MATRIX STIFFNESS ANALYSIS: FRAMES AND GRILLAGES In this chapter we consider structures which are made up of one-dimensional pearn or bar elements con nected together at their ends, The connection may be either pinned or rigid. Such structures are referred to as frames and the connection points are referred to as nodes. Rsesnes are probably the most common class of structure. In a ship, in spite of the plating, the three dimensional assemblage of deck beams, side frames, anc longitudinal girders constirutes a framework, es- pecially in regard tothe transverse loads because these act normai tothe plating and are carried mainly by the framing system. 5.1 BASIC CONCEPTS Frame Analysis: Nodal Displacements Erame analysis is a well established technique in the ficld of structural analysis. In this technique every- thing is expressed in terms of what happens at the nodes. External forces are applied at the nodes Cand only there), and the displacements of the structure are expressed entirely in terms of nodal displacements. ‘The starting point is to determine the response charac- teristics of each individual member, that is, the re- lationship between nodal forces and nodal displace- ments, This relationship is taken to be linear, which ‘means that each nodal displacement u, is linearly pro- portional 10 each nodal force fit fi = ky. ‘The coefficient hy is referred to as « stifaess coefficient. ‘The complete relationship between all nodal forces ‘and all nodal displacements in 2 member isa system of 180 linear equations, and such systems are best expressed in matrix notation, f = ku, in which f and u are veo- tors vonttining the nodal forces and displacements, and kis a square matrix containing ail of the stiffness coefficients; this is the stifiness matréx of the member. Fundamental Laws Jn stractural analysis there are three fundamental “laws” of relationships which must be satisfied: 1. Equilibrium of forces (within each member and ‘between members). 2. Compatibility of displacements (within each member and between members). 3, Law of matetiad benavie (steess-strin law) of each member. As noted, the first two of these must be satisfied at two levels: within each member and also for the struc- ture as a whole (i.c., between members), For one: dimensional members such as bars and beams, which ‘we deal with in this chapter, all three laws are exactly satisfied within each member because they arc implicit im the member's nodal force-nodal displacement re- lationship, thet is, the member stiffness. Therefore, this chapter deals mainly withthe first two of the laws applied to the structure as a whole. In other words, there must be equilibrium of forces between the exter- nal loads and the various member forces, and there ust be compatibility inthe deformations of the mem bers, such that they continue to fit together. i { | | i | | i iFor 2 statically determinate structure the equilib rium requirement is sufficient because the member forces can be calculated directly. whereupon the mem ber displacements and internal forces can be calculated directly. Buta frame structure is statically indesermin- ate, and s0 in frame analysis the equilibrium and com- patibility requirements are imposed at each node of the structure. These requirements, together with te force displacement relationships of each member (as em- bodied in its stiffness mattix K) produce a system of ‘equations for the nodal displacements. After solving for these displacements, some previously established relationships between thesn and the member's internal forces and deformations (that is, stresses and strains) are used to solve for the latter In a typical three-dimensional frame structure there may bea large number of nodal displacements, several thousand perhaps, but the solution ofa large system of linear eawations is a routine task for a computer. Be- cause there are a large slumber of equations, any dis- ‘eussion of the underlying theory and of the setting up of the equations is greatly facilitated by using matrix rotation; hence this field is often referred to a5 matrix frame analysis or matrix stifiness analysis. For one-dimensional members, imposing the re- quirements of equilibrium and compatibility at the nodes is sufficient to ensure that they are satisfied everywhere, both within members and between mem bers, because the members are connected only at the nodes. For members thet are two- or three-dimensionad in extent it is necessary to define a relationship be- tween nodal displacements and internal deformation in such @ way that these two laws are satisfied to sufficient accuracy both within the member and be- tween members. This is the key step in finite element analysis, and it is the only major difference between the basic finite element method and frame analysis, Hence much of the material of this chapter serves as & Foundation for the presentation of the finite element method in Chapter 7. Stiffness Matrix of a Structure ‘The device most directly associated with stiffness is a simple elastic spring, such as that shown in Fig. 5.1 It can also be regarded as an example of a structural member because it has the same basic structural char- acteristics as a pin-ended bar: it undergoes axial dis- placements, transmits axial forces, and exhibits a lin- ar internal (or material) behavior: that is, there is a linear relationship between intemal force # (axial determed @ (2) Nodal fores fi (negative f= —F) and f positive fs =F) (@) Invemalfores . Magnitude of F = magnitude of & pair of fogual and opposite nodal forces rogind to cause 2 specified ‘formation, d. Sign of &: positive For elongation force oo Figure 5.1 Ioteralforet-deformation selationship for an clastic spring element force) and internal deformation d (elongation or short- ning) which is of the form = sa ‘The quantity sis termed the suiffness of the spring and corresponds to the slope of the internal force- fie ; : re P 3 : Ls we Figure 5.12 Terce-member pin-jointed frame. (o) Stacie; (>) surucure degrees of foedom: and (c) element degrees of tredem. Atthis point itis appropriate to introduce the notion of “degrees of freedom.” The degrees of freedom of a structure, or of am element, are basically the same as the nodal displacements, but