Ven eat Sus Salley AinlincB) BNR)© V.A. Profillidis 2006 All rights reserved, No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior permission of the publisher. \V.A. Profillidis has asserted his right under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, to be identified as the author of this work Published by Ashgate Publishing Limited ‘Ashgate Publishing Company Gower House Suite 420 Croft Road 101 Cherry Street Aldershot Burlington, VT 05401-4405 Hampshire GU11 3HR USA England Ashgate website: hitp://www.ashgate.com British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Profillidis, V. A. (Vassilios A.) Railway management and engineering 1 Railroad engineering 2.Railroads - Management LTitle 625 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Profillidis, V. A. (Vassilios A.). Railway management and engineering / by V.A. Profillidis. p. cm. Rev. ed. of: Railway engineering. 2000. Includes index. ISBN 0-7546-4854-0 1. Railroad engineering. L Title. ‘TF145.P76 2006 385.068--de22 2006012574 ISBN-10: 0 7546 4854 0 ISBN-13: 978 0 7546 4854 3 Printed and bound by TJ Intemational Lid, Padstow, ComwallContents Foreword by Ph. Roumeguére xxvii Preface xxix 1. Railways and Transport 1 1.1. Evolution of the railways 1 1.1.1, Historical outline 1 1.1.2. The golden age of the railways 2 1.1.3. Railways and other competing transportation means 2 1.1.4. Railways in the era of monopoly and competition 3 1.2. Characteristics of rail transport 4 1.2.1. Ability to transport high volumes 4 1.2.2. Energy consumption 4 1.2.3. Environmental impact and safety 6 1.3, Increase of mobility and railways 6 1.4. Economic development and railways 1 1.5. Rail passenger traffic 8 1.6. Rail freight traffic af 1.7. Railway traffic, length of lines, staff and productivity 13 1.8. Priority to passenger or freight traffic 15 1.9. Transportation services with good prospects for the railways 16 1.9.1. Comparative advantages of railways and high-speed trains __16 1.9.2. Urban rail services 1.9.3. Combined transport 16 1.9.4, Bulk loads 18 1.9.5. Freight rail transport and logistics 18 1.10. Rail and air transport: Competition or complementarity 19 1.10.1. Areas of competition and of complementarity 19 1.10.2. Rail links with airports 20 1.10.3. Rail connections of airports with other areas 20 1,11. International railway institutions 21 .12. Rolling stock industries 22 1,13. Railway interoperability 22 1.14. Applications of GPS in railways 23Railway Management and Engineering High Speeds and Magnetic Levitation 24 2.1. High-speed trains 24 2.1.1. The application of high speeds in railways 24 Impact of high speeds on the reduction of rail travel times 25 High speeds and the increase of traffic 26 Technical features of high-speed railway lines 27 Track characteristics for high speeds 27 Rolling stock for high speeds 28 1.7. Power supply at high speeds 28 2.2. The Channel Tunnel and high speeds between London and Paris 29 22. 29 Technical description 2.2.2. Traveltimes 91D 2.4. Aerotrain 2.2.3. Method of financing and forecasts of demand 30 2.2.4. Operation, safety and maintenance 30 2.3. Tilting trains 30 31 2.5. Magnetic levitation 32 2.5.1. Technical description 32 2.5.2. Comparison of magnetic levitation with conventional railways 32 2.5.3. Applications of magnetic levitation 33 3. Policy and Legislation 35 3.1. The competitive international environment and the evolution of the organization of railways 35 3.2. The dual nature of railways: business and technology 35 3.2.1. Inherited weaknesses by the railways 35 3.2.2. Comparative advantages of the railways 36 3.2.3. Strategy and restructuring measures 37 3.2.4. Railways and transport requirements 38 3.4. Separation of infrastructure from operation and the new challenges for the railways 41 3.4.1. Separation as an incentive for competition 41 3.4.2. Competition and new challenges for railways 42 3.4.3. Various forms of separation 43 3.5. A definition of railway infrastructure 44 3.6. European Union rail legislation 44 viContents 37. 3.8. 39. 3.10. 41. 43. 44. 45. 46. 4.7. Some representative models of separation of infrastructure from operation in European railways 3.7.1. The Integrated model 3.7.2. The Semi-integrated model with apparent organic separation The Holding model The Separated model The Separated model along with further separation in infrastructure The Separated model along with privatization .7.7. Assessment of the various models Rail legislation i in the USA and Canada Rail legislation in Japan Rail legislation in Australia and New Zealand Forecast of Rail Demand Purposes, needs and methods for the forecast of rail demand Parameters affecting the various categories of rail demand 42.1. Parameters affecting rail demand globally (aggregate approach) 42.2. Categories of rail demand and effects of the various parameters of rail transport 4.2.2.1. Passenger rail demand 4.2.2.2. Freight rail demand Qualitative methods 3.1. Market surveys Scenario writing method .3.3. Delphi method Statistical projections 4.1. Theoretical background and conditions of applicability 4.2. Example of a statistical projection Econometric models 45.1, Definition and domains of application 4.5.2. Statistical tests for the validity of an econometric model 4.5.3. Example of an econometric model Gravity models Fuzzy models vii 46 46 47 47 48 48 49 50 52 53 54Railway Management and Engineering 4.7.1, Description of the fuzzy method 67 4.7.2. Example of a fuzzy model 68 4.8. Time-series models 69 4.8.1. General time-series models — Approach of Box-Jenkins 69 4.8.2. The Least median of squares (LMS) method for the forecast of rail demand 70 4.9. Statistical evaluation of the forecasting ability of a model 7” 4.10. A comparative analysis of performances of each method B 4.11. Modelling of rail freight demand 4 5. Costs and Tarification 75 5.1. Definition of railway costs 5 5.1.1. Construction and operation costs 15 5.1.2. Fixed and variable costs 75 5.1.3. Marginal cost 15 5.1.4. External costs and marginal social cost 77 5.1.5. Generalized cost 71 5.2. Construction cost of a new railway line B 5.3.__ Maintenance and operation costs of infrastructure 80 5.3.1.__Maintenance cost of infrastructure 80 5.3.2. Operation cost of infrastructure 80 5.4. Cost of purchase of high-speed rolling stock 80 5.5. Cost of operation of a railway company 81 5.5.1. Passenger 81 5.5.2. Freight 82 5.5.3. Combined transport 82 5.6. Quantification of external effects in monetary values 33 5.7. Tarification of infrastructure 87 5.7.1. Principles of infrastructure pricing 87 5.7.2. Objectives of infrastructure pricing 87 5.7.3. Financial consequences of infrastructure pricing 87 5.7.4. A commercial approach of infrastructure pricing 89 5.17.5. Theoretical and practical infrastructure pricing 89 5.7.6. Structure of infrastructure pricing 90 5.8. Infrastructure pricing models in some countries 90 5.8.1. Infrastructure pricing according to the European Union legislation 90 5.8.2. France 91 5.8.3, Germany 91 viiiContents 5.8.4. United Kingdom 92 5. Sweden and Finland 92 5.8.6. Italy 93 5.8.7. Switzerland 9. 5.8.8. Other countries 93 5.8.9. A comparison of rail infrastructure charges 93 59. Tarification of operation 95 5.9.1. Targets of tarification 95 5.9.3. Effects of elasticities 96 5.9.4. Tarification and competition 97 5.10, Tarification of passenger traffic 97 5.10.1. The existence or not of public service obligations 97 5.10.2. The strategic dilemma: profit or increase of traffic 98 5.10.3. Tarification for rail operators without public service obligations 98 5.10.4. Yield management techniques 98 5.10.5. Complementary commercial measures to increase revenues 99 5.11. Tarification of freight traffic 99 6. __ Planning and Management of Railways 100 6.1. Railways and the social and economic environment 100 6.1.1. _A'systems approach for the railways 100 6.1.2. Railways and the social and economic environment 100 6.1.2.1. Th jal aed at 100 6.1.2.2. Strategic and tactical level of decisions 100 6.1.2.3. Separation in business units 103 6.1.2.4. Changes and requirements of the environment of railways 103 6.1.3. Quality control 104 6.2. Competition and impact on railway management 104 6.3. Feasibility studies and methods of financing 105 63.1. Need for evaluation of any rail project 105 6.3.2. Benefits and costs from a new railway infrastructure 105 6.3.3. Evaluation methods for rail projects 106 6.3.4. Methods of financing a new rail project 107 6.3.5. Public-Private Partnerships 109 64. Planning the railway activity 110 6.4.1. Need and purposes of planning 110Railway Management and Engineering 6.5. 6.6. 6.7. 6.8. 6.9, 6.10. 6.4.2. Master Plans and Business Plans ill 6.4.3. A brief description of a Business Plan of a railway undertaking Wi Project management for railways 112 6.5.1. Definition of project management 112 6.5.2. Scope, benefits and costs of project management 113 6.5.3. Some rail projects that could require project management 114 6.5.4. _A description of tasks of project management for railways 115 Management of infrastructure 117 6.6.1. Tasks and objectives for rail infrastructure 117 6.6.2. Anew management approach 118 6.6.3. The issue of outsourcing 118 6.6.4. The need for an homogeneous product at world level 119 Management and policy for rail passenger transport 120 6.7.1. Tasks and objectives for rail passenger transport 120 6.7.2. A segmentation of traffic 120 6.7.3. A new strategy combining competition, cooperation and alliances 121 6.7.4. Traditional weaknesses and offer of a new global product of railways 121 6.7.5. Application of informatics technologies (internet, SMS) 123 6.7.6. Marketing — Customer satisfaction surveys — Creation of anew culture 123 Management and policy for rail freight transport 124 .1. Tasks and objectives of rail freight transport 124 A merciless competition 124 Integration of rail freight in the logistic chain 125 Human resources and their revalorization 125 The need for a more entrepreneurial approach 125 Allocation of human resources 126 The art of motivating people to work 127 Increase of productivity 127 Restructuring and revalorization of human resources «128 Privatization of railways 129 6.10.1. Prerequisites and targets of privatization 129 6.10.2. Privatization and competition 129 6.10.3. The problem of debt 130 6.10.4. The need for a strong Regulator 130 6.10.5. Privatization of infrastructure 130 6.10.6. Privatization of operation 130 6.10.7. Some cases of privatization of railways all over the world 131 xaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Railway Management and Engineering 8.3.2. Results ofthe method SS CC*d‘SG 8.4. Accurate ‘is of the mechanical behaviour of track — Finite element method and elastoplastic analysis 157 8.4.1. A short description of applications of the finite element method in track problems 157 8.4.2. Construction of the mesh of the model __158 8.4.3. Limit conditions 159 8.4.4. Stress-strain relationship 159 8.4.4.1, Case of ballast and subgrade 160 8.4.4.2. Case of rail and sleeper 161 8.4.5. Numerical calculations procedure 161 8.4.6. Determination of the mechanical characteristics of the various materials 162 Stress and strain in the track-subgrade system 163 Distribution of wheel load along successive sleepers 165 8.4.9. Elastic line of sleeper 165 8.5. Dynamic analysis of the track-subgrade system 165 8.6. Track defects and additional dynamic loads 167 8.7._Dynamic impact factor coefficient 168 8.8. Design of the track-subgrade system 169 8.9. Vibrations and noise from rail traffic 170 8.9.1. Origin of rail vibrations 170 8.9.2. Relation of rail noise level to speed 170 8.9.3. Damping of rail noise in relation to distance 171 8.9.4. Noise level in relation to infrastructure type 171 8.9.5. Noise levels in high speeds 171 8.9.6. Noise level standards 172 8.10. Analysis of the accurate mechanical behaviour of rail 172 8.11. Application of unilateral contact theories in railway problems 173 8.11.1. Transmission of forces and contact surfaces 173 8.11.2. Unilateral contact theories 174 8.11.3. Equations of the unilateral contact problem 174 8.11.4. Numerical calculations 174 9. Subgrade — Geotechnical and Hydrogeological Analysis 175 9.1. The importance of the railway subgrade on track quality and its 9.2. functions 175 Analytical geotechnical study 176 9.2.1. Targets of a geotechnical study and soil investigation 176 9.2.2. Preliminary studies 177Contents 9.2.3. Techniques and methods of exploration used in a geotechnical study 177 9.2.4. Planning the exploration program 177 9.2.5. Geotechnical report and longitudinal section 179 9.3. Geotechnical classifications of soils 180 9.4. Hydrogeological conditions 182 9.5. Classification of the railway subgrade 183 9.6. Mechanical characteristics of the subgrade 184 9.7. The formation layer 185 9.7.1. Laying of formation layer in new tracks 185 9.7.2. Improvement of formation layer in existing tracks 186 9.8. Impact of traffic load on the subgrade 186 9.9. Impact of maintenance conditions on the subgrade 188 9.9.1. The maintenance coefficient 188 9.9.2. Impact of maintenance coefficient on the behaviour of track bed and the subgrade 188 9.9.3. Impact of the maintenance coefficient on subgrade stresses 189 9.10. Fatigue behaviour of the subgrade 190 9.11. Frost protection of railway lines 191 9.11.1, Frost index 191 9.11.2. Frost foundation thickness 191 9.11.3. Frost protection methods on existing tracks 192 9.12. Track subgrade in cuts and on embankments — Slope gradients 193 9.12.1. Subgrade in cut sections 193 9.12.2. Subgrade on embankment sections 193 9.13. The reinforced soil technique 194 9.14, Hydraulic analysis and calculation of flows 195 9.14.1. Level of ground water 195 9.14.2, Calculation of run-off flows 9S 9.15. Geotextiles in railway subgrades 197 9.15.1. Characteristics, types and properties of geotextiles 197 9.15.2. Use and applications of geotextiles in the railway subgrade 197 9.16. Vegetation on the subgrade and the ballast 199 9.16.1. Vegetation on the track and herbicides 199 9.16.2. Criteria and dosage for application of herbicides 200 9.17. Earthquakes and the behaviour of track and the subgrade 201 10. The Rail 202 10.1. Rail profiles 202Railway Management and Engineering 10.2. Manufacturing of rail steel 10.3. Mechanical strength and chemical composition of rail steel 10.3.1. Mechanical strength 10.3.2. Chemical composition 10.3.2.1. Carbon 10.3.2.2. Manganese 10.3.2.3. Chromium and Silicon 10.3.2.4. Chromium — Manganese 10.3.2.5. Equivalent carbon percentage 10.3.3. Rail grades 10.4. Choice of rail profile 10.4.1. Standard gauge tracks 10.4.2. Metric gauge tracks 10.4.3. Broad gauge tracks 10.4.4. Geometrical characteristics of various rail profiles 10.5. Transport of rails 10.6. Stress analysis of