible results in 8 (ent) 4 2 (icp) = nt (eal!) + Sleep) oe ‘The steady-state result for a homogeneous isotropic medium is 0,28) , 2(,28) 2 203) +305) --# R 2)298 cHNPTERT / GROUNDWATER FLOW IN SATURATED POROUS MEDIA 1 [ae hynt=-% 28) ala | x ‘the above is called the Poisson equation with potential field. a ove general result would result from integrating Ba, (7.17) with valid ‘upper boundary conditions to account for the phrestie surface, The result is 2 (nat) «2 (n%) 9 a2 where isthe transmissivity defined for an unconfined system as n= [Kiode «a5 and for a confined system 8s a n= [kee an here 2; is the bottom of the aquifar, 2 i the top of s confined aquifer, and Kt) represents the permeability variation with depth. Note that in @ con: fined aquifer of constant permeability and depth b, T ~ OK. ‘in an unconfined system, $ in Eq, (7.25) is the effective porosity n, and in a confined aquifer s- "see, a9 where § is the nondimensional storativity coefficient. Usually the integrals in Ege. (7.26), (7.27), and (7.28) are replaced by ‘sums over finite layers of the aquifor thickness. T= Ska, 29) s= sid, 730) i whore the superscript represents the jth layer of Nand A2! the thickness of ‘the jth layer. ‘Given the definition of 7;, Eq. (725) is clearly nonlinear im h for the un- confined aquifer. Nevertheless, both unconfined and confined situations in ANAS BALANCE EQUATIONS FLOW IN'SATURATED POROUS MEDIA 299 ‘wo dimensions collapse to the same equation, for the homogencous isotropic cease with a horizontal bottom by defining the following potentials ge unconfined: $ = 5 confined: $= h for which the generalized equation is FO i cwenenas_ oan 3 a s and hy jg somo reprsensative hyareulic head around which Eq, ( ‘Do study hydraulies of wells, the eylindrical-coordinates form of Bq. (7.31) ig used: 12 (,a8) 1289.96 BR 12 (38) «38s Ove Oy is 732) ‘The source (sink) term R in Kg. (7.32) can also be used to represent pump- ing, recharge, or leakage across aquifer boundaries. The latter. condition gen: rally refers to aquifers with leaky aquitards as one or more codfining layers. ‘The vertical leakage across a semipervious stratum (aquiclude or aquitard) can be approximated as E, n= Fa-h, 33) where K, is the vertical permeability of the aquitard, B is the thickness of the layer, and H, is the time-invariant head externally imposed on the leaky layer. In using Bq, (7.32) in (7.83), it is assumed that the aquitard cannot store and release water in response to changes in internal pressure300 c-nrTen 7 / OROUNOWATER FLOW IV SATURATED POROUS NEDIA 7.4.4 Initial and Boundary Conditions ‘To solve the saturated groundwater flow equations seen in the past sections, ‘we need boundary, initial conditions, and the geometry ofthe problem. There dre throe general types of bouindary conditions 1. Proseribed head h = Js, yy €). AS implied, this potential js not only & fnetion of space but may also be a function of time, ‘These are called Disichlot boundary conditions 2, Neumann boundary conditions preseribe the flux or gradient of head along the boundary q (J, 2, £). It could also be a function of time: An impervious boundary is a nofiux condition, VA, 9,2) ~ 0 4. A semipervious boundary is called a Cauchy condition. It establishes flux ts function of some external head (usually fixed) and the local potentis! @ = alee, Mx, 2, 2). The relationship is ussally kinear: = fits 99258) > Fle 2 Oh Initial conditions usually specify the head throughout the aquifer-at the beginning of the period of interest, They are a snapshot of conditions at relative-time 0, 7.4.5 Linearity and the Superposition Principle quation (71) is a Hear differential equation on the potential 6. Keep in ‘mind that the definition of this potential depends on the nature of the prob- jem under analysis. A property of linear systems is the additivity of solutions, If-d, and gy are solutions to Eq. (7D), then @ = dy + fy is a solution. This principle of superposition of solutions permite the decomposition of large com- plicated problems into a series of smaller, simpler problems. For example, Eolutions to complicated input (ie., recharge, pumping) patterns can be Sbtained by decomposing the pattern into simple parts, solving the corre sponding probleme, and adding the results. Similarly, difficult boundary and fnltial conditions ean be achieved by adding carefully selected subproblems. ‘This is the basis of the method of images to be discussed in Section 7.5.5. Ro- member, though, that boundary conditions must be Linear (.e., not dependent ‘on the siate) in order to be able to add solutions, EXAMPLE 7.1 One-Dimensional island ‘A classic example is the aquifer model of an island of infinite length. ‘Jacob [1943] used this model to simulate groundwater in Long Island, ‘New York, An idealization of the situation is shown in Figure 7.8, Because of the infinite length, flow is essumed one dimensional with dh/dy = 0. A candi- tion of no flow across the impervious hottom is also assumed, The aquifer is homogeneous. 1.4 MASS ALANCE EQUATIONS —RLOW INSATUTATED POROUE MEDIA. 301 : fee Ee ae jo jess a ee ate) , | eo er FIGURE 7.8 An island of Infinite extent. Rquation (7.24) is applicable for the no-recharge cxse, on] at Intograting twice, earth Imposing the boundary condition at x = 0, f= fy leads to b ~ HE or earth imilarly, at x= L, h = hy Nps ob ht ‘The hoad then obeys, eatin he ap Bey sia. ‘From Darey’s Law the discharge per unit width must bo ah Qa KK ash) 138) 136) aan 38) 2.39) -eM errs 302. CHAPTER 7 / GROUNDWATER FLOW IY SATURATED POOLS MEDIA ‘which using Ba, (7.98) results in Kag— ny = at AD. (740) ‘Using Bq, (70) in Ba. (788), wo get a common form of the Dupait parabols, 2 20, + ne 141) Wea a te ¢ {fe constant rainfall input R, in volume par unit area per Lime, occurred over the island (Fig, 78), the equation to be solved would be Fa 2 we K€ ray A first integration yields ant 2 KBE A second results in Re’ p= FE tox te. a4) h 7 « Imposing boundary conditions, at x oi; therefore, ey = B, Atx eT, h= hy or BE a FLOW WN SATURATED POROUS MEDIA 303 Finally, then, s — pe RES) EE Genes ©) ae 7 7 ath. Flow per unit width is given by = Katt Q=-Kat rae) aan Ifhy~ he, Ba. (748) yields oRet , RL FR R gu-7 In such a case, the problem is symmetrical. At x = L/2, the above equation gives the maximum head Sa) ae 148) ‘An alternative is to deal with the problem with equations analogous to ‘those of confined aquifers, Figure 7.8 can help in the formulation, Define 64 fs the excess head above elevation /,, the boundary value. Also assume that 3h @ hy. The unconfined aquifer equation en 2 Te gRoo can also be expressed a8304 HAPTER 7 / GROUNDWATER FLOW IN SATURATED POROUS MEDIA Substituting h = A, + 5h, R K Fea gfe me] + and ignoring the high-order term in 3h, £ (8h21, we get oh “a AK asa) where AK is the “transiniasivity” of the aquifer under this first-order line earization procedure, Defining x = 0 at the eenter of the eymmetrical domain and integrating twice yields RED ah tor te (750) ‘The “groundwater divide” implies thet at x = 0 there is no flow in the x di- rection, This implies a boundary condition of the form: oro, = 0, At x = L/2, bh = 0; therefore -RL? bes ah =H - #) sn For illustration purposes, assume the following values of the parame tere: R= O.lemhr = 01 x 107 mhr“, L = 600 m, hy = 100 m, and "74 MASS BAL ANCE EOUATIONS.—FLOM IV SATURATED POROUS MEDIA. SOB K = 10" ems = 3.6 x 10% mhr”', According to Eq, (7.48), the maximum (center) head would be goo? = 221220" sooyt A WOOF = FR gai OO h= 083m. Using the first-order linearization given by Eq. (7.51), the maximum h would be f+ thle = 100+ S093 x 107| 4 = 108.68 m. # 0. x 107 (4 EXAMPLE 72 ‘Superposition of Solutions ‘The superposition principle can be used to decompose large problems into groups of simpler problems whose solutions are added. The results of Example 1.1 ean be used to illustrate the concept. ‘The problem of rainfall over an island ean bo broken in two parts. First, we make use of the homogeneous (no recharge) solution with the boundary conditions implied in Figure 7.8. The solution was soen to be Eg. (7.40) ‘To account for the adéed rainfall, we solve the complementary problem (with different boundary conditions) ae : rand 0) = 0, co) Integrating twice (iq. 7.48) resulted in 2. Re WE bogie‘306 CHAPTER 7 / GROUNDWATER FLOW IN SATURATED POROUS MEDIA and imposing boundary conditions, we get for x ~ 0, ¢ = 0, and for = = RL/K. Therefore, ‘The discharge at x = Je would be Pa Adding the two solutions, K ge ay + BE, QQ t Qa MAT which is the same as Ba. (147). EXAMPLE 73 Leaky Aquifer Imagine # leaky aquifer as chown in Figure 7.8, Overlying the zono of satura: tionis a semipervious layer of thickness B and hydraulie eonduetivity Kj. "The flow through this wall is (Bq. 7.23) (a) = (ome ae) = Re whore H, is a fixed external head, also equal to the head at z= 0. At x = the head ip equal to tho aquifer depth b. In steady state what would be the FIGURE 7.9 A confined aquifer with 2 ley Upper layer. e "TANASS BALANCE CQUATIONS—FLOW IN SATURATED POROUS NEDA, 307 piegometric head distribution? Assuming one-dimensional flow, we could write (Bq. 731) 7) qehere K is the hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer, Substituting the expres- sion for q leads to o. asa) Let Z = h ~ H, and substitute in Bg, (7.58) ae ae ae 58) where M = (KbB/K)". "The solution to Bq. (7.54) is of the form Z = ©, exple/M) + Cy exp(-#/M) as) ‘Using the boundary conditions, at x = L, A(L) = bor ZL) = b ~ H..Atx = 0, MO) = H,, which implies 2(0) = 0. Substituting this last condition in Ha. (7.65), O=G +e, and using the former condition b - H, = C, exp(L/M) + Cy exp(-Z/M) or = @— Ho/lespiL/M) ~ exx-L/MN- 138) ‘Equation (7.55) now becomes, fexp(e/M) ~ exp(-3/M)1, asp swith Mf as in Bq, (7.54) and C, given by Eq. (7.56). As an example, let K, = lot em #!, F = 10" ems”, b= 100 m, B= 1m, H, = 125 m, and L = 1000 m. The coefficients becomo M = 100 and C, = —1.19 x 10°. ‘A plot of Eq, (7.57) with the above parameters is given in Figure 7.10. ‘The offect of relatively high leakage is reflected on the flatness of the piezometrie head distribution up to 600 m along the aquifer. + AH# i \ A) Head, meters bt ht ee qe Motes FIGURE 7.40 Solution to leaey quit. ‘You can find in the literature analytical solutions to problems much more ‘complicated than those of the past three examples. Two such results follow. ‘The details of the eetval solution have been eliminated as inappropriate for the goals of this book. EXAMPLE 74 ‘Two-Dimensional Model of a Small River Valley ‘Toth [1962] studied a series of emall tributary valleys in the Red Deer River yetem of central Alberta, Canada. Based on information about hydrology, ieclogy, physiography, topography, and groundwater levels, he angued thet the groundwater cystems in the small tributory valleys could be represented fas in Figure 7.11. The main characteristics are two-dimensional flow in a ross section, impermeable no-flow barriers at the top and bottom of the Valley (groundwater divides), impermeable horizontal bedrock, anda Piezometrie surface that followed the topography. He also assumed that the Fiver was not a significant sink of groundwater and could be ignored ‘Toth [1962] then solved the steady-state equations of flow in a square region (height 2, length s) approximating the more trapezoidal reality. The problem statement was wit tlorng bn ene pedieted wary = ° feoeeen belt, atecoands fOzeen where ¢ is a constant and g is gravitational acceleration. {14 YASS BALANCE EQUATIONS —FLON IN SATURATED POROUS MEDIA 309 ger divide [Aie-watrioterace and id poten (fF) 00 hat imeface Land sutace Valley boom Theoerieatimpesmeable ‘ourdary Tnpermedble boundary (sandard datum) Midi becwetn boton and divide econ tee ns | ina sot | FQURE 721 Cee secon of va shoring al ar here nouns and fon | URE 2a oa Tt Goopye, has. 677,162. Copy by fe Amaresn Céopyea Unn, ‘The solution to the linear partial differential equation is found, by sepa | ration of variables, to be (28) _ fees sire + tee] ona + Hee] | ina) ~ (e+ §) MSS, ee Fata + Dred rss) Figure 7.12 diagrams Eq, (7.59). Equipotential (equal head) lines are drawn together with the perpendicular streamlines, Such a diagram is called fa flow net and is a common graphical solution procedure and representation ‘f potential flow fields obeying Leplace's equation. Two solutions are given, fone for a 500cR-deep valley (1524 ra) and one for 10,000-fr-deep (3048.8 rm) ‘alley. "The width of the flow tubes (between streamlines) is inversely propor- ‘Tonal to the flow velocity since, by construction, flow tubes carry the same jnerement of discharge. Therefore, in Figure 7.12, flow is more intense near the surface particularly close to the flow divides. ‘Toth (1962) used the above result to argue that the valley can be divided, at ite midpoint, in recherge (water-receiving) and discharge areas. Further. nore, the discharge is significant throughout the whole valley bottom, not ‘only at the stream. This type of behavior could be used to argue that when rainfall comes, certain lower reaches are quickly saturated and contribute host of the surface flowing waters to the river. This is called the “partial area” runoff contributing concept. The related eoncepts of infiltration and run- Off will be discussed in Chapter 6, including runoff by soil profile saturation.5 « eo 5700 00 iT T a0 HITT se TONNE aoe © 3 oan ae og sax 3 = bax > i oa B 6 1 | jo jo 4 a 2 pe | Z aan = Fes TR Saka Tin o FIGURE 7.12 Two-dimensional cistrvutons and flow pattems for diferent depths to the odontal imaormeable boundary, Source: J. Toh, J. Geoptiys. Res. 67(11):4360, 1962. ‘Copyright by the American Geophysical Union. ‘Toth (1963] expands the presented approach to study groundwater flow ‘under more complicated phrestic surface descriptions. He was attempting to ‘account for the highly varigble topographic relief in a valley floor. The reader is urged to study this illuminating example further. # EXAMPLE 75 Surface-Groundwater interaction Cooper and Rorabaugh [1963] studied the interaction between surface ‘streams and aquifers, They ideelized the situation as in Figure 7.13 and ana- Iptically atudied the response of the aquifer to a pessing flood in the stream, "Tho aquifer could be of finite or semi-infinite (no impermeable valley-wall ef- fect) extent, 1 4 ASS BALANCE EQUATIONS —FLOW N'SATURATED POROUS MEDIA. 311 ane surace Imperato [pater Winca sveomsore | iment te of exile, FIGURE 7.19 ldeaized intorection betwoon 2 sream and an aquifet. Sources: Cooper and Rorabaugh {1988}, and Eaglason [1970] ‘The passing flood was represented by a general time-varying head at = 0 of the form, 40,4) = Nhge™*(h ~ cos wt), where hy ia the maxinnum height of the wave above the initial water table, 6 Te eatar us control the symmetry of the wave, N’ depends on 8 and insures Tastall flood waves peak at hy and is the daration of the wave, Cleary, the problem is one of non-steady state, time-varying, interest, Por 0 = ¢ = 1 Couper and Rorabeugh defined fas the deviation of the head from the origi Sal steady-state problem and solved the following one-dimensional problem: forOstsr, 80) ah _ Sah ah- Fano 76) Ma, 0)=0 fordsesl tHe D 9 forte 7 = ‘and MO, 0 according to Faq, (7,60). The above is a first-order linearization of {the unconfined groundwater flow equations. The factors S and T depend on the linearization. For t= +r some of the boundary conditions change: Mia) = heels 7) fr OH TSE Afo, = 0 forte ante) at 9 <0 forts,342. CHAPTER 7 / GHOUNOWATER FLOW IN SATURATED POROUS MEDIA reer my 1 a= mer t Seite casted 8-04 asc whi a a a i +8 FIGURE 7.14 Groundwater flow into stream resuling trom stage osclation dened by Eg, (7.80) when 6 = 0. Sources: Cooper and Rerabeugh 1963), anc Exgison (1870) where hya{e;#) ix the aclistion to Eq, (7.61) at time +, Cooper and Rorabaugh ‘nly solves iq, (7.61) and used the principle of superposition soon in Section 7.4.5 fo obtain the full solution, Laplace transform techniques were used to solve the partial differential equation. ‘The solutions are best visualized in Figures 7.14 and 7.15. Both figures correspond to 2 symmetrical flood wave (stage bydrograph with 5 = 0). ‘Curves are shown for various values of f = x7'/8¢'S. "A value of B at or near zero corresponds to an aquifer of semi-infinite extent, T and § in the ordinate are transmissivity end the nondimensionel lorativity coefficient, Figure 7.14 shows the variation in time of flow into the ‘troam, Nogative values imply that water is going into the aquifer. Note that for values of f ~ 10 oF higher, the flow is in phase with the flood wave. Water goes in during the rising limb and out during the recession in an almast sym- fnetrical manner. This ig not true for the semi-infinite aquifer. In that case flow and the wave are out of phase. The banks receive water during 70% of the event. It releases water at a much slower rata. ‘The solution for the volume of water absorbed by the aquifer (bank storage) 4s given in Figure 7.15, Limitod-dimension aquifers release as much water as they absorb, almost st the game rate, An infinite aquifer retains a consider- ‘able amount of water for effectively an infinite time. TASS FIGURE 7.18 Bank storage resulting trom stage osclion defined by Ea. (7.60) when 520, Sources: Gooper end Rarabaugh {1983}, ané Eagleson [1870] 7.5 WYDRAULICS OF WELLS ‘the following sections will study the behavior of wells, generally from a Jomewhat idealized perspective. Assumptions will include isotropy, homo unlly, and, genovally, fall penetration ofthe aquifer by the well. hough wettrictive, these simplifications will not detract from the tremendous useftl- hous of tbe results. As we will seo, the study of well behavior will provide Wau of eatimating aggregete parameters of aquifers, Therefore, wells are nat Jaty a way to take out or add water to aquifers, but they are also instruments of tho study of groundwator flow parameters 7.8.1 Steady-State Solution of a Fully Penetrating Well in a Confined Aquifer Imagine a single well penetrating a confined aquifer of depth b, as shown in Figure 7.16, The well is being pumped at a constant rate Q. Aftar some pump: {ng time (heoretically, infinite time; practically, a finite time), the originally >horizontal piezometrie head forms a time-invariant cone of depression. (Not:‘impermeable FIGURE 7.16 Well penatrating @ confined aquifer. Source: Gray {1878}. In an infinite aquifer, this is only an approximation. The cone of depression ‘continues to expand, only very slovily, as time goes to infinity.) In a homoge- ‘Heous, jeotropie aquifer of infinite extent, this cone is radially symmetric. At ‘the well radius r,, the head is taken as 4, the level to which the water rises {in the well, In fact, this is not true in practice; the water level will be lower than he and the effective well radius will be larger than ry, This behavior ‘accounts for energy losses occurring through the graded gravel packing and ‘ereens usually found around corvectly built wells (Gray [1973], Brown et al. [1972). The head at a radius r, away from the well is hy, Flow is horizontal, fiven the parallel confining layers and the complete penetration of the well “The steady-state saturated groundwater problem just described must obey Laplace's equation, which in its eylindrieal-coordinates version is ‘Since flow i radial, irrotational, ag, 0 leading to the one-dimensional statement af aK 42/4 ° Integrating once, rt ‘A second integration yields heqlarta. Boundary conditions must now be imposed. At r= Ta ho = erin na + ey AUT = Ty h = hg therefore hy = 6, ln 7; + eo ‘Simultaneous solution of the above results in = tobe (2) 4, - Go By) ad 6 Finally, asa cylinders, at radius r, around the well is given by f a aman, here discharge into the well is defined as negative. From Eq. (7.65), th hohe or wf He crs) rsHvoRuicsorveus 315 Using Dazcy’s equation, flow into the well through any of the concentric cr6) 786) asp316 HAPTER 7 / GNOLNOWATES FLOW NI SATURATED POROUS NEDIA Substituting into Bq, (7.66) leads to the following discharge magnitude into the well (negative sign is ignored): [Note that if the pumping rate is known and water-level observations are available at the site and at a point a distance r; away (observation well, then. Bq. (7.68) ean be solved for the transmissivity T of the aquifer, This Poramter-estimation problem is generally ealled the inverse problem in Fpirology. Also note that Uae choice of a finite head value at a given radial ‘eeance for this infinite domain problom leads to 2 solution that is not valid Ghen r,gues to infinity. As it stands, h;~ hy would illogically slso go to infinity. 