they are slightly more general in coneept. Specifically, the degrees of free- dom of astucture or element are all ofthe independent nodal parameters that arc used to describe ail of the particular ways or modes in which the stucture or element can deflect. There are two reasons for imo- ducing this new term: 1, To allow for additional and more general types of “displacement.” The most common example is 2 de- ree of freedom which is 2 derivative of an ordinary displacement. For example, in the case of a bear it could be the slope de/dx or the curvature d?v/ dx? at the end (or node) of the beam; these additional “displacements” are derivatives of the beams ordinary lateral displacement v. The use of this form of dis- placement will be discussed in the next section, 2, To provide a suitable terminology for the con- tinuous sequential numbering of all of the displace- nients in a structure (or element), as ap alternative to the “two-level” system used thus far which specifies first the node mumber and then the particular nods) force or displacement at that node. The sequential numbering system based on degrees of freedom is ‘more in harmony with standard matrix notation and is i I i i i192 MATRIX STIFFNESS ANALYSIS: FRAMES AND GRILLAGES also more suitable for the practical computer imple- mentation of frame analysis and finite element anal- ysis. Nevertheless, the two-level node numbering is often more suitable for explanatory purposes and we shall continue to make frequent use of it "The degree of freedom approach is illustrated in Fig. 5.126 which shows that the structure degrees of free om ate numbered sequentially within each node, moving from one node to another. Within each node the numbering should follow some systematic and wa changing sequence (e.g.. tae X-direction firs, then the ¥-direction) whereas the nodes may be taken in any sequence, However. we shall see in the next section that the amount af computation can be reduced by & careftl choice of node sequence. Usiag the numbering system based on structure de- grees of freedam, the vectors of applied loads and structure displacements become fr 4, Py Ar Fs aj&s re{E) ad ant ‘Fs As Fe As ‘The expression for K* for a typical element is given by (5.2.9) and to evaluate this the direction cosines A and 1: for each element mast be deiermined. Recalling that x is measured counter-clocksnise from the struc- ture X-axis to the element x-axis, these values are Member x A sare eae a Ogee ee Oreo b 90: 0 1 0 1 oO © Bs —707 707 «FEF Since the terms in K* involve A? jx? and gud, a change in angle from x to (x + 7). which causes botb j and Ato change sign, does not affect the signs ofthe terms in the stifiness matrix. For example, with respect to member c, y = 135° if measured counter-clockwise at node B, or 315° (or —45°) if measured counter- clockwise at node C. Bither way, in substituting into 6.2.9) the resulting K° is the same. Once the structure degrees of ‘reedom have been defined the location vectors can be determined by in- spection. Sometimes a diagram such as Fig. 5.12c is ‘af assistance. For each element, onc proceeds se- uentially through the elemem degrees of freedom, expressed jn structure coordinates, and records the cortesponding structure degree of freedom, In @ hand solution itis helpful to write the location vector above and to the right of the transformed stiffness matrix for that element. For the three elements of the sample ‘problent the K* matrices and the location vectors are as follows: Element a: i ‘These matrices are cach “broken up” and their terms are assembled together to form the stiffness ma- trix for the structure. However, before we can do so it necessary 10 redefine the assembly process in more general terms. In the initial presentation, in Section 5.1, the example contained only one displacement at teach node and 30 it was Possible to use node numbers to identify che rows and columns of the siiffness ‘mattices—both element and structure. It has now been shown that practical problems have multiple displace- ments (degrees of freedom) at each node, and there- {ore its the degree of freedom number which defines the rows and columns of the stiffness matrices—both ‘element and structure. Hence the rule given eatlier for performing the assembly procass is easily generalized by substituting the term “degree of freedoms in place of “node number.” Also, in the earlier example the clements were all in-line and so there was no need to transform kro KS. Hence ta objain the general form of the rule it s also necessary to replace k’ by K‘. The result is the following general rule for assembling the structure stiffness mastix K: Foreach transformed element stiffness mates in ten, say K’, each tem of K*, say Ki, is added into the Kiy Position of K, where Zand Jaze the structure degreos of freedom corresponding to the element degrees of freedom / and m. The comrespandence between and Vand between J and ms indicated by the (previously constructed) location vector for that element5.2 PINJOINTED FRAMES 193 Applying this rule for the present example gives: ay thn ath, ay an tb ant a an ay Gate aa, an ay ey ba bs en ba bn cay where ay represents the term in the ith cow and the jth column of K*, and similarly for by and c,. For each term in an element stiffness matrix the numbers in the location veefor above and to the right of thst tem indicate the column and row in K where it is to be inserted. For example, the term by. of K* is jnserted into the Ks location of K. Later, when K° is being processed, the term cy, is also inserted into the Kes location, being added to bys. In terms of the actual numerical values the fully assembled structure stiff- ness matrix is 10 04 az}-1 0 35 K=T| 0 0 ~0.35 0.35 0 0 ~035 035 0-1 035 -0.35 where for brevity 0.35 is written in place of 1/[2(2)"7] = 0.35355. ‘The next step is to impose the boundary conditions and to coduce the system of equations accordingly. For this structure both displacements are zero at node A and at node C. These correspond to degrees of free- dom 1, 2, 5, and 6, and therefore these four rows and columns of K, and the corresponding terms in F and A, should be deleted. The reduced system is Fil _ AE] 3.38 -0.353(45 Pf ~ LE] -0.35 