rail .1. Stresses at wheel-rail contact .. Bending stresses of the rail on the ballast |. Bending stresses of the rail head on the rail web }. Stresses caused by temperature changes Plastic stresses 10.7. Analysis of the mechanical behaviour of the rail by the finite element and the photoelasticity methods 10.8. Rail fatigue 10.8.1. Fatigue curve and rail lifetime determination 10.8.2. Rail fatigue criterion 10.8.3. Evolution of an internal discontinuity 10.9. Rail defects 10.9.1. Definition of rail defects 10.9.2. Codification of rail defects 203 203 203 204 204 204 204 204 205 205 206 206 206 206 208 208 208 211 212 212 212 213 213 214 214 215 217 217 217 218 10.9.3. Defects inrailends 4... Ci 10.9.4. Defects away from rail ends 220 10.9.4.1. Tacheovale 0 10.9.4.2. Horizontal cracking 220 10.9.4.3. Rolling (running) surface disintegration 220 10.9.4.4. Short-pitch corrugations 221 10.9.4.5. Long-pitch corrugations 221 0.9.4.6. Lateral wear 221 10.9.4.7. Shelling of the running surface 221 10.9.4.8. Gauge-corner shelling xiv 222Contents 10.9.5. Defects caused by rail damage 222 10.9.5.1. Bruising 222 10.9.5.2. Faulty machining 222 10.9.6. Welding and resurfacing defects 223 10.9.6.1. Electric flash-butt welding 223 10.9.6.2. Thermit welding and electric arc welding defects 223 10.10.Permissible rail wear 224 10.10.1. Vertical wear 224 10.10,2. Lateral wear 225 10.11.Optimum lifetime of rail 225 10.12.Fishplates 226 10.13. The continuous welded rail 227 10.13.1. The continuous welding technique 227 10.13.2. Mechanical behaviour of continuous welded rail 227 . Assumptions 227 . Simplified mechanical analysis of continuous welded rail 228 . Forces distribution along continuous welded rail 229 .13.. Length changes in the expansion zone 229 10.13.2.5. Rail welding 230 10.13.2.5.1. Flash-butt welding 230 10.13.2.5.2. Thermit welding 230 10.13.2.5.3. Electric arc welding 231 10.13.2.6. Destressing of a continuous welded rail 231 10.13.3. Expansion devices 232 10.13.4. Advantages of the continuous welded rail 232 11. Sleepers — Fastenings 233 11.1. The various types of sleepers and their functions 233 11.2. Steel sleepers 234 11.2.1. Form, properties and timber types 234 2.2. Manufacturing, size and weight 234 .2.3, Advantages and disadvantages 235 11.2.4. Lifetime 235 11.3. Timber sleepers 235 11.3.1. Form and properties 235 11.3.2. Geometrical characteristics 236 113.3. Advantages and disadvantages 237 11.3.4. Lifetime 238 xvRailway Management and Engineering 113.5. Deformability of timber sleepers 11.4. Concrete sleepers 11.4.1. Inherent weaknesses of concrete sleepers 11.4.2. The two types of concrete sleepers 11.5. The twin-block reinforced-concrete sleeper 11.5.1. Geometrical characteristics and mechanical strength 11.5.2. Advantages and disadvantages 11.5.3. Lifetime 11.5.4. Deformability of twin-block sleepers 11.6. The monoblock prestressed-concrete sleeper 11.6.1. Geometrical characteristics and mechanical strength 11.6.2. Advantages and disadvantages 11.6.3. Lifetime 11.6.4. Deformability of monoblock sleepers 11.7. Manufacturing, quality control and testing of concrete sleepers 11.8. Stresses developing beneath the sleeper 119. Fastenings 11.9.1, Functional characteristics 11.9.2. Types of fastenings 11.9.2.1. Rigid fastenings 11.9.2.2. Blastic fastenings 11.9.2.3. Types of elastic fastenings 11.9.2.4. Operating principles of elastic fastenings . Forces and stresses in rigid and in elastic fastenings . Design criteria, anchorage and insulation of a fastening . Rail creep and anti-creep anchors 11,10.Resilient pads 11.10.1. Rail seating and baseplate pads 11.10.2. Functions and properties of pads 11.10.3. Dimensions, materials and design 11.10.4, Force-elongation curves 11.11.Numerical application for the dimensioning of the various track components 12. Ballast 12.1. Functions of ballast and subballast 12.1.1, Functions of ballast 12.1.2. Functions of subballast 12.2. Geometrical characteristics of ballast 12.2.1, Granulometric composition xvi 254 256 256 256 256 257 257aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.14.16. 14.17. 15. 15.1. 15.2. 15.3. 15.4, 15.5. 15.6. 15.7. 15.8. 15.9. 15.10. 15.11. 16. 16.1. 16.2. 16.3. 16.4. 16.5, 16.6. Contents Construction of a new railway line 14.16.1. Feasibility study 14.16.2. Preliminary design 14.16.3. Outline design 14.16.4. Final design 14.16.5. Staking of the track layout Environmental aspects of track layout Switches and Crossings Functions of switches and crossings Components of a turnout Various forms of turnouts Running speed on turnouts Geometrical characteristics of turnouts Derailment criterion for switches and crossings Turnouts on a curved main track Turnouts run with increased speeds Sleeper and track layout in turnouts and crossings Manual and automatic operation of turnouts Design principles for switches and crossings Laying and Maintenance of Track Laying of track 16.1.1. Mechanical equipment 16.1.2. Sequence of construction of the various track works Track maintenance and parameters influencing it Definitions and parameters associated with track defects Track defects 16.4.1. Longitudinal defect 16.4.2. Transverse defect 16.4.3. Horizontal defect 16.4.4. Gauge deviations 16.4.5. Track twist Recording methods of track defects Limit values of track defects 16.6.1. Limit values for high-, rapid- and medium-speed tracks 16.6.2. Limit values for medium- and low-speed tracks 16.6.3. Acceptance values 305 305 305 306 307 307 308 309 309 310 312 314 315 316 317 317 319 319 321 322 322 322 323 323 324 326 326 326 327 327 327 328 329 329 330 330Railway Management and Engineering 16.6.4. Emergency values 16.7. Progress of track defects 16.7.1. Longitudinal defect 16.7.1.1. Mean settlement of track 16.7.1.2. Standard deviation of longitudinal defects 16.6.1.3. Interval between maintenance sessions 16.7.2. Transverse defect 16.7.3. Horizontal defect 16.7.4. Gauge deviations 16.7.5. Track twist 16.8. Mechanical equipment for maintenance works 16.9. Scheduling of maintenance operations 16.10.Technical considerations for track maintenance works 16.11.Track maintenance, vegetation and weed control 17. Slab Track 17.1, The dilemma between ballasted and non-ballasted track 17.1.1. Advantages and weaknesses of ballasted track 17.1.2. The solution of non-ballasted track 17.1.3. First trials, tests and evolution of slab track technique 17.2. Mechanical behaviour of slab track 17.2.1. Simulation of slab track 17.2.2. Stresses and settlements in the case of slab track 17.3. A variety of forms of non-ballasted track 17.4. Slab track with the use of sleepers 17.4.1. The Rheda technique 17.4.2. The Zilblin technique 17.4.3. The Stedef technique 17.5. Slab track without use of sleepers 17.6. Non-ballasted track on an asphalt layer 17.7. Transition between ballasted and slab track 17.8. Costs of slab track 18. Train Dynamics 18.1. Train traction 18.2. Resistances acting during train motion 18.3. Running resistance 18.3.1. General equation for the running resistance xX 330 332 332 332 333 333 334 334 335 335 335 337 339 340 341 341 341 341 342 343 343 343 344 344 345 348 348 349 350 350 350 351 35118,4, 18.5. 18.6. 18.7. 18.8. 18.9. Contents 18.3.2. Empirical formulas of some railways for the running resistance 18.3.2.1. Formulas of the French railways 18.3.2.1.1. Diesel or electric locomotives 18.3.2. Pulled rolling stock 18.3.2.1.3. Electric passenger vehicles 18.3.2.2. Formula of the American railways 18.3.2.3. Formulas of the German railways 18.3.2.4. Formulas for broad and metric gauge railways 18.3.3. Resistances developed when running in a tunnel 18.3.3.1. Pressure problems Increased aerodynamic resistances in tunnels Crossing of trains . Tunnel cross-section requirements at high speeds 18.3.4. Comparative running resistance between railways and road vehicles Resistance due to track curves Resistance caused by gravity Inertial (acceleration) resistance Starting force and traction force of a train Adhesion forces Required train power 18.10. Values of train acceleration and deceleration 18.11.Train braking 19. 19.1. 19.2. 19.3. 19.4, 18.11.1. Braking systems 18.11.2. Braking distance Rolling Stock Components of a pulled rail vehicle Wheels 19.2.1. Geometrical characteristics and materials 19. Wheel defects and reprofiling 19.2.3. Lifecycle of a wheel . Definition and functions of a bogie Forms of bogies Components of a bogie . Self-steering bogie 352 353 353 353 353 354 355 355 356 356 357 358 359 359 359 360 360 361 362 364 365 366 366 367 370 370 370 370 371 371 371 373 373 373 374 374Railway Management and Engineering 19.5. 19.6. 19.7. 19.8. 19.9. 20. 20.1. 20.2. 20.6. Springs Couplings and buffers Design of rolling stock Localization of the position of a rail vehicle with the use of GPS Tilting trains 19.9.1. Needs which gave rise to the tilting technology 19.9.2. Tilting technology 19.9.3. Technical and operational characteristics of tilting trains 19.9.4. Reductions in travel times by tilting trains 19.9.5. Cost of tilting trains Diesel and Electric Traction The various traction systems Steam traction 20.2.1. Operating principle of the steam engine 20.2.2. Main parts of a steam locomotive 20.2.3. Disadvantages and abandonment of the steam locomotive . From steam traction to diesel traction and electric traction 20.3.1. From steam traction to diesel traction 20.3.2. From steam traction to electric traction 20.3.3. Gas turbine locomotives . Diesel traction 20.4.1. Operating principle of the diesel engine 20.4.2. Transmission systems 20.4.3. Requirements of diesel locomotives 20.4.4. Advantages and disadvantages of diesel traction . Electric traction and its subsystems. 20.5.1. Power supply subsystem 20.5.2. Traction subsystem 20.5.3. Requirements and priorities Electric traction systems 20.6.1. Direct current traction 20.6.2. Alternating current traction 20.6.2.1. Alternating current traction at 15,000 V, 16% Hz 20.6.2.2. Alternating current traction at 25,000 V, 50 Hz 20.6.3. Advantages and disadvantages of electric traction compared to diesel traction 374 375 375 378 378 378 379 380 381 381 390 390 393Contents 20.7. Feasibility analysis before electrification 393 20.7.1. Feasibility analysis parameters and procedure 393 20.7.2. Criterion for selection of the lines to be electrified 304 20.8. Overhead contact system 395 20.8.1. Parts and components of the overhead contact system 395 20.8.2. Calculation of the contact wire with the use of physical models 396 20.8.3. Calculation of the contact wire with the use of the finite element method 397 20.8.4. Suspension of overhead contact systems 398 20.8.5. Power transmission by conductor rail 399 20.8.6. Electrical and power characteristics of some high-speed tacks 8D 20.9. Overhead line supporting poles 400 20.9.1. Pole material 400 20.9.2. Pole spacing 400 20.9.3. Pole foundation 401 20.10. Substations 401 20.10.1. Substations feeding direct current systems 401 20.10.2. Substations feeding alternating current systems 402 20.10.3. From thyristors to ‘gate tum off technology 402 20.10.4. Operating control center 403 20.10.5. Interference of electric traction with telecommunication and signaling systems 403 20.11.Synchronous and asynchronous motors 404 20.12.Electric locomotives maintenance — Depot 405 21. Signaling — Safety — Interoperability 406 21.1. Functions of signaling 406 21.1.1. Evolution of signaling 406 21.1.2. Braking distance and signaling requirements 407 21.1.3. Traffic safety and regularity 407 21 The regulatory framework 407 21.1.5. Basic signaling functions 408 21.2. Semaphoric signaling 408 21.2.1. Visual and audible signals 408 21 Colours used in signals 408 21.2.3. Types of signals 408 21.3. Operating principles of light signaling — The track circuit 409 xxiiiaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Foreword by Ph. Roumeguére former General Director of the International Union of Railways “Excellence cannot be achieved without Passion” Is it too much to say that | have been expecting the book Railway Manage- ment and Engineering of VA. Profillidis? I met the author of the book for the first time during his post-graduate studies at the Ecole Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées in Paris in my course ‘Railways’. He chose for his DEA thesis the field of track mechanics, which requires a solid background in mathematics, mechanics and numerical appli- cations. He extended his research interests in his Ph.D. thesis, by modeling the railway system both from the mechanics and the transport economics point of view. | must confess that even if I had any apprehensions in the be- ginning, I was filled with enthusiasm with the quality of his work, character- ized by rigor, documentation, clarity and transparency. The years that followed, I met the author of the book on several occa- sions in international conferences and working groups. He soon gained the international recognition in two extremely difficult and complex areas, those of track mechanics and transport economics. This book is the outcome of maturity of the author and condenses the essential findings of his research and synthesis of many studies. Railway Management and Engineering examines all aspects of railways: transport economics, societal, legal, managerial, mechanical, technological and envi- ronmental. I could argue that this book includes three or more different books covering all aspects of railways and related transportation issues. The book takes into account the more recent evolutions, not only in its scientific and technological aspects, but also in analyzing the management of railways, their internal organization and the necessary restructuring in a changing environment. Thus, the book constitutes a complete endeavor about the railway sector, its technique, its management, its economics and its environment. Every statement and method in the book is based on a reference or study conducted and permits the reader to extend his approach and to look for more details. The bibliographical references of the book show, however, the xxviiRailway Management and Engineering great range of knowledge and experience of the author in all aspects of rail- ways and transport. I would like to outline another quality of the book. V.A. Profillidis has been always open, a real explorer in the research of collecting anything that could extend his scientific horizons and thus offer new and integrated knowledge to his students, colleagues and readers. I must emphasize the world character of the book, the examples and ref- erences that cover all the world and all peculiarities of the railway system, thus rendering the book a valuable universal tool for everyday use for those involved in the various railway aspects worldwide. Professionals of the transport sector, partners and decision makers of this sector will welcome the book for the quantity and quality of knowledge that it contains. In addition to specialists in the field, the book will be of utmost usefulness for the non-specialists who need information, data, analysis and references in the rail sector. The book will be a valuable support for students of engineering, transportation and management schools, who should acquire a sufficient luggage of accurate knowledge, combining theory, analysis, ap- plications and experiences, without any gap between theory and practice. There is no doubt that Railway Management and Engineering responds to the need for specialized knowledge for those involved in the various components of the railway activity. In my first reading of the book, I had the impression of having lost my former student, as I was fascinated from what he has become, from his work, his intelligence to create and communicate, his effort to share what has ac- cumulated during the 25 years of experience and teaching in the field of railways and transport. The book offers an enormous work, a pinnacle by its volume and rigor in particular. 