7.5.2 Steady-State Solution of a Fully Penetrating Well in an Unconfined Aquifer Steady-state flow into a well in an unconfined aquifer would require the solu- ‘tion of the homogeneous form of Bq. (7.92), but now with ~ 7/2. Again, vote that this steady-state solution can at best approximate reality. As ‘xpocted, the integration and resulte will perallel those of Section 7.6.1. An Sidanative approach wees geometric considerations. Figure 7.17 shows the ypicel unconfined flow into a well. Assuming the Dupuit assumptions hold, tao flow across the concentric oylinders surrounding the well must be equal fo cach othor and equal to the well discharge. At the eylinder a distance r from the well center (defining flow into the well ax negative), Q = ~terna 59) TP Obceretion wl Cone of depression > Drandows yf f iy NP oo Pures well) jae Wi ‘inpermesbie c= FIGURE 7.17 Schematic dagram of a fuly penetrating wel in an unconfined aquifer, 188) asnmoauesor wens 317 Integrating Eq, (7.69), iE q% = an | han, leads to the following discharge magnitude (ignoring the negative sign): 170) equation (7-70) can again be solved for hydraulic conductivity, given @ and tro observations of well-water elevation at two different points of radius ry and rp 7.5.3 Unsteady Flow in Wells Aspreviously seen, the solution of unsteady flow in wells must satisfy a. (7.82), ‘which for radia) flow and.no recharge becomes =o, om For a single well in 0 homogeneous, isatropic, eonfined aquifer of infinite extent, Theis [1935] gave the solution of Eq. (7.71) as @ so Som. am where s is drawdown, the distance from the original piezometrie surface to the new surface (drawdown curve) at a point r from the center of the pumping ‘well (soe Fig. 7.17 for definition); T is transmissivity; and @ is well constant discharge, The term W(u) is the so-called well function w= [ae, ro where ui am where r is the radial distance in feet, 8 is the storativity coefficient, ¢ is the duration of pumping, and ‘is the transmissivity.7sHvORAULICS OF WELLS 319 TABLE 73 Values of Ws) A diagram of ‘The well function is tabulated and given in Table |W(u) versus u is shown in Figure 7.18, The well function is also expressed as B gf $2 Sed tekaces @ & £47 GU GS Es £6 82 Fads goeGeas g sep UE Weak Be 82 gece Lebskos a ag 22 2beendgedise = : Be 22 PPSagedasese 3 25 88 S4usifea5e2% 3 | . Be sh Sasgehseagaen 2 é 28 33 SEE sarge se4 3 g AS 82 pegdbeogg ese & 3 Se se Eaee go Sess se p oF ey Pa asiagtaecade i 7 ed Sog0sbeause ate | i ga du2gdisey ese eee A aad. 2 88 8 gocgegtaaeea 5 3 2 BE GEEES ECA Pe pes eias | sg = BF Biataedes saa Seed ate! SEs Regasti2acasg ed ee | z . be Fpetadeeleta2 23 ; 8 Be gee ec btetes tyes 8 B of Pessiseigersaagd 5 a 3 S go gipeesqiissigit 2 ¢ ad Tetecg gece egietascaee 2 4 Gps ptedes es gsigy olf s E sabe iaty besos esa es> i. 2 ge ag yal Sesabdé 3 sage Glaggesueneeauenaleddl iESSAGRR AAAS IRETERSEOREAR IAD SEEpScaataaaeeataaligl a ‘SEER FESESEUEREES Eau AGERE AERETREZEEE EEreEEE intananaaes it Sgceeaellacis RaWaaaade UE SRB GESRESER Rea TaSRAEE o eee i if EERE HSQUETE EUG aT UETEETSRESU RESET ERIEAINEEES ESTEE S122 ELRELPEEEIENERSS ite ST ees Hay sage veLa AEE IEA Eo UESEU SEES LEIS Ee a2essbee, J Gs05Es UUUESU EET UUIEUES EE ae gage egg LLG EEE, cue onan sein anarelene UATE Sounanadaanannanaasan ahaa Sagicugezaca beasts taraees SE ana AeaSatie aannnatadnadnannnRanhsneernannn cee ce tata Luan ‘ag ce ee ee ordeal pee gene SE Sa sinnsreisiunanadad AeRRARH MER AAA AREAS? Aaa ae a RaLIESTESICEA SURE: jadsaouseesoas: BERGER OE EU ee us dgndeaas eQa700 2 0aRi igs AaseSesAeUTEGS AeaeRLEs Sa peaReceeaaneaneanannnamRanann Sourcen: Wesel [1842] and Grey (1978). 3 sversuerit else FIGURE 7.19 tustration of graphic eolution of Theis equation. Source: D.K. Toss, a snntwatar Hycrolagy, Tst ed. Copyright © 1958 by Wey. Reprinind by perission of sohn Wiley & Sons, Ine. Storativity comes from Bq, (7.74 At am With a redefinition in Eq. (7.73) of @ as h*/2, and C, as n,/KH. it ehould be clear that the Theis equation is also a solution for (Hs — #')/2 in an un- ‘confined aquifer, where H, is the original plueatic nurface level. Por small Changes in head from the ériginal levels, the Theis equation for direct draw Gown s is till valid in an unconfined aquifer with transmissivity defined es T= KH. Modified Thole Equation For small values of w, the well funtion becomes nearly logarithmic and approximated by Wlu,) — Wlus) = ~2.8(login tl ~ 1B 1). cr) ‘Upon mbsitton in She Theis uation, th drawdown becomes = 2 28Q i. (Fh ana rood) ans ‘Bguation (7.79) ia generally valid for values of w < 0.1. ‘The modified Theis equetion is commonly used in unconfined aquifers as well as in the confined condition. For typical values of an unconfined aquifer, T= 0.23/4, which implies that after ¢ = 2.9 days, the modified equation is, ‘valid, For confined aquifers, the time is even smaller, since $ is gonorally at Teast one order of magnitude smaller. ns HyDRAUUCSOF WELLS 321 Ifcbservations are made at a single point at different times, the modified ‘Theis equation becomes 2290 y,. (2) = 28 eal) 80) ‘Bquetion (180) inplie that drown versus time wil plot on von papers a siright ine in tho range of validity ofthe equation. Such atime Fare em qiven in Figure 120. If 4/610 (ne log epee), then Tis casily cbteined 3 239 ade" sn [Extrepolating from the first two terms of Eq, (7.75), W(x) becames 0 when = 0.562, This is the condition of zero drawdown, under the eraall w approxi- ‘mation. Using and substituting u = 0.562, = 22M, = 2) mm] i “Tne aersaringto pump, minkes FIGURE 7.20 Iiustration of a time-drawdown cutve for use with the mocttiod The ‘equation322. CHAPTER 7 GROUNDWATER FLOW IN SATURATED POROUS MEOUL where fis the time of zero drawdown resulting from the linear extension of the S versus ¢ semilog plot, as shown in Figure 7.20. Once ¢ is identified, Sis ‘easily obtained, ‘Observations at different points at the same time lead to ‘whieh again plots Inearly an semilog paper (s vs. 7). Such plots are called Bistance drawdown plots, As chown in Figure 7.21, again over one log cycle in distance, transmissivity is given by u _ 288 Buds ‘The storage coefficient is obtained from 2257 2, where 7, is the extrapolated distance where drawdown is 0. "Noto the alssolute value of the slope of the distance-drawdown curve is twice that of the time—drawdown curve, which allows you to ohtain one from. te other knowing only one point on the line. seatace ie “| 1 L i. £ [AS { Dan fon abcnatan ele Deawdown meters ( [iatance fom pumped well eters FIGURE 7.21 tlustration of a cistance-dramdown curve for use wih the modifed Thels equation. SESS REE EEE EEEEEEE EEE TSHYDRAUUICS OF WELLS 323 7.5.44 Wells in Leaky Aquifers Hantush and Jacob [1955] developed a procedure analogous to the Theis ‘equation to deal with nonsteady well flow in a leaky aquifer. The solution is just like Bq. (7.72), but a new well function, dependent on aquiclude thick hhess and conductivity, is defined. The inverse problem is complicated by re- quiring the additional inference of the vertical hydraulic conductivity of the confining layer. 7.5.5 Superposition of Wells and the Method of Image: Section 7.4.5 already discussed the lineerity of the basic groundwater equa- tions. Linearity implies that the potential distribution in an aquifer with iiiltiple wolls (a well field) must be equal to the sum of the potential distri- ‘butions resulting from each single well in the field. For example, if N wells pumping at rates Q;, i= 1, ...,.N exist in a field (Pig. 7.22), then the draw- down at any point in time and space is given by -E 2pm, 89 Jn the above, r; is the distance betwoen the location of interest and well i, ‘Qria the pumping rate of well i; fis the time since the beginning of pumping in well i, and t is the time since the first pumping activity anywhere in the field, FIGURE 7.22 A well fed.( i £ ' 324 CHAPTER / GROUNDWATER FLOW IN SATURATED POROUS MEDIA Linearity alsé permits the uso of the ‘Theis equation to find the ground- water response to a well with a variable pumping rate, as in Figure 7.28. The Yeriable pumping rate fs substituted by piecewise constant segments. By lin- arity, the aquifer response up to time'f, corresponds to a well pumping at Tate Q,, At time f, the response is the sum of a well pumping at rato @, plus a ‘well pumping at rate Q;~ @,, In general, the potential drawdown at any time tis dy 3 %ERE We) rts cease 0.85) __ 8 OOM and Q, = f= 0 ‘Tinearity and the concept of superposition is also used in the Methed of Images. This is a tool used to build difficult boundary conditions\by adding solutions to imaginary wells. The classic situations are # river intersecting ‘ap aquifer end an impervious boundary limiting an aquifer. Figure 7.24 shows the first case, The intersecting river imposes a con- stant head boundary condition at the point « = 0. Without the river, the cone fof depression of the real well may look like the lower dashed curve in the fig lure, The constant head boundary raises the piezometric surface. This effect tan be achieved by localing « mirror-image well a dietance 2 on the other side of the river, This well will be assumed to be recharging the aquifor at the fame rate that the real well is pumping. The upper dashed curve in the figure is the cone of influence (this time accretion rather than depression) of the mage well. Adding both solutions, a constant head is achieved at the river boundary and the result corresponds to the desired (solid curve) cone of depression. oe FIGURE 7.23 Varieble pumping rate represented by plecewise constant segment, TSHYORAUUCSOF WES 325 Origins Porte ‘r=0 FIGURE 7.24 The method of images: constant head boundary cso ‘The second case is shown in Figure 7.25. At point = = 0, there is an im permeable boundary, the real (solid curve) cone of depression is horizontal at 0, dh/ax = 0, The curve as & whole Is also depressed, reflecting the lim- ited extent of the water source, To achiove this behavior a pumping image well is placed a distanes ¢ on the othor side of the bouridary. Adding the two cones of depression with opposing slopes results in the desired no-flow eondi- tion at x = 0 as well a8 the lower piezuelsic head throughout. 7.5.6 Aquifer Tests Past subsections have addressed the inverse problem, determining parame- tore of the aquifer. Pamping tests are the most common procedure to achieve this. Similarly, itis possible to use the time history of the recovery of an cate © Restval —Impermeatie fA | rea326 cpren | oroNONETER AL SMUD FOROUSISDS reHworautlos ewes 327 aquifer after pumping ceases 19 determine soil properties. Note (bat the re amped well end one obtervatioa ell | aiveny period sottion would to detand to the superposition of © | i Sirs pao sk op te ne hat Baby Solutions like the modified Theis ‘equation (Eq, 7 '80) would still be "valid by redefining $05 3 ical a eras va ne since pumping | rene Se ga) ges CATES ‘8 Department sp oberation welt \ seed, Cry Se ln gen many em, OTM Mo use the TeCOvers \ Quliniry/n) + OE =f an | fhistory in the inverse problem: 2 gommon deviation fom We formulations presented is the Ke aot that wells do not alwaye 10 penetrate the aquifer, AT ‘approach in fact ene a {1972 attributed to Vere TaD! is to mosily the steady-state Brow esto confined and unconsined fore by adding seepage Tesiosae® ‘tors caused by partial penetration ein not fully sereenea throws factcr length. We quote the equenart oY Wgeplanation from Brown ¢& 8) {iazz}.t Nove Dat they oviginate foc one ay state solotions given in Se vane 7.1 and 7.5.2 except that use the et dramdown s instead of hed Nike ry is defined as a large distance ie the drawdown s effectively 207% Saitcrpts w, 1, and 2refer to the ‘pumped well and £0 Sbeervation wells, Te spectively. H is the oversee to foe ad tenes of the unconfined aque ‘and Pig that of the confined aquifer WeGH ~ 5:- #06 ~ #) tha the above equations ff 4 fs resistances for par Ue net rating well atthe Punts “geations, neeres, nd THOT aly pene yaton tls, Fspecively Te so parameter £0 distant Oped well takes into acrount (he Sects of both partial \ for Peradon and well onstrate \ eration oo and gy ca be detorminad Br staple 74, the two i cen a oneera being (7), where 2 ‘hickness of the con \ ree alter andr che distance 0% The pumped vill to the observa: \ Sood wall (7 of 79) or te rads of tbe pumped well i) respectively : sot (e/b), where ¢ is the unlined pon pat of the wel o sreen | ie onfined conditions of grounder, low, the value of B i8 confined Ault \ uaa en gl and ima eo natn of © | The wlan gen milly ye caoped when the walined i \ He oe erat te well sr fhe WP the equler IF = Sli 88, ws steve eas fangs Harb ‘multiplied by 1.5 when Sih o's and by 0:7 when ¢/b = 06 i, ! ‘Pumpod well end one observation well: {| : sere anne 74 Vaon ofthe SenageRostans Pune f | _finkry)t) + 05s ~ 6) ALE TA Ya i i gw Galina) + 0566 — 81 \ nba ~ 5) td @ \ -rwo-beervation well ee = reaaad aeeeaeiae aa | pw Salted +0816, = 63) 7 ie ee ae ‘000088 aa er 38) a2 0.0908 oie? 001s \ : 308 198 ons ost 104 ts tee OB Uncontined Aauiler 2s 328 160 0334 Pumped welt os us bet ryt) 588 mt 524 0606 = lina) + 9889, a 5 28 “os ots | OH ~ os) amo 8S ne 88 oss oo 888 288 539 12 \ we i own Ak Romemnen e w Greta Bui prom Grounduaer Sein ty EE Brows, A Kanopganise, J. Ines, and WS, Kova “Bree ree Unens 19T:Ropetued Permit ‘une. ene nn oT Rapa Pemnsan oe nes‘328 CHAPIEA7 / GROUNDWATER FLOW IN SATURATED POROUS MEDIA Partial penetration of observation wells is considered to be insig- nificant if the observation wells are located at distances greater than ‘the equivalent aquifer thickness from the pumped well. ‘With some risk, the value of re may be estimated and used in the ap- propriate equations. Some examplos of possible values of r. are given in ‘Table 7.5. ‘i EXAMPLE 7.8 ‘Unsteady Flow In Wells: Thels Equation ‘A.well is being pumped at a constant rate of 1500 m*day"*. At an observation ‘well 100m away, we measured the following history (Table 7.6) of drawdown versus time. Assume the aquifer is confined and the well is fully penetrating, What are the transmissivity and storativity of the aquifer? "To solve the inverse problem, we will use the Theis equation and the ‘matching-point graphical approach. Figure 7.26 shows a plot of drawdown s versus r3/t, Figure 7.27 is a plot of e portion of the well funetfon Wu) versus u with Figure 7.26 superimposed in gray. Superimposing one figure on an- other, maintaining parallel axes, we note that with a small shift the curves overlap very well, Along the overlapping segments, we choose the following ‘matching points: a 3.35 cam rf 0.02. 2.7 x 10" m day”? ivity is obtained from Eq. (7.76) as 1500(8.96) _ aay Fo ay 7 999-7 mi day TABLE 75 Approximate Values of re EXTENT OF CONE ‘czounpwaren OF DEPRESSION ‘TYPE OF SEDIMENT CONDITIONS —_°'r, QABTERS) Fine- and mediamgrained sands Gonfine 350-500 Unconfined 1300-200 Coarse-greined sands and ql ‘ravel-pobble boda confines 1780-1500 ‘Unconiined 300-500 Fissured rocks Confined 11000-1500 ‘Unconfined ‘600-1000, ‘Source; LHL Brown, A.A, Konoplyentsey, J. Inason, and V.6. Kovatsky, Grownd- unter Studien Copyright © Unese 1972 Heprotuced by permission o Uns, TSHYORAMICSOF WES 329 TABLE 7.6 Observation Well Drawdown History and Computations FG) t6mim) —_r/e day 0.02 1 150 10 O14 8290 x 10 OL 101.50 x lo 025 151.00 x 10 029° 2 740 x 10 033-30 5.00 x 10* oa 602.40 x 10 043 901.60 x 10° 049 1201.21 x 10 054 180 800 x 10 053 240 6.00 x lot 069 3004.81 x Lot 083 3604.00 x Lot oe, 4203.43 x 10 065 480 3.00 x lot 069 600240 x 10 7s 840170 x 108 0791440 00x lot ‘and storativity from Eq. (7.17): 4(989.7)(0.02) en 8 = RS = 296 x 10. EXAMPLE 7.7 Unsteady Flow in Wells: Modified Theis Equation ‘The previous example can be solved using the modified Theis procedure. Figure 7.28 shows the eorresponding time—drawdown plot, s versus & After ‘shout 20 minutes of pumping, the points follow a straight line gn the semiloga- rithmie paper. Extending the line to the zero drawdown point yields a corre- sponding time & = 1.9 minutes or 1.82 x 10 éays. Ovor a logarithmic eyele, from 100 to 1000 minutes, the drawdown is shown to be As = 0.270 m. This is all the information required to use Bae. (7.81) and (7.82). ‘Tho computations ‘are given in the figure, yielding T= 1017 m'day and $= 3x 10. AMPLE 78 Unsteady Flow in Wells: An Alternate Approach ‘Chow (1952] suggested a procedure that avoids some of the graphical pitfalls and difficulties of the past two examples. From the time-drawdown curve oforden in meters Ph (way) FIGURE 7.26 Piot of drawdown versus rt Mating rit: W388 mao en Oem rin at tata FU ay") FIGURE 7.27 Piot of W{u) versus u wih Figure 7.28 superimposed in gray Lt [oa 1 aa —_\ pe iT oy a FIGURE 7.26 Plot of dravetown vereus time. Figure 7.28 select a point s. Around that point find the drawdown change in a Jog cyele and form the function 8 ¥ = 79) Use Figure 7.29 and the value of F(u) to find a corresponding value of u and Wu), which together with the chosen s, ¢, and r ean be used in Eqs. (7.76) and. (1.77) to find 8 and T. As an example select the point s = 0.6 and ¢ = 800 minutes in Figure 7.28. We already saw that a log cyclo around that point shows a 0.270-m drawdown. Therefore 1 Rw tee ee) as 037 With the above result and using Figure 7.29, we get Wu) ~ 6 and u = 0.004, which revults in T= 095 and 8 ~ 8.3 x'10"* when used in Eqs. (7.76) and (1.7. Fw) 222. It should be pointed out that the data of the past three examples were generated with values of T’~ 1000 m*day-* and $ = 0.0003. i i i334 quvrenT/GROUNDAATER FLOW WY SATURATED POROUS MED “TABLE 7.7 Well Recovery Dat mae eee ‘Ti (mis) RECOVERY (9 — ¢? (=) 5 05 Pa he % oat 2 oo Fy at o oat 8 oe sear 90 056 River sa0 oa 50 ost qune 722 Pan vow of devateeng atom 180 os 240 0.66 "To account for the effect of the river, we must ase ‘the method of images. ‘300 068 ‘Figure 7.32 also shows ‘the required image wells, all recharging. 360 Os ‘Equation (7-70) gave ‘the steady-state solution for e single well in & = one aaa No i frre ee det wo obra amet: Noo ane ephascel that asnmgns oO type are difficult and dangerous. ‘Tho single well expression ia then. smo river i zo maintgjnod gt that hand yaa, 298 rihreatie aquifer bas 2 1a (22%) permeability of 2 « 10 mas! 7H ReGy What would be an estimate of mew =e permet quired in each Well 123 objective? As the scar on we wil sawn ston Sate On ‘By symmetry a fie. opty, it coal bo argued that the max bead will oseur some- and geome pints © and dhe lata being the conker of the wel field. ‘Te total eect of all real and imaginary wells o» point A must be wenn Se) Sati) eK | jt % a 5 rin ry Wb ta, rere lb+s, point A. ‘For real wells, 05 minting ofzeo sexes) ena} tat t ‘oo ‘00 “me snc end of pomping ints) FIGURE 7.31 Well recovery vorsus Sie,36 CHAPTER 7/ GROUNONATER FLOW IN SATURATED POROUS MEDIA nerenences: $37 seforred to textbooks by Bear (1072), Freeze and Cherry {1979}, Tedd (2950), Bouwer (1978), and DeMarsily 1986] as samples of available dati literature, ‘There are eeveral themes important to the stady of groundwater thet cannot be treated m ths typeof introductory textbook. One is the whole Geld crane ierieal solutions to the groundwater flow equations and resulting shuifer models for both quantity and quality of water in porous todia. * god reference is Wang and Anderson (1982), Pinder and Gray {1977 provide aeetore specific and advanced view of the subject. related issue i the identi- Reation of parameters (inverse problem) of aquifer models, This is the spa ally distributed anelog ofthe simple well tests diseussed in this chapter. A review of the subjoctis provided by Yeh (1986) ‘Groundwater moves within a very hoterogensous medium, Hence, the common assumptions of homogeneity and isotropy are gonerally crude SGoroximations, Sinco it is impossible to determinlstically characterize the sree watiabiity of aquifer and soil properties, « lot of research interprets aoe modium with random proporties. Hence, groundwater flow and eon Jeinimant transport are also random processes that must be characterized sth probabiligte distributions or their moments {.c.,mean, variance, ete) The whathomaticelly advanced reador can refer to Gelhar (1984, 1986, 19871 to start this adventure. ‘Ghomical and biologie interactions in groundwater are another topic of curment rasearch, with little known and far more to learn. In the same cate Gury iste characterization of flow in fractured perous oF nonporous media, ‘This chapter doee provide the basic concepts of groundwater hydrology. ‘The equations of flow in saturated porous media given here are the corner- Mone ofall other topics, Their solution for the simple cases of wells in con Fined and unconfined aquifers ere useful tools in practice. Many of the other Ample solutions developed as examples are firs, and sometimes good, oP saptimuations to real problems of groudwater flow. It is useful to ond this Piyamary by melking reference to the problems of gromdvater flow in a kll- ‘{ope and ageifor-stream interaction discussed ia Examples 7.4 and 7.6; re. sputively. Theso should serve ae reminders thet the division of hydrology Rip aurface and subsurface processes is very often artificial and wrong. ‘Theoretically, the value of could be found by maximizing the expression for Ht ~ hi, For a faraway river, x would be 6/2. For simplicity, we wil Hest Hoeate A at the centor of the pumping fold and let + = b/2. Using the prev Jal dorived expression (keeping in rind that itis ineonsstent with che vyory faraway river approximation), @ 2000) 919 (2000 Slew(ip (a) ano(29)] & = Soo = ca0oyt — 05)} 20: 488 mt day Q = ((200)" - O85) io 97 483 m* day’ eae wk 2 In| 20 an (44.72) ss fi a(t) 2) eee = 00.56) i- AD Q = 502 mo’ day ‘Tue above are faizly high pumping rates. 