0.35) [Ae For typical structures the numerical values of F; and F. would now be inserted and the structure displace- seats would be obtained by a numerical elimination (or “matrix tiangularization”) scheme, taking full ad- vantage of the symmetry of K. For such a small system as this one the solution may be obtained in terms of general loads F and Fe by using matrix inversion, The Sani R}vaalt ses}(e} ay bu as ba on Bates but en ce bates but cn If desired, the reaction forces at nodes A and C can now be obtained by substituting Ay and A, into the equations corresponding to the deleted r0Wws of K. Fi -1 90 Bl} o 0 |i ot yr F{7|-035 035 |[1 s.sza}tm Fe 0.35 -0.35 = +1 -Fi-Fe =| offs} 0 o 1fRs 7) oF on -F, The final siep is to calculate the internal forces in the elements. In order to do this the structure displace ments A must first be distributed amongst the appro- priate element nodes, using the location vectors. For the sample problem the correspondence between the StucruRAL MODEL Figure 5.18 Sample problem with disuibured fond 203204 MATRIX STIFFNESS ANALYSIS: FRAMES AND GRILLAGES in terms of the seven seeps of Table 5.1 Step 1. Define the Structural Model ‘The structural modeling is illustrated in Fig. 5.186. Because of symmetry only half of the structure is mod- led. To permit this a node is introduced at point C, even though there is no joint there. The geometric conditions arising from symmetry are: zero horizontal displacement and zero slope at the point of symmetry. ‘The clamped support at A means that the three dis- placements at that point are also zero. Although the frame is orthogonal the solution will be performed using the ordinary beam ‘element, so that the axial degree of freedom is included in the modeling. The result will then be compared with a solution obtained using the flexure-only beam element. The structure degrees of freedom are numbered from 1 to 9 as shown. The uniform distributed load of intensity w is represented by means of the statically equivalent loads wL/2 and wL?/12. Tt may be seen that Fy will not actually be applied to the structure because degree of freedom 9 is eliminated due to symmetry. The axial and flexural stiffness parameters are a = AE/L and b= BLL}. Theie ratio is ae bo” 1 Eap* \p, FAL eF where p = radius of gyration of the beam cross sec- tion. The ratio L/ pis the slenderness ratio of the beam and for typical flange-and-web beams its value is be- tween 10 and 40. For illustrative purposes we take 2 deliberately low value of 10, which then means that @/6 = 100. The numerical values of all dimensions and physical properties are given in the figure. Step 2. Caleulate Each Element Stiffness Matrix in Structure Coordinates ‘The general expression for the beam element stiffness ‘patrix at an arbitrary orientation yis givenin (5.3.16). ‘The values of A and ys for the two elements are as follows. Member x Ak 90° 0 1 b) v 1 0 ‘The element stiffness matix for element @) is given. Its suggested thatthe reader should evaluate al least a few of the terms himself and then compare them with, the following. UPL 1 lt. 2b 0 66 -12b 0 —6bL 0 @ 0 0 -a o -66L 0 40L? 6bL 0 261? KO KO) 126 0 bl = 12b 0 OBL 0-2 0 0 a 0 6bL 0 26L? 6bL 0 Abu? xl=l«le[s ls 2 9 2 0 10 0 12 0 16, ‘The location vector is written above the matrix. In a hhand solution such as this it is often worthwhile 10 anticipate which degrees of freedom are to be elimi- nated and to not bother calculating these terms in K°, For greater clarity the foregoing matrix has been writ- ten out in full initially but in substituting the momerical values this short-cut has been used. The eliminseed degrees of freedom are indicated by X. The siftness mmattix for clement ©) is i]s sea] TPE Heb] ao 0 -2 0 0 0 126 6bL 0-126 6bL 0 6bL 4bL? 0 -6bL 26L* -a 0 0 «a 0 0 0 0 “126 -66L 0126 -66L 6bL 26L? 0 -6bL 461? #isle>|~f+*|* 100 0 0-100 0 OF o 2 2 0 -122 2 0 12 1 O -12 8 -10 0 0 10 0 0 0-12-12 0 12 -12 o 2 8 O -12 16 Steps 3 and 4. Assemble the Structure Stiffness ‘Matrix and Apply the Boundary Conditions In this problem these two steps are combined because the elimination of the degrees of freedom is here being achieved by simply not assembling these terms in the stracture stiffness matrix. If @ given structure is to be analyzed repeatedly with the same boundary condi-5.3. BEAM ELEMENT: RIGID-JOINTED FRAME ANALYSIS 205 tions (a5, for example, in structural optimization) then this technique is more efficient. ‘The result of the assembly process is given next Here again it is suggested that the reader should per- form the assembly process himself and then compare his reselt with that given. ible ts tells Tie out ee K 0 12 R -2 RoR 2-2 pee rie 2 Thus the equilibrium equations are a4 x 4 system of ‘equations. The load vector must be expressed in units which ste consistent with K. In this problem the units cof « and 8, and hence of K, are MN/m, Therefore the magnitudes of the equivalent nodal loads are wh _ 12 x 1072) 7 = 12x 107 MN wh? _ 12 x 107%(4) _ 3 = ot = 4109 MN Hence the system of equations is ° 1200012 OT f& “21 igre | o 12 2 12] Ja map P=) ap 232-12 Na, 12, 0-2-2 12] la Step 5. Solve for Displacements and Reactions ‘Te solution to this system is A= 0.0917 x 107 m Ag = —0.2400 x 10°F m Ag = 0.8550 x 10° rad Ag = -2.0950 x 1079 ma Reaction Forces. If desired, the support reactions could now be calculated from the appropriate (ex- cluded) equilibrium equations. For example Fs, the reaction moment at A, is given by the third excluded equation F,=H-6L 0 4? @& 0 2? 00 O14 =5.74 107 MNm Steps 6 and 7. Calculate the Element Internal Forces A. Element @ L._ Element Nodal Displacements For a simple structure such as this the element nodal displacements may be obtained from the structure dis- placements simply by inspection, but for a more com- ‘plex structure, or in a computer program, it would be necessary to use the location vector forthe allocation ‘of the A values and then to use the transformation ‘matrix T to obtein the element nodal displacements in element coordinates. For example, for element (@) A wo 0 0 07f\ —n 40 0 0 0||A a =| 001 0 0 offs, 8 = Todo 000 Aw 0} }ds 0 00 -p A 0] fas 009 0 0 1] [Ay and since A= 0 and j= 1 the result is (u, A o & a, 0 4 a 0 3 Fo Jul = | asp 7 foe f*1 a -a.