1am happy — and why not confess it, a bit proud — to give my modest but so sincere testimony on behalf of Professor V.A. Profillidis to the quality and utility of what, with great professionalism and clarity, he is offering to the benefit of professionals and students and to the good of the society. xxviiiaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Railway Management and Engineering older cart driver coming from the opposite direction, being unaware that it was his father Lafus, (33). 1.1.2. The golden age of the railways Development of railways was decisively influenced by the first industrial revolution, the introduction of steam and the extensive exploitation of coal and iron mines. The first railway lines began operating in most European countries around 1830 and most railway networks attained maximum den- sity at the beginning of the 20" century. A factor contributing to the massive growth of the railways was high speed (by the standards of the time), which enabled fast connections. Steam-powered engines had already achieved (in test runs) impressive performances: 100 km/h in 1835 in Britain, 144 km/h in 1890 in France, 213 km/h in 1903 in Germany. Although maximum oper- ating speeds were much lower (1/2 to 2/3 of test speeds), they contributed to the rapid growth of rail transportation. The adoption of electric traction, in the early 20" century, permitted fur- ther development of the railways, while the development of signaling and automatic train control gave railways their present form, in the 1950s. 1.1.3. Railways and other competing transportation means Times have changed, however, and what was impressive in the early 20” century, was soon becoming less and less satisfactory. Airplanes, passen- ger cars, buses and trucks were already offering transportation alternatives at every scale. Given the pressure of competition, the railways had to mod- ernize and improve, especially as regards speed, reduction of costs, better organization and improvement of the services offered. Hence, we come to the cra of high-speed trains (see chapter 2) operating at 250+300 km/h (a speed of 515 km/h was attained by French railways in 1990 in test runs), combined transport (combined rail-road transportation), high-volume transport for both passengers (commuter services) and freight (bulk loads); thus at the second half of the first decade of the 21" century, railways are in front of new challenges, (17). Nevertheless, in parallel with the conventional railways (which are based on metal-to-metal contact), experimental development has proceeded since the mid- 1970s with techniques, which, although using guided vehicle transport (like railways), avoid any contact between the moving vehicle and the bearing infra- structure. These are the aerotrain and the magnetic levitation train, or maglev, which, in test runs, have attained speeds of 422 km/h for the aerotrain in 1969 and 552 km/h for the maglev in 1999, (see also sections 2.4, 2.5). 2aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Railway Management and Engineering Passenger-kilometers (in millions) 4160 S.Korea) 28,562 | Jee lee Asia and Oceania | | Taiwan -{] 8,726 | Turkey -) 5,878 | Australia -] 1,347 | | Russia - | France Germany Ukraine Italy \ United Kingdom - Europe Spain | Poland | Netherlands | | Belarus | | | Switzerland | | Hungary | | | Sweden -# 6,621 | | | Egypt {1 40,837 | | South Affica -[) 11,747 Africa | | Morocco +} 2,374 | | ( i usa -{) 8,552 | ieas| | Canada -} 2,812 Americas) eal, | Heel? SOP © 100,000 200,000 300,000 400,000 500,000 600,000 700,000 Fig. 1.10. Railway passenger traffic in various geographical areas and countries of the world (2003), (1) (i Passenger cars Buses & coaches ll Railways 7) Air_C Other modes ) Percentage (%) se & 80 40 20 From 100 = From 150 = From200 = From 250 = From 300 = More than tol49km to199km = to249km = to 299km_=~— to. 499 km_ 500 km Fig. 1.11. Variation of share in passenger traffic for medium distances and for various transport modes in the 15 EU countries, (2) 10Railways and Rail freight traffic suffered, during the last 40 years, important reductions in _ share in transport, which was reduced in the 15 EU countries to7 —_ in 2004, a share of 20.0% in 1970, (Fig. 1.12). There are no signs in —_EU, for moment, for a reversement and recovery from this downward 1.13 illustrates the share of railways in the freight mar- for some countries of the world, with a high share in the and a low in Japan. Figure 1.14 illustrates evolution and stabilization freight inthe USA. Using 1970 as the reference year for the traffic (in for transport mode and for the 15 EU countries, road increased traffic between 1970+2004 by 199.18%, while railway ‘was re- by 9.93 %, (Fig. 1.15). Railway share is increased for and distances, which constitute an area with positive prospects _railways, 1.16). Figure 1.17 illustrates the rail freight traffic for geo- areas and countries of the world. Trucks Cl Sea Gi Inland oF Share (%) in the national freight market (t-kms) 800 60.0 40.0 e 200 00 1970 1980 1990 2000 2004 1.12. Evolution of share of freight traffic for transport modes in the 15 EU countries, (2) Share in the national market Austria 45 USA Germany 7 France 8 Kindom Italy 1 Spain Japan 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 60 1.13. Share of railways in the national freight for several countries of the world (2004), (1), (2) 11aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Railway Management and Engincering Table 1.1 Railway traffic, length of lines, staff and productivity in several countries all over the world for the year 2003, (1) ea 2 g gf Gs 32 Eo uz ff ai es df Uj fi qi gf #2 Country ge 2 a Se 6 i E é B a g s 3 s a $f 28 i & && gs B a a 3,572 283 10.0 964 82 2,038 298.8 9474 1,900 13.9 1,347 156.5. 41,314 3,063.2 5,787 3,360 46.2 8.265 87.0 17,863 565.5 3,521 2,927 ago 8,265 66.9 8,306 395.5 4,318 2,847 344 i 2,517 20.1 5,274 226.5 60,446 18,060 1,443.4 936.3 462,279 1,998.1 1,647,558 1,461.7 9,501 2,943 786 172.0 6,483 92.1 17,069 299.6 2273 624 116 148.1 5,397 14 1,888 628.0 5,145 65 914 451.0 40,837 Wg 4,188 492.7 $851 2,400 W2 59.9 3,338 43.5 10,047) 1,195.1 29,269 14,505 175.2 8794 71,937 120.7 46,835 677.9 36,054 19,829 2493 1,681.7 69,535 267.9 73,951 575.7 2,414 83 89 89 1,574 2.6 456 228.2 63,122 16,272 1,510.8 5,092.7 515,044 492.5 (353,194 574.7 6,152 148 143 16.1 9314 28.8 18,048 1,912.8 2,339 - 85 12 371 5.2 1,683 266.5 1,919 Sz 58 35.6 1,601 23 398 342.7 483 - 16 19.8 1,278 1d 1112 1,539.9 16,288 11,166 104.4 $48.5 46374 82.3 20,316 638.8 18491 9,742 1444 8.6418 241,160 3719 22,600 1,826.3 13,770 3,865 983 20.7 10,666 178.7 148,370 1,618.3 Netherlands 2,812 2,064 25.7 314.0 13,848 25.9 4,026 695.5 Norway 4,077 2,518 74 45.2 2,204 20.8 2,570 645.1 Poland: 19,900 12,035 138.2, 283.2 19,643, 161.8 47,394 485.0 Portugal 2,818 1,076 10.0 137.9 3,585 8.7 2,072 565.7 Russia 85,542 42,335 1,222 1,293 157,100 1,160.8 1,664,300 1,490.3 Saudi Arabia 1,234 : 7 09 294 1 880 689.8 Spain 14,387, 8145 35.1 $93.8 (20,608 33.6 14,156. 990.4 Sweden 9,882 7,638 13.2 612 6,621 42.8 12,829 1,473.5 Switzerland 3231 3,231 28.6 269.0 12,785 62.3 10,650 819.4 Syria 1,840 - 122 14 528 59 1,884 197.7 Tunisia 1,909 65 56 35.7 1,243 ws 2,174 605.9 Turkey 8,697 1,752 345 770 5878 158 8,612 419.7 Ukraine 22,051 = 9,322 371.6 536.3 52,558 445.5 225,287 A716 United Kingdom 17,052 5,142 na. 999.9 41,130 88.9 19,824 na. USA 233,820 36,917 23. $,552_ 1,632. 64,982 12.823.1 * [thousands of traffic units (passenger-kilometers + ton-kilometers) per employee] 14Railways and Transport 1.8. Priority to passenger or freight traffic Behind the numbers of rail share and traffic presented in the previous para- graphs, a big dilemma concerning many railways is hidden: should railways give priority to (and therefore facilitate the development of) passenger or freight trains? Almost in every part of the world, with the exception of the USA, passenger trains have been given priority (concerning ‘departure- arrival times, investment, etc.). On the contrary, in the USA, the priority is freight traffic, with a share of about 40%, whereas rail passenger traffic is rather marginal with a share of less than 1%, (1+2 generations of Americans never took a train in their life). Share of air transport in the USA is 11.2%, that of buses is 3.4%, passenger cars’ share is 84.8% and metros’ share is 0.3%, (1), (2), (23). While freight traffic volumes were stagnating in Europe (see Figure 1.15), in the USA, freight traffic increased from 1,000 billion t-kms in 1970 to 2,265 billion t-kms in 2003, a number that should be compared to a volume of 46.8 billion t-kms for French railways and a volume of 73.9 billion t-kms for Ger- man railways for the year 2003. However, differences of rail freight share in the USA and Europe are also due to a number of other reasons, (11), (14): @ traveled distance by freight trains in the USA is much greater than in Europe, Japan, etc., © freight tariffs in the USA are 1/2+1/3 of medium freight tariffs in Europe, productivity in the USA rail freight sector increased from 2 million t-kms per employee in 1970 (with 566,000 employees in total at that time) to 13 million t-kms in 2000 (with only 168,000 employees), which reflects an increase of productivity of 550% in 30 years, ¢ state subsidies are given in the USA only for regional passenger traffic, and not for freight, whereas in Europe and many other parts of the world, rail- ways receive subsidies not only for passenger but also for freight traffic, investment in the USA was oriented to the freight sector, with 100 billion US dollars invested between 1970+2000 in order to, (11), (18): - extend load gauge (see section 7.10), to permit two-level freight wag- ons transporting containers to run the American network, — renew and innovate freight rolling stock, while reducing between 1970+2000 total number of traction machines by 30%, wagons by 25%, and lines in operation by 40%, @ liberalization of both road and rail transport resulted in the reduction of 30 big rail companies in 1970 to only 8 in 2000, giving thus the possibil- ity for scale economies, (14). 15Railway Management and Engineering * with the exception of the North-East Corridor (New York-Boston), where the real public interest is to avoid saturation in the airports of Boston, Washington and Philadelphia, railway lines receive only freight traffic in almost any other place in the USA Thus, the disappearance of passenger trains in the USA gave freight trains the possibility to be fully developed without any restrictions and cutoffs conceming departure-arrival times. Would this be realized, if passenger trains were still op- erating in the entire American rail network? The answer is that until a level of freight and passenger traffic (which is the case in the great majority of rail net- works all over the world), freight and passenger trains can coexist without major inconvenience. For heavy traffic lines, however, authorities must decide whether their priority is passenger or freight traffic, (11). 1.9. Transportation services with good prospects for the railways 1.9.1. Comparative advantages of railways and high-speed trains In a competitive transport market, railways should look for their compara- tive advantages. High speeds (analyzed in detail in chapter 2) are one such area. Other areas include urban rail services, combined transport, as well as transportation of bulk loads and, finally, integrated services which, in addi- tion to transportation, involve the collection, storage, and delivering of goods (logistics), (27), (29). 1.9.2. Urban rail services In an era of exploding traffic problems, the railways can decisively contrib- ute to their alleviation by their large carrying capacity, (Fig. 1.18). Many neglected railway lines connecting city centers to the suburbs are accord- ingly being modernized and used for urban rail services, thus relieving the traffic problems of many cities, (25). 