7.6 sSumMaRY ‘The study of groundwater bydrclogy has had particular relevance during the PERE eeeeeeSSCeePeEEeeeeeeee gv PEEE CESS cee eeaeeeeeeeee eee eeeeee REFERENCES tran en and im the ground, Ther has been « profusion of iterature, ine ees J (19021 Dynamise of Fluids in Porous Media, New York: American Elev ate ae poke, dca’ eacasively to she sabe af groundvates bY- Be ea ae epoundlaterHydriagy. New York McCraw Fl drology. This chapter and Chapter '8 are not intended to compete with those ‘Brown, RH, A.A. Konoplyantsey, J. Ineson, ‘and V.S, Kovatevsky [1972]. Ground- Grlogy This chee eatment, ut they do provide a aly selcontained jai “Ser Stun, Panis UNESCO one ce ming sme peace, providing base understsn as Sit Pat er ISTE). GeohydrauthLaipsg, Rast Gormesy: VEB ation fhe sus jpundation forthe sie. The emtiing sedan is ‘Doatthes Velog Pur GranatfSndustrie.ee 1938. CHAPTER. / GROUNDIATER FLOWN GATURATED POROUS MEDIA ‘chow, V7 (1952), "On the Determination of Transmiaiility and Storage Cocicients Yow Pumping Test Data.” Trans. Ain. Geophys. Union. 23:307 404. coopen EH, Jes and MJ, Rorabaugh [196], "Ground-Water Movements and Bank "Stvage Duo to Food Stages in Surface Streams.” U.S. Geological Survey water supply paper no. 1596. Deroy HUGO), Les Fontaines Publigues de LaVile de Dijon, Paris: V, Oxlmoes panizealy, . 11986). Quantitative Hydrogeotogy: Groundwater Hydrology for Erai- ere, Now York: Academic Press ‘DaWiest, J.M, (1965). Geohyerolegy. New York: Wiley Panwa i869], Btades Theriquese Proctiques sur le Mouoament ds Baus dons Ie ae ecouuerts eb & Travers les Terrains Perméables, 2 ed. Paris: Dunod. Dyek, SHVIBL Angewandte Hydrolgi. Tei 2, Bertin, East Germany: VER Verland Bur Bauwesse Ragleton, PS. 19701. Dynamic Hydrology, New York: MoGraw Hil Balen Fea), “Climate, Soll and Vegeiation &: A Simplified Model of Soil Moisture vstemeent in the Liguid Phase.” Water Resources Res. 14(6)722-129. ‘em HoTBe], “Ckamate, Soll, and Vegetation &: Derived Distribution of Storm Sor ace Ranofl” Water Resoureas Res. 4(5)741-748, Entekhabi, D. [1988]. Personal communication. Fae ant al. 1962). “Theory of Aquifer Tests” U.S. Geclogieal Survey water ‘supply paper no. 1686-8, Frese RA, and J-A. Cherry (1978), Groundwater Englewood Chiff, NJ Prentice Tal ala, 12964, “Suachastic Analysis of Flow in Heterogeneous Porous Modis” Ma aoe MY, Corapeiogin, et, Fundamentals of Transpert Phenomena in Porhus Media Derdvecht The Netherland: Martinus Nia 160s Stchene Subouroce Ryo. from Theory to Appliations” Water Tienoureo Fee 226) Suppl 386-2455. Lon ee Basile of Slate Transport in Saturted ang Uncaturatel Fe et Bear ani M_¥, Corapcogli, eds, Advances in Traneprt ae ea Porous Meata. Dorrecht, The Netherlands: Martinus iol Geen DM [0 Handbook onthe Prineiles of Hydrology, Port Washington, N.Y "Water Information Center. Fee Sued 1965), “Non Steady Rail Flow in aa afisite Leaky ‘Aguie,” Frans, Am. Geophys, Union. 3586100. “tte BIBT Conalstion of Ground Water Levels and Prespitation on Lang ici; New York Trane, Am, Geophys, nian, 4564-818, ae a ee pe ef Grounvatar” iH. Roase, ed, Bngieerng Hydrol, New ‘ork: Way John BH 050), “Faciors Afeting Permaebiin.” Phe Driers Journal. Sanuaey— Totrusry. (St Poul 5.3, Johnson) 1400 GE neigning Woter Level Recovery Data." The Driers Jouraal. May “juno, p9. Gt Pauls EB, Sohn.) Man WL, and J Desir (1886), Landecape: An Introduction to Physical Geogr ip. New York: Wiley. Me faisy “Ousline of Grosnd-veter Hyézology with Defiations” US. ‘Gelogieal Survey water soppy PAPE no. 490. proavens 339 Pinder, G2, and W.G. Grey (1977), Finite Hloment Simulation in Surface and Sub- surface Hydrology. New York: Academic Press oo ee Series (1968). Hydrology. (Suppl A t Se. 4, Engineering Hond- book) Washington, D.C: U'S. Department of Agrzalture. rue Cy. (1995) “The Beation Between the Lowering of the Piezometric Stace So nete and Duration of Dizeharge of Well Using Ground. Water Storage.” ‘Trans. Am, Geophys. Union. 163519-524. prion @ {1006}, Hydrologoche Marhoden, Veiga, Bast Germany: Geb’. ‘Tau, b.K (1959). Groundlnater Hydrology. tst ed. New York: Wiley. Fatt Fiobah, “A Thoory of Groundweter Motion Small Drainage Basins in ‘Sonal alborte, Canada.” J. Geophys. Ree. 61(ii):315- 4387, Laon tivb sh, "A Theoretical Analysis of Groundwater Flow in Small Drainage Basins." J. Geophys. Res. 05(16):4705-AB18. US. Dentment of the Navy (1962), Design Manus, Soit Mechanics, Fourdascne De eeiun Stouetures, Washington, D.C: Government Printing Otis, Publica ign no, NAVDOCKS DM.) orn Noon. "Methody Oprdelonniya fi'atsonnykh Svolaty Gorey igo Methoda of Determining Pilzation Characteristics of Porous Strat)” Moscow: Gosstrotidat. Vie is ed. W. Keapp, G.L, Lewis, and 7B, Herbangh (1977), Jndrodaction to “Hydrology. 2nd ed. New Yorks Harper & Bow. ia Ered NLP. Anderson {1982} Introduction te Grouncluater Modeling. San ‘Braneisco: Freeman. Wie eae iodal "Methods of Determining Permesbility of Water Rearing Mess; ae Po Gpecial Hference to Discharging-Wal Mothods” U.S, Geclogssl Burvey water supply paper no. 887. Worn Melevalogical Organisation (1974), Guide to Hydrologiea! Practices, rd ed ‘doneves World Meteorological Organization, (WMO report 20, 168) Yoh ary AOSEL “Review of Parameter Identification Procedures in Groundwater ‘aydrelogy: The Inverse Problem.” Water Resources Res. 2(2):95-108 SI fsseeeseeeteaeesaasesatasssuestasseseeeeeeeseeeeeeeeeee™ ear PROBLEMS 1, Taroe wells located 1000 m apart extract wa:er from the ame orizontal auifer Well Ais south of Well B, and Well C iseast of the line AB he dee iatons of A, B, and C are 95, 110, and 135 m, respectively. The depth, ae eer nd is 5am; fa B, 80 mm and in C, 35 m. Determine the direction of te mundwater flow through the triangle ABC and calesate the head gradient, ®, The instrument chown in the following illustration is a variable-head permeameter The tube, in the right of aca g is initially ful of water & e- range occurs out of the soil in the Teft bucket, and the Read KC) decreases saretone. Find an expression for the varying head hit) and for hydraulic eon-‘944 coNPTER 7 / GROUNONTER FLOW IN SATURATED POROUS MEDIA expect would have been different in the approach and solution if the aquifer hhad beon unconfined? 16, A confined aquifer extends between two rivers as shown below. Sorte S$ aay 7 wt ‘A fully penetrating well is drilled in the middle of the two rivers end pumps ‘Steedily Q galmin-* Assuming the cone of influence from the well is much fees than the distance bebween the rivers, skoteh the total head distribution from z= Oto x= 6. Ti the field transmissivity is 10,000 galday”*#t", @ = 200 galmin”’, say B8 ft, he = 83 8, € = 10,000 fl, and r. ~ 250 ft, compute the steady-state ihead 50 f to the right of the well. 17, A hillside drains to e stream as shown below. ‘Using the parameters given in the figure: @) Calculate the maximum seepage into the stream per unit length of the stream (when the entire soil is saturated). b) Whats the maximum runoff rate at the base of the: hillside ifit rains steadily at a rate of 0.5 omday""? Express this maximum at per- centage of the rainfall rate. ©) Ifthe soil is silty Toam, how long would it take the conter of mass of ‘a contaminant injected instantaneously at point A to reach the stream? (Contributed by Laurens van der Tak, based on class notes from the Univer sity of California at Davis.) proses 345 438. Consider the unconfined flow through a stratified aquifer, es shown in the figure below. Determine the rate of flow @ per unit width of the aquifer, tosing the Dupult assumptions, Neglect the presence of a seepage face. (Con Ueibmned by Laurens van der Tak, based on class notes from the University of California at Davis) 19, An aquifer with transmissivity 7 of 2000 ft'day™* is confined by an aquitard 10 ft thick. The phreatic aquifer above the aquitard has a constant SHzometric heed h, a shown in the figure below. At an upstreem point, the Flezometric heed in the eonfinod aquifer is 10 fF above that in the phreatic guifer, and at a point 10,000 ft down gradient, the head excess in the con; ‘ined aquifer is 4, Determine tho hydraulic condvetivity of the aquitard and the rate of upward leakage through thet aquitard at the upstream point. Determine the distance downstream L where the leakage « is negligible [etx = L) = 0.01 X otc = 0) (Contributed by Laurens van der Tak, based on homework notes from Prof. Lynn W: Gelhar at MIT) 20, Ife well fully penetrating « confined aquifer produeae 0, galmin’™ with 2 io-ft drawdown, compute the rate of discharge with « 15-f drawdown. ‘Assume steady-state conditions and neglect wall losses. (Contributed by Tenens van der Tok, hased on class notes from the University of California at Davis)246. cHAPTEA 7 / GROUNDWATER FLOW IN SATURATED POROUS MEDIA 21, Determine the values of T and K indicated by a test of confined aquifer of thickness 60 m, ia which a constant pumped discharge of 1500 m*day + for 0.28 day is shut off. The drawdown during recovery is indicated in the table below. ‘UME SINCE PUMPING DRAWDOWN DURING STOPPED Gays) RECOVERY (a) 02 059 0.95; 040 010 0.38 025 016 050 0.09, How long does it take for the water lovel in the well to recover after shut- Gown to about 0.01 m from ite original value? (Contributed by Laurens van der Tak, based on class notes from the University of California at Davis.) 22, A well is to be placed in an unconfined aquifer as shown below and Pumped st a rate of 30,000 galday”*. Environmental conservation require. Trento specify that the maximum steedy-state drawdown outside a redius of 50 ft from the well can be 2 ft. 2) What is the maximum distance the well can be placed from the stream supplying the aquifer? 1) What is the maximum scopage rate from a unit length (1. t) of the stream for tho well t this distance? ‘You must make the horizontal flow assumption and any other reasonable saplifying assomptions. 23, The following diagram shows a horizontal bottom, confined, aulfer with Soundary conditions fixed by large Lakes at levels fg and (he > hi). A oplin- drical slug of contaminant is moving left fo right without mixing with the froundwater. In order to prevent it from reaching Lake, you decide to dig @ SSL, 60 om in diameter, in Use middle of the contaminant alug and pump. As Tuming steady stato, estimate how much you would need to pump to stagnate {Stop) the point x at the edge of the plume from moving. Will this be enough, propues 347 to provent contaminant from reaching Lake 2? (The aguifer parameters are £23000 mm, hy = 108 m, € = 800 m, hy= 100m, K = 10"* cms, and b= 100 m) (int: Flow is in the direction of decreasing head and solutions are linear.) Lake lake?Chapter 8 Flow in Unsaturated Porous Media and Infiltration 8.1 intRopucTION Chapter 7 discussed the occurrence and transport of water in saturated media. ‘Equally important is the water found in the unsaturated or vadose zone of ‘the soil, This water is the direct source of moisture for vegetation and hence is invaluable to food production and to the planet ecology, Furthermore, this one is the link between surface and underground hydrologic processes. Wator evaporated or transpired from this unsaturated region supplies 2 large portion of the atmospheric moisture so important to élimate and meteorology. The water in the unsaturated zone also controls the amount of precipitation that will enter the soil or remain on the surface. The path taken by precipita tion will determine the nature of the dominacing hydrologic processes in a region. ‘The transfer of water from the atinosphere to the soil is called infiltra- tion. Infiltration is the most crucial element of the description of the transfor- ‘mation of rainfall into streamflow. In the follawing eections we will describe ‘the nature of flow in unseturated porous metia and use this knowledge to disuse the infiltration process ‘The related concept of runoff will also be studied. 349‘ABO. CHASTER A / FLOW IN UNSATURATED POROUS NEDUA AND INALTRATION Sse eee 8.2 FLOW IN UNSATURATED POROUS MEDIA ‘As a soil-rock matrix dries, the interconnectivity between pores becomes peGgular and discontinuous, since air subetitates water in many locations, Furthermore, in contrast with saturated flows where gravitational forces play a dominant role, molecular forces become extremely important, Sig ‘Rogative eapillary pressures develop in the alr-water interfaces. These pres ease change with the effective pare sizes of tho soil, and therefore depend on She hiemate structure of the material and on the degree of saturation. The tRe tie material, the smaller and more discontinuous are the pores contain fng water, and the stronger the capillary forces. The change in moisture content not obly affects the forces, but obviously ‘hinders the path of water through pores. The hydraulic conductivity isa func: Flow of soil moisture. The problem is further complicated by the fact that ios unsaturated conditions, the flux of water ia in both liquid and vapor Trae This flux depends not only on gravitational and capillary potentials, aa vapor density and temperature gradients throughout the ¢oll. All These complicated issues are beyond the scope of this book. ‘The reader is safeered to Mally [1982] for a concise explanation and eoraplete references Mecocthcless, if we assume isothermal conditions and keep incompressible asoumptions for the vapor phase, we can suggost that the moisture flux obeys ‘he following analogy to Darey’s Law: ah, an Kot, go -KoB: a= KOZ. en where the hydraulic conductivities axe now explicitly dependent on volurmet- wince moisture (volume of water over total volume of soil) 8, and h is now ‘the plecometrie head in terms of capillary potential: nat e=wOte, @n 7 where 2 ig dofined as being positive upward from an arbitrary datum within, the soil column. ‘The matrix or capillary potential 4(0) is « function of moisture 6 and is measured in centimeters. It is negative relative to atmospheric pressure, P, i= flso called the suction or tension pressure. ‘Substituting Eq. (8.2) into (6.1) leads to yo 228 ess a= Ko cost) EQ), @sa 2 LOW IN UNSATURATED PORGUS MEDIA 354 whore the last term (Bq, 8.3e) accounts for the gravitational effect on flow. Note that a negative g, value implies flow vertically downward in the soil system. “The use of Br, (6.9) is hampered because there is no one-to-one relation, ship between K, and 8, This is called the hysteresis effact and is illustrated fn Figure 6.1. The relationship between matrix potential and soil moisture is iat tke same during wetting and drying oycles. In fact, the actual fanetion is Very much dependent on the history of wetting and drying events. This {edie is partly explained by the fact that daring wetting the filling of aennatameter pores is aided by capillary forces, while during drying the cena rors act to delay their emptying, Furthermore, given the tortuosity of sm nels formed by interconnecting pores, it is to be expected that the loca. ion of air pockets and discontinuities will vary widely from one type of event ‘to another. ‘The quantification of hysteresis is difficult, Only a few attempts to con coptuutise this behavior exist (Milly (1982). Generally, the hysterasis is ‘enored, an assumption that becomes mare reascnable in the isothermal cess seo veauce here (Rogers and Klute (1971), Mualam (1977), Bagleson (39788) ceeetnalts of Brooke and Corey (1966), Burdine (1958), and his own further ovelopment to recommend the following relaticaships: Hs) = ys eo Aig) = RUS" 2) K(s) = K(l)s* oo) + amj/m, en ingeure Dring ieee FIGURE 8.1 lstrtion of hysteresis lop Inthe y(@) versus 6 reletionshie,1352. CHAPTER 6 / FLOW IN UNSATURATED FORDUS MEDI AND INFILTRATION TABLE 8.1 Hyciraulic Properties of Typical Soils pen Kee xem ow ehey Guie® gaxio 90 045 044 75 49 Silty loam gaxiot 480852 AT 2 Sendy lowia Sax? 2 «05 8S 8B 28 Send gexio? 18 00 BAD ‘be Setion 62 for definitions of (0, my ¢, and ‘Source tla (198) where ¢ = o/n is the degree of aaburation (n is porosity), m is the pore-sizg Taucbution index: of the sol, cis the pore-disconnectedness indox (a measure Shtortuosity, or the ratio of the actuel path to the straight-line path betweon Spe points), and &(1) is the saturated intrinsic hydraulic conductivity, Tone 7d, repeated here a5 Table 8.1, gives values of YI), m, and c that are Genotally roprosentative of typical sll It should be emphasized that hese rere Jue from fits of Eqs. (6.4)-(8.7) to reported properties of soils in [ibeatery situations, Any particular soi, in the laboratory or the field, can wanibnt parameters warying considerably from the given values. For example Shiv invaature ean exhibit porosities that are 0.1 larger, in all categorise, aa ene lubevatory preparations. Similarly, the range of hydraulic conde: {vities span several ctders of magnitude around the values shown. The pore Feition index m could be considerably smaller (one order of magnitude). {isttieary, Table 8.1 should be used only 8 an example of soil hydraulic parameter values within reasonable range and consistent with each osher Note also that (1) Js nonzero only in the sense of the empirical fit to Ba, (26), Models to represent Ka) and ss) exist that are compatiblo with » thboretical value #1) = 0. van Genuchten (1980] and Wosten and van Genuchten [1988] discuss one such model. Figures &.2 and 8.3 show the Ht of Eqs, (6.4) and (8.6) o eahesive and noncohesive soils, Figure 8.4 shows the bebavior of Bq. (6.7). 8.2.1 Conservation of Mass in Unsaturated Porous Media “Assuming incompressible flow (p = constant), we ean substitate Ea. (6.8) in the basic mass-conservation equation (see Chapter 7, Eq. 7.17), and obtsin. 2 [ro] +2 [eo] +5 [eo 0) 4 Peo = ea Py FIGURE 8.2 Matix potential (water at 16°C). Source: PS. Eagleson, “Climatic, Soll and Totton 2. 8 Sinptted Mode of Sol Meistrn Movement inthe Ligul Phase” Water ces Ree. 1(8)724, 1878, Copyright by the Amercan Geophystal Unie. Using the assumed sngle-value function of y(O, the above can also be ex- prossed as 26 )+2 [62 a Lppo®|+2 [20 z+ + Kuo =F en where > p4@) = Kio MO eo sn ic iy te hare el te edit eetah oe 2a yo = MED, pa where d = ¢ ~ (1/m) — 1 = (¢ + 1)/2 (Gee Fig. 84 for form of d).1354. CHAPTER 9 / FLOW N UNSATURATED POROUS MEDIA AND INFLTRATION FIGURE 6.3 Hycraulc conductivity (water at 16°C). Soures: P.S. Eagleson, “Climate, Soil {hd Vegetation 3: A Simpliied Modo! of Soll Moisture Movement in the Liquid Phase,” Water Resources Res. 145):724, 1978, Copyright by the American Geophysical Union. FIGURE 8.4 Interrelation of soll Indices. Source: P.S. Eagieson, “Climate, Soil and Nogolation 3: A Simpified Mode! of Sol Moisture Movement in the Ligud Phase," Water Resources Ras. 14(6):724, 1978. Copyright by the American Geonhysial Union. aiNRUTRATON AND EXRUTRATION. 35S 8.3 INFILTRATION AND EXFILTRATION Infiltration is the movement of surface waters inte the soil matrix. Since the upper zones of the soil are generally unsaturated, the infiltration pro- cess is described by Eq. (8.8). The reality of flow into the ground is three- dimensional. Nevertheless, it is commonly assumed that one-dimensional ‘vertical flow dominates, which leads to the following equation: a 2 #- 2 fom 2+ Ko] am [Even the analytical solution of Eq, (8.12) for general boundary and init conditions escapes us. Milly [1982] gives a complete numerical solution, tluding the vapor phase and teraperature effects, Some analytical results are possible for particuler assumptions, boundary conditions, and initial com ions. A common initial assumption is to ignore the gravitational term K.(0) in Hq, (&.12). Bagleson (1970] points out that this will be resonable if K.