| |-0.0916 Bo | As) (0.8550. 2. Element Internal Forces For the beam element the internal forces are axial stress, shear force, and bending moment. Since the first two ate constant and the third is linear within the clement it is sufficient to calculate these forces only at the nodes, The expression for this, in terms of nodal displacements, is given by (5.3.18). The results are Axial stress On = 2 = Few + on) 200. 10° 7 ~ 24 x 10°) = -24 MPa206 _ MATRIX STIFFNESS ANALYSIS: FRAMES AND GRILLAGES Shear force = O:= 60 12 G&L 0 12 6] by 9.16 x 107 MN = -9.16 kN Bending moment ALO) _ pf0 —8L AE? 0 GL 20: MEL) 0 6 U0 61 al which gives M,(0) = 5.78KNm MQ) = 12.58. kN ‘The distribution of (x) is plotted in Fig. 5. 19a to the left of the element. 3. Element Nodal Forces Usually there is no need to calculate the element nodal forces f but we will do so in this example to iltustrate the distinction Between nodal forces F,:, Fye and shear force Q, and between nodal moments Mz, M.r and TOTAL My G1) Z Tee a ea bending moment At,(2) It will also be demonstrated that each element is io equilibrium. The quantity that relates element nodal forces and element nodal dis- placements is the element stiffness matrix, since f= 6, Hence from (5.3.15) Fa, = aly ~ u:) = 1000 + 0.24 x 10-4) 24 kN B10, + 6L6, — 12 9.16 KN Mg = BOL0; + 4176) — 6Ley + 2178) 5.74 kNm a(—m, +4) = 24 KN (120) ~ 640; + 12, — 6L64) $9.16 KN B(6Le, + 2070, — Clos + 4L*0) =12.58 kN 2 + 618) roraL a somo “Giremnnt eT Ps 3 aA shear force ia kN x ae deflection in mm (greatly exaggerated) w Figure 5.190 Deteio,he frce, beng monet Ryesm5.3. BEAM ELEMENT: RIGID-JOINTED FRAME ANALYSIS 207 - - ® ® Figure 5.199 Element acl fores ‘These forces and moments are illustrated in Fig. 5.196. Equilibrium of forces is obvious, and equi- librium of moments may be verified by taking mo- ments about point A: TM= = .74 = 12.58 + 9.16 = 0 B. Element @ 1, Element Nodal Displacements Ina similar fashion the nodal displacements of clement Om «| real 0.0916 ®; “| 0.2400 alal _ Jal _ }osssol 55 8 Vaal = Yar oii ce} fas} 4+2.0980 Je (oe 0 2, Element Internal Forces From (5.3.18) axial Seess ies Hu +) = MAI oop16 x 107 + 0) = 9.16 MP: Shear force Q=0:= 60 12 6 0 12 O18 12 x 10 MN = 12 kN Bending moment {22} = 92 -6L ~417 0 6L Ee M,(L): O 6G 270 -6L 4L? 8.58 a ~ [Eis] The distributions of and of J, (x) are plowed in Fig. 5.192, immediately above the element. Since this ele- rent has a distributed load, these two intemal forces must be corrected by superimposing the corresponding forces from the solution of the internal problem. In the present example the intemal problem is simply a uni~ formly loaded, clamped beam. The corresponding shear force and bending moment distributions ate shown just above those obtained from the frame anal- ysis. The final and complete distributions, which are ihe sum of these two, are drawn at the top of the figure. Note that the total value of Al at point B, —12.58 agrees with the value which was calculated in element ‘This is another useful check on the solution 3. Element Nodal Forces Here again, although not nevessary for the solution, ‘we shall calculate the element nodal forces in order to point out some of the relationships and differences between these and other quantities. As before, fig = ké Og with k° given by (5.3.15). Substitution of Bp gives 8.58; These forces and moments are illustrated in Fig. 5.196. Once again, equilibrium of forces is immedi- ately evident and equilibrium of moments can be verified by taking moments about point B: 58 + 15.42 — 121 = 0. SM = ‘This summation of moments illustrates the fact that frame analysis takes no account of any eccentricity of axial loads arising from the beam’s deflection. This procedure is valid as long as the deflections axe smal, which they are in this example because the largest deflection is 2.095 mm, which is only 0.1% of the beam length £. The smell-deflection assumption is usually valid forthe elastic analysis of ships and other plated steel frame structures, because the overall stiff- ness of such structures is usually sufficiently large208 MATRIX STIFFNESS ANALYSIS: FRAMES AND GRILLAGES such that any load which does not cause yielding pro- duces only small deflections. However, the stiffness of a structure depends on the material stiffness, on the member proportions and scantlings (¢hickness, etc.) and on the arrangement of the members. Hence when using frame analysis (or any other elastic, small- deflection technique) a check shoulé sways be made on the size of the deflections relative co the cimensions of the structure. Another observation which may be made in the foregoing example is that at point B the net vertical force of ~12 kN is equal to the applied load at that point, which is the equivalent load, F, = —wl./2. Similarly, the net moment of —4 Nim is equal to the applied moment, Fs = ~wL?/12. However, the net ‘moment at point C (15.42 kNm) is not equal to the equivalent smoment, Fe = w.*/12, becouse the latter vwas never applied to the structure; it was excluded by the zero-slope boundary condition at point C. SOLUTION USING FLEXURE-ONLY Beast ELEMENT In the foregoing example the ratio of @ and & is 100. In more siender frames and particularly in plated frameworks such as occur in ships die ratio is much Jarger still, often being 500 or more. If such frames are completely orthogonal, such that axial loads and dis- placements are independent (or nearly independent) of lateral Iosds and displacements, and if axial forces and displacements are not of primary interest, then the axial degree of freedom can be ignored and the flexure-only beam element may be used. The wse of this element is equivalent to regarding the ratio a/5 as being infinity, such that there is no shortening or elon- gation of any’ beam, If several of these elements are Coaxial and if any one of the nodes is externally re- strained against axial displacement, this restraint will extend to all nodes on that axis. Moreover, if another beain which is similarly restrained is attached to one of these nodes and is orthogonal to it, then the orthogonal deflection of that node is also restrained. Thus in an ‘orthogonal framework there may be many nodes in which one or