1.9.3. Combined transport The various transport modes present comparative advantages conceming trans- port costs in relation to distance, (Fig. 1.19). Thus, for short distances, trucks have a comparative advantage, for intermediate distances railways have an edge, while great distances favour the use of ships. Increasing competition in the area of freight transport, however, makes the search for lowest cost compulsory. Sev- eral countries with important truck transit traffic (Austria and Switzerland, among, 16Railways and Transport Carrying capacity (in thousands of passengers per direction and hour) with exclusive right of way 3 os _- thousands of passengers per direction 120° and hour 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Fig. 1.18. Carrying capacity of various transport systems, (22), (32) transport freight cost others) set strict limits to the truck number of trucks in transit, so as to reduce congestion and satura- tion on the road network. Finally, political events and conflicts mandate the search for alterna- tive, reliable and safe transpor- tation routes. All the above have contributed to the devel- Fig. 1.19. Transport freight costs as a re- oeeabil Gaeoe aes bs lation of distance, for various defined as a composite transpor- transport modes, (7) tation process involving at least two consecutive transport modes (e.g. truck-ship, train-ship, truck-train). Two main techniques were developed for combined transport: ~ Containers, used in road, rail, and sea transport. The tendency is to use containers as large as it is allowed by the existing load gauge, (30). Common container dimensions are 13.7m long by 2.60m wide. - The Ro-Ro (Roll on-Roll off) technique, whereby whole trucks or truck bod- ies with freight are loaded on a train or ship, so that only a small part of the transport is covered by road. According to EU regulations, the maximum dimensions of freight vehicles for combined transport are: height 4.0m, width 2.5m, weight 40 tons. Since combined transport requires transshipment of freight from one mode to another (with associated expenses), it is necessary to determine the minimum distance beyond which combined transport becomes cost- effective. The answer to this question is not simple, since it depends on the 17Railway Management and Engineering cost of labour, energy, the mechanical equipment for transshipment, etc. Therefore, European conditions place this minimum distance at 700+900 km, whereas in the USA itis set at 1,500 km, (27), (34). The development of combined transport necessitates the existence of a satisfactory level in road and rail network and modern transshipment equip- ment. Figure 1.20 illustrates the cost components for rail-road combined transport for economic conditions of Western Europe. Collection of freight Distribution of freight with road trucks with road trucks 20% (from 12.5% 10 22.5%) 10 22.5%) Fig. 1.20. Cost components for railroad combined transport for eco- nomic conditions of Western Europe, (16), (34) 1.9.4. Bulk loads Railways are very advantageous for bulk load transport, such as raw materi- als, coal, petroleum, grain and other agricultural products. Railway competi- tivity in bulk load transport depends, among other matters, upon the mar- shalling yards facilities, where freight trains are disassembled and reassem- bled, and where long and (often) unjustified waits are occurring. 1.9.5. Freight rail transport and logistics Freight transport by rail has been limited until some decades ago to carrying goods. The dynamics of modem transport, however, have broadened the scope of the transportation process. Reliable and speedy carriage is no longer suffi- cient. It must be also accomplished at the lowest cost, ensuring that a certain quantity of goods be made available at the required place and time. An important contribution to this effect has been achieved during the last two decades with the so-called logistics, which involves the whole process encompassing timely in- formation on the need to make available a particular item at a particular place and time, reliable and speedy transport, possible storage, and final delivery to the recipient, (Fig. 1.21). It is therefore clear that in this sense the transportation process has a much broader meaning. 18aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.High Speeds and Levitation SFKFIFKFFFKFH MFM? sis? 2.1, Evolution of high-speed rail traffic in Europe, (2) the frequency of service, — regular-interval timetables, — ahigh level of comfort, a pricing structure adapted to the needs of customers, complementarity with other means of transport, more on-board and station services. A high-speed system should be designed to incorporate the range which the customer has come to expect when on HST, both pre-travel services (information. ticket seat res- etc.) and post-travei ones (arter-saies services), (37). 2. 4, Technical features of high-speed railway lines 2.3 illustrates the technical characteristics of some rail Important differences regarding gradients and electric systems observed. However, both French and German railways and intend to maximum running speed of HST up to 350 km/h until 10. Track characteristics for high speeds operation requires that the track be built and maintained to more specifications and closer tolerances than conventional and lower- tracks. Continuously welded rails of type UIC 60, sleepers or twin-block), new type fastenings have been to im- ride quality, stability and safety of the track. Indeed, have out- safety records, due to exclusive rights-of-way (in some ), fenc- computerized train control, and extremely good Instead of track, some countries (Japan and Germany, among ) have a slab track solution for HST. 27Railway Management and Engineering Table 2.3. Technical characteristics of high-speed rail lines, (43), (47), (48) ‘Country Japan France Germany Italy ‘Spain Korea Tokyo- Paris- Hannover- Rome- Madrid- Seoul- Line Osaka Lyons Worzburg Florence Barcelona Pusan (515km) (427 km) (327km) (260 km) (522 km) (412 km) Maximum speed Vinex (km/h) 260+300 300 250 250 300 350 Travel time 2h30min = 1hSOmin 2h Th3Smin 2h30min 1hSSmin Radius of curvature 2,500 4,000 7,000 3,000 4,000 7,000 Renin (m) Maximum longitudinal 20 35 12.5 8 30 25 gradient (%o) Traction 25 KV 25KV ISKV 3KV 25KV 25KV power supply 50Hz,60Hz SOHz 167/,Hz S0Hz 60Hz Distance of axes 42 42 40 42 na. 5.0 of two tracks (m) ‘Superelevation (mm) 200 180 150 160 na. na. 2.1.6. Rolling stock for high speeds Rolling stock used for high speeds comprises lightweight, streamlined and electrically powered locomotives handling passenger coaches, or simply trains of self-propelled multipie-unit cars. Their light weight minimizes horsepower and braking effort requirements, wheel wear and track degrada- tion. Traction motors are normally carbody-mounted, rather than axle-hung to reduce unsprung masses (i.e. masses below the primary suspension sys- tem, see also section 7.11.2), (43). 2.1.7. Power supply at high speeds Power is supplied to trains from wayside substations through overhead cate- nary wires and is collected through pantographs mounted on the locomotive or power vehicle roofs. In high speeds, the catenary tension must be main- tained at a constant value to minimize variations of sag. The French HST has a two-stage pantograph in order to minimize pressure (uplift) and to maintain excellent current collection characteristics at high speeds. The ma- jority of other pantograph systems use much more rigid and more complex catenaries with a higher tension and resulting in less sag, (see section 20.8). 28High Speeds and Magnetic Levitation 2.2. The Channel Tunnel and high speeds between London and Paris 2.2.1. Technical description The governments of the United Kingdom and France decided in 1986 on a permanent railway link between the two countries, that has been realized entirely by private financing. For this purpose the Eurotunnel Consortium was created with responsibilities to construct the Tunnel and operate it for 55 years, which was extended later to 99 years, (38). The project of a total length of 50km consists of two rail tunnels (one per di- rection) with an intemal diameter of 7.6 m plus a third tunnel (of an internal diameter of 4.8m), for maintenance purposes, emergency incidents, etc. The principal tunnels are connected to the auxiliary one at 375m intervals. The rail level is situated 25+40m below the seabed level. The entire construction cost was initially underestimated at 4.2 billion Euros, changed many times and finalized at 7.4 billion Euros and is allocated as fol- lows: + 50% for the tunnel construction, « 10% for the rolling stock, + 40% for tracks, signaling, electrification, etc. 2.2.2. Travel times Full operation through the Channel Tunnel began in the autumn of 1994. Three types of services are provided: © high-speed trains, (named “Eurostar”) with a running speed in the tunnel of 160 km/h, joining London to Paris in 2005 in 2h30min and London to Brussels in 2h20min. Eurostar trains have a capacity of 794 passengers (584 in second class and 210 in first class). In late 2005 Eurostar had a share of 71% in the air+rail transport market between London and Paris and a share of 65% between London and Brussels, with a punctuality ap- proaching 90%. conventional trains, night trains, freight trains, with a usual speed of 100+120 knv/h in the Tunnel. shuttle passenger trains (named “Le Shuttle”), transporting cars, trucks (of a maximum weight of 44 tons) and buses. Passengers remain in their seats and maximum speeds in the tunnel are 140 km/h. The shuttle trains require extensive terminal facilities at each end, around 1.3 million m? in the British side and 7 million m? in the French side, the size of a major international airport like Heathrow, (42). 29aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Railway Management and Engineering — clear definition of public service obligations in the passenger sector, being understood as those which, if the only consideration of the railways were business profit, would not have been undertaken to the same extent or degree (¢.g, operation of lines with small traffic). The Authority enforcing a manda- tory public service (e.g. the Ministry of Education for reduced student fares) should refund lost income to the railway operator, — adequate compensation of the railways for not polluting the environment and not causing traffic congestion. A quantitative and financial evalua- tion of the effects of the various transport modes on the environment is already available, (see section 5.6). The prevailing view is to subsidize railways with an amount corresponding to that which would have to be expended to combat the pollution and traffic congestion, which would have been caused, had the operation of the railway been discontinued, — gradual reduction of deficits. The ratio of expenses to revenues was for the year 1999 for some European railways as follows: 1.13 for Germany, 1.24 for France, 1.75 for Belgium, 2.24 for Italy, 3.87 for Greece, (56). As deficits are covered by the State Budget, that is by the citizens (who often are not users of railways), a strong pressure to the railways is exerted and will continue for the reduction of deficits, — commercial and tariff policies which increase revenues, assure high degrees of load factor and respond to requirements of clients and the society, ~ fulfilling financial, commercial and technological targets, which should be clearly defined. Factors that can measure the global result of a railway undertaking can be the degree of adaptability and the operating costs, (Fig. 3.1), which present huge differences and very contrasting situations. 3.2.4. Railways and transport requirements Any transport activity is not an end in itself, but exists for the fulfillment of specific needs of transport of persons and goods. Railways should try to offer more effi- cient and competitive services and must take into account the following, (52), (65): — the evolution in the transport market, resulting from globalization of the economy, liberalization and increasing deregulation, — competition and the need for reduction of costs, — the obligation for harmonization, known as interoperability, of various rail- way technologies (e.g. track gauge, electrification and signaling systems), to permit a global railway service, — the need for a long-term operational profitability, — the need for a downsizing policy and a market oriented strategy focusing on profitable segments. 38Policy and Legislation 7.00 Biitvay 0 ‘Operating Costs (index, Sweden=1.0)_ 0.00 roo —— — mt | Adaptability 0.0 0.1 0.2 03 04 0.5 06 0.7 08 0.9 1.0 index Low Adaptability High Adaptability Fig, 3.1. Adaptability and railway operating costs for some countries, (56) Survival in the evolving and highly competitive international environ- ment demands higher quality of service, efficient, accessible and competi- tive rail transport systems. These systems must fulfill economic and social expectations, whilst ensuring objectives of wider environmental protection, efficiency of resources and safety. Moreover, rail development should allow for maximum synergy with other transport modes, thus responding to mod- ern, door-to-door requirements for transport and mobility. 3.3. Globalization and liberalization in the rail market The first decade of the 21* century is characterized by an increasing global- ization (of economic and commercial activities), which can be described as a procedure of opening national markets to products and services and reducing state subsidies and costs. Globalization requires a competitive environment and liberalization of the transport market and more particularly of the rail sector, which is under- stood as the withdrawal of any obstacles concerning: entrance of new opera- tors'in the rail market, commercial and tariff policy of the railway undertak- ings, management, strategy and investment, etc. Rail liberalization generates both opportunities and threats for railways: 39Railway Management and Engineering — intra-modal competition (i.c., from other rail operators) will press for reduced rail tariffs and increased quality of rail services, — state subsidies will be abolished or reduced and in any case the continu- ing of operation of a rail activity causing deficits should be appropriately justified; thus railways will be pressed to curtail costs with as inevitable effect the loss of jobs in an era of arising unemployment, — new investments will introduce new technologies, which will increase quality of services, create new products (concerning particularly interna- tional rail services, combined transport, high speeds, etc.), — amore customer oriented commercial and tariff policy will permit rail- ways to gain segments of the market, such as business travel, etc. However, even in a liberalized rail market, the role of the state remains critical and should assure, (57): e high standards of safety, * acertain level of quality of services, ¢ that only new operators with a sufficient financial capacity and technical performances can enter the rail market, e fair competition for inter-modal (with other transport modes) and intra- modal (with other rail operators) competition, © transparency and accountability in the use of public funds, * a stable economic environment for long-term investments and techno- logical innovations, * prevention of pricing abuses, « an appropriate environment for the reduction of costs, while avoiding social unrest, * further development of international rail services, which presumes sim- plification of customs procedures and efficient co-operation between in- frastructure managers and rail operators, * anew organization that avoids unnecessary fragmentation and limits the risks and costs concerning both finances and safety in managing the in- terface between operations and infrastructure, with clear identifica~ tion of responsibilities of each party, + writing off (totally or partially) past debts. However, liberalization should be clearly distinguished from privatiza- tion, i.e., the property regime of an undertaking. It is possible to have a pri- vatized rai] operator who has monopolistic rights (the case of many rail op- erators in the United Kingdom) or a state-owned rail operator in a competi- tive context (the case of many of national railways). 40aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Costs and Tarification The new high-speed line ‘TGV Méditerranée’ of French railways, in opera- tion since 2001, with Vmac=350 km/h, on ballast, with 6.5% of tunnels and 12.7% of bridges (reported to the total length of the line), had a construction cost per km of 16.95 million € (all monetary values are that of year 2006). The Spanish high-speed line Madrid-Barcelona, in operation since 2003, with Vinx=300 km/h (in some parts Vmax=270 km/h), on ballast, has in the difficult part 26.8% of tunnels and 3.4% of bridges and a construction cost per km of 6.1 million €. In the part with fewer tunnels and bridges (with 2.0% of tunnels and 2.7% of bridges), construction cost is reduced to 3.2 mil- lion € per km. The German high-speed line Cologne-Frankfurt with Viax=300 knv/h, on concrete slab, with 26.5% of tunnels and 4.2% of bridges (reported to the total length of line) has a construction cost per km of 21.7 million €. The Italian high-speed line Rome-Naples with Vima=300 ki/h, on ballast, with 17.8% of tunnels and 24.0% of bridges per km of line, has a construction cost per km of 19.6 million €. The new Korean high-speed line, with Viax=300 km/h, on concrete slab in tunnels (a cross-section of 107 m’) with a length greater than 5 km, on ballast elsewhere, had a construction cost per km (including 46 units of high-speed roll- ing stock) of 42.6 million €. Table 5.1 recapitulates the above cost data. Railway engineers and managers should therefore be very careful when trying to assess the construction cost of a Finally, the distribution of construction cost of a new railway line to the various components of the railway system differs greatly and depends on the peculiarities of each particular situation. Figure 5.4 illustrates the average values from French, Spanish, German and Italian data for lines with no ma- jor civil engineering structures. Table 5.1. Construction costs (values of year 2006) of high-speed tracks constructed during recent years (compiled from data of UIC and constructors) ee ONC onstraction ¥ V, %on of %wof ‘Count Line ers concrete " cost per km my: (kina) ballast RTP tunnels bridges (milion of €)_ France TGV Méditerranée 350 100% - 65% 12.7% 16.95 Spain Madrid-Burcelona 270+300 100% = «26.8% 3.4% 64 20% 2.7% 32 Germany Cologne-Frankfurt 300 - «100% 26.5% 4.3% 27 Italy Rome-Naples 300 100% = - «17.8% 24.0% 19.6 Korea _Scoul-Pusan 300 82% 18% 17.8% 24.0% 42.6 * + rolling stock included viRailway Management and Engineering Civil engineering projects (subgrade, expropriations, tunnels, bridges) om Fig. 5.4. Distribution of con- struction cost of a new railway line to the various compo- 5% nents of the railway Studies system % Signaling, (nis, seers, bala) = 5.3. Maintenance and operation costs of infrastructure 5.3.1. Maintenance cost of infrastructure Whether integrated or separated, it is essential to know the maintenance and operation costs of infrastructure. Infrastructure maintenance cost comprises: ¢ maintenance and renewal of track (rails, sleepers, ballast) and subgrade, « maintenance of electrification, signaling and telecommunications facili- ties and substations, ¢ maintenance of tunnels and bridges, maintenance of platforms. A maintenance cost per year of 44,300 €/km of track is reported for France, and a value of 56,500 €/km is reported for the Netherlands (mone- tary values of year 2006). This cost is distributed as follows to the various maintenance components: 65% for track and platforms, ¢ 30% for electrification, signaling, telecommunications and substations, «@ 5% for bridges and tunnels. 5.3.2. Operation cost of infrastructure Infrastructure operation costs include traffic management (92% of total op- eration costs) and schedule planning (8% of total operation costs) and are estimated per year at 1.25 € /train-km (values of year 2006). 5.4. Cost of purchase of high-speed rolling stock Though there is a variety of contracts for purchase of rolling stock, there are no great differences among the principal rolling stock constructors. 80Costs and Tarification The cost per place for the purchase of new rolling stock (values of year 2006) is 70,720 € for Spanish high-speed trains (named AVE), 61,000 € for German ICE1 and 69,380 € for ICE2, 63,580 € for the Paris—Brussels—Amsterdam- Cologne train (named Thalys), 43,890 €45,870 € for French high-speed trains. If we report the purchase cost per seat-km and per year, then we have the fol- lowing values: 0.208 € for the Spanish AVE, 0.122 € for German ICE1 and 0.173 € for ICE2, 0.212 € for Thalys and 0.109 €+0.116 € for French TGV, (Ta- ble 5.2). As airplane is the principal competitor of high-speed trains, comparison with economic data conceming aircrafts may be useful. Thus, the cost per seat is 364,000 € for Boeing 757-200 (a capacity of 190 seats), 519,000 € for Boeing 767-200ER (a capacity of 191 seats) and 341,000 € for Airbus A320 (a capacity of 150 seats), (values of year 2006). The reported costs per seat-km and per year are 0.157 € for Boeing 757-200, 0.167 € for Boeing 767-200 and 0.204 € for Airbus A320. It can be deduced that high-speed trains and airplanes have compa- table purchase costs per seat-km and per year, (Table 5.2). Table 5.2. Cost of purchase of high-speed rolling stock and of aircrafts (values of year 2006), (compiled from data of UIC and constructors) Vv. Cost per ‘Cost per seatlan and per year for: Country as (Gat seat-kmand Airbus Boeing Boeing per year A320 757-200 _767-200ER. Germany ICE i 300 0.122 ICE2 300 0.173 France TGV 300 0.109+0.116 0.204 0,157 0.167 Spain AVE 300 0.208 Europe _ Thalys___ 300 0.212 5.5. Cost of operation of a railway company 5.5.1. Passenger Costs differ greatly in the various categories of rail passenger traffic: urban and suburban, intercity, regional. Statistics of rail operators refer usually to the whole activity and lack analytical data (as they should) for every specific cate- gory of traffic and even more for every route. Railways should introduce ana- lytical accounting techniques in order to have the possibility of an accurate measure of costs for every segment of the market and for every route. The great variety of costs is reflected at a variety of revenues per passen- ger-kilometer. Some values for four railways operating in different parts of the world, (data of year 2003), are given in Table 5.3, (103) 81aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Railway Management and Engineering The various components of external costs are: accidents, noise, air pollu- tion, climate change, nature and landscape, additional costs in urban areas, up- and down- stream processes and congestion. All these components have been identified and described and for each one of them there has been de- veloped the appropriate method for quantification in monetary values, (Ta- ble 5.7). Congestion costs are usually presented separately. Table 5.7. Description of the various components of external costs and methods of their quantification in monetary values, (101) (Climate change [Damages on global | Avoidance costs to reach | Depending on con- warming Kyoto targets’ per country | sumption of fossil fuels of to reach long-term reduction targets (Nature and land- | Additional cost to repair | Costs are based on unit | Fixed costs scape, ground —_| damages, compensation | types of repair measures costs ‘Additional costs | - separation: time Cost calculation based on | Depending on in urban areas | losses of pedestrians _| random sample evaluation | traffic volume (Separation and | space scarcity: space _| for different cities in ‘space scarcity) ‘compensation for Europe bicycles Up- and down- [Additional environ- | Calculation of the impact of Fixed costs (grey en- stream processes | mental costs (climate _| additional emissions contrib-| ergy of infrastructure change, air pollution | uting to air pollution and and rolling stock) and nuclear risks) climate change based on life analysis data Congestion | External additional time | Time costs and additional | Depending on traffic and operating costs | operating costs of read_—_| amount (number of users due to congestion _| vehicles) _ * Kyoto targets refer to objectives for reduction of various emissions (Co, CO;, etc.) and they have been decided in the Kyoto protocol (Japan). 84Costs and otal external costs (excluding congestion costs) amount the year to 650 billion €, which is 7.3% of the GDP of the 17 taken account (15 EU countries +Norway+Switzerland). change is most important cost category, with 30% of the total costs. _ pollution to 27% and accidents costs amount to 17% of total The costs and up- and down- stream processes amount to 7% of costs. costs for nature, landscape and undesired urban effects to 5% of costs, (99), (101), (102). transport is the mode with the highest share (83.7%) in exter- costs, followed by air transport (14%). On the contrary, have a share (1.9%) in total external costs and waterways smaller Two thirds of external costs are caused by passenger and third by freight transport, (101). 5.5 and 5.6 illustrate the average values of the compo- of external costs for all transport modes, for passenger freight re- . Table 5.8 illustrates values of marginal external cost —_passen- and freight rail transport, (101), (102). efforts to internalize external costs (that is to ask transport to pay the external costs it causes) have failed to be as a leg- Among the various scenarios of internalization, the efficient should be fuel pricing, which takes into account all effects for transport mode, ( Climate change (difference scenario) Urban effects Up- /down- Nature and Climate change —_ scenario Air pollution Noise Accidents Car Bus Rail Aviation 5.5. Average external costs for passenger transport for various transport modes, (15 EU (101) 85Railway Management and Engineering 300 tkms 250 200 150 100 50 17 0 Climate change (difference low/high scenario) Urban effects: Road Rail Fig. 5.6. Average external costs for freight transport for the various trans- port modes(15 EU countries +Norway+Switzerland), (101) Table 58. Marginal external costs of rail passenger and freight transport, (102) Cost (€/1,000 p-kms or t-kms) Effect Category of cost Passenger Freight Infrastructure Short-run marginal cost 0.1+ 1.0 1.6=3.0 ‘Average cost a 4 Congestion Short-run marginal cost 0+3 : Average cost 4 : Accidents Short-run marginal cost = S ‘Average cost 0,74 S Noise Short-run marginal cost O.1+16 0.1+ 1.1 Average cost 4.01 1.58 Air pollution ‘Short-run marginal cost 5.1 74 Average cost 14 Climate change Short-run marginal cost 0.4+ 5.3 Average cost ‘Nature and landscape | Short-run marginal cost Urban effects Up- and down- streamaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Costs and Tarification - charge for access to stations, — environmental and accidents charge. 5.8.6. Italy The Italian pricing model has the following components: — use of infrastructure, which is calculated by taking into account train speed, departure time, composition of train, density of circulation, — access to stations, which is null for regional stations, Reductions are given for low speeds, circulation in non-peak hours, for high volumes of traffic, etc. 5.8.7. Switzerland The Swiss model has a fixed part and a variable part, the second one being a relation of the financial potential of rail operators. 5.8.8. Other countries Tarification models in other countries take into account particularities and specific characteristics in each case. For instance: — Denmark has a component for access in bridges, - Austria and Belgium (both having a high density of traffic) have a com- ponent of density of traffic and of congestion. 5.8.9. A comparison of rail infrastructure charges Rail infrastructure charging in Europe presents great differences from one country to another and reflects state policies and interventions, usually in order to protect the historical state-owned rail operator. For instance, in the United Kingdom, charges, which are different from one rail operator to another, can be considered high, but they are greatly compensated by state subsidies. In Switzerland, theoretical charges for freight traffic are also high, but almost two thirds of these charges are compensated by state subsidies. High differences can be observed between charges for passenger and freight trains. Some countries (e.g. the USA, Poland, etc.), have higher unit charges for freight trains, other (¢.g. France, United Kingdom, etc.) have higher unit charges for passenger trains, while some countries (e.g. Austra- 93Railway Management and Engineering lia, Sweden, Portugal, ctc.) have a similar level of unit charges, both for pas- senger and freight trains. In conclusion, concerning rail tarification models, two great categories can be observed: — models based on short-run marginal cost (United Kingdom, Switzerland, Sweden, Norway, The Netherlands) with or without externalities, — models based on long-run marginal cost (France, Germany, Italy). The tendency, however, is that charges reflect as much as possible the real cost of maintenance and operation of infrastructure, as well as a real equity for all operators, which means that the critical components of charges should be variable costs (related to the traveled distances), whereas components of fixed costs should be greatly reduced. Outside Europe, there is also a great range of infrastructure charges, which reflect different objectives of cost recovery, different balances be- tween passenger and freight, network complexities and intensities. Usually they are based on marginal cost or a negotiated outcome as, for instance, in the USA or Japan (for freight), (97). Figure 5.8 illustrates rail infrastructure charges for passenger and freight transport in various countries all over the world and Figure 5.9 illustrates percentage of variable costs recovered from infrastructure charges for vari- ous countries. €/train-km ce Nn weeauaa Lp th bth pigpp ted ee ef Os Fig. 5.8. Average infrastructure charges (€/train-km) in 2005 for passen- ger and freight transport in various countries, (97) 94Costs Tarification Percentage (%) 80 60 40 20 0 Ss 3 Ys i LEPEEPP Up Op OF “ * 5.9. Percentage of variable costs recovered from charges in 2005 in various countries, (97) Tarification of operation 1. Targets of tarification should cover expenses of the rail operator, while at same time the financing of the necessary investment for renewal modemiza- of its equipment (n°) gida pol ‘das the paid by user of a rail service. Tariffs aim at: part or total coverage of expenses orienting clients to those services which are more either for the rail operator or for the society. A rational tarification should take into account existing or capac- cost, demand forecasts, price elasticity of demand and elasticities section 5.9.3) with competing modes. _2. The traditional method of tarification C(x) of rail transport is usually expressed as a sum of two (Bx) depending on the distance traveled (x) and the (A) being for each specific route and representing expenses are not a of the volume of traffic: C(x) =A+B-x (5.3) Based on this structure of cost, rail companies have used a similar for- for tarification for many decades: 95aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.6 Planning and Management of Railways 6.1. Railways and the social and economic environment 6.1.1. A systems approach for the railways Considered either as a whole or separated (infrastructure - operation), rail- ways constitute a complex system. Each component (track, traction, opera- tion) has many sub-components (e.g. for track: rails, sleepers, etc.), the in- teraction of which is not easy to predict. However, a good synergy of all rail components is necessary in order to achieve the desirable result, i.c. safe, quick, comfortable and low cost transport of people and goods. For this rea- son, railways should always be examined as a system. Application of systems approach in railways is given in the simplified flow chart of Figure 6.1. Even if the problem focuses on a technical need, railway managers should begin from defining the real problem which could be put as: ‘What is the transport need to be satisfied and what can be the targets aimed at?’