(0) is uniform with depth or if the capillary potential is so large as to dominate Eq, (8.12). He states that Gardaer and Mayhugh (1968) and Gardner (1959) ‘argue that those eonditione will be met when the level of saturation is low, like in the beginning of infiltration ot the ond of exfitration. The equation can be further simplified ifthe diffusion term is assumed constant: 2% te a 6.19) ai Aquation (6.18) desertbes infiltrition as well as the extiitration process. ‘he lattor is when water moves vertically up and out of the soil, fueled by & dry soil surface. The dzying of the ubper sail zones 's dus to surface evapora ton. The equation also corresponds to a general difusion formulation with wide applications in heat transfer through solids and in eontsminant trans port in water bodies. As such, it has been widely stadied aiid a variety of s0- Jations exist, corresponding to many boundary and initial conditions. The classe reference on the heat equation is Carslaw and Jaogor (1959). ‘Following the presentation by Eagleson [1970], the solution of Ea, (6.13) is aan lac a0 ‘when the initial end boundary conditions are fe ‘and the eoil systom is semi-infinite, extending to great depths. The conditions ‘of Eq. (8.15) state that the soil column is initially ot a uniform constant mois- e159)360 cnserens / OW il UNEATURATED POROUS MEDIA AND FILTRATION bviou; the effective diffusivity s higher dusing sorption (infiltration) than seeing desorption (exfiltzation) for the same relative boundary and initial ‘moisture conditions. saaremaung either saturated (zg = 1) or completely dry (so = 0) boundary conditions, and using Eq. (8.11), Bagleson (1978a] obtained the following expressions for dimensionless effective diffusivities: Infiltration: Smad sKaWD) 48) womatfetag Savaatarsale) nam nD S d 1 em -wa-femsco(ata} om In the above, sys the initial level of saturation (9/7). The equations axe only valid for Tutager valtes of d = (e + 1/2. Figure 8.8 shows the dimensionless effective infiltration diffusivity factor as given by Bg. (8.298). ‘Using results of Parlange etal. (19851, Entskdhabi (1988) derived new and simapler expressions for the dimensionless effective diffusivities: Infiltration: m9} im | ‘ (6200) ‘Exfiltration: 2am $0) = FET By aD” (6.300) Philip (1960) also suggested an exact solution to the variable difusivity probiem, with gravity eflects, when initial end boundary conditions corre: aD) | pcos eseeea | = = r FIGURE 8.8 Dimensionless infitraton citusiviy. Scurce: P.S. Eagleson, “Cilmate, Sell tne Vegetation 3: A Simpiied Model of Soll Molsture Movement in the Liquié Phase, Histor Resources Res. 145):727, 1978. Copyright by the American Geophysical Union spond to Eq. (6.16) but with 6, « m, the surface is saturated. The solution im TRe'Torm of'a series expansion. The first three terms of the nories reduce to eA 830) font whore isthe (postive) infiltration rate, Parameters A, and S, are S,= 26. - 6)1D /n¥* (8:82) AS Fixe) — Kio). (8.38) Using Bq, (6.29) for the effective difusivity, Eagleson (1978) obtains useful fexproseions for A, and S; in torms of soil paremeters and initial soil moisture: A= fRwa+e-W es 8,= 26 - feo”, sn whore Wis an adjustment for possible capillary rise flux, to be disenssed later.Hl 1362. CHAPTER € / FLOW IN UNSATURATED POROUS MEDIA AND INFILTRATION Following Philip’ approach, Bagleson {1978e} also obtained an exfiltra- tion equation for a dry (= 0) surface and initial moisture 0; f= ZS — MT We 20, shore ‘The term MT, is an approximate way of dealing with moisture extraction by Vegetation, if ip the vogetated fraction of land surface or canopy density and Tis the transpiration rate in centimeters per second. The transpiration rate is sometimes expressed as 1, bate 39) here k, = T,/epis the transpiration efficiency of the vegetation and ¢, is the potential evaporation (climatically controlled) of the site. 8.3.1 Empirical Infiltration Equations In practice, infiltration is usually caleulated from one of the innumerable empirical iofiltration equations available. Most of them mimic the fellowing behavior. Under given soil type and antecedent moisture conditions, there ‘will be an initial infiltration rate f This rate will decrease as more water js infiltrated, finally achieving constant rate, or ultimate infiltration ca- pecity f.. This infiltration eapacity rate occurs when the soil is saturated Under sieady state (no storage change), it will be equal or less than the rate at which water percolates and flows into deep groundwater systems (aquifers). The parameters f,, f., and the decay of infiltration capacity are fanctions of the soil, moisture conditions, vegetation, rainfall intensity, and soil surface conditions, For example, the behavior of a given soil may be ‘ferent under different storms because of surface sealing or crusting caused by the impact of raindrops. Horton infitration Equation (1999, 1940} ‘The Horton formulation was already given in Bq, (6.25). It takes the form Pah am foe (630) ‘where in practice fe, f, and « are parameters to be estimated from data. The {nitial infiltration capacity and tho decay rate depend on soil and antecedent conditions. AS NALIRATION AND FaFIERATION 963 tration rte Tine —e FIGURE 6.9 intiraon-rate curve when tial rainfall ate fs higher than inital infitration Figure 89 shows the Horton infiltration equation as applied to a given rrainfull event, It may be argued that at point 6, where rainfall first exceeds jnfileration, the setual infiltration rate will be larger than that given by f, in ‘the figure. This is so because f, assumes that tke infiltration rate has decayed. from f; ae a function of inereased soil moisture, which is given by the ares under the f curve between time 0 and f,. This inconsistency results because the Horton, like the Philips, equation assumes that the surface is saturated all the time, hence there is an unlimited supply of moisture. To account for this discrepancy, the procedure shown in Figure 8.10 is commonly used with the Horton and any other time-dependent infiltration equation. and ana tes‘964. CHAPTER A / FLOW IN UNSATURATED POROUS MEDIA AND IFLIRATION ‘The following two equations, [ore-ma= [doa iit 0) 8), ‘es should be solved simultaneously for the time shift ¢* and #, (see Fig. 8.10), ‘The time, #, is commonly called the ponding time. ‘The above procedure would need to be repeated every time i < f. Never: theless, this is rarely done in practice except for the initial time shift. Huggins-Monke (1985) ‘Other suggested equations try to avoid the problem of computing surface sseturation conditions by making infiltration a function of sbil moisture, The ‘Huggins-Monke equation is an example: coal. a where A and P are coefficients, n is the total porosity of the unper soil layer, find § is storage potential of the soil upper zone or layer, initially n minus an- tacedent moisture content. ‘Equation (8.41) must be solved iteratively and in sequence by uecounting for all infltrated and drained water. Let F be the total volume of infiltrated ‘water, At the beginning of the storm F’ =. 0 and S is given by porosity n minus fntecedent moisture. As time progresses, the storage potential rust be found in terms of infiltrated and drained water. 1. If n ~ $ is presently below field capacity /,, then the drainage rate is 0, 1 — /At, where fis the rate of infiltration. 2, Ifcil is eaturated (S = 0), then drainage rate D is the samo as the infil- tration rate. Therefore S, fbi + DAt, where if the rainfall inten- sity is larger than f, then f = fe. 3, If water content n — $ is between Geld capacity snd saturation, drainage rate is taken as o-de-8 whore G is maximum gravitational water n — FC. Again, ~ fat + DAt. 3 nmupaTioN AND ExFUTRATON 365 ‘Antecedent Precipitation Methods ‘Antecedent precipitation ia a concopt used as a moisture surrogate. It is usually computed by accounting for precipitation snd moisture decay over ft past period of time. The accounting takes the form shown in Figure 8.11 ‘Hebween time periods, moisture decreases os AP, = AP)K', 602) there Kis a decay rate, ‘When precipitation oceurs, the total precipitation amount is added to the existing moisture conditions to define a new antecedent precipitation Level. ‘This concept has led to infiltration equations such as fet fot foe ree, 49) whore fis a decay paramater, AP, is antecedent precipitation computed over 1 80-day poriod, and I = {fi(). Several other empirical relations exist that give infiltration or runoff as a function of the antecedent precipitation index. Most of these procedures yelate, through regressions, infiltration or runoff not «nly to the antecedent precipitation index but to time of the year, storm duration, storm intensity, fand surface retention (Linsley et al. (1849), Sitter et al (1968)). Green—Ampt Model [1911] ‘This equation is based on a Darcy-type water flux. Infiltration hes to be proportional to the total gradient, including a suction effect. Therefore H+ tbe Zp 1H Tae AB A. FIGURE 8.11 Schematic representation of tha behavior of antecadent precipitation Index.ee a ‘966. CHAPTER / FLOW IN UNSATURATED POROUS MEDIA AND INFLIRATION FIGURE 8.12 The Grean—Amat madel assumes piston flow with & sharp wetting front fhotwoen the infltion zone ard sol tthe inal weter content. The wei zone increases in Tenigth as Invaton progresses. Source: Haan otal [1882 whore His some level of ponding on the surface, # is a suction effect due to Urynese at lower levels, and Ly is the increasing depta of the wet front. This situation is shown in Figure 8.12; it is assumed that the wet front moves as & piston. THis assumed small, Bq. (8.44) can be expressed as ag 4 RSH Fo K+ 845) where Fis the total infiltrated water given by (0, ~ 0p = SLy, and $ is the {nitial moisture (as a fractional volume) deficit of the soil columa. Note that ‘as F increases, f approaches K,, which is a hydraulic conductivity usually {ken as lees than the saturated hydraulic conductivity. The parameters of ‘the Green—Ampt equation should be empirically evaluated using dats. ‘Nevertheless, considerable efforts have been made to relate them ta soil prop- ‘erties. Haan et al, {1982] provide a good summary of results related to the 'Green-Ampt model ‘Soll Conservation Service [1968] ‘Tho Soil Conservation Service empirical method for obtaining runoff {Gnfitiration) over finite areas has anjoyed tremendous popularity because of this agency's attompts to specify parameters for various regions in tho United States, This procedure gives the volume of tolal preeipitetion minus infilira- tion (runoff, see Section 8.3.2) P-ly Pel fae P-E+8' Sel+F’ 49) L=R, ‘29 NFLTHANION AND EXFLTAATION 367 Inflation and runt reer Tim FIGURE 8.13 Implied behavior of infitation and reno by the Sail Conservation Sonics method. where [, is an initial retention volume and S$ ie the potential may face retention. The method was developed and calibrated in English units, 50 Q, PL, and S are in inches, Figure 8.18 shows the implied behavior. The initial abstraction J, is commonly taken as 1, ~ 0.28, which leads to @ - 0.287 P+ 08s wan ‘The retention volume is given by 5 ces) = 220 - 1, eu where GN is called the curve number, a parameter dependent on soil typo, lise, and antecedent moisture conditions. Curve numbers are given for vari- fous soil types, conditions, and loeetions throughout the United States. Boils are classified in the following way (Viessman et al, [1977D:* ‘A. (Low runoff potential) Soils having high infiltration rates even if thoroughly wetted and eonsiating chiefly of deep well to exces- sively drained sands or gravels. They havea high rate of wator ‘sransmission. Racer from p. 618 of Inruductin to Hyarology by Warren Viessman, J John W. Knapp, (Gary L Lewis, and Tereence E, Harbangh. Copyright © 3977, 1972 by Harpor de Row, Publish: fr, Ine. printed by parmasion of Harper & Raw, Publishers, heL pete ee ‘868. CHAPTER 8 / FLOW IN UNSATURATED POROUS MEDIA AND INFILTRATION B, Soils having moderate infiltration rates if thoroughly wetted and consisting chiefly of moderately deep to deep, moderately well to \wellsdrained soils with moderately fine to moderately ooarse tex tures, They have a moderate rate of water transmission. C. Soils having slow infiltration rates if thoroughly wotted and con- sisting ehiefly of soils with a layer that impedes the downward movement of water, or soils with moderately fine to fine texture ‘They have a slow rate of water transmission, D. (High runoff potential) Solls having very slow infiltration rates if thoroughly wetted and consisting chiefly of clay sofls with a high. ‘welling potential, soils with a permanent high water table, soils ‘with @ elaypan or clay layer at or near the surface, and shallow boils over nearly impervious material. ‘They have 2 very slow rate of water transmission. ‘Table 8.2 gives curve numbers ON for various soll-cover complexes and soil groups. These numbers correspond to antecedent moisture conditions hormal for the annual maximum flood, so-called condition Hl. Condition 1 implies a dry watershed, but not yet at wilting point, Condition UT is when the soil is nearly saturated. The values of Table 8.2 ean be adjusted for conditions I and [Il using Table 83, Ultimately, though, the eurve number is hothing but e fitting parameter and the user should not become overconfident hor blindly trust the above attempts to regionalize results. MeCuen (1082) ‘izousses the use of the Soil Conservation Service runoff model in detail. Constant infiltration Indexes In very large areas, for slow responses, and for storms of long duration, the time distribution of infiltration may not be very imiportant, Under these conditions, we may assume that infiltration occurs at a constant rete. The & index is the uniform distribution of total infiltration throughout storm dura~ “Hon, Total inflitration 1 compuved-as the differencs batween preciptacion “and runoff The Witidex is‘the ‘adie idea but total infiltration is computed TERIA surface sorage into account, not lumped into infiltration as in the $ index. 8.3.2 Storm Runoff Effective rainfall or runoff is traditionally defined as the net liquid water supplied to channels at time acales comparable to the duration of the storm ‘flor evaporation, interception, surface retention, infiltration, and pereola: tion to underlying aquifers. Except for small storms in heavily forested areas, ‘where evaporation can be eignificant, infiltration is usually seen as control ling the amount of water availeble for storm runoff, particularly storm sur- face runoff, which is water delivered to the channels as overland flow. ‘TABLE 8.2 Ranoff Curve Numbers for Hydrologic Soll-Cover Comploxes eee Hee ‘83 UsLTAATION AND BARE n B ar 70 6 6 e 6 a oa el 6 59 66 58 64 55 3 aL 68 so 39 a 2 6 30 45 38 5 59 2 HYDROLOGIC ‘SOM GROUP a Bc D 86 91 OM al 88 OL Ts 85 89 19 8488 1% 82 86 m4 50 8 np a 18 Bt 88 1% 83 87 4 1 BL Be mR 1B Bt m 1% 8 1% 99 m 8 8 1 8 85 6 78 8S Ts 80 8 ar 7% 8 72 86 59 wo 19 el 7% 8 er 81 88 595 83 3 10 79 58 TL 78 677 8 6 72 19 85707 “86 a2 87 89 0 2 u cy LAND use rReaTMENT yDROLoaIC ORCOVER OR PRACTICE ‘CONDITION Fallow Straight row - ow crops Straight row Poor, Straight row ‘ood Contoured Poor Contoured Good Contoured und terrscid Poor Contaured end terraced Good ‘Small grain Straight row Poor Good Contoured Poor Good * Contoured and terraced Poor ‘Good Closed seed ‘Straight row Poor Tegumest or Straight row Good Rotation meadow Contoured Poor Contoured Good Contoured and terraced Poor Contoured and terraced Good Pasture or range Poor Far Good Contoured Poor Contoured Fale Contoured Good Meadow Good Woods Poor Fale Good Barmsteads = Roads Dir? Hrd surface) = “Chee dled or broadest, “nading right of wa. eure: Soil Conservation Sorvice, “Hydrology,” Section 4, Nevinal Bnincering Handbook, Marc 1906,370 CHAPTER 8 / LOW IN UNSATURATED POROUS MEDIA AND INFILTRSTION {8.3 INFTRATION AND EXPLTRATION 371 4 ‘TABLE 8.3 Curve Numbers for Different Soil Conditions beskonta hy i CORRESPONDING Cis i aoe evronawem —AMeH _ ANCUT use i : te i 300 io0 300 ‘ | 9% 78 : : %0 7% L a = 1 i # Cr i * vB hi ra 8 j a 6 8 case AY 60 0 6 ates neat ai | 8 5% Hl 60 a1 0 iy 45 % 6S f hao Hey 40 2 6 bao i 35 5S al 30 6 50 | 25 nu 8 | 20 8 8 6 in 0 ‘2 ; 5 2 13 | “Gaetano ite enon cases aoa ‘ANC I Lorest rit pte Seis in the Ries ioe ‘theca Sy end fr satisfactory no Nevin wo AMC TL The average snditn. i ed ‘ANCE phe unt potent Soin the fata ae poatcly eed fom 2 Toate a 4] Spore: After Sil Conserontion Servi, se | (drology," Section 4, Navlonel Brgineering | Hondch,March 88, eect 0 ‘The infiliration-rate formules given above give the soll-controlled poten- FIGURE 8.14 Storm charactors versus inftrton capacity ‘Hal absorption rate. Tt should he clear that when the rainfall rate i is less ‘than the infiltration rate, the actual infiltration is the rainfall itself, The soil cannot sbsorb more than is available. ‘Most of the infiltration equations seen, like the Philip equation, assume that the soil surface is saturated. This is rarely the case; it will take some ‘ime (ponding time) before saturation st the surface oceurs. In the interim, the absorbed rainfall (infiltration) reduces the oil infiltration capacity. Figure 8.14 illustrates the occurrence of runoff using the Philip equation (eq, 831) and assuming that the storm is of uniform intensity i and duration 4. "There is no surface runoff if (¢) the duration of the storm t, is less than ‘hat required to saturate the soil eurfaco (Fig. 8.14a), or (b) the intensity of ‘he storm is leas than the minimum infiltration capacity rate A, (Fig, 8.14. Figure 8.14(@) shows the occurrence of surface runott. Initially, the infltr tion capacity is greater than the rainfall intensity. During this period there is zo surface runoff, all rainfall is infiltrated, and the soil moisture is continu- pusly inereasing. Surface runoff will occur only after rainfall {is equal to the infillzetion rate f. This occurs at a time #,. Bagleson [1978] approximates1872. CHAPTER 8 / FLOW Is UNSATURATED FOROUS MEDIA AND INFLTATION this “ponding” time as st : tnggiigp todo 49 swhere S, and A, are the Philip equation parameters and Tis u time-averaged Zainfall intensity, Afer ¢, surface runoff occurs, the rainfall excess over infil- ‘ration is shaded in Pigire &.14(). Eagleson [1976e) also gives the surfuco ‘runoff volume as Rem Ad, ~ 816/29). 50) Using Eqs. (8.49) and (8.50), an equivalent uniform-intensity effective rain- fall event is defined as, @sn (052) where j, and t, are the intensity and duration of runoff. ‘All the infiltration equations seen up to this point espouse a mechanism of runoff production that is ealled Hortonian. Recently, Dunne [1978] (among. there) suggeeted an alternative acheme that eonld play 2 significant role in runoff production. To explain it, we borrow the following few paragraphs from Freeze [1980|* ‘The classic mechanism, first espoused by Horton {1938] and placed in a more scientific framework by Rubin and Steinhardt (1963), is for a precipitation rate p that exceeds the saturated hydraulic con- Guctivity K’ of the surface soil. As is illustrated in (Figure 8.16al, a moisture content versus depth profile during such a rainfall event ‘will show moisture contents that increase at the surface as a function of time. At some point in time (¢? in [Fig, 8.15a)) the surface becomes saturated, and an inverted zone of saturation begins to propagate downward into the soil It is at this time [Fig. 8.15] that the infiltra- tion rate drops below the rainfall rate and overland flow is generated. ‘Tho time t? is called the ponding time, The necessary conditions for ‘the generation of overland flow by the Horton mechanism are (1) 8 rainfall rate greater than the saturated hydraulic conductivity of the soil, and (2) a rainfall duration longer than the required ponding time for e'given initial moisture profile, ‘Prom R.A. Pause, “A Stacheste Coponptusl Analysis of Raifall-Runoff Process slope” Weter Resources Res, 1(294-996, i860. Copyright by the Americen Geophysical ston. amin a NRLTRWION AND ExrusRATION 373 Moisture Monee ° oS o » Tae ime @ © FIGURE 8.15 Moisture content versus depth profes for (a) the Horton mechanism and {@) the Dunne mechanism. Overland flow generation for (2) the Horton mecharism and {@ the Dunne mechanism. Soureo: R.A. Freeze, “A Stochastic Conceptuel Analysio of Fanfeli-Runof! Process on 2 Hillsops,” Weter Resources Aes. 16(2):995, 1880. Copy- fight by the American Geophysical Union. > ‘The second mechaniam as described by Dunne [1978] is illus- ‘trated in (Figure 8.15b and dl. In this case p < K’, and the initial wa- ter table is shallow, Surface caturation occurs because of a rising water table; ponding and overland flow occur at time #* when no fur- ‘ther soil moisture storage is available, ‘The Horton mechanism is moro common on upslope areas, The Dunne thechanism is more common on near-channel wetlands, Hor- ton overland flow is generated from partial areas of the hillslope where surface hydraulic conductivities are lowest, Dunne overland flow is generated from partial areas of the hillslope where water seer374. CHAPTER / FLOW IN UNSATURATED POROUS MEDIA AND INFELTRATION tables are shallowest, Both mechanisms lead to variable souree areas that expand and contract through wet and dry periods. In essence surface runoff can occur in several ways: 1. A Hortonian mechanism where rainfall intonsity exceeds infiltration ‘capacity. ‘This may be widespread or localized in sections of the hillslopes, of the basin. 