more translational degrees of freedom are restrained; the number of such restraints. depends on the arrangement of the elements ard on the extent of external restraint which is imposed on the structure. All of these restrained degrees of freedom can be elim- inated, and this can give a significant reduction in the size of the overall problem, In an ad hoe solution formulated fora specific structure (as opposed to using ‘8 general-purpose frame analysis program) these re- strained degrees of freedom can be omitted from the structural model right from the beginning, and this is particularly helpful in such solutions, especially if a ‘quick and simple estimate is being sought For example, in the above portal frame the vertical restraint at A, in coajunction with nonshorcening of element @, causes point B to also have vertical re- straint, Likewise, the horizontal restraint at Cis trans- mitted 10 point B by element (@). Hence at point B there is only one degree of freedom: rotation. The structural model is therefore reduced to the extremely. simple, 1wo-degree-of-freedom problem shown in Fig 5.20. The solution is Ay = -0.8 107 rad Ay = 18x 10% m ‘These agree reasonably well with the dispiacements from the first solution (~.855 10™> and —2.095 10"). The difference in the values of Ay is almost ceatitely accounted for by the axial shortening of ele~ ment @ (-.24 % 10°). In frame structures the re sponse that is usually of greatest interest is bending moment, For the flexure-only element this is given by (6.3.12) and for the given siructure the resus are Tom, (=) | 7 A [igure $.20 Solution esing Sexure-only beam elomant.5.4_ APPLICATION TO GRILLAGES AND LATERALLY LOADED PANELS 209 Element @ {EB} mm ‘This result for element © is not complete because this clement carries a distributed load and the above bend: ing moment corresponds only to the extemal problem. The internal problem is the same as before—a uni- formly loaded clamped beam. The final solution is the sum of the tWo and this is shown in Fig. 5.20. The values of bending moment agree very well with those of the earlier, more exact solution, particularly in those locations where the bending is large, as can be seen from the following comparisoa: Ordinary Beam Flexure-Only Location Element Beam Flement % Difference A 3.74 64 1S B 12.58 128 18 c 142 U2 19 In this example a relatively low value of 100 was ‘chosen for the ratio a/b. With larger values the accu- racy of the flexure-only beam element would be still greater, 5.4 APPLICATION TO GRILLAGES AND LATERALLY LOADED PANELS A grillage is a plane structure of intersecting beams, with or without plating, which carties a lateral load through the action of beam bending. Most grillages are orthogonal; that is, they are made up of two sets of parallel beams which intersect at right angles. ‘Throughout this text the term “grillage” implies @ at arillage. It also implies that in-plane loads are sufficiently small such that all in-plane effects (both load and response) are completely independent of the lateral loads and the grillage bending response. If this condition is not satisied then the structure will be refered to as a cross-stiffened panel. The response under in-plane loads is dealt with in Chapters 13 and 14, Some examples of grillages are platform decks and docks near the ship’s neutral axis, transverse bulk- beads, ramps, and hatch covers. A grillage may be either regular or irregular. A regular grillage is rectangular in shape, the beams in each direction are of uniform size and spacing and each beam is prismatic and continuous. For regular aillages several special analysis methods are available ‘which take advantage of the regularity; see, for exam ple, Refs. 1 and 2. If a gaillage cannot be idealized as two orthogonal sets of idemiical full-length prismatic beams inter- secting each other, then itis irregular and it must be modeled as 2 lateraliy loaded plane frame made up of many individual flexure-only beam elements. which are connected at nodes. Each of these elements may be ‘different and they need not be orthogonal. Thus, be~ cause of the great versatility of frame analysis even quite complex grillages are no more than straight- forward applications ofthis method. For this reason, if an efficient frame analysis computer program. is readily available it is often easier and more efficiest (because of familiarity with the program) to use it for all grillages—regular as well as irregular. Allocation of Distributed Load In stiffened panels the plating transmits the lateral load to the beams and in cross-stiffened panels itis neces- sary to estimate the proportion of the load which is taken by cach set of beams. When one set of beams (Gay the stiffeners) is more closely spaced than the ‘other (the girders) itis reasonable to assume that all of the load is transmitted to the stiffeners. The girders then support the stiffeners, and so the loads on the sgitders are the reaction forces at each stiffener. For « uniform pressure p and a stiffener spacing 6, the dis- tributed load q on each stiffener is q = pb. When the spacings are more nearly equal it is nec~ essary to apportion the load between the two sets of bears. An empirical but sufficiently accurate allo- cation is given by Faulkner's equation [3]210__ MATRIX STIFFNESS ANALYSIS: FRAMES AND GRILLAGES load on each short _ adjacent beam load on eack Jong adjacent beara a/b longer dimension of the plating between the beams shorter dimension of the plating between the beams in which b Strictly speaking, the distribution of these loads along each of the beams would give a triangular and a ‘uapezoidal load curve, respectively, but these are usu- ally simplified to uniform distributions q, and qu: o-m(:-2)) 6.4.2) % Structural Modeling of a Grillage ‘The analysis of gritlages is simplified by the fact that the load, and hence the displacements and rotations, all occur in a plane normal to the structure. By definition all in-plane effects are absent or are small enough to be calculated separately and superimposed Therefore the fexure-only beam element is ideal for gaillage analysis. If the grillage is orthogonal, and most are, then there arc only three degrees of freedom at each node: vertical deflection