. In every step of a systems approach, all alternative solu- tions should be carefully examined. 6.1.2. Railways and the social and economic environment 6.1.2.1. The social and economic environment Each railway activity must be examined in relation to its internal and exter- nal environment, (Fig. 6.2). The whole organization of railways must be characterized by the principle of adaptability, that is the ability to be adapted at changing situations of its internal and external environment. 6.1.2.2. Strategic and tactical level of decisions In management, we often distinguish between the strategic and the tactical or organizational level of decisions. To be more specific: 100Planning and Management of Railways Definit n. of the transport needs to be satisfied (e.g. a new high-speed rail service between A and B) Targets to be met (e.g. travel time, new demand, new revenues, etc.) Criteria for the evaluation of the various. solutions and of their impact on the system (e.g. lower cost solution, better travel time solution, etc.) Definition of the problem ‘ ‘ } ; Technologically possible alternative solutions (e.g. construction of a new line, upgrading of an existing line, introduction of tilting rolling stock, etc. Legislation, external constraints (e.g. environmental), etc. Acceptable alternative solutions (c.g. for environmental reasons, construction of a new line may be excluded) ‘Analysis of the problem (e.g. using one or more criteria of feasibility anatysis) Priorities and criteria of evaluation Choice of the best solution (e.g. tilting rolling stock) Application of this solution (e.g. preparation of the track so that tilting trains can run, purchase of new tilting rolling stock, new commercial and marketing campaign, etc.) Synthesis and results Evaluation of the results (c.g. anew revenues/expenses ratio, new traffic in relation to the total cost, etc.) | t ' t | [Evaluation and assessment of alternative solutions ' Fig. 6.1. Systems approach applied in railway problems 101Railway Management and Engineering General external environment Iegislation Organizational extemal environment banks and financial institutions clients Internal environment of railways technology, tele- communications, inter-modal competition (airplanes, buses) Fig. 6.2. Railways and their internal and external environment © the strategic level of decisions refers to the fundamental orientations of the railway undertaking, such as: revenues/expenses ratio, volume of passenger or freight traffic, level of state subsidies, etc, © the tactical or organizational \evel of decisions concerns the: introduc- tion of new technologies, changes in human resources, organizational changes, etc. The adaptability of the railway activity to its environment requires the following steps of tactical level, (35): — periodical (e.g. all 3 or 6 months) comparison between targets and achieved results (e.g. volume of traffic or revenues, etc.), — localization of divergences, research of reasons and formulation of the possi- ble methods to confront the divergences (e.g, in the case of loss of traffic, new methods of marketing, modification of the product offered, new person- nel, etc.), — choice and application of the most appropriate method, — following of the evolution after the introduction of the new method (e.g. what the rate of increase of traffic or revenues is after the introduction of the new method), — if divergences persist to exist, this means that tactical or organizational measures are not sufficient and decisions at strategic level should be un- dertaken, such as closure or ending of an activity (for instance, freight transport of low traffic, passenger services between low density popula- tion areas), creation of a new service, etc. 102aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Railway Management and Engineering 6.1.3. Quality control Verification of achievement of goals cannot be left to an empirical assessment, as was the case in the past. Criteria of assessment should be clear and quantifi- able. Furthermore, quality control is of paramount importance and railways must adopt the ISO (International Standards Organization) or some other certification. Figure 6.3 illustrates an example of how railway organization and efficiency can be improved through rational successive steps and with continuous quality con- trol. — Continuous feedback and improvement Fig. 6.3. Organization and control of the railway activity, (126) 6.2. Competition and impact on railway management Railways have operated for many decades as a physical monopoly under the protectionist umbrella of the state, which covered all the deficits that the railway activity was producing. This becomes less and less the case. Compe- tition is increasing and can be either external (i.e. competition between other transport modes and railways) or intemal (i.e. competition among many rail operators running on the same track). However, while competition is increasing, regulation stil! holds. In fact, through regulation, government subsidizes railway deficits, sets and imposes tariffs, defines regimes of entry-licensing-access of new railway operators and demands increased levels of safety. The structure of the railways has direct effects on management. Whether separated or unified, it greatly affects the methods of management to be applied. 104Planning and Management of Railways Ina strongly competitive market, railways should try: - the lowest generalized cost in order to attract new clients, - to understand and take into account all kinds of elasticities (ie. price, reve- nue, cross) in order to react in time before losing markets, — anew image of the specific railway activity, ~ establish a closer and permanent link among clients and the various railway Competition Reeulicion + subsidies * trom other transport e le tariffs modes (airplanes, buses) a + from other rail operators + entry — licensing ~ access P * safety Structure + unified or separated + public or private Fig. 6.4. Effects of competition, regulation and structure on the man- agement of the railways, (97) 6.3. Feasibility studies and methods of financing 6.3.1. Need for evaluation of any rail project In the past, some railway lines were constructed as part of a national devel- opment plan or for strategic and security reasons or for the development of national resources, without any economic or financial consideration. As times change, old practices are no longer valid. Even a small railway project must be justified from an economic and a financial point of view. Clear and complete answers should be given from the early stages to questions such as: “Why is this railway line or facility needed?”, “What do we want it to achieve?”. Otherwise, there is the risk to construct a rail infrastructure, which will create deficits, will have low traffic, while the money spent for it could have been used for other more useful and efficient purposes. 6.3.2. Benefits and casts from a new railway infrastructure Feasibility studies compare benefits to costs of the specific railway project. 105aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Planning and Management of Railways range of activities. It constitutes to break down the whole project into easily understood and measurable work items, so that tasks and responsibilities of each team unit can be clearly defined and followed up. The cost of failure of a project is enormous and there are not many vol- unteers in the Administration that would undertake it eagerly, with vague responsibilities dispersed in various levels, which are identified with diffi- culty. Project management is a wise solution, which permits to the Admini- stration (e.g. infrastructure manager, ministry, etc.) the efficient organization of the various team units, optimization of methods of work, monitoring, ana- lyzing and following the progress of work. 6.5.2. Scope, benefits and costs of project management It is the responsibility of the Administration to assess whether or not its or- ganizational structure, temporarily enlarged as necessary, could efficiently develop, plan, administer and supervise a particular project, while keeping it on schedule and within budget. This assessment should be as objective as possible and the Administration should be assisted in its decision by con- sultants specialized in management. Project management has clear advantages in a number of situations such as, (132): — magnitude of the project is large in relation to the Administration’s man- agement structure and size, - scope of work is unfamiliar to in-house personnel, —_ if management is conducted by the Administration’s personnel, even with additional temporary staff, the routine day-to-day functions risk to be left behind, — unpredictable delays may arise, thus a rigorous programming is neces- sary, — high political risks may emerge, if the project is delayed or even more failed, — independent and impartial recommendations are required by banks or other funding institutions. Thus, when management services are engaged in a project, this offers additional guaranties to the Administration for the successful execution of the project and also other benefits, such as, (132): an impartial, objective and professional approach, ¢ experience of the project manager, arising from similar projects, ¢ evaluation of all available alternatives, ¢ | in time monitoring of deficiencies, testing and quality control, ¢ ‘close budget control, financial forecasting and cash flow requirements, 113aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Planning and Management of Railways © signaling and safety installations are extremely complex systems, whose performance, reliability, impact on safe operation and technological ad- vances will require project management services. 6.5.4, A description of tasks of project management for railways In the following pages we will present some tasks of project management. The case of services rendered to the infrastructure manager for the construc- tion of a high-speed line will be taken as a case-study. Activities of project management can be divided in four stages: Organization, Development, Setting Up and Execution. Each stage begins with assessment and conclusions of works of the former stage and ends with the submission of a re- port to the infrastructure manager, (123), (132): I" Stage: Organization. It comprises the following tasks: ¢ Definition of the project and of its components (e.g. for a new high- speed line: expropriations, technical studies and surveys, studies and selection of the appropriate materials for subgrade, ballast, sleepers, fastenings, rails, design of tunnels and bridges, design of signaling and electrification (if any) equipment. ¢ Definition of requirements and objectives of infrastructure manager (e.g. cost and time restrictions, eventual deficiencies in personnel and staff of the infrastructure manager, etc.). ¢ Conceptual planning (e.g. the project manager plans its successive tasks: studies, procurement of materials, phases of execution, etc.). ¢ Activity plans, team composition and resources (e.g. the project man- ager plans each activity, allocates responsibilities to his personnel and provides the necessary resources (such as funding from the infrastruc- ture manager)). ¢ Determination of physical constraints and approvals (e.g. expropria- tions, licenses from various Authorities). + Cost evaluation and assessment of implications (e.g. the project man- ager checks and changes the various cost estimates of the infrastruc- ture manager). « Programming of works, funding, allocation of resources (e.g. many computer software can contribute to a rational programming). a Stage: Development. It comprises the following tasks: - Design and construction standards to be adopted (e.g. does the infra- structure manager have the appropriate specifications or should speci- fications of another railway authority or institution be followed?). 115aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.7 The Track System 7.1. The traditional division of railway topics into track, traction and operation ‘The organization of the unified railway activity has oriented for many decades railway science, which is interdisciplinary and requires competences of the sec- tors of the civil engineer, the economist, the electrical and the mechanical engi- neer and the manager. Thus, following railway network organization, it has be- come customary to distin raheny scence ino three topic ares: Track topics. Subjects of railway infrastructure are dealt with, in order to ensure the safe operation of the rolling stock at the scheduled speed. The superstructure (rails, sleepers, fastenings, ballast or concrete slab) and the subgrade are central subjects of track topics. Track topics also include layout, stations, switches and crossings, maintenance and safety issues. ¢ Traction topics. Subjects concerning rolling stock are elaborated on. Traction topics also include electric traction, telecommunications, and signaling. Certain railways, however, included these latter in the area of track topics, since they are part of the permanent railway infrastructure. « Operation topics, which include: — Commercial operation, in which commercial and pricing policies are analyzed. - Technical operation, where issues conceming schedule organization, optimum use of rolling stock and traffic safety are examined. To the above should be added the topics of metropolitan railways (metros and tramways), which constitute a specific railway class of their own of great importance to mass transit in large urban centers. However, after separation of infrastructure from operation, track topics, elec- trification, telecommunications, signaling and technical operation belong to the responsibilities of infrastructure, whereas rolling stock operation and mainte- nance and commercial operation belong to the responsibilities of operation. Railway stations may be studied either in infrastructure or in operation, depend- ing on the choice where stations are belonging, (see section 3.5). The second and the third part of this book deal with all the aforemen- tioned issues, with the exception of stations. 