2. By “saturating from below,” where a seepage face is formed adjacent to ‘tho stream channel, henee precipitation on that region is not infiltrated. This source area can contract end expand daring a storm and may differ from storm to storm. 8, Saturation from below may occur at other points in the hillslope, partic. tularly in topographic hollows or areas of thin soil profile or geologic stratification, Tt is believed that surface runoff in humid regions with deep and highly permeable soil profiles may be a rare occurrence. Evidence for subsurface storm runoff exists, This mechanism can oceur when the capillary fringe in regions of shallow groundwater (usually near streams) gets quickly saturated, resulting in watertable mounds and increased groundwater flow into the stream (Gillham (1984); Abdul and Gillham (1948). Stauffer and Draoos (1986) also argue that the increaaed and quick groundwater flow may be due to hys- teresis. A significant change of pressure may occur in the capillary fringe ‘without signifleant moisture change, simply bees of a shift from the dry- ing to wotting segmonts of the hysteresis loop (see Fig. 8.1). ‘Subsurface storm runoff may also occur through macropores due to ani- ‘mal or vegetation action, Fractures and joints between eoil strata may also be high conductivity paths, These last two mechanisms are essentially the con- cept of interflow ia traditional hydtologit thinking. ‘The quantifiestion of when; how, and how much each runoff mechanism ‘will contribute to streamflow remains a subject of active research in hydrol- ogy. O'Brien [1983] presents a very coniplete review of the literature on the subject, Sections of his work are quoted here,* PARTIAL AREA RUNOEF Betson [1964] is generally credited with initiating the partial area concept in which a fairly small, yet consistent area of a watershed is assumed to contribute overland flow to the main drainage network. ‘Betson used a non-linear mathematical mode! which incorporated Horton's [1939] infiltration capacity fimetion to analyze the runof from a uuzber of basins in Tennessee. The basins were located in areas of steeply sloping terrain, ranged in size from 8.7 acres to “Reprint frm Journal of Boston Society of Cin Engineers Section AS.OE., €9(2:908-18, © RSCHS 2088. BA NFILTATION AND ERLTRATION 375 82.7 square miles, and included open pasture as well as more com- plexly vegetated axeaa resulting frown diverse agricultural practices. ‘The percent of area contributing runoff for the 14 basins studied was found to range from 5% ta 36% with an average, less extremes, of 299%, Pusther verification of these results for one watershed was pro- vided by small gaged subplots located approximately midway between the stream and the divide, Runoff frem these sub-plots was ‘usually less than 0,01 inches and was seldom recorded as occurring From all three plots during a given storm. Significantly, the besin ‘with a contzibuling area of 88% represented an extreme form of land ‘use. It was completely denuded over two-thirds of the area and was intricately dissected by a deeply incised, thoroughly integrated sys tem of gullies. Betson concluded that in the geographic area of the study, and under normal land use practices, storm runoff frequently occurs from only a small part of the watershed area, Given this conclusion, itis clear why infiltration capacity as measured in the field versus that determined from rainfall-runoff data yiolded very difforent values. ‘Ragan (1967] provided further insight into the partial area con ‘cept through a detailed analysis of « 619 foot length of second order stream segment flowing through a 11¢ acre forested watershed in ‘Vermont. ‘The watershed was undorlain by 80 feet of glecially de- posited sands and was monitored by 4 piezometers, 42 observation Wells, an interception structure to meagure subsurface flow and gages Yo measure the inflow from 8 seeps lovated slong the stream. Maxi- ‘mum precipitation recorded was 1.92 inches with a maximum observed intensity of 6 inches/hour, For thes> conditions Ragan con- ‘cluded that the ‘contributing area’ for overland flow did not exceed 8% of the total watershed, end that the bulk of the water entered the channel through the seeps as ground-water inflow. "Tho variable source concept, a variant of :he partisl aroa concept, ‘was first presented by the U.S. Forest Service (1961), the Tennessee Valley Authority (19665), Hewlett and Hibber: (1967, and further ad- ‘vanced by Dunne, Maore and ‘Taylor [1975]. This concapt as developed by Dunne, et al, (1975) holds that runof? is generated from direct pre- cipitation onto arees that are saturated by o rising water fable. Runoft produced hy this process has two components: (1) precipitation which, ‘unable to penetrate the saturated soils, becomes direct runoff, and © subsurface water which, upon rising to the surface, is discharged to run overland to a stream, ‘This latter component, termed return flow (Dunne and Black [1970)), provides a mechanism for the rapid discharge of subsurface water to stream channels and is observed to bbe sensitive to rainfall intensity. “in a detailed stady of a 10 acre portion of an experimental water- shed in Danville, Vermont, Dunne and Black (1970] observed the‘376 CHAPTER 6 / FLOW IN UNSATURATED POROUS MEDIA AND INFLTRATION results of numerous natural and artificial (sprinkler produced) rain- storms. The 0.6 aere instrumented portion of the basin was grassed ppasturcland with slopes that ranged from 30% to 100%. In one storm, 11.89 inches of rain, falling within $4 minutes, followed by one half hour 2.41 inches of artificial rain to produce an event estimated to have a retum period of between fifty to several hundred years (Dunne and Black [1970)). Yet, for this event no overland flow as observed on ‘the hillslopes and measurements from the gaged subplots showed that the flood peaks were the result of variable source runoff from saturated arces along the valley bottoms. Generally, such seturated areas are found in valley bottoms, along sireams, and in swales, but various subsurface conditions can also cause saturated zones to occur in topographically high regions of ‘2 basin, The area of saturation deponds on the season and expands ‘with increases in storm size, hence the origin of the term ‘variable souree,’ Dunne and Black (1970) have noted that basins generating variable source runoff respond rapidly to precipitation events and dis- play the same type of relationship to rainfall and watershed condi- tions as are recognized for Hortonian overland flow. Consequently a superficial analysis might yield the falze impression that Hortonian ‘runoff was occurring in such basins SUBSURFACE RUNOF ‘The unsaturated zone, lying above the water-table and commonly called the zone of aeration, may also supply considerable amounts of waler to the storm hydrograph. Hewlett and Hibbert (1963] were among the first ta gall attention to the possibility that water draining from the unsaturaled 2one could, in certain watersheds be the pri- ‘mary souree of baseflow. Working at Coweeta (North Carolina) with & 45 foot long conerato trough to produce, in effect, an inclined soil col- ‘umn on a 40 percent slope, the authors found that water was discharged swithin 1.5 days from the Larger soll pores at a high rate, but eantin- ‘ued to drain at a lower rete for the next 80 days from the entire soil ‘mass, Mareover, the rate of discharge over time could be described by ‘exponential decay functions which were distinct for the two phases. ‘Subsequent: studies (Hewlett and Nutter (1970) with a 200 foot tong soi] model, representing a segment of a 38 acre watershed, led to the conelusion that ‘subsurface’ flow produced the flood peak in the wa- tershed. This conclusion also held for a 20.3 inch rainfall occurring over a 5 day period (a 100-year starm event) which produced no over- land flow from the soil model or the basin. Throughout his research, Hewlett has stressed the importance of a belt of saturation, lying along stream channels, and varying in width in response to rainfall, 1s the critical zone from which subsurface water and groundwater ‘emerge to form a flood peak (ef. Hewlett and Hibbert [1967), [Ba NFLIRATION AND EXFLTRATION. 377 In forested areas of the Allegheny-Cumberland Plateau region, Whipkey [1969] determined that subsurface discharge (often called interflow) accounted for up to 60% of the stormflow for 180 separate events simulated by a sprinkler aystem, Interestingly, the subsurface component was the greatest in fine textured soils and appeared to be the result of flow through biological and structural openings in the sil profile, Corbett, et al., [1975] simulated rainfall on selected portions of a 105 acre, highly instrumented watershed, to determine the sources of storm runoff. The researchers, noted virtually no surface runoff and concluded that the hydrograph peak was primarily the result of ‘sub- surface’ flow from bath the upper and lower slopes with the lower slopes contributing slightly more water. Beasley (1976) used intercep- tion trenches to determine that subsurface flow from the upper slopes of a forested watershed can contribute signifeantly to storm hydro- graphs where permeable soils overlie impermeable deposits. Beasley noted that flow from the subsurface zone pezked at zbout the same time as channel flow and theorized that the implied rapid drainego could only occur if water traveled through macrochannels formed by decayed roots. Similar findings have heen reported by Mosley [1979]. 8.3.3 Actual Evaporation Between storms, the net evaporation becomes the important process and the opposite analogy to runoll. Figure 8.16 illustrates the situation. A constant climatically controlled mean potential evaporation is assumed during the in- terstorm period of duration t, This evaporation rate is 2, The soil capacity to tufiltrate is represented, for example, by Bq. (6.88). As long as the soil is ca- FIGURE 8.16 Representation of the exflration process. Source: P.S. Eagleson, “Cimate Soil and Vegetation 4: The Expected Velue of Annual Evapotranspiration,” Water Resources Fes. 14(8):733, 1978. Copyright by the Amercan Geophysial Union. a.(ee cee 378 CHAPIEN® / FLOW IN UNSATURATED POROUS MEDIA AND INFLATION pable of delivering water in excess of @, then the climatic potential evapora tion is the actual evaporation. At some time ¢, though, the soil moisture has ‘been depleted to the extent that the soil cannot deliver the climatic demand. ‘The actual evaporation is then soil controlled by Eq. (8.36) and shown shaded in the figure. The time f,’ ia also given by Eagleson [1978a, b, and c] as _ ye ht Wey Te M ra 650) ‘The interstorm processes will continue until the next storm arrives, EXAMPLE 8.1 ‘arable Dittusivity Inflation “Aswume we have @ sendy loam with K(1) = 343 x 10° ems", yl) = 896 em, n= 0.25, m= 1, and d= 3, What would the history of infiltration be if we ‘assume (2) constant diffusivity evaluated at the linear average of the bound- ‘ary condition and initial condition, or (b) that diffusivity is « function of coil maisture? The conditions to be used are 8 = 0.508; = 0.5. Mi w=, ‘The constant diffusion eolution is Eq. (8.20). The variable diffusion case is Eq, (6.25), where the effective diffusivity D is used. With 8 = 6, ~ n ~ 0.25, then 0, = 0.126. A simple average of moisture is, then B= O19 oF 3 ~ 0.76, Using Bq. (810), the diffusivity evaluated at the = OED 3 20.66.45 10°) gage 0.25 x1 (0.76) = 0.23 cm*s*. Assuming Ky = K(1) = 3.43 x 10° ems”, Bq. (6.20) leads to f= 0.03 ~ 3.43 x 10° ems ‘Table 8.4 gives the resulting fi values for different times. ‘Ror the variable diffusion ease, we must evaluate D in Bq, (8.26). For 5, ~ 0.5, d = 8, and m ~ 1, Figure 8.8 results in @(d,5;) = 0.35, which, using Eq, (6.284), leads to D = 0.82. ASINRIIRATION AND ExPLIRATON 379 ‘TABLE 8.4 Infiltration Capacity Resulting from Variable- and Constant-Diffusivity Assumptions and the Philip’ Equation feems") 009 Constant D —VarinbleD Philips 900 4axio? 48x19 44x 10% 3800 41x10 44xi9% 37x 10% 2700 40x10? 42109 33x 10% 3600 39x10? 41xi 31x10 4500 39x10" 40x10% 80x 10% 5400 B8xI0% 39x10 28x 107 6300 Bex 10% 59x10 28x 107 200 38x10" a9x10% 27x10" fi= 0.040! — 3.43 x 107 ems and the results are also in Table 8.4. # EXAMPLE 82 Phitip's Equation For the same conditions of the previous example, we can obtain the rate of infiltration implied by Eagleson’s [1978a] version of the Philip's equation (Bq, 81). ‘Using Bq. (8.94) and ignoring capillary rise, 1 9 Av 5 KW) Osi) Beas xan). 099 = 3 10°, where Bq, (8.7) was used to compute c ~ 5. We will evaluate S,using Bq. (8.35) ‘and Figure 8.8 [6(4, 5,) = 0.351, ieee fs (d,s) = 0.08. ‘Therefore f= 0080" + 177 x 10%380 CHWTER # / FLOW IN UNSATURATED POROUS NEDIA AND INFLTRATION 9 NFILIRATION AND EXFRTAATION BL ‘The maximura infiltration possible is found by taking the limit of F as P—> =. ‘The tabulated values are also given in Tuble 8.4. In Table 8.4, note that ‘Todo that we use L/Hospital’s rule and find the variable-diffusion case yields slightly larger infiltration, consistent with ‘the larger diffusion coefficient. Philip's equation results in smaller inflltra- tion rates because of its smaller gravity term. # aim @-+ O8S)P ~ 0.2517 + 0.88) — (P — 0.28)" 2 P +088 = jm Hiram /aP 122 bfdenominator)/aP _2P + 0.89 - 0.28 ~ 2P + 0.48 i le? AMPLE 83 Hortonlan Runott {tis usefol to study the Hortonian runoff potential of typicl soils, say those fiven in Table Bt. Initial ec moisture at the ste iss, = 0.3. Assume it rains for ¢,= 5 hr at 1 emhr™ (2,78 x 10‘ cms”) and that the surface saturates: ‘quickly, sp = 1. To compute runoff, we first have to compute the ponding time, This is given in Table 8. for the various soils. @quation 8.29 was ‘used to obtain diffusivities) As the table indicates, ) > t, for silty loam, sandy loam, and sand, No surface runoff will occur on thoso soil for the given Storm, Runoff will ogeur on clay. Using Bq. (8.50) the runoff veluane in cen- timeters is computed and tabulated in Table 8.5. Resulia imply that 62% of rainfall infiltrates in clay and everything infiltrates in all other soils. High surface runoft is not easy to achievel @ IE we now look at the Horton equation, the infiltrated volume is re [ row=+Boby—e For very large ¢ (somewhat analogous to inrge P) the above becomes EXAMPLE 84 ‘Soll Conservation Service Formula Let us look at the Soll Conservation Service (see Sevtivu €.9.1) runoff expres- sion. ‘The volume of infiltration must be Fm pes bib, which can be equated to the Soil Conservation Service result only iff. = 0, Doing that, HL Re 161, = 0.25, the hove becomes 1000 _ 49, regohk N @P-028F Pe Oss” Given any other storm of normal duration ¢ where the infiltrated volume F = P= R, ia known, we can write 128 TABLE 8.5 Ponding Time and Runoff Resulting from Different Soils and a Storm of Lembr" for Five Hours 2a -e]= sie“) | CLAY SIMTYLOAM SANDYLOAM SAND | Saar ois) are Ser ean om | Goo oat Pp AS (Bq. 8.34) LO x10" 70 x 10° 437 x 107 (1-5), ze fomumes.eay 8 Ms : i a a ‘he only reason to make this analogy of the Horton famulation to the Soi Conservation Service formula is to obtain a reasonable distribution of infil- ‘tration in time, if that is necessary. The ponding time estimate is I,/i, where 5 “Apponinated axing Be. 20). | capary sca a assumed zoe,‘982 CHAPTER / FLOW IN UNSATURATED POROUS MEDIA AND INFILTRATION {is the storm intensity. To illustrate, take a common curve number CN = 75, ‘Assume that in a three-hour storm of 2-in. depth, 1.2 in. infiltrated. Then, 1000 s- pos 333 fom 4S = 0.15(8.88] ~ 0.5 intr. # eapeasH EERE LCE Soe 8.4 PERCOLATION AND CAPILLARY RISE ‘Percolation is defined es the transfer of water through the intermediate zone of Figure 7.1, Percolation ultimately leads to aguifer recharge. Percolation Would obey the unsaturated flow equations as infiltration but multidimen- ional effects and gravitationel forces are more inportant. The boundary con- Gitions of the solution could algo be difficult. At the upper end there should be fairly fost variability of moisture due to infiltration. At the Tower end the po- sition of the groundwater affects capillary fringe and moisture conditions. If the groundwater is fairly deop, then moisture in the intermediate zone should bo reasonably constant in time and space. As previously stated, itis probably close to field capacity. Accepting this steady-state and uniform moisture dis- fribution implies that the one-dimensional analogy to the pervuhation flux P=KO, 650) where K(9) is the vertical hydraulic conductivity. Given the form of K(0), ‘Bq, (8.6), a common empirical solution is to suggest P=ai, (8.55) where @ and b are calibration parameters. Copillary rise was studied by Eagleson [1978b] using some results by Gardnar [1958]. One-dimensional steady flow is assumed, leading to fry + 0] = 4]xo ‘dz +Ko| 0 (6.56) "The term in brackets is an apparent constant fluid velocity. So Eq. (8.56) implies, after one integration, x) [42+ 4 =-w. esd Be we eos [BA PERCOLATION AND CAPLLARY AIS 383 Using Bq. (8.4) and (6.6), 4) and K(O) are related by Ke) = ayo), ess) where 659) @s0) a= KO) (HO) b= me. With the above relationship, Bq. (6.57) can be integrated to obtain W 8 Function of the zaatrix potential at the soil surfaes. The lower integrating Timi de V(1) at the saturated groundwater depth and the upper limit is some He) atthe Surface 2 = 0. f tho sol is assumed dry at tne surface, and 40) is Very lange relative to yA1), the results asymptotically approach fy pee ee a-14 [3 /eme->] ‘The ebove equation loses accuracy for sballow the exfiliration velocity W in eantimeters per seconé ‘Table €.1 and various groundwater depths. wen ) groundwater. Table 8.6 shows for the soil groups of TABLE 8.6 Exditration Velocities, in Centimeters per Second, for Various Soil Groups ‘nd Groundwater Dopths 7 zen) CLAY SIMTYLOAM SANDY 108M _ SAND 50 1.0 x 10° 100 27 x 10* 4350 “0 200 0 250 ~ 300 «11x 10° = 35064 x 107 ~¢ UA denotes not apple because YOO = =‘984. CHAPTER 2 FLOW N-UNSATURATED FOROUS MEDIA AND INFLTEATION 8.5 summary Flow in unsaturated porous media is a highly nonlinear problem due to the dependence of hydraulic conductivity and matrix potential on the soil mois- ture distribution, The quantification of that relationship, particularly its hys- teretic behavior, has been a focus of attontion of many researchers. The joint existence of gaseous (vapor) and liquid phases of water (or other compounds) further complicates the problem. Here we have not dealt with those issues, For the sake of simplicity, this chapter has emphasized one-dimensional solu- tions to the unsaturated flow equations, ignoring multiphase conditions and temperature effects, The one-dimensional solution is best suited to deal with the infiltration problem, ie, determining the flux of water at the surface of the soil. We have seen several possible theoretical approaches as well as empirical formulations that mimic expected behavior. "The heterogeneity of natural soils, particulerly the common stratifica- ‘tion, may lead ta significant three-dimensional movement of moisture as it pereolates down through the soil, In problems like the migration of eontami- nants leaching through @ hoterogeneous unsaturated medium, this multi dimensional effect may be very important. Due to our inability to quantify dependence of the soil properties on moisture in three-dimensional detail, the problem is hest handled using stochastic conceptualizations of the porous ‘medium. The advancod reader is referred to Yeh et al. (1986a, b, and c] and ‘Mantoglou end Gelhar (1987a, b, and ¢] for details on the approaches. ‘The analytical, one-dunensicnal, infiltration equations presented in this chapter are truly valid at « point. Extrapolation to the behavior over a large area (ie. river basin) is a conceptualization. Infiltration integrated over an farea with varying soil properties is a problem still being actively researched Dagan and Bresler [1983] and Bresler and Dagan (19832 and by). For this reason the use of empirical infiltration equations, calibrated to local eondi- ‘ions, remains the safest operational tool. Unfortunately, data do not always permit adequate calibration. Infiltration is the link between surface and subsurface processes. Hence, {tis the ewiteh that controls storm runoff. This chapter presented the various ‘runoff production mechanisms that may be active during a storm. The tradi- tional Horionian mechaniem losds to surface runoff when rainfall intensity ‘exceeds the infiltration rate, It has been found, though, that surface runoit sometimes cocurs only when the soil column is saturated, ic, saturated from below, and henco is usually observed near streams, hollows, or areas with high water tables. This behavior is not contradictory to Horton's conceptual- ization. In Hortonian runoff, there is also a zone of saturation, beginning at ponding. In essence a perched saturated zone is formed. Saturation from below is an extreme, but compatible, scenario. ‘Subsurface storm runoff, itis now argued, accounts for most river flow in humid regions of the world with well-developed, very pervious, upper soil Ferenences 385 zones. In such regions, surface runoff may indeed be limited only to extremely high-intensity storms. Subsurface storm runoff commonly occurs ‘through macropores (Beven and Germann [1982)), These are small fractures or channels resulting ftom boring animals or past root activity. The boundary between two soil types, particularly between a highly pervious and an imper- ‘vious soil, is also a proferred flow path. Quantification and prediction of subsurface storm runoff still escapes theoretical treatment. The classical porous media view presented in this chaptor would not be applicable for flow through macropores and fractures. 