and two rotations. Also, if the orientation of the element in the structure is properly chosen then the transformation from ele- rent to structure coordinates is not required; that is, each element stiffness matrix k* can be inserted di- rectly into K, as indicated by the location vector. This is made possible by choosing the orientation of each element (i.e, the direction of the element x-axis) such that the four degrees of freedom of the element act in the same directions as the comesponding degrees of freedom of the structure. The deck grillage of Fig. 5.2ic will be used as an exemple to illustrate the principal steps in this type of application of frame analysis. We will also take advan- tage of this example to illustrate several useful mod: cling techniques and approximations: 1. As noted in Section 5.3, the nodes of beam ele- ments are located at the neutral axis of the beam. In the ce) sracruaat soe Figure 521 Grilage example structural model of Fig, 5.21¢ the nonalignmeat of the element is ignored and they are joined directly to- gether, as ifthe neutral axes ofall elements were inthe same plane. This vertical repositioning of members is valid only if there are no (appreciable) axial loads, because otherwise the eccentricity of the connections ‘would give rise to further moments which have not been allowed for. Therefore let us assume that the deck in Fig. 5.21 is a “platform deck” (not longi- tudinally continuous). 2. Torsional stiffness of the beams is ignored be- ‘cause this type of stiffness is relatively small for thin- wall beams of open cross section. This simplifies the analysis because it reduces the number of degrees of freedom in the structure. Also, the slight error which js incurred lies on the conservative side. 3. Support of the deck beams at the side shell is ‘reated as simple support because the sige frames pro- vide relatively litte rotational restraist. Again, the | |54 _ APPLICATION TO GRILLAGES AND LATERALLY LOADED PANELS 211 error in this approximation lies on the conservative side, If desired the side frames could be inciuded in the giillage because their vertical orientation does not af- fect their flexural properties, 4. Support of the longitudinal hatch side girder atthe transverse bulkhead is teated as clamped because the hatch side girder is longitudinally continuous through the bulkhead. This is done oniy for simplicity; if de- sired the grillage could extend over several cargo holds. Atypical fexure-only beam element is shown in Fig. 5.210. In this example the element degrees of freedom are circled in order to distinguish them from the struc- ture degrees of freedom. The structural model for the grillage is shown in Fig. 5.21c, showing the orien- tation of the various elements in the structure, The orientation of each element is chosen such that the element rotational degrees of freedom ave the sare postive rotational direction as the rotational degrees of freedom of the structure. Thus, for example, element ® must be inserted into the structure such that its x-axis points in the ~Z-direction in order that its rota- tional degrees of freedom (numbers @) and @) may actin the same direction as the corresponding structure degrees of freedom (ntimbers 3 and 1) for which the positive direction is 6, as shown in the figure. ‘The elimination of structural degrees of freedom due to boundary conditions (siructural supports and symmetry) is done a5 part of the setting up of the structural model. The simple support at the side shell climinotes vertical deflection and twist at B and F; the clamped support at the bulkhead eliminates’ all Geflections and rotations at A; transverse symmetry requires zero slope at D and hence the bending rotation is eliminated there, and longitudinal symmetry efimi- nates bending rotation at E. In addition, since the torsional stiffness is not being modeled, itis permis- sible to eliminate the torsional degree of freedom at is D and E. This may at first seem to be an ng of the structure but this isnot so attificial strengthen because the absence of any torsional stiffness io the ‘beam elements means that there is no way for this restraint to be transmitted into the structure; it has no effect whatever. Infact, the absence of torsional stiff ness in the element makes it mandatory to eliminate the torsional degree of freedom at points D and E, and also at points A, B. and F, because none ofthe beams can offer any resistance to a torsional displacement and so the structure tiffoess matrix would be singular, having zeros on the main diagonal at these degrve of freedom positions. After these eliminations have been made there are total of eight structural degrees of freedom ancl these 1 numbered as shown in Fig. 3.21c. The numbering is chosen with a view to keeping the bandwidth ofthe equilibrium equations as narrow as possibie, but the chosen sumbering sequence is not unique; there are Several others which would have been equally satis- factory. “The need to place the rotational degrees of freeciom of the elements in alignment with those of the structere zeans that for elements (@) and @ the x-axis points in the +X-direction, and for elements ©), © and @) the x-axis points in the ~Z-direction. Therefore the location vectors for the five elements are OOOO @foo24 @/2301 @[5023 @[2460 ole708 These vectors indicate precisely where each term of each element stiffness matrix k* is to be inserted into K. For brevity we adopt the symbol a, to represent the term AP in the element stiffness mettix for clement and a similar notation for elements @), ©, and The resulting structure stifiness matrix i eae serra eee antde en di en212, MATRIX STIFFNESS ANALYSIS; FRAMES AND GRILLAGES ‘The next step would be to insert the loads and then solve the equilibrium equations. Thus by means of frame analysis the analysis of 2 relatively complex grillage structure has been reduced to a symmettic, banded 8 x 8 system of equations, which is small enough to be solved on a hand-held programmable caleulater. 