133Railway Management and Engineering 7.2. The track system and its components Two discrete subsystems are distinct in a railway track, (Fig. 7.1): — The superstructure (rails, sleepers, ballast, subballast), which supports and distributes train loads and is subjected to periodical maintenance and replacement. — The subgrade (formation layer, base), on which the train loads, after ade- quate distribution in the superstructure, are transferred and which in prin- ciple should not be subjected to interventions during periodical mainte- nance of the railway track. superstructure 1. The track-subgrade system The superstructure is composed of: « The rails, which support and guide the train wheels. « The sleepers (also called ties, principally in North America) with their fastenings, which distribute the loads applied to the rails and keep them at a constant spacing. ¢ The ballast, usually consisting of crushed stone and only in exceptional cases of gravel. The ballast should ensure the damping of most of the train vibrations, adequate load distribution and fast drainage of rainwater. ¢ The subballast, consisting of gravel and sand. The subballast protects the subgrade top from the penetration of ballast stones, while at the same time further distributing external loads and ensuring the quick drainage of rainwater. In the subgrade the following are distinguished: e The base, which in the case of the track laid along a cut consists of on- site soil, while in the case of an embankment is composed of soil trans- ported to the site. e The formation layer, used whenever the base soil material is not of ap- propriate quality. 134The Track System The depth, to which mechanical effects resulting from train circulation occur, extends to around 2m below the subgrade top and this is the depth down to which will henceforth be referred to by the term subgrade, (149). Resilient pads are placed between rail and sleeper to further attenuate train vibrations, (Fig. 7.2.a). Two pad thicknesses are usually applied: 9 mm and 4.5 mm. In modern tracks, however, a baseplate is placed between rail and sleeper, (Fig. 7.2.b). In this case, resilient pads are placed between rail and baseplate and between baseplate and sleeper. ts fe) i BARDS eee (a) without the use of baseplate (b) with the use of baseplate Fig, 7.2, Resilient pad between rail and sleeper The succession of the various layers of the track system is characterized by a gradual increase of the surface area as we proceed to lower layers and by a considerable reduction of the developed stresses, (Fig. 7.3). We take into account a wheel load of 10t. The contact surface between wheel and rail is around 1.3 cm’, (see section 7.7, Fig. 7.8). As will be explained in section 8.4.8, when a wheel load is applied on a sleeper, the sleeper under load supports 40% of the applied load (against 50% of older theories). Thus, beneath the sleeper, 40% of the applied load will be transmitted, (147). Accordingly, stresses are reduced by 1,000 to 5,000 times between the point where the wheel load is ap- plied and the subgrade, (Fig. 7.3). In the previous analysis, dynamic effects (see section 8.7) have not been taken into account. 7,3. Track on ballast or on concrete slab The track usually lies on ballast, in which case we have a flexible support or a ballasted track, (Fig. 7.4.2). However, it is possible, that the track is supported instead of ballast by a concrete slab, in which case there is an inflexible support or slab track, (Fig. 7.4.b). Although a slab track is used in certain railways (e.g. the Japanese and the German, among others), it is most effective when used in tunnels, because it allows a smaller cross-section and facilitates maintenance. In most of the tracks worldwide, a ballasted track is still the case, as it ensures flexibility (an important factor in the event of differential settlements) and 135aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Railway Management and Engincering yaaa wl) =3-4) (8.24) 8.3.2, Results of the method The graphic representations of bending moment M, shear force T and vertical settlement z, (Fig, 8.3), are sinusoidal damped curves with a wavelength 4 of pedela® (8.25) w The amplitude of the various curves is decreasing by a damping factor equal to e™=0,0432 between consecutive waves. As apparent in Figure 8.3, for x>3-2/5 the bending moment M and the shear force T are practically zero. The influence of the wheel load Q is there- fore negligible, according to uni-directional analysis, beyond the distance 3-15 from the point of application of the load Q (around 4 m), which however is not verified neither by more accurate theories nor by measurements. Ty, Fig. 8.3. Bending moment, i shear force and set- tlement of the track system in relation to distance from the point of appli- cation of the wheel tic theory, (179) / (8.26) (8.27) (8.28)Mechanical Behaviour of Track (8.29) o Equations (8.26) to (8.29) show that if the sleeper reaction coefficient p increases, Mo and 2 decrease and Ro increases. The vertical settlement zo, however, which is proportional to I/p** decreases much faster than the bending moment M, which is proportional to 1/p'*.Therefore, a high value of the sleeper reaction coefficient is beneficial for track geometry. It should be noted that the sleeper reaction coefficient is mainly affected by the qual- ity of the subgrade, where most of the total vertical settlement occurs, An increase of sleeper spacing ¢ results in an increase of M, R and z. However, vertical settlement and sleeper reaction increase faster than mo- ment, because the former is proportional to £°, while the moment is propor- tional to '. Consequently, a reduction of sleeper spacing affects more track geometry and less rail mechanical behaviour. When rail stiffness E-I increases, Mo increases and Z and Ro decrease. Rail stiffness increases mainly as a result of an increase of rail weight per unit length. As is well-known from the strength of materials, rail bending stresses are found from the equation o=-M * (8.30) and considering the value ymax, we obtain: Q-¥o J E-f Snax = “4 2-42 VP -p where yo is the maximum distance from the rail center of gravity. Therefore, an increase of the rail moment of inertia significantly influ- ences the stresses generated within the rail and to a lesser degree the track geometry. This is why the increase of the load per axle in recent years has led to a considerable increase in the rail cross-section. (8.31) 8.4, Accurate analysis of the mechanical behaviour of track — Finite element method and clastoplastic analysis 84.1. A short description of applications of the finite element method in track problems Approximate methods (Zimmermann’s method, Boussinesq’s multi-layer method, etc.) permit a convenient and quick calculation, but their deviation from 157Railway Management and Engineering actual values, as shown by on-site measurements, may reach 100%, (149). It is therefore necessary that the mechanical behaviour of the track-subgrade system (mainly calculations of the strain and stresses developed, on which the dimen- sioning of the various layers will be based) be analyzed by more accurate meth- ods. This is now relatively easy, given the numerical methods and powerful computers. An accurate analysis of the mechanical behaviour of track can be achieved with applications of the finite element method, in which instead of the physical system, (Fig. 8.4.a), a system resulting from dividing the physical tem into discrete parts (finite elements) is analyzed (147), (162), (163), (171). 20 vy sut X(u) @) Fig. 8.4. The railway system (a) and the mesh (constituted of finite ele- ments) of the model (b), (147), (162) Figure 8.5 illustrates the various stages (which are analyzed in detail in the following paragraphs) for application of the finite element method in railway problems. The finite element method permits to study the actual physical system without extreme simplifications, to take into account accurate limit condi- tions (i.e. the conditions imparting to the stresses or strains specific values at limit positions, for instance, in supports displacement is zero) and the accu- rate constitutional law of behaviour (i.e. the relationship between stress and strain for every material), (170). 8.4.2. Construction of the mesh of the model For reasons of symmetry (along the longitudinal and the transverse axes), the study of the problem can be limited to ' of the initial system (Fig. 8.4.b). The construction of the mesh of the model is an essential part of the method and the resulting finite elements must be homogeneous (i.e. of about the same size), otherwise the convergence of the method may suffer, (166). 158aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Railway Management and Engineering berate) 95 a Soo mm 0.10 mm > g 5 068mm subgrade S, 08mm on medium quality {1+ = 1.00 mm subgrade (S,) 1.07 mm 20 subgrade S$, 146mm 152 mm 40 mora ‘~(mm) LL 151mm . timber sleeper. 1=2,600 mm subgrade S, 223mm 2.18 mm Sa : vertical setth monoblock sleeper, 1=2,500 mm. * can aoe Fig. 8.11. Comparative elastic line Fig, 8.12. Elastic line of timber for timber sleeper and sleeper for various sub- monoblock prestressed- grade qualities, (147) concrete sleeper, (147) dynamic effects, which complicate numerical calculations. A comparison of the results of finite element static analyses with stress and strain measurement re- sults, has shown deviations not exceeding 20%, thus confirming that the static approach is satisfactory for stress and strain analysis, (163). There are phenomena, however, which cannot be adequately simulated by the static approach. These include the problem of the transmission of vi- brations from the trains to the environment, the problem of the motion and the suspension of the various rolling stock components, etc., (156), (168). A good simulation of dynamic effects can be realized by a viscoelastic law of behaviour and is illustrated in Figure 8.13, where: @ the symbol “WW represents elastic behaviour, @ the symbol += represents viscous behaviour, © the symbol 72" represents viscoelastic behaviour (Kelvin-Voigt model), @ rail vehicles and bogies are modelized as non-deformable solids, ¢ wheels and sleepers are modelized as discrete masses, @ the ballast and the various subgrade layers are modelized as horizontal layers, @ the various system components are interconnected by a viscoelastic stress-strain relationship. 166Mechanical Behaviour of Track ib hs ty Fig. 8.13. Modelization of the ballast vehicle — track — sub- subballast grade system for a dy- namic analysis, (149) the subgrade In the dynamic approach, the problem is reduced to solving the dynamic equation (M] £4] + (C] [41+ EX) (4) = [F] + (R] (8.43) where [MJ] : the mass matrix, [C] : the viscosity (damping) matrix, [K] : the stiffness matrix, [q]_: the displacement vector, [4] : the velocity vector, [4] : the acceleration vector, [F] _: the external forces vector, [R]_: the vector of the reactions exerted by the sleeper on the ballast. In the dynamic analysis, calculations are complex and take a long time. For this reason, they should be restricted only to phenomena, which cannot be adequately simulated by static analysis. 8.6. Track defects and additional dynamic loads Analysis of the mechanical behaviour of the rail system has until now been based on the assumption that both rails and wheels are smooth and free of de- fects. However, this is not the case, and, as explained in section 7.11.2, the de- 167Railway Management and Engineering fects that appear stimulate the system and cause additional dynamic loads Qayn, ata pats which may reach values of up to tion of rail 50% of the wheel load. The mechanical analysis of the track-subgrade system should ae } therefore be considered not on trac Z 5 Fig. 8.14. Track defects and additional the total load, (Fig. 8.14): dynamic loads Qiot = Qeiat + Qayn (8.44) Additional dynamic loads may be divided into three categories according to the respective vibration frequency: - Loads in the range 0.5 Hz24 LAva declared 12.4.3. The Microdeval test The Microdeval test is used principally to determine hardness of gravel sub- ballast. The test equipment consists of a cylinder of a length of 154mm with 264Ballast an internal diameter of 200 mm. The sample consists of 500gr of gravel with grains ranging between sieve diameters 10mm and 14mm. A steel ball weighing Skg and 2.5 lit of water are put in the cylinder together with the sample, The cylinder performs 12,000 revolutions at a speed of 100 revolu- tions/minute. Let be m the mass (in gr), after the test, of grains smaller than the 1.6mm sieve. The Microdeval coefficient MDE is defined as MDE =100-™@2. (12) 500 European standard suggests use of Microdeval test when required. Based on the value of Microdeval test, various categories of ballast can be de- clared, (Table 12.9), (244). However, it should be emphasized that according to European standard, the sample in the Microdeval test is 10 kg and the machine is rotated for 14,000 revolutions. Table 12.9. Categories of ballast in relation to the Microdeval coefficient, according to the European standard, (244) Microdeval Category of coefficient ballast MDEb S35 MDEa 5 S7 MDEba 7 sul MDE 11 <15 MDE tay 15 >15 MDE,a declared 12.4.4. Required ballast strength and hardness The required ballast strength and hardness depend upon the line traffic, the fre- quency of renewal (usually every 15+20 years), the material of the crushed stone, etc. French specifications mandate that the Los Angeles and Deval coeffi- cients intersect at a point lying within the band specified in Figure 12.4, (252). 