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Elmsford, Nz Pergamon, pp. 275-20. Hewlet, J.D, and W.L. Nutter [1970]. "The Varying Soures Area of Streamflow from ‘Upland Basing” Paper presented at the Symposium on interdsciplinary Aspects of Watershed Management. Montara State University, Bozeman, pp. 6583, Horton, R.E. (1999). “The Role of Infiltration in the Hydrologic Cycle." Trans. Am. Geophys. Union. 14440460. dem. (1989), “Analysis of Runoff Plot Expetiments with Varying Infiltration Capac- ity.” Trans. Am. Geophys. Union, Part IV:669-T1. idem, (1940). "An Approech Toward a Physical Inarpretation of infiltration Capacity.” Soil Sei. Soc. Am. J. §:999-A17. ‘Huggins, 1. , and B,J, Monke [1966). "The Mathematical Simalstion of Hydrology in ‘Small Watersheds.” Lafayette, Ind Purdae University Water Reaoureos Conter. (Technical report no. 1.) Linsley, RK, M.A. Kobler, and J.L.H. Paulhus (1948), Applied Hydrology. New "Yorks: MeGraw Hil. rerenences 987 ‘Montoglou, A., and L. W. 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Groundwater Hydrology. 2ad ed. New York: Wiley USS. Forest Service [196}) "Some Ideas about Stari: Runof? and Baseflow.” Annual ‘Report of the Southeastern Forest Kxperiment Station. Washington, D.C.: US. Forest Service, pp. 61-66. 1 Introduetion to Physical Geogrophy.‘388 CHAPTER 8 / FLOW IN UNSATURATED POROUS MEDIA AND INFILTRATION Pros.ews 389 ‘yan Genuchten, MT, (1980), “A Closed-form Equation for Predicting the Hydraulic Conductivity of Unsaturated Soils." Soil Se. Soc. Am. oJ. 44:802-698. ‘Viossman, WAV, J.W. Knapp, @.L, Lewis, and T E, Harbaugh [1877] Introduction t “Hydrology, 2nd od. New York: Harper & Row. Watson, K- (19681, “A Note on the Feld Use of Theoretically Derived Infiltration Bquation.” J. Geophys. Ret. 64(0):1614 ‘Whipkey, RZ. [1969], *Storm Runeff from Forested Catchments by Subsurface Routes," Int, Asoo Sei. Hyrol. 85:778-179, ‘World Meteorological Organization (1974), Quide to Hydrological Practices. 8rd ed ‘Genova: Worlé Moteotelogical Organization. (WMO report no. 168) ‘Wooten, J-TLM, and MT van Genuchten [1088]. “Using Texture atid Other Soil "Properties to Predict the Unsatursted Soil Hydraulic Functions.” Soit Sei. Soe. Aa. 62:1762-1710 ‘Yeh, T-0.d., L,W. Golhar, and A.L. Cutjahr (19850). "Stochsstic Analysis of Unsutu ‘rated Flow in Heterogeneous Soils 1: Statistically Isotropic Media.” Water Resources Res, 21(4)-447—456. {Hiem. [19858], "Stochastic Analysis of Unsaturated Flow in Heterogeneous Soils 2 ‘Statistfeally Anisotropie Media with Variable a.” Water Resources Res, 214) 457-40. ‘Héem, (1985. “Stochastic Analysis of Unsaturated Flow in Heterogeneous Soils &: “Guservations and Applications.” Water Resources Res. 2(4)447—456. ‘Storm inten sor silnftmtion Time — " ‘The eoofficionts $ (sortivity) and A (gravitational infiltration rate) ean be approximated by 4-9 a-timfisGj)-» where n = porosity, K(1) = saturated hydraulic conductivity, (1) = satu- rated matrix potential, 6(@, ,) = infiltration diffusivity function, W = capillary rise from water table, m = pore-size distribution index of soil, fd = diffusivity index of soil, © = pore-connectivity index of soil, and , initiel soil moisture content (at beginning of event) A given soil hes parameter values n = 0.85, K(1) = 1.25 mmbr’*, y41) = 190 mua, d = 6.5, m = 0.286, 0 = 10, W= 0 (for deep water table), and 6, = 0.15. What is the rainfall rate below which no runoff will ever occur from the given coil, irrolovant of storm duration? 4. During a four-hour storm with 2.5 in, of rainfall, 15 in. infiltrated. What are the implied a and f, coefficients or the Horton infiltration equation if the curve number is 75? Plot the implied infiltration rate. EEE Eee eee eeeee eee eee eee eee eee PROBLEMS L.A soil has the following properties: m = 1.36, ¢ = 4.47, K(1) = 8.8 x 30" ems", (1) = 24 em, and n = 0.2, The soil is initially completely satu- ‘rated (after a long storm, maybe) and is subjected to evaporation, which, it is ‘assumed, meintains the surface at constant degree of saturation s ~ 0,/n = 0.2. Estimate the time taken for sail at a depth of 2 m to dry to a moie- inure content 5 ~ 6/n = 0.6, Ignore gravity and state other assumptions. 2. The infiltration rate for exeoss rain on a small aren was observed to be 43 in. br? at the boginning of a rainfall, and it decreased exponentially to ax equilibrium of 0.5 in,hr™* after 10 hr. A total of 80 in, of water infiltrated during the 10-br interval. Determine the value of a in Horton's equation ff foe 8. The following figure illustrates infiltration during a storm of constant inten sity iand duration ¢,,1f the infiltration f() is given by the Philip's equation, snk wct)ord, 0.) ‘Sm | no Lgpw grea, find expressions for the times ¢’ and f,..990. CHAPTER 8 / FLOW IN UNSATURATED POROUS MEDIA AND INFILTRATION {5 Below is a schematic diagram ofa sol column. Relevant inputs, outputs, and variables are defined, Using simple mace balanco concepts and approxi- rations to the fluxes shown, write simultaneous ordinary differential oqua- Hons (nonlinear) to describe moisture in the unsaturated zone 0, height of saturated zone h, aalinity of unsaturated zone S, and salinity of the eatu- ‘ated region S;- Assume that C, isthe salt concentration of the rainfall input, (isthe salt concentration ofthe irigation wate, all water inputs infiltrato, and roots absorb water from the unsaturated zone at a rate R(G,S). Rypott oot one | satugareD ZONE | __. [Daina | ‘ a Ce eee Eedroe ‘To the extent possible expand all terms in the equation—i.e., express ‘ther as fmetions of the variables 6, S,, S,, and h. 6. 2) Assume a soll hgs a constant diffusivity D ~ 1 may" and porosity n= 04, If the initial moisture content is 9, ~ 0.1 and a 12-br storm ‘maintains a saturated condition at the surface, sketch the soil mois- ture profile at the end of the storm, indicating at what depths degrees of sahuration of 80%, 506, and 30% will be found. b) Sketch qualitatively how you might expect the above profile-to change for D decreasing with depth. Proauens 391 © Sketch qualitatively bow you might expect the profile to change for D dependent on 6, given, for example, by Eq (8.11), where D increases with 0 ‘Two different soils are charactorized by the following parameters: va, m ¢ mm a Faesnd 136 4473x1015 OB Lightclay 022 «1210s LOx10* = 9805 ‘The initial soil moisture is @, = 0.20. For the two soils a) Compute the infiltration as a function of time for constant 6 = 0, at the surface. }) Compute the exfiltration as a function of time for constant 6 = 0, (residual soil moisture) at the surface, ) Plot the results of parts (a) and (b). (Contributed by Dr. Angolos Protopapas.) 8, The pressure patantial y profile over depth z is Cescribed by the expression az = Infe + B]- ap +e, where a, B, and ¢ are constant parameters in proper uni ‘coordinate zis positive upward. The eoil hydraulic condueti exponential form KW=Ke" (a> 0) 8) What is the constant e if the water table i b) Find the profile of the moisture flux g as ¢ function of depth. (Contributed by Dr. Angelos Protopapas.) 9. For a Yolo clay soil the following parameters are given: K(1) = 1.78 emday"?, y(1) = 19 em, m = 0.286, c= 10.0, and n = 0.85. a) Find the capillary rise flux if the water table is located at a 200-crn depth. b) Find the effective diffusivity for exfiltration from this soil if the initial water eontent is 6, = 0.70. (Contributed by Dr. Angelos Protopapas.) 10. Dorive Eq, (8.49), ponding time, and Ra, (8.5), Hortonian runoff, when ‘using the Philip equation. = = 2s =eer Bee Peete Pee fe ane ars ‘32, CHAPTER 8 / FLOW mv UNSATURATED POROUS NEDIA AND INFILTRATION Prooens 393 where K is @ constant, Find an approximate expression for actual transpira- tion a8 a function of @ and c. In other words if 11. An industrial park is to be constructed in 60 acres of well-developed ‘woods in a soil of low runoff potential. After development, 30 acres will be covered with buildings, parking places, and roads, all impervious. ‘Ten acres ‘will be terraced landscaping and the remaining will be woods. The 100-year roourrence design storm is 6 in, in 12 br. Estimate the runoff volume before and after construction. 12, Assume that slorms aze of constant intensity i, and duration ¢,. Infiltra- tion is given by Philip's equation, evaluated at the initial moisture before the storm s Perealation is given by K(1)sj. If no evaporation occurs, show that the moisture at the end of the storm can be approximated by 1, t, = 16,02), find the function f(0,c). 16, Hillslopes in a river basin can be classified as concave (upward) or con ‘vex, and diverging or converging (sce figure). Which type of hillslope is more prone to runofl production of the variable-source (saturation from below) type and why? 6, = 8. lint, ~ KW)s{t,]/ne, O56 en Conver 5,4 Lily + SCP = 12) + AG, ~ 4) — Kien, 1, > boy a _ hero is a characteristic depth over which the mass balance is performed, A River yer tnd S are the Philips equation parameters, and f is ponding time. (int: Ys Wirite an ordinary differential equation for moisture over dopth 2) 13, If exfiltration is given by Eq. (8.96), derive equations, similar to those of Profiles Problem 12, for the mean saturation levels atthe end ofa dry period of dara- i lon flven thet the inal seburation s- etic ot eae eaeeee tea 14. In Probloms 12 and 13 what is @ reasonable value forthe characteristic —o ~——S | ‘se = = | 116, In Chapter 5 we say that actual transpiration may be related to sotl mois eee fave. Assume thet elationship tobe linear a | Bao 7 conversing Dives To frese Plan views 1, ‘ i by the Green—Ampt Tay a> 11, Approximatoly oquating the infiltration rates givea by t and Horton models, find an expression for the depth of a moisture front as a Funetion of time in terms of fy fe, @, and 18, Reinfall intensity is given by an exponential funetionvof the form u = Ge" emhr°!, where ¢ is in hours, Infiltration is given by Horton's equation with fr 4.5 embr™ and f, = 2 cmbhr, and ais 0.1 hr’, What is the total {nitration over a 10-hr storm? ‘The presence of salinity in the root zone will reduce transpiration in the plant. Tt has been suggested that the response of crops may be expressed as ‘a fanetion of a “total” moisture potential defined es the sum of osmotic and ‘matrix potentials v=) +40), where y* is the “total” soil moisture potential and II(c) is the osmotic poten- tal, « function of the average salt concentration c. y(6) is the matrix poten- tial, The osmotic potential is commonly approximated as Mie) = Ke,Chapter 9 The Hydrograph and Simple Rainfall—Discharge Relationships 9.1 THE HYDROGRAPH ‘In Chapter 8 we introduced the concept of runoff. Each point on a surface has the potential to contribute to the total ranof? input into the channels compos” ing the river network. Other components of total runoff may follow sub ae ce paths, The nature of the storages, delays, ané time of travel in each, ofthe surface and subsurface paths of runoff is different. Discharge in the Shaneels results from the integration of flow from all runoff sourees. The dis- ‘Ghbution of discharge as a function of time in the channel is called the hydrograph. : Per nape of a hydrogreph for any given stzeam is a function of total available overland flow supply, subsurface flow, groundwater flow, slope of Ske overland and sizeam segments, roughness characteristics of flow ele- sneaks, and geometry of channels, Figure 9.1 shows the various ways that ‘Storm intensity may influence hydrograph shape, Figure 9.1(a) corresponds to Jtocintensity storms that essentially resull in no overland flow, only an Increased groundwater flow (base flow). Figure 9.1(b) is a case of low. to aean-inesnsity conditions, where the system responds to flow through the Lipper layere ef the soil profile (sometimes called interflow) or subsurfaee Seeet muoff Interflow is superimpozed on base flow and is faster to respond 995396 CHAPTER 9 / THE HYOAOGIAPS ANO SIVELE RAINFALL -DISCHARGE RELATONGHPS : : i A i | Tet - t Te. rae nue Discharge, Discharge, aia Rain ee ° © FIGURE 2.1 Hydragranhs resuitng fom storms of cferentintenses. Source: Adaptod fear Viessman at al [1977]. than the latter. Figure 9.1(0 shows case of pure overland flow or runoff from a variable-source area. Figure 9.1(4) is a combination of all hydrograph components. Figure 9.2 shows the effects of localized rainfall end different basin shapes on the streamflow hyérograph. Characteristics such as peak discharge ‘and time to peak are dependent on the combined gecmetry of the basin and the storm, The hydrograph ean be subdivided into the rising limb, the peak or crest, and the receding limb. The rising limb and the peale are functions of history and rainfall intensity as well as of basin characteristics. The details of thia behavior will be discussed Inter. ‘The rocession or receding limb is strongly related to storage and change in storage in the basin after the storm stops, Generally this receasion curve takes tha form = Qk, en where Kis a recession constant and’ is the time between @, and Q,. In fact, Kis rarely & constant throughout the whole recession and may vary with fax takHvonoanar 397 Y Timer ime 0 Cy Discharges 0 al G 3 ef il ‘i LIN. : F557 —— er oO a FIGURE 8.2 Interaction between basin shape and storm coverege in producing the hhydregrapn, Source: Adapted from Viessman et al. [197 season and soil-moisture conditions. Taking K as a censtant, the change in storage in the basin i given by =aS = Qyde = Qok at. 62) Integrating Fa. (0.2) results in 4 ; -['as= [aae={ axiat, eee on = % eae cern Equation (9.8) gives the change in storage botwesn any two times as a ‘function of the discharge at thoso two times. Using those equations between t,and t, when S_ = 0 and Q, = O results in on98 GHAPTEAS / THE HYOROGRAPH AND SIMPLE RAINFALL-DISCHARGE RELATIONSHIPS hich fe the expression for the amount of storage left in the basin at any one time. Extending the idea of a recession curve explained by Bq. (9:1), it is pos. sible to erguo for at least three different values of K one value corresponding fb the storage release from surface elements, another from flow in the upper hil layers, and one from groundwater flow (base flow). X will inerease from he velue corresponding to surface runoff to that due to base flow, the latter being the slower-changing process, Ifa hyérograph is plotted on semilogarith- irre naper, sogmacnts behaving like Eq. (.1) will be straight lines, Figure 9.3 Ticteaten this procedure. The flattest straight-line segment UX = 0.97) is ceaamed to correspond to base (groundwater) flow. Extending this line to a faint ander the peak of the hydrograph and connecting it with a tine «9 the Peginning of the rising limb (end of previous recession) approximates & base Pear hydrograph, ‘The reeulting hydrograph, afler subtracting the eomputed base flow, accounts for surfaco runoff and interflow. Extending the lower ptenight line segment of thia resulting hydrogreph (K = 0.67) leads to an ectinated iaterflow component. The net result, a hydrograph with K = 0.13, ‘corresponds to surface runoff, ‘The varying K concept can bo extended to the continuous limit. A plot of (Qq, versus @, whore ris a conventent lag, results in diagrams like Figure 9.4 TRks dashed, 45-degree Tine corresponds to the limit of the recession when van vluen there ie no change in base flow with time. The slope of the Discharge FIGURE 9.3 Semtogarthmic plotting of @ hydrograph, ehowing method of recession Fhabels. Source: FL. Linley, J, M.A. Kohler, and J.L.H. Pauihue, Hydrology for Enginers, Sid e., 1982, McGraw, Roprocuced with permission. 92 mnonccaarHseraraTion 399 Flow 26hetaerin 00:68! o 2 4 6 Flow @ inom!" oS Flow 26h seria 100 85" FIGURE 9.4 Recession curve inthe form Q, versus Qu, for the American River at Fale ‘Oaks, Caforia. Source! ALK, Linsey, Jt, M.A. Kor, end J.L.H. Paulhus, Hydrology for Engineers, 8d ec, 1982, McGraw Hil, Reproduced wih permission ‘envelope of the plotted points is a limit of the K values corresponding to base flow and interflow, Note that Figure 9.4 dofines a recession curve that could be used in hydrograph generation or analysis. 9.2 HYDROGRAPH SEPARATION ‘The previous discussion implies several methods of hydrograph enalysis, including hydrograph separation into surface runoff, interflow, and base flow, or simply into direct runoff and base flow. Direct -unoff is defined as the por- tion of the hydrograph that responds relatively quickly, and is clearly related toa given storm event, We will now discuss several techniques of hydrograph. separation, which are acknowledged as empirical, if not arbitrary. ‘Figure 9.5 helps explain some of the methods. Dotted line 1 to 2 separates ‘base flow from direct ranoff by simply extending a horizontal line between points 1 and 2, where point 2 is the beginning of the rising limb. Base400 civeten 8 / THE HYOROORAPH AND SHPLE RAINFALL DSCHARSE RELATIONSHIPS Dischare. @ Tine. FIGURE 85 Motnods of hykorash snaraton. Source: Adaped om Viessman ta te77. hydrograph 1-3~4 was defined using the methodology discussed in the previ- ous section. A base flow recession curve (given K) is fitted. Point 4 is where! the fit deviates from the hydrograph (end of direct runofi). The fitted curve. is extended from point 4 to point 3, which is directly beneath the point where the eurvature of the recession limb changes. Curve 1 to is arbitrarily’ defined, TPoint 6 in the figure is obtained waing an ampirical formala (Linsloy ot al fa9sgp, N=A’, (8.5), FIGURE 9.6 Soparation of complex hydrograph, using recession curve. Source: RK LUnsiey, Jt, M.A. Kohler, and J.L.H. Paulhus, Hydrology for Engineers, Grd od., 1982: (MoGraw-Hil. Reproduced with permission, ’ oo srieanrvow wessunewents 401 E nero N is the time from peak to the beginning of base flow in days and A is The area ofthe basin in aquare miles; therefore, the area in square kilometers Should be multiplied by 0.89. Point 6 can be used in several ways to define Juve flow. First, the recession preceding the hydrograph rise may be extended toa point 5 below the hydrogeaph peak, Points § and 6 are then connected By a otraight line. The dircet-runoff hydrograph is whatever is left after E subtracting the defined base flow. ‘Base-flow separation from more complicated hydrographs is iustrated E x Figure 9.6. Segment 1 to 2 is obtained by extending the recession of the first peal to a point 2, defined by Eq, (9.8). Segment 1~2 defines two aif F farent events, Base-flow separation within them is achieved with any of the previously deseribed methods. 