5.8 GENERAL BEAM ELEMENT ‘Thus far, for simplicity, we have considered beam bending in only one plane and we have ignored torsion 4nd the effect of shear deflection. In this section these auiditional features of beam bending ate discussed and are combined to form a stiffness matrix for a general beam clement which is suitable for most three- dimensional frames, especially the plated steel frame- ‘works found in ships. ‘The beam is assumed to be a straight beam of uni- form cross section capable of resisting axial forces, bending moments about the two principal axes in the plane of its cross section, and twisting moments about its centroidal axis. The nodal forces acting on the beam are: axial forves f; and fs shearing forces fs f, fe, and Js moments fay fox fis» and fis and twisting moments (torques) f, and fg. The location and positive direction of these forces are shown in Fig, 5.22. The corre- sponding displacements 6), . . . , 12 will be taken, as before, %0 be positive in the positive directions of the Figure 5.22 General bear element. As is well known, the axial forces f; and f, depend only on their corresponding displacements; the same is true of the torques fe and fig. However, for arbitrary orientation of the y- and z-axes the bending moments and shearing forces in the xy-plane would depend not cnly on their corresponding displacements but also on the displacements comesponding to the forces in the re-plane. Only if the x-axis coincides with the cen- ‘roidal axis of the beam and the xy- and xz-planes coincide with the principal axes of the cross section can the bending and shear in the two planes be consid. ered independently of each other. Hence we adopt this orientation for the element axes. Another advantage of using principal axes is that this allows the element stiffness matrix (which is of order 12 * 12) tobe expressed in a more compact and banded form, in terms of four small submatrices each of which refers exclusively to a partcnlar mode of displacement: axial displacement, u; y displacement, 1 2 displacement, wv; and torsional displacement, 6. ‘This bersdedness bears no relationship to the speed of solution because the element stiffness matrix is merely a record of the element's properties, and the onder of terms within its arbitrary. However, the compactness rakes this form more convenient for derivations and for observing relationships between the various modes of displacement. The compact form is obtained by using a different numbering system for the element degrees of freedom. Instead of numbering all of the degrees of freedom at one node before proceeding 20 the other node they are divided into the above four groups (u, t. W, and @ displacements) and each group js numbered fully before proceeding to the next group. “These alternative degrees of freedom are related to the usual degrees of freedom 6 of Fig. 5.22 as follows: Shear defection occurs in the » and w direetions, and since these two ate quite siilar we shall concen. trate onthe former and derive te Benealized element stiffness (sub)matrix k, for the » and v’ degrees of freedom (i.e., for deflection in the y-direction and tending about the z-direction taking ind account the ‘effect of shear defiection in the y-direction. ee ER IES SSE ET SESEEffect of Shear Deflection Ia beam has a large value of bending stiffness param- eter & (6 = EI/L?) because of large flanges or be- cause it is short or because ic has a deep web (say one-fifth of the length or more) then the bending deflection is small and the vertical shear deflection of the web (Which is ignored in elementary beam theory) can be of the same order as the bending deflection, such that it cannot be ignored. We therefore seek derive an expression for the beams stiffness in regard to vertical (.e., y-irected) displacement which will account for this effect. To do so we will use the same technique as for the bar element in Section 5.1; that is, impose each of the nodal displacements in turn while ail of the others are held at zero and determine all of the nodal forces which are set up. Each of the nodal forces is then divided by the single nodal displacement and the quotients thus obtained ate the terms in one complete column of the element stiffness matrix—the column corresponding to that displacement. ‘VERTICAL DISPLACEMENT AND ROTATION (v AND 0) ‘The vertical defection v of a beam subjected to end (nodal) forces and moments, as shown in Fig. 5.234, is given by paute where ty is the vertical deflection due to bending strains and 0, isthe additional deflection duc to shear- ing strains, such that eo [igure §.23 Nodal displacements imposed individually 5.3_ GENERAL BEAM ELEMENT 213 doy _ =F : aaa 65.2 with A, representing the beam cross-sectional area ef- fective in shear. ‘The bending defiection for the beam shown in Fig. 5.23a is govemed by the differential equation ao & 65.3) From integration of (5.5.2) and (5.5.3) it follows that Fixd Myx? eto = BE My (, F, 5 +(e oe), +O, 854) where C; and C; are the constants of integration. The component of slope due to shear, do,/dt, is 20t & rotation in the ordinary sense and iszoally unrelated to the nodal moments. Therefore the second or rotational degree of freedom is the slope due to bending only: e' = dy/dx. Hence the boundary condition for a clamped end is de,/ de = 0, and the total slope at this point is nonzero and is equal to do,/de. ‘Therefore the boundary conditions in Fig. 5.234 ae: and Equation 5.5.4 becomes fia? Myx? _ Fi Pxl? Hie D 6.5.5) where GAL and the forces are related by ‘The remaining forces acting on the beam can be etermined from the equations of equilibrium:214 MATRIX STIBINESS ANALYSIS: FRAMES AND GRILLAGES Fy ad Ms 65.6) ‘by and hence from (5.5.5) f Ful? n= OF ODF Using the foregoing equations the following resutts are obtained pee aaa a OF OL Similarly, if the left-hand end of the beam is clamped, as shown in Fig. 5.236, then by use of the differential equations for the beam detiections or the condition of symmeury it ean be demonsirited that __ Et. i= n= SE = aE, me aor In order to determine the stiffness coefficients asso- ciated with the nodal rotations v and e$ (which are the derivatives of vy, evaluated at the nodes) the beam is, ‘ . ae Duo ey igure 5.24 Nodal rotations imposed inaivially given a sotation at each end, as shown in Fig. 5.24, ‘and the associated nodal forces and moments are cal- calated. The force-deftection telatioaship is again given by (5.5.4), but the