9.3 STREAMFLOW MEASUREMENTS ‘Streamflow is generally obtained by measuring stage (wator-surface elevation) at calibrated locations where stago-discharge relations or rating curves permit obtaining the latter. A simple stage-discharge relation is shown in Figure 9.7. The relations commonly obey equations of the form Q=aly- By, eo where a and c are parameters, y is the elevation or stage, @ is discharge, and bis the elevation of zero flow. Variability in eross section and the nature of flow makes it convenient to define curves for low-, normal-, oF high-flow conditions (Fig. 9.7). ‘The stage-discharge relation must be defined for relatively stable river “control sections.” Baekwator effects near the controls may require staze- dischargo relations that are also a function of water-surface slope. Under uniform flow conditions end graduelly verying flow, the well- known Chery and Manning equations are stage-discharge relations, The Chezy equation is Q=AcvES, en where C is the roughness coefficient, A is the cross-sectional area of flow, R is the hydraulie radius A/P, P is the wetted perimerer, and S is the energy slope Goottom slope in uniform flow or approximately the water-surface slope for nonuniform, slowly varying conditions). ‘The equation shows the relation ‘among discharge, slope, and stage (since for a given eross-soctional area, the F hydraulic radius is a function of stage). ‘Another stage-discharge relation is the Manning equation, = Lanes, osAO. CHAPTERS / THE HYOROGRAPH AND SIMPLE RAINFALL. DISCHARGE RELATIONS Die seegeeeege ee aeueeeeasg an [ts : Pas Prof /iah-flow cating oct Loew os oa | S« hie a Sy yey ato Be] yee oo : : Hae an Ee 3 ee tee a FOURE 97 A sil stge-dchage raion, Sou: Fx: ney, MA Ke, ‘and JiL-H, Paulus, Hydrology for Engineers, Srl ed, 1962, MoGrav-Hil, Roproduces with pormission. where @ is discharge in cubic moters per second, A is cross-sectional area of flow in square meters, n is the Manning roughness coefficient, and R is, Dydraulie radius in meters. ‘The provious equations may be used to illustrate the nature of possible adjustments to account for backwater effects, or other periods where the ‘energy slope 5 does not coincide with the bottom sloye. Figure 9.8 shows two stations close to one another along a river with stages y; and 9». From Eqs. 9.7) and (9.8) we know that discharge is proportional to S*, hence we ean write By “ where m is an exponent, @ is the discharge at station 2 when the surface slope is S, and Q” is tho uniform flow discharge that would oceur at station 2, with stage yp, when the energy slope is equal to the bottom slope S°, Ay is the difference in atage hetwoon adjacent stations: dy = y, ~ 9s. Coefficient m should be close t0 1/2. Ay* corresponds to the uniform, normal, flow condi- Seton atersurae gradients ster. ; i EF L a -——"—Y FIGURE 8.8 Watercurfaco slope between two stations. tions when the energy slope is the bottom slope. Once the above relationship is developed from data, it can be used to make adjustments to the normal rating-curve results. That is, Q° is first obtained from a stage measurement at the primary station (in this easo, »,), assuming uniform flow. Given a read- ing of stage at the auxiliary station, Ay can be computed and used with @” ‘and Ay” in Eq, (28) to obtain the adjusted discharge @. Stage measurement techniques are discussed in other references (World Meteorological Organization (1974); Linsloy et al. (1982)). Instruments that respond continuously or discretely to surface elevation are used. The stage- discharge calibration results from experimentation at a location, Discharge is obtained by measuring velocities across a rivar section. Because of expected Yelocity distributions with dopth and scrces the channel, velocities are usa. ally meesured at 0.2 and 0.8 of the total depth (or 0.6 when only one mea- surement is made) in different river subsections. No subsection should account far mare than 10% of the total Low. Figure 9.9 shows this procedure. ‘Average velocity in each subsection is the average botweon the 0.2 and 0.8 depth values. The discharge per subsection is the corresponding average FIGURE 9.9 Viow of a stream eros section showing fcation of points of observation. Source: World Meteorological Assocation, Gulde to Hydrelogieal Practices, 313 ed., iors Meteorological Association, 1974404. CHAPTER 9 / THE HYOHOGRAP: AND SIMPLE RAINFALL-DISCHARGE RELATIONSHIPS velocity multiplied by the subsection area. Total discharge is the sum of individual subsection results. ‘Velocity is measured with current meters. These are generally instruments with propellers or rotating spokes like an anemometer, which respond propor- tionally to water-current velocity. Modern velocity meters may also rely on lectrie inductance by flowing water. 9.4 RAINFALL—DISCHARGE RELATIONSHIPS Streamflow responds to precipitation inputs, rainfall, or snowmelt. During a rainfall event, the hydrograph is dominated by surfuce runoff and/or flow in the upper soil layers. Hydrologists have always been concerned with obtain- {ng discharge from rainfall. The intarest is not only on total volumes but on & description of the transformation of the rainfall history (hyetograph) to the streamflow history (hydrograph). These functions or rainfall—discharge rela ‘tlonships are required for the design of hydraulic structures, for describing historical basin behavicr, for predicting response when the basin topography or land use changes (i.e., urbanization), or for predicting future discharges (Ge, flood forecasting). Figure 9.10 gives the theoretical shape of a hydrograph resulting from a storm of constant effective intensity and long duration 1, completely covering ‘a basin, The effective storm intensity is the actual precipitation rate minus, Une rule ub which sou of Use wator becomes unavailable for runoff because of ‘evaporation, detention, or infiltration into deep, slow-responding, soil layers. ‘As the storm starts, the channel responds slowly (but almost immediately) to ‘precipitation falling on the channel itsolf or on nearby areas, As time passes, rain falling on more remote overland regions affects the channels and moves along these to the outlet. During this period, the hydrograph rises sharply. Raina of constant ateesiy ina Osi Diacharns, FIGURE 0.10 Hyarograph corresponding to long storm. S.RAINFALL-OSCHARGE RELATIONSHIPS 405, vn enjortyof the basin ie conrtbuting to out dscharg hy time ft ‘ho mole oF Concentration) the whole baat ib responding, All storage timo 6 pani raed at chia point and the np sequal othe out capt Ine bryarograph amuse tien be ‘A, whore isthe storms effective Tho pak ot te enn area, As Tonga ran confines, the discharge ty and A hon dhe sar stops et time ¢y the discharge doponds on rol co eleaged from storage in channels, upper soils, and overland rato bein ep mount released may be considerable, the ouiow may nurs Se gh fra period after, unl to ull of th storage (usally romal ily Qh fariver banks) ie nesty depleted. This can he inter- ee tha i take fr the alt to Team hat stopped rin Pra eins yi he nection at tine cers, The bulk. ofthe Ing ovr in to sawor responding storages, Uke furher bank storage room acta ow We have eveaay Sard he nature of thie pocetion- 9.4.1 Pook Discharge Formulas —The Rational Formula hve atiompted to relate peak discharge to reinfall and topograzhie a a sich ag area, stream length, end slope of the region (Nash sats sh i a Sens GD. Th ved ca {1060} Shermer per of existing equations, mostly local im nature, in any coma Da (soy isha Gray (L1G), An expression that as hydra alcxnmonly uted indesign of wrban drainage ayaa i th joan roa, tated cheanols <0, 10) is the peak hydrograph discharge, A is the ereo, J is the rainfall were QC lsu confit, Tho cooficintC i nondimensional(asualy int 08) fl and Aare given in compatible unis (Le, meters pet word aquare meters, respectively, Leading to @ in cubie meters per Hoo are is in inches per hour and A is in eres, which yields discharge sn) 7 te) ty be le eal tear teat bn of duration equal oor larger than tho tne of eonsentrae a echo Hasin, which ensures that Q, is the largest peak obtained for a ion of inshe given intensity. Usually e given probability of occurrence is storm a eae chosen stor. By construction, the implication in Uhat the ca ee yon ea rovalting 21 ot). Tia concept of probably and the astsiate idea o ake Stl be seen again in Chapter 11. The evefficlent C accounts for recurront prsanen rege en ae cntantHhroughou the storm duration. - i sonal formula is a design tool (limited for that matter) adequate to en ma ei ee nl a cational tl gi resonable Fel whore Qy-ADG. CHAPTERS / THE HYOROGRAPH AND SWPLE AANEALL-DISCHARGE LATIONSHIPS 94 RAINALL-DISCHARGE: In practice, the rational formula is mostly used in small (not larger than 1a few hundred acres (1 acre is about 4000 m*)) urban areas for designing storm sewer aystems, Sewers are designed for given annual probability “(usually 0.1 to 0.04) of failure, defined as times when flow exceeds capacity. Drainage pipes, gutters, and inlets chould accopt the flows resulting from events with the above annual probabilities of occurrence. As stated previ- ovsly, it is assumed (not generally correctly, because ofthe effects of antecedent ‘and moisture conditions) that the pesk discharge has the same probability of occurring as the corresponding storm, —+ 206 EXAMPLE 2.1 ‘The Design of a Storm Sewer System ‘Traditionally, urban areas are drained by systems of pipes (sewers) intended to prevent surface flooding and remove water from the region as quickly as possible. This philosophy may lead to downstream flooding and water-quality problems, issues of so-called urban hydrology (Overton and Meadows [1976], ] Bras and Perkins [1975)., A complete description of classical design proce dures can be found in the Engineering Practice Manual No. 37 of the Ameri- can Society of Civil Engineers (1970). Here we will illustrate how the rational formula and uniform flow assumptions are used in design practice. Figure 9.11(a) shows a plan view of an urbanized area with # common gridded strect pattern. Tho ares topography and the system of streets and {utters induces the flow patzern shown by arrows. The region is divided into four subareas C1, C2, C8, and C4, according to drainage patterns. Runoff : from these areas is collected by inlets T1, 12, 18, and 14, respectively. A pipe Pl connecis inlets Ii and 13. Similarly, P2 connects [2 and [4. The combined 200 ‘wntare fom catshmante C1 and C3 are then rowed chrough pipe PS to join [e aya 1 tutflow ftom P2 and Ce going into pipe Pe, A schesaie diagram of the io ‘erconnections is shown in Figure 8.110). Assume each of tho eatchment x- I fan hasan area of 40,000 "Te design wil be dane for «storm that has a 7 | | 0.04 probability of occurring in any one year. Chapter 4 presented the concept a [2 1" | GHinlonsty-ftequoney duration curves. his relationship between mean i L rainfall intensity and duration for a given recurrence can be parameterized q [e}—-— aI ew © FIGURE 9.41 Pian view of uban storm sewer system, ‘whore a and 6 are constants. Assume that a and b have values of 3 cm and 0.17 ha, respectively, and that i is in centimeters por hour and ¢, is in hours. ‘To continue the analysis, we need values of C for each of the subareas and To compute flow into inlet 1, we first find the rainfall intensity corre ‘estimates of the time of concentration in each of them. We will assume sponding to a 10-minute (, for 01) duration. Using the previously given C= 0.7 for all subareas, The time of eoncontration is taken as 10 minutes for equation, we get i = 89 embr or i= 89 x 10° mr“. Using Ba. (9.10), i all subareas (note that in prectice subareas should be kept to similar times of 7 ae ' concentration and size). @ = 0.78.9 x 107) (40,000) = 2492 m*hr* = 0.7 ms.(eSceer Sete te a) fi J {410 crveTen s /THEHYOROGRAPH AND SIMPLE RANEALL-DISCHARGE RELATIONSHIPS For every duration of effective rainfall, there is a unit hydrograyl Be- sider Linearity, the concept further assumes that rainfall is uniformly distrib- fed in time and space. This limits the application of the technique to ‘uniform storms over relatively small areas. ‘Unit hydrographs aro developed from pairs of corresponding rainfall discharge events. The criteria used are the following: 1. Select individual events with simple struebures, as uniform in time and space as possible. 2, Use hydrograph separation to eliminate bao flow. 42, Define duration of effective rainfall resulting in the obtained dived! rune Oe This duration should prefersbly be between 10 and 30% the time of rise of the hydrograph. 4, Select events, if possible, with direct runoff volume near 1 em. 1 5, Soloct as many pairs of rainfall-discharge events as possible, 6, All selected events should have equal effective storm duration, =26%. 4 ‘A unit hydrogeaph is obtained for each data pair hy dividing the ordi nates of the direct runoff hydrogeaph by the effective rainfall volume, ‘The esa is a hydrograph of unit volume whose ordinate issn inverse time units, |_— stern 4 su hls ube EXAMPLE 8.2 : “The Unit Hydrograph t Figure 0112 gives the precipitation and discharge history in the Bird Crook dae in Oklahoma for May 1958, Tho basin has an area of 2344 km’. Both |, RBS ol ange deta ve en nite of repr el I Pouilfineters) per 6 hr. That is, the ordinate shown at any time is really the L sRaumulation over the last G-hr period. This is emphasized in the discret f feetographs superimposed on two of the storms. We will derive the unit ‘ Py Gronraphs for pairs of data corresponding to the first and fourth storms 3» i Heer these two are the most significant events on record. Note that i Tineste, FIGURE 9.12 Precipitation (a) and flow (b) In the Bird Creck Besin, Oklahoma, for the month of May 1958. cotdd in Tables 9.1 end 9.2, storm 4 produced proportionally more runaff. The Gnit hydrograph is obtained by dividing each ordinate of the direct-runof i hyaropraph by its total volumo, The two results, with ordinates af (6 hn) * are ‘shown in Tables 8.1 and 92 and Figure 9.13. ta zohafell events have about 18 hr (three time stops) of significant rainfall, aone will be deriving the 18-hr unit hydrograph. In doing so, we are assum, ‘ether the whole basin was afected by the events end that the events are of ‘uniform intensity. The last point is clearly pot true. "The first step isto find the direct runofT. Figure 9.12(b) gives an estimate ofthe bene flow hydrograph obtained using one of the empirical procedures of | Beste a It is intercating to note that Bq, (9.5) is not valid for this case, Seer would leed to an impossibly large value of N. Table 9.1 gives the val- sat precipitation, discharge, base flow, and direct runoff for storm 1 ‘Table 9.2 does the same for storm 4. ‘Since the discharge data are given so that each value is the accumulation ofthe past 6 hr, the total direct runoff is simply the euts of ordinates. Storm Credaed 7.48 mam and storm 4 produced 10.06 mm of direct runoff As indi- E E i B ct ; : E A : the excoption in practice. The hydrologist should compute several unit bydro- jgraphs and average them. But bo carefull Averaging the ordinates of a given ren will result in a distorted, flattened unit hydrograph. Wo should average Cheracteristies. For example, averages of the time to peak; the peak; the(A112 cHAPTER 9 / THE HYDAOGRAPH AND SIELE RAINAL-DISCHARGE RELATIONSHIPS ‘TABLE 0.1 Unit Hydrograph Computations for Storm 1 PREC. pigzct uNit me FPATION, RUNOFF, HYDEOGRAPIZ mm hy ‘am (Gin mm@be) + he) 2 ° 02 oz ° 0 48 205 0.02 oz o 0 64 155 0.05 0.05 ° ° 0 15 058 0.08 048 0.07 66 132 014 18 046 2 a1 022 190 035, 8 223 029 194 028 Be 223, 029 1a ouT 0 ost os 052 Dor 96 0.38 033 0.16 0.02 302 018 ox 08, 0.008 Velume of direct runoff 7.48 mm ‘tal rainfall volume, 27.5 mm Proportion of uno, 748/91.5 = 0.20 ‘TABLE 9.2 Unit Hydrograph Computations for Storm 4 PRECIP. Dirzor uxr mes MATION, © DISCHAROB BASE FLOW RUNOFF, HYDROGRAPH Gey mm hy mm Gh)! mG)” mm Oh She) 240 ° 0 248 08 ° 252 164 oas 045 ° 0 258 85 029 016 013 oo 264 26 ast oar 130 on 210 186, 020 es 018 216 222 028 iss 0.20 282 222 027 iss 0.19 283 135 0.30 156 048 298 139 0.5 Lot 0.0 ‘300 ost 050 os 0.05 308 939 025 014 oot siz 019 019 .00 0.00 Volume of direct runof 10.06 mam ‘Tota rainfall volume, 28.10 ‘Proportion of runoff, 0.38 [_ BARANFALL-DOCHARCE RELATIONSHIPS. 413 Unit ydtoxret fram oun 16 Unit hyéeowreph ee ftom orm dt] oe 2 eM 3036 « House an Ow FIGURE 9.18 Unit hydrographs corresponding to storms in Figure 9:12 width of the hydrograph at the 25, 60, and 75% of the peal; and the duration of the hydrograph could be obtained, and a curve with unit voluine (in this example, 1 mim) drawn through the resulting points. Derivation of Different-Duration Unit Hydrographs—The $ Curve Rach unit hydrograph corresponds to a given effective rainfall duration ‘The user of the unit hydrograph theory either computes from data unit hydrographs of various durations to obtain flexibility in handling different types of svorme, or makes fall use of the linearity assumption and computes the co-culled $ hydrograph or curve. ‘The S hydrograph is the expocted response of an infinite sequential series of fixed duration storms of unit volume. According to unit hydrograph theory, this response must be the infinite summation of unit hydrographs of the given duration. This is shown in Figure 9.14. The D-hour S hydrograph is obiained by adding corresponding D-hour unit hydrographs, each lagged by 'D. The resulting S-shaped curve peaks and stabilizes after the summation of ‘T/D unit hydrographs, where T is the time length of the base of the original ‘D-hour unit hydrograph. Since the effective intensity of the assumed uniform414 cHueten s / THE HYOROGRAPH AND GMPLE RAINFALL -DISCHARGE RELATONSHES rol 3 Ol Dou Sysop ‘D-hour ei ydropaph Diachurae aby ey rw FIGURE 8.14 Computation of S hysroaraph. Source: Adapted from Viessman otal (1877) ‘yolume storm has to be 1/D, the $ hydrograph peaks and stabilizes at Q=1/D in volume per unit area per time or A/D in units of volume per time, The ares of the basin is A. ‘The D-hour-duration 8 hydrograph can be used to obtain the unit hy- drograph eorresponding to any other duration r. Using the linearity property, ‘the procedure is L. Lag S curve by t hours. 2, Subtract the ordinates of the displaced curves; the result is a hydrograph of volume £/D. 8, Normalize resulting hydrograph to volume 1 by multiplying by D/t. ‘The procedure as illustrated in Figure 9.15 results in the hour unit ph, Tn practice, the § hydrograph can be easily cbtained without requiring the direct summation of T/D unit hydrographs. Column 2 of Table 9.8 is, the 18-hr (three time steps) unit hydrograph computed for storm 1 in ‘Example 9.2. Column 3 is obtained by copying the first three ordinates of the “unit hydrograph (since the first 18 hr of the S curve are the same as the 18-hr 24 RANFALOSCHARGE RELATIONSHIPS 415 D-hour 5 tyerogrerh \ _—cune? Dinca (ume 1=0une2) “obtain hour UA atipiyby Dit Ay Te FIGURE 0.16 Obtaining 2 Ehour unit hyerograph from the O-neur S Hydropraph. Source: ‘Adepted from Viessman etal 1977} ‘TABLE 9.3 Computation of the § Curve and a 12-iir Unit Hydrograph from an 18-r ‘Unit Hydrograph poo et 12H Unit, ABE Unit Cohan &—_ydroqraph rime Step Eydigqash Intermediate 28r Legged Minus (18/32) ‘mes desGhr GAO, fait SCure SCurwe Calumns Calon 6 1 ° © 0 0 2 ° ° o. ° 8 0.07 aor 0 0.07 oat 4 046 ° ois 8 038 28 5 0.25 9 025 (0708 027 6 038 oor 08316 0.28, 7 oat 016 © 038028008 oa 8 oo 025 © oma 0380.00 0.00 9 0.02 0g3 agg 880.00 0.00 0 0.008 03] 03308 u ° 92 osgt 0.88 2 ° 035 agge 0.88 8 ° 033033088416 coMPTER 9 / THE HNDROGAPH AND SVPLE RAINPALL-OSCHARGE RELATIONSHIPS unit hydrograph) and obtaining ell other values by adding corresponding values in Colurans 2 and 8 from time step 4 on. For example, 0.16 comes from adding 0.16 and 0 in Columns 2 and 8, respectively; 0.28 results from the next pair, 0.26 plus 0; 0.38 from 0.26 and 0.07; and so on. The 8 curve is the sum of Columns 2 and 8, a3 given in Column 4. Some oscillations are beerved around a 0.88 value. The S hydrograph pealc can be adjustod to ita theoretical value of 1/D. Tn this ease since D is three time unis, the peak should be 0.83 and can be adjusted accordingly. The 1-hr unit bydrograph is computed in columns 6 and 7. Colamn 7 invalves 2 normalization to ensure that the hydrograph is of unit volume, Note that the 12-hr unit hydrograph hhas a time base smaller than that of the 18-hr unit hydrograph, as expected, zi - ke ab & zat pe 2 bs 2B 1-4 PL ny te ag 6 Lat Ieeeaeeeaasiters Thre “ine. inti at oh eth thy he x4 % isn ite gg ‘ i ite Beem a i toy ase FIGURE 0.16 Hydeograph ftom a compound storm ae cbtanod with tho unit hyérocranh. (a) Excess ranfa; (5) unt hysrograph; and (c) discharge hyerograph. Source: Adapted from Viessmian eta. (1977) 24 RANFALL-ORCHARGE ReLATIONSHIES. 417 ++Mathematial Formulation of the Unit Hydrograph : ‘The vesponse of linear basin to any rainfall input is proportional to the unit hydrograph, as discussed previously. This proportionality can be genet lized fo compound storms, not only to a single uniform event ‘Figure 9.16 shows a compound storm extending over three time poriods. ‘Tho unit hydrograph corresponding to one time period of effective rainfall can be used to obtain the response ofthe compound storm, Based on the ordinates shown in Figure 9.16, it should by now be clear that day + ha = hy + ala Fahy = Qe oa faa + ily tithe = Qu lahy + iahe + 0°= Qe ‘The system of equations shown as Ea. (9.12) is aver-determined with re- spect fo the unit hydrograph ordinates h, (i = 1, ..., 4). It can be expressed in ‘matrix form as 1H=@, 13) there i 0 0 0) 00 ip i 0 I= i 0 ts oom % 900% : hyLe bab AB cHnoreo / HE HYOROGRAPH AND SIMPLE RAINFALL-DISCHAAGE RELATIONSHIPS Note that the order n of the output vector is given by nejticl, where n is the number of output hydrograph ordinates, j is the number of nit hydrograph ordinates, and i is the number of excess-rainfall poriods ‘A common problem in hydrology is that of model identification, essen Lally the detormination of the ordinates of the unit hydrograph, h,s. Due to the generally over-determined condition of Bq, (9.19), the solution is not H = 1''Q; since the inverse of T does not exist, I is « non-square matrix of rrank loss than n. "This condition is bypassed by using a pseudo-inverse concept. Multiplying by I® (transpose of I rim ~r@. oy ‘The matrix I'l is of rank n and has an inverse, ‘Therefore H-@D"r@ oan) quation (9.15) also amounts to an unconstrained least squares estimation of the vector EL ‘Tho above approach will generally result in values of H that are unstable and not well behaved. Negative unit hydrograph coordinates, volumes less than 1, and tail oscillations in the obtained unit hydrograph are common. ‘Those instabilities are due to non-perfect observations of f and Q and to the non-perfect linear assumption. The model identification problem should really bbe a constrained optimization of the form Min FQ,. TH) subject to 18) where FG) is the objective function of the error between observed discharge Qa, and predicted model discharge IH. "The optimization is constrained to positive values of Hand to unit volume ‘expreseed in terms of a linear operation on the vector H, CH. For an objective function of the general form Min(Qae — L)V“(Qa, ~ TD", ex the problem becomes one of quadratic programming and is solved in the literature (Natale and Todini [1976al; Eagleson et al. (1966). 9:4 RANFALL-DISCHARGE RELATIONS 419 ‘The aystem of equations given in Eq, (9.12) ean also be expressed 6s a= Site atte @.18) which is the discrete form of the so-called convolution integral. This convolu- tion or Duhamel integral will become very itaportant in our study of continu ‘ous linear systems in hydrology. EXAMPLE 93 Derivation of Unit Hydrographs Using Least Squares Procedures ‘Singh [1976] derived the unit hydrographs corresponding to the four storms riven in Table 9.4. The table gives the effective precipitation and the corre: sponding discharge. He used two procedures, one based.on solving Eq. (9:16) ‘when the objective was fo minimize the absolute value of the error Qa, — TH the other was equivalent to Eq. (9.15). Method 1 imposed nonnegativity and Volume constraints on the unit hydrograph. A constraint requiring @ mo- otonicelly decreasing recession was algo added. Linear programming was {the optimizing tool used. Method 2 imposed no constraints. Figure 9.17 gives the resulting unit hydrographs. Differences in the methods wore observed only in storms 1 and 4, Note the tail oscillations and negative unit hy- Grograph ordinates occurring with method 2. As Figure 9.18 shows, the de- ‘Fived unit hydrographs reproduce the observed dischargos quite well. # 9.4.3 Synthetic Unit Hydrographs Determination of the unit hydrograph dopends on the availability of input ‘and output data. For areas where these are not available, hydrologists have developed techniques to relate parts of the hydrograph to physical basin char- factoristics, The hydrograph charecteristics of interest are the peak, time td peak, duration of corresponding effective rainfall, and time base of the unit bydrograph. Knowing these points, curves with unit volume could be traced, which would be a fair approximation of the desired system response function, ‘The first and the most commonly used synthetic unit bydrograph is that developed by Snyder [1935}, modified by Taylor and Schwartz [1952], and tused by the U.S. Army Corpe of Engincers [1959]. As most of these proce dures are based on erapirical relations obtained through analysis of data from ‘several basins, Suydér [1938] relates the time frou the entroid of the rain fal othe pen of tho unit hodrogreph 1 goometzical characteristics of the in by t= CALL), a9)420 CHAPTER 8 / THE HYOROGRAPH AND SIMPLE RANFALL-DISCHARGE RELATIONSHIPS “TABLE 0.4 Siudy Storms over North Branch Potomac River near Cumberland, Mezyland STORK STORM 2 noma 3 Ateake Abed br eae ® 9 x Q R @ fy Gtr) Gin) Gb) in) nb 012 0008 086 0.002 0.0006, O88 O01L 0.840.008 o.0017 080 © ona6 0.920.038 ‘o.a0es 100 0090 00.052 ois om 1400 0.088 0.0256 oe 0140 O24” O.088 0.0238 D410 252 (0.081 ore 0.082, 0.070 oie 0.087 0.081 out 0.087 0.047 ‘cost 0.025 0.037 0.0078 0.014 0.028 0.0060 0.008 0.020 9.0046 0.008 pois 9.0085 0.002 0.003 0024 o.00t 0.005 0.0018 060 0.003 0011 er a.082 0.0005 = 9.06in. 001 1.0002 0.880 (0.4600 x4 x = 252 in, = 0.80 in. (Note: La. = 0.0354 5 1 a bet = 00054 me Source: Singh (1976), Reproduced by permiion of the American Water Reworote Association whare fis time to peak in hours, L is length of the main stream channel jn miles, and L, is length of the main stream channel to a point opposite the basin centroid in miles, English units are used as a result of the original calibration. "The factor LL, attempts to parameterize the shape of the basin in terms of a length (Z) and width (L,) measure. The time to peak is a function of basin shape, but following the linear assumption is not essumed to be a func tion of rainfall intensity. The factor C, represents variations in watershod = noe 94 NANFALL-OIScHARGEARLATIONSHIPS 421 ‘STORMS Methods 1,2 _ 00e Methods 1,2 |] ssoipes ° . a a @ m0 ‘Tne, FIGURE 9.17 Unit hydrographs oblained from constrained (method 2) and unconstrained {method 1} estimation procedures. Source: Singh [1876] Reproduced by permission ofthe ‘Ametican Water Resources Association. slopes and storage and usually varies between 1.8 and 2.2 (for English units). ‘The time to the peak is generally measured from the centroid of the rainfall input. ‘Given the time to the-peak defined by Bq. (9.19),.the duration of eorro- sponding effective rainfall is obtained by ey where fs the effective rainfall duration i hows. ‘Tho peak discharge is GA @, = 6054, om422. cHAPIEAD / HE HYOROGRAPH AND SNPLE RAINFALA-OISCHARCE NIELATIONSHIPS ous —— somes ow . haga] \ ort x, * aaa ¢ ow se? Stee on eo “Tine, Two FIGURE 8.18 Given and derived direct surtace runoff hydrographs obtained using Cnt hyerogrags from the to method and rlnfal data for stoms and 4 (1 I0-N| = Hearse areh) source: Singh (1876). Reproduced by permission cf the American Weer Resources Assocation, ware Qi the peak discharge of unit hydrograph in cubic feet por soond, A Wihe wea in square miles, and C, is the coeficent aosounting for retention ‘nd storage, usually varying between 0.4 and 0.8. ‘Tho unie hydrographs timo base is given r=a+k, 020 where 7 is in days. Equation (9.22) is adequate for large areas but highly Jnadequate for fast-responding small basins. In such cases, three ta five times the fine to peak f, 39 & goud approximation for 7. Bquatione (0.19) and (9.20) limit the user to a ydrograph corresponding tog fred duration of effective rainfall. To obtain s different-duration by- drograpb, Snyder suggests using tig = te + 0.25lta — fs o2 FIGURE 9.19 Unit hydrogranh wicth at 80 and 75% of Engincors [1959]. 3.4 RAINEALL-OISCHARGE RELATIONSHIPS. 423 where tp is the new desired effective rainfall duration in hours, fy is the new Tne to peak corresponding to new effective rainfall duration, and tr and ¢ are given by Eqs. (9.19) and (9.20). Equations (2.19) through (9.23) define points in the unit hydrograph that ‘ean bu used to trace a volume 1 curve, This eketching exercise is aided by Figure 9.19, whore widths at 0 and 5% of peak flow are given asa funsion wreak flow per unit ares, As a rule of thumb, the obtained widths should be Gioided in e 1:2 ratio between the rising and receding portions of the sketched unit hydrograph. ‘The US. Soll Conservation Service (Mfoclus [19571) bases their synthetic ‘unit hydrogragh procedures o2. a nondimensionsl unit lydrograph developed from studies of many basins Grograph is shown in Figure 9.20 and in Table 8.5. To wae this method, fp {he tine from the beginning of the storm to peak discharge, in hours, 1s obtained by the United States. The dimensionless by- te 20) where D is the duration of effective rainfall and f is the lag time from a rain- fall centroid to peak discharge. Tag time f; can be obtained using localized relations between f, and A a8 f= 144° Texas, t= 0.544% Ohio, 25) + Observed vale of Ho Observed value of Wy Peak charge of wit hyogmph, {Ps * 5 2 o406 12 ‘wth of nit hydrogaph hr of peak fow. Source: US. Amy Corps24 RANFALL-DISCHARGERELATIONSHI"S 425 where A is in square miles or by relations such as Eq, (9.19), generalized to include the effects of slope wnall om where S is the average main channel slope. Relations of the form given by eq, (6.26) are shown in Figure 9.21. ‘The peak discharge results trom a= 8. zn ere Qs charge in abi ft per sen, ie aren in aqare miles and ethno pk ram agining ot afl in ose Te conan 44 reslts thom the conversion af square tlle to acres and an narumption thatthe Ps fom duration r= LOTh Tho render ia fferee to MoU 1982) for more " Sal onthe Sol Gongerfaio Service SOS) wot hydogron, eae on aise The Gray ayuthels unit hydrops bas th frm of = gamma Rnetion Rau 921 Drs nt hypo he Sal Corson Se. So Following Crap L8 79 tis astra that tho amount of ceiling area She nconge hydagrap increases proprinaly to «power o time AM=P. (028) “TABLE 95 Ratios for the Basle Dimensionloss Hydregraph of the SCS HYDROGRAPH HYDROGRAPH, ‘ute namios, DISCHARGE RATIOS, ‘TIME RATIOS, DISCHARGE RATIOS, awe. 2) ty ai, ay Discharge is also proportional to contributing area. Therefore o o 15 0.68 o2 001s 16 0.88 ees 02 0.076 18 042 4 | (Mountain driasge area a3, 018 20 0.32 {| onlays ot 0.28 22 026 7 os 043 2a 018 Foot ng 06 0.50 28 O43, nan (ta) o7 o7 28 08 one 30 oo Val desig ses 09 ost 35 0.096 ep 19 11.00 40 ois ¥ oss 45 0.000 1} 092 50 o.004 ees 13. 08s Infinity 0 a 0.16 ‘Source Gray (1970), Reproduced ky poraleion ofthe Nations Hetaarch Connell of Cansd, FIGURE 9:21 Relation betwean lag tine and basin properties.(EEE eee Cibo 426 CHAPTERS / THE HYOROGRAPH AND GMPLE FAINEALL-DISCHARGE RELATIONSHIPS We have seon previously that the recession of the hydrograph can be ex- prossed as Qo = OK! nQ@) = 1nQ, +t mK =inQ 0 #" Combining Bp. (9.29) xnd (0.9), Saw atet or Qt) = Bre. oan Integrating Bq. (0.80), var= (‘endef Brera 2) Seta = m— Land x = ht, carrying on the integration to evaluate constant B ‘and rearranging will result in ‘Vol Rene ea 3 w= ‘The last equation is in the form of a gamma probability density function (soe Chapter 11). "For email watersheds, Gray [1961a,1962] suggested a dimensionless unit hhyerograph similar to Eq. (0.34), a5ye*e(e/G)* Qe, Ta 35) whore y and q are parameters, I is the gamma function, f, is time of rise of we dogrash from beginning of rainfall to the peak, £1 timo, Qu, ie the Seren of total volume of flow occurring during i time increment etal to D.2bi, at specific value of #/f, (Grey (1973). Th discharge is given at 0.26¢, intervals, fon go ae tae OTE a, OG," ‘Thorefore %flow/0.25t, A 3000.26, (04 AAINFALL-OSOHARGE AELATIONSHES 427 where P, is the net storm rainfall dept and AP, 0.254, ‘The parameters q and y are given by qn=yth of EY 938) 7 S\VBY" where Lis the length of the main stream and S, is the mean pereentage slope Srthe main channel. If f/y is in minutes Cy is dimensiones), then 2Q.- 4 1 fe y” Beret, + 0.0159 ae Equation (@.38) plots as a straight line on log-log paper with parame tere @ and b varying with location. For L in miles snd ¢, jn minutes, come typical values for a and b, respectively, are 11.4 and 0.531, Obio; 74 and 0.198, Nebraska end lows;9.27 and 0.562, Dlinois, Montana, and Wisconsin. Figures 9.22 and 9.28 plot Eqs. 9.38) and (9.39), respectively. The general ( [ feryir 5 period of ise parcier snl” Ctrl ou = Moun Iino Wssonse oom | Ratio t o sean; lethotmain sees (_L Fexarwe ope () WI FIGURE 9.22 Relation of storage factor f/1 and watershed parameter LVS, for water Thode in canta lone-Missourlinais-Wisconsin. Source: D.M, Gray, “Synthetic Unit herograohe for Smal Watersheds,” J. Hydraul, Dv. AS.CE B7(HYA99-8, 1861 Ss ws staal | enhSree] "FBR so | io 1600310 280 500 Pesos tie (a rn FIGUAE 0.29 Relation of storage factor ty /y and period of rise fy. Source: O.M. Gray, ‘Syntheie Unit Hydrograohs for Smal Welorshecs,” J. Hydraul, Dv. AS.CE, B7(H4) 39-54, 1061. procedure to use Gray's method is then to 1. Obtain t,/y from Eq. (0.98) (Fig. 9.22). 2. With this value enter Figure 9.23 (Bq, 9.39) end obtain ¢, 8. Use Ba. (9.36) or Teble 9.6 and Bq, (8.97) to obtain discharges at any t/t, EXAMPLE 9.4 ‘Synthetic Unit Hydrograph ‘Table 9:7 reproduces & table of empirical interrelations of watershed charac- taristies. We may now develop o synthetic unit hydrograph for a hypothetical river basin in Ohio, Let the azea be 10 mi”. From Table 9.7 we can approxi- imate the length of the main streain L and ite elope as L 1.4042" = 5.2 mi end 8, = L.51L = 0.53%. Using values of a = 11.4 and b= fem s2.min, y 581, By. (9.88) yields From Bq, (0.39) we get that the time of rise é, is 154 min. This implies that the unit hydrograph to be developed corresponds to a storm of $8.5 min 2.4 RANFALL-DISCHARGERELATIONSHAPS 429 ‘TABLE 9.6 Dimensionless Graph Coordinates for Different Values of the Parameter y se RLOW)O2i¢ Toyake 8B yeto ye8h 7H4O yaeb 78D A688 77 80 wy yeaa yeas yess ee eee too 00 ooo OD Gis 32 oss 0S OZ OAR OY ie cee) 88 2a AR BBB tee ata ao ae 180 133 8H SSB tee ia 8 417-189 OOO H.R {oo 138 iss 188182 OSSD BAL et | 160 1681S 180A MA LAL rae et oss ao tn SGT Me oa tot edsLD 2109107105 is 8282 BO 13 68 GA OBS 2its 6560 i439 Se 8 p49 4888 3 oh ooo bes 3802828 te lo OBO be 28 Ok 0306 0 od OR rr rT a2 on Ot aus 1913S 8 2s 130808 ae 1008 oa aa 06 «030 46040 438 03 OO tga 02 OL 4% 01 Od us 01 537502 Sect "iove son 1006-4009 1000 1900 1000 100.0 “Sounded tothe near 00%. suns da not intade psl percentages. Souree:D.M, Gray, “Synthete Unie Hydrographs for Snell Waterco," J. iycroul. Dix ASCE. B1GRYA) $0, 106. duration, i,/4. Parameter y must be 4.8. The unit hydrograph peaks at ‘Je, ~ 1, Brom Table 9.6, for y= 4.8, we get % flow/0.254, ~ 21.6. Sinee the unt hydrograph corresponds to a net storm depti af 1 unit, say 1 cm, we can use %q, (9.37) to obtain the unit hydrograph pedk: gg = 2S OA Kenta GF mPa) 10" wD 100 0.25(154) x 60 =m'st +Here ere Cee ee ee (480. GHAPTER / THE HTUROGHAPH AND SIMPLE RAIALL-DISCHARGE RELATIONSHIPS TABLE 0.7 Intorrelations of Watershed Characteristics aH GEOGRAPHIC ee ee ‘Gray 11960), ‘Taylor = = 1.404 097 ‘ILL, Jowa, Mo., Nebr., oes in see eon a] Ly = 0.540 099 IL, Jowa, Mo., Nebr., conte or ‘No. Calif, Ohio, Wisc, a ain and Dg = 0.748% (940 watersheds from one 2.6L 0.98 ‘Nebr., Western Iowa inne SE Ee “Ez Maat of itn the tpograpiecvie fly Lag ~ stance slong he main sees eer ce ee ok i ase sean The contr ef mae of he arve Gm onthe Bag areary ey soe of lige dun alone longa xeon of ho Sur ope of the make Mate ut Taser aw hese al paral line srw, wag theo sis ogel las svn beens in shennal grue ine sod Eooush the oan fae) B= ae nd sape of watered as detrnad by th pe aera UR a= verge oe of pmb of fire ede arena (0/9) which ar Interact ee piven rae aad azo enupe o te network: ne Chapters all sree rh ill eur ares aot esi Gal, Ay~ aan of to ele wi egal pe DB = Sianeli BS nica engi fas pall ee princa anaes EMEA. a euient of aration ejay 973) Reproduced by pormitaian othe Nena Research Gout of Coa SEER eeeeee cece Q.5 THE INSTANTANEOUS UNIT HYDROGRAPH ‘A-onit hydrograph of arbitrary duration was seen to be derived from a sub- {xtion and normalization of two displaced § curves. Having the 1-hr Seurve, # dchour unit hyérograph can be obtained by si =se= a) a SS THEINSTANTANEOUS UNTTHYOROGRAPH 431 It we allow dt to become infinitely small, the equation becomes S@-s¢- a) as a wh ae 9.40 ‘Therefore d8/d¢ defines the response of a unit volume storm instanta- neously occurring over the area (a Diracdelta function), This response fume- ‘ion is called the instantaneous unit hydrograph (IUE). ‘The instantaneous unit hydrograph f(t) defines a linear eystem through ‘tho convolution integral a = fF nane - ar [lunae- ar, oan where Q(@) is output of the systom at time ¢, I(t) is input to the systera, and (2) is a response function. The convolution is a restatement of the superposi- ‘ion principle for continuous eystems, Note that the response function is de- fined through the identity ii) = fae — nttedr, oan where &(¢— 1) ia the Dirae-deta function: _pafe forest won {S tes and [ixnae =. 1m hydrology and most real and causal systems, there is no negative time nor system response to future inputs, Therefore the convolution equation for 2 river basin becomes ae = [nome oe. 4a) Equation (9.49) corresponds graphically to Figure 9.24. Any continuous input is interpreted es a serios of infinitesimal impulses of finite intensity that respond according to the IUH. In analogy to the unit hydrograph, eachnace Astingsne he fied 1 mos Oe Pitnr tothe a == Tine ay ={ me 49 er conveluton oir shaded areas Tage — FIGURE 8.26 The concept of convolution. lagged response is added to the others to obtain the global response of the compound input, The convolution integral represents that summation. ‘Graphically, it amounts to translating tho mirror image of the folded function (argument ¢ — 1) under that of the unfolded one (argument *) and at every translation (corresponding to a time ¢) multiplying ordinates and adding, Note chat by definition the time baso of the UH is the time of concentration of the basin. Tdontification of h(t) is a perennial topic that lends itself to innumerable mathematical techniques developed to deal with continuous linear systems. A Gotailed discussion of all different model identification procedures is beyond ‘the scope of this work, The next fow sections will simply touch on some of the ‘methods, hopefully leading the curious to deeper studies. 9.5.1 Fourier Series Mathematical expansion of functions in terms of polynomials of orthogonal functions is useful because the coefficients of the expansion are easily identi- ed. The most common expansions of periodic functions are Fourier series. “Most periodie fianetions fit) ean be expressed a3 Kant f= Laat 5 (a oo E+ ws sin? hore T is period of the function and A, and B, are coefiieient cosine terms of increasing frequencies. (iat And [Ero en(2) a B~2 ac sn(2) a. None of the hydrologic fan Fourier series, they must be assumed peri greater than TaT+T., where 7 is the time base of the input hydrograph, and 7, is the time b oie assumption is represented in Figure 9.28. It and Rodriguez-Itarbe [1985] for details of this procedure) equivalent to a= f I)it ~ 2dr, dent 7): 9.5 THE STANTANCOUS UNIT HOROGRAR 433 .ctions in Bq, (9.48) are periodic. To apply jodie with a period equal to or output hydrogreph, 7,is the time base of the | ase of the unit hydrograph. This peri ‘can then be shown (see Bras ‘that Eq, (9.48) is ‘where each of the intervening functions can be expressed as" a0 = SA, cont + EB sins T S amr. 5 me Te) = Soa, con nA + SD, sin 2 neo = Fong cos mB T +3 Ba sin m: anlt — 2) neat oso) ts of sine and 45) 48) ean 48)Be re See eee Ree tt are equal to r 8) ent, 808 2 r Bat Bye, sin ae r at 2 yay sin me r But a —FbaBy 008 Qt) is then expressed as er nt Oe) = Foe + 3 Float ~ BB) 008 nH Bt +B Feet + bua) wn nt By analogy to Eq, (9.48), then r Flea, — bP) ne L _—_] Ay FIGURE 8.25 A pariocic interpretation of the instantaneous unit hycrograph r ZUaBa + Butte) Substitution of Bigs. (0.48) into Rq. (9.47) and interchanging integrals and summations results in an expression for Q(¢) in terms of an infinite summa tion of integrals. For each pair of m and 1, the following products appear: a T ay 2 oA, + BB, an et 2 aB, ~ AL qe a eae 434. CHAPTER /THE HYOROGRAPH AND SIMPLE AAINFALL-DISCHARGE RELATIONSHIPS ‘95 THE NSTANTANEOUS UNIT HYOROGRAPH 435) Because of the orthogonality of the sine and casine functions over the period 7, the above are zero except when m =n. In that case, the integrals (9.50) @sn 3) (953) Given the Fourier series expansion for « known pair of input and output functions, we ean obtain the coefficients of the Fourier series expansion of the