constants C, and Cy in these equations must now be evaluated from a different set of boundary conditions. The boundary conditions of Fig. 5.24a are axa Oe and atx =L Bquation 5.5.4 becomes, Bho = Be ~ 19 + Meas — and the forces are related by 6a, Ae 5.5.7 aor ae AS before, the remsining forces acting on the beam ‘can be determined from the equations of equilibrium, that is, 6.5.6). Now atx = 0 so that EL(4 + @) Ca). Hence, from (5.5.6), (5.5.7), and (5.5.8) My + Fil _ 2 ~ Wel, a (SOL ‘The deflected shape in Fig. $124b is the same as in Fig. 5.24a; the Sgure is simply rotated 180". Hence it follows that op GED, fae ha TE OL I | | | | |S.S_ GENERAL BEAM ELEMENT 215 We now suminarize these results for the stiffness sub- matrix k, corresponding to nodal forces and moments in the xy-plane. For this purpose we define a gener- alized bending stiffness parameter 5, which includes the effect of shear EI, G+ OE 12EI, A, 6.5.9) where ®, ‘The subscript z indicates that the bending is about the z-axis and the subscript y indicates that the deflection, including the shear deflection, is in the ‘y-direction. 4, is the proportion of the cross-sectional ‘area over which the y-directed shear force is assumed to act, In terms of these quantities the stiffness sub- matrix is 2 symm GL (440 1? Kes Be} yo 7 6b 2 OL 2-@)L? -6L G+ OL? 6.5.10) HORWONTAL DISPLACEMENT AND ROTATION (WAND Ww") ‘The stiffness coefficients associated with the displac ments in the xz-plane, w and w', can be derived di- rectly from foregoing results. To distinguish the forces and moments in the two planes the more complete notation Fy, Foy Mx, and Mz will be used for the nodal forces just derived, that is, forces in the y-direction and moments about the z-direction, Like~ ‘wise the symbols Fa, Fa, My, and M,z willbe used for the nodal forces in the xz-plane, It should be observed, however, that with the sign convention of Fig. 5.22 the directions of the positive nodal moments in the yx- and zx-planes are different, This is illustrated in Fig. 5 ‘which shows that the positive direction of the nodal moments M,, ad M,a is opposite to that of Ma. and ‘Mo. From this it can be shown that the following terms in k, aze of opposite sign to the corresponding terms in Ke: Kays Katy hy ad ky. All other terms have the same sign as in k, and therefore 2 symm. k x | -& 2 ae 12 12 -6L o a+ oz! 5.10) ¢ Cae a oy ays Mee eo Figure 5.25 Sign convention for nodal forces and moments EI where 3-_S T+ OD : 7 6.5.1 1265, ae ® Ga Torsional and Axial Stiffness The next chapter deals with the (orsional loading and response of the hull girder. it includes a summary of the principal aspects of the torsion of prismatic thin- wall beams, and it presents a special beam element that is suitable for structures in which warping of the cross section of the beam is restrained. However, in & free-stonding framework made up of slender beams there is litle restraint against warping of the beam ctoss section. In this case the torsional rigidity of the beam is simply GJ, where the torsional stiffness pa- rameter J depends on the shape of the cross section (Gee Section 6.1 for methods of calculating J). Hence, for the present purpose of deriving a beam element for frame analysis it is appropriate to adopt this simpler expression. Since warping restraint increases the tor- sional rigidity of a beam any error incurred is on the conservative side. Also, ifthe frame structure is such ‘that warping restraint could be significant then the hull girder element of Chapter 6 can be used for the anal- ysis; itis not restricted to hull girder applications. ‘With no warping restraint the differential equation for the twist @ of a beam is a M, = —67 Gr Integration gives M,x = ~GJ0+ C;216 MATRIX STIFFNESS ANALYSIS: FRAMES AND GRILLAGES By imposing a twisting moment My at node 1, giving a rotation there of 6, together withthe bound- ary condition 8 = © att ~ L, the constant of integra- tion C; is found to be 2 = Mak Since 8 = 0, at x = 0, it follows th ‘The equiliorium condition for the twisting moment is Ma = —Ma Hence y= aS 4 L From symmetry of the beara elemem, fia = kn. ‘Therefore the stiffness submatrix for the two torsional degrees of freedom 8 and 0, is api i at i] Finally, from (5.2.1) the axial stiffness submatrix is 65.13) = 65.4) where iness Matrix for the General Beam Element Having obtained the four submatrices we can now ‘combine them to form the stiffness matrix far the gen- eral beam element as follows ke symm. Ok pfock (5.5.15) 000 k& in which the four submatrices are given by (5.5.14), (5.5.10), (6.5.11), and (5.5.13). If itis desired to express Kk using the degrees of freedom of Fig. 5.22, the various terms of the four submatrices would be inserted into k* in the positions indicated by (5.5.1). The resulting stiffness maurix js given in (5.5.16), on page 217. Coordinate Transformation for a Generally Orientated Beam Element Ik is necessary to provide for the case in which the beam has a completely generai orientation in three dimensions relative to the structure axes X.¥,Z. Fot ‘the general heam clement the displacement vector at each node contains two sets of contponents— translation and rotation—and the nodial force vector at each node contains both forces and moments. For this general case the transformation between element axes and structure axes is more conveniently expressed if the degrees of freedom are grouped together at each of the ova modes, as in Fig. 5.22, The transformation matrix is a where A is the 3 x 3 nodal transformation matrix given in 6.2.7). “Ifthe principal moments of inertia for the bear clemeats are different tis also necessary io rotate about the element x-axis REFERENCES 1. J, Ctckson, The Elastic Analysis of Fat Grillages, Cambridge “Univesity Pres, 1965, 2. Panu Chang, A single method for Aastic analysis of grl- luges, J. Ship Res., 12 Q), June 1968, gp. 153-159. D, Faulkner, Chaper 22 of Ship Structural Design Concepts, 4. Haney Evans, Ed, Comell Marte Press, 1975.ie where 5.5. GENERAL BEAM ELEMENT 217 v8, O18 OLsHELO HE 9-65 0 + ayb 0 : SL 0 0 0 G+ eyhst © 9 9 0 eects eee 0 8 sil 0 1S, 0° 125, 0 Se 0° 0 (tue OHO TELIae Oo” 0 0 8 oO ¢ e 9 651 0 @-O351F 000k 0 Gee BL? si GL 0 0 0 BOF 0 -6L 6 0 Oo” ae eyitt 6516