12.5. Determination of the appropriate thickness of ballast 12.5.1. Determination of the appropriate thickness of track bed Until the mid-1980s, ballast thickness was calculated based on the Boussi- nesq equations. However, a more accurate analysis, by using the finite ele- ment method, has allowed all railway parameters concerning ballast dimen- sioning to be taken into account: 265aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Railway Management and Engineering 330m | 3.30m 1 T 1.10m_ 1.65m 1.65m 1.10m__0.55m_ 210m | 2,10m | } | IH | 635m 6,35 m l Fig. 12.8. Cross-section of a double track with monoblock prestressed- concrete sleepers (Vns:=250 km/h), (straight track) 635 m ! 6,35 m Fig. 12.9. Cross-section of a double track with monoblock prestressed- concrete sleepers (V ms:=250 km/h), (curved track) 272cai | ___5.80m = 5.27m 2.1 Fig. 12.10. Cross-section of the high-speed Paris-Lyons track of French railways (Vma=300 km/h) 130m 325m |.240m | 2.40m | Fig. 12.11.Cross-section of the high-speed Paris-Marseille track of French railways (Vix=350 km/h) 273aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.13 Transverse Effects — Derailment 13.1. Transverse effects When a rail vehicle runs on the track, vertical, transverse and longitudinal forces are developed on the railway system, (see section 7.11.1). Up to this chapter, we haye focused on the effects of vertical forces, which determine dimensioning of the various components of the railway track and the subgrade. Transverse forces affect both passenger comfort and train safety. Exceeding the limits of transverse track resistance may cause track shifting and eventual derailment. Derailment may also be the result of either wheel climbing on the rail or of vehicle overtum- ing, (261). Speed increases in recent years have mandated additional strict pro- tective measures to increase and ensure safety. It should be stressed that com- pared to other means of transportation, railways are the safest, (see section 1.2.3), 13.2. Transverse track forces Let us first investigate what transverse forces are applied during train mo- tion on the track as a whole. Transverse forces are composed of one static and one dynamic component. 13.2.1. Transverse static force This is defined as the force due to the unbalanced centrifugal acceleration and to driving forces on curves. Static force H,(t) will be calculated by the following semi-empirical formula, (269): _ P(t):NT(mm) HO 1,500 where P : load per axle, NT : transverse defect, (see section 16.4.2), if the train is on a straight track, or cant deficiency hy mx, (see section 14.2.2), if the train is on a curve. (13.1) 276Transverse Effects — Derailment 13.2.2, Transverse dynamic force This is defined as the force caused by the various forms of track defects and by rolling stock defects. The transverse dynamic force H,(t) will be calcu- lated by the following semi-empirical formula, (269): P(t). Vi fh) H,(t)= P(t) V(km/h) 1,000 where P : load per axle, V : train speed. (13.2) 13.3. Transverse track resistance Transverse resistance of the track depends on the sleeper type and on track maintenance. We will consider the worst case, i.e. a track immediately after maintenance, which destabilizes the track. Under the influence of rail traffic, the ballast is compacted, resulting in an increase of the transverse resistance. On a track with timber sleepers, for which maintenance is performed by non-mechanical (manual) means, the transverse resistance may be calculated by the formula, (267): L(t) =0.85 (122) (13.3) On tracks with timber sleepers, for which maintenance is performed me- chanically, the transverse resistance is calculated by the formula: Ly =14+20. FO (13.4) On tracks with swin-block reinforced-concrete sleepers, for which main- tenance by mechanical means is mandatory, transverse track resistance is: L)=1. 5+7O (13.5) For tracks with monoblock prestressed-concrete sleepers, such an analytical formula is not available; however, tests have shown that the constant term of equations (13.4) and (13.5) has in the case of monoblock prestressed-concrete sleepers values between 1.0 and 1.5, (269). The above formulas are semi-empirical and are the result of a series of tests conducted by the French and German railways, (267), (269). Most tailway networks are currently using them and no objections or reservations have been expressed. 277Railway Management and Engineering Research on the effects of speed on transverse track resistance has shown that the latter is not affected by an increase of speed, (267). The above formulas are applicable provided that additional dynamic loads (see section 8.6) are not greater than 20% of nominal static load. If, however, the additional dynamic loads exceed 20% of static load, the above formulas should be multiplied by a correction factor in the order of 0.9. The latter case applies also to tracks of medium or bad quality, (265). 13.4. Influence of ballast characteristics on transverse track resistance 13.4.1. Influence of the geometrical characteristics of the ballast cross-section Transverse track resistance is the resultant of the following three components: « A component generated by friction on the lower surface of the sleeper, proportional to sleeper weight. + A component resulting from friction between the sleeper sides and the bal- last filling the space between consecutive sleepers. This component de- pends on the degree of filling of the spaces between sleepers, (Fig. 13.1), as well as on the degree of ballast compacting. This lateral component amounts to about 40+50% of the total resistance in the case of timber sleepers, 15+25% in the case of twin-block reinforced-concrete sleepers, and 30% in the case of monoblock prestressed-concrete sleepers, (268). « A component developed at the two ends of the sleeper and depending both on the width of ballast shoulder c and whether the ballast is su- perelevated or not, (Fig. 13.2). % af trasvetie resistance . space between sleepers 100+ we : 50 | degree of filling | ‘of the spaces ~ cusopers consecutive sleepers 0 0 2 1 Fig. 13.1. Influence on transverse track resistance of the degree of bal- last filling between sleepers, (268) Fig. 13.2. Sleeper end, ballast shoulder width ¢ and ballast superelevation h 278aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Railway Management and Engineering ‘% of transverse resistance ballast of crushed and flattened quarry material crushed gravel uggaggy ballast of cube-shaped ballast crushed quarry material <11.3 11.3432 32-45 45465 30+50 40+60 25465 = Swedish Swiss French (mm) railways railways railways railways Fig. 13.4. Influence of the granulometric composition of ballast on transverse track resistance, (268) % of transverse resistance == 100% consolidated track (ater maintenance works 70 é tamping and compacting at g ES te eaofte sleepers 40 tamping and compacting at 30 [I] the ends of the sleepers plus ‘compacting of the spaces 20 between the sleepers 1 2 3 & & 6 Fig. 13.5. Track stabilization for various forms of compacting, (268) % of transverse resistance with ballast compaction es between sleepers 70 ~-|no ballast 60 compaction 50 40 30 ul , traffic load 0.05 0.1 0.5 1.0 2.0 (inmillions tons) Fig. 13.6. Recovery of transverse track resistance, after maintenance, as a function of traffic load, (261) 280aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Fig. 13.10. Anchors for increase of verse track resistance, (261) 13.7. Derailment The derailment of a rail vehicle may « wheel climbing on the rail, ¢ vehicle overturning. Transverse Effects — Derailment A considerable increase of transverse resistance (20+80%) is achieved by the so-called transverse anchors, (Fig, 13.10), (261). Finally, an even greater increase (in the order of 170%) is attained by placing concrete posts against sleeper ends, but this is an expensive solution interfering with systematic track maintenance, which is carried out with the use of mechanical equipment, (268). ‘trans- occur as a result of one of the following, We will discuss each case separately. 13.7.1. Derailment caused by track shifting P _— H Fig. 13.11. Vertical and transverse forces on a wheel Under the influence of considerable transverse forces, the track shifts as a whole and causes derailment of the vehicle. This form of derailment mainly occurs at high speeds. The condition for derailment by track shifting is that the transverse force H, (Fig. 13.11), which may cause track shifting, exceeds the transverse track resistance L, given by formulas (13.3) to (13.5), (section 13.3): HEL where H=H,+ Ha (13.6) (13.7) 283Railway Management and Engineering 13.7.2. Derailment caused by wheel climbing on the rail When the transverse force Y developed between wheel and rail exceeds a cer- tain value, then the wheel climbs on the rail and causes derailment. This form of derailment mainly occurs at low speeds and the condition to avoid derailment is given by Nadal’s formula, (Fig. 13.12): ¥ Besiticar = 69°13” Y___tanp-f Qu 1+ f-tanp and derailment safety factor for this angle is equal to 1. ¢ Derailment by overturning of the vehicle This form of derailment can be studied in relation to the geometrical charac- teristics of the rolling stock. In any case, the safety factor, as discussed in section 13.7.3, has in this case values greater than 3.3, (259), (261). 13.8. Effects of transverse winds For tracks laid in areas with transverse winds of high intensity, the risk of overturning of the rail vehicle should be carefully evaluated. This risk is greater (by 50%) for metric gauge tracks, (258). Let us consider a rail vehicle of mass M on a curve of a radius R with a cant h for a track with a gauge G, (Fig. 13.13). In addition to the transverse forces previously discussed, the vehicle is submitted to a transverse force Fy, due to a wind of a medium transverse speed u, which causes an addi- tional transverse force AQ between the vehicle and the rail. The static analysis of the phenomenon shows that the overturning of the rail vehicle is a relation of the factor AQ/Q,, which is found to be, (258) AQ_21 1 hy pe ehh Qa GG? GMg where: Q,: static load [=(M-g)/2], : height of the gravity center of the vehicle, : height of the point of application of transverse wind, mass of the air, surface of transverse cross-section of the vehicle, rodynamic coefficient at the vertical direction, + train speed. -p-S-c-(V? 4u?) (13.13) 28714 Track Layout 14.1. Rail vehicle running on a curve 14.1.1. Effects during movement on a curve According to elementary physics, a vehicle running at a speed V on a curve of radius R develops a centrifugal acceleration y=V’/R and a centrifugal force F=m:V7/R with the following adverse consequences: @ reduction in passenger comfort, important transverse forces favouring conditions for derailment, @ increased transverse loading of both track and rolling stock, resulting in considerable wear, @ increased vibrations. In order to reduce the above unfavourable effects, the following meas- ures are available: © Using as large a radius of curvature R as possible. Such a measure is not easily implemented, however, due to topographical constraints, which of- ten make large radii conditional on expensive civil engineering projects (bridges, tunnels, high embankments or cuts). ¢ Transverse superelevation (also called cant) of the external rail in rela- tion to the internal rail, to offset centrifugal forces. Cant greatly de- creases transverse effects, without, however, completely counteracting them in most cases, since it cannot exceed certain values beyond which rolling stock and track wear become prohibitive. © Reduction in train speed, which constitutes a last resort solution, since the trend is to increase train speed. 14.1.2, Transition curve — Cubic parabola or clothoid On a straight line, curvature is zero, while on a curve of radius R curvature is I/R. Therefore, between a straight and a curved track, the curvature 289aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Railway Management and Engineering latter is constant on a curve, a single value hg, of theoretical cant can be calcu- lated. This condition, however, is fulfilled only on metropolitan railways or on high-speed lines used only by passenger trains. On the contrary, on conven- tional railway lines, fast (passenger) and slow (freight) trains coexist. Thus, if the maximum speed of passenger trains is used in equation (14.9), then passenger comfort is ensured. With freight trains, however, problems arise due to wear of both the wheels and track equipment (specifi- cally of the heads of the internal rails). In particular, if a freight train stops on a curve, it will have trouble starting (it will even be unable to do so if the radius of curvature is too small). If in equation (14.9) the usual running speed of freight trains is applied, then no problem is created for them. Passenger comfort, however, is greatly impaired, as weil as stresses of the rail placed higher. A compromise between the two previous conditions should therefore be found by adopting a cant value, which ensures passenger comfort, increases only moderately rolling stock and track stresses, and allows trains to stop on acurve. This intermediate value of cant h is often termed applied or normal cant (or standard cant by some railways). We will have: Beh (Vinin) << bey (Vmax) (14,12) Selecting the applied value of cant results in cant deficiency for fast trains and cant excess for slow trains. The difference between the theoretical value of cant for maximum speed and the applied value of cant is termed cant deficiency ha hg =P (Vinx) — 4 (14.13) The difference between the applied value of cant and the theoretical value of cant for minimum speed is termed cant excess h, he =h—hy (Vin) (14.14) The applied value of cant, as explained in section 14.4, will be calculated by the equation: 2 hax 4 g. V7 (km/h) max + Ng max R(m) h(mm) = ; (14.15) 14.2.3. Cant deficiency and tilting trains In order to deal with the problem of non-compensated centrifugal accel- eration, certain types of rolling stock tilt automatically on small-radius curves. 292Track Layout The so-called tilting trains try (and often fully succeed) to reduce cant defi- ciency in curves by tilting the vehicle body in relation to the wheel-base (Fig. 14.4). When using tilting trains, speed can be increased for small-radius curves by up to 30%, compared to conventional rolling stock. This tech- nique has been applied in the UK, Spain, Italy, Sweden, Japan and else- where (tilting technology is further analyzed in section 19.9). @ &) vehicle on fixed body and _ fixed body and tilting body and straight line theoretical cant actual cant actual cant Fig. 14.4. The additional superelevation provoked by tilting trains, (272) 14.2.4. Permissible values of transverse acceleration In section 7.12 we have seen that passenger comfort depends both on the value of the transverse acceleration and on the duration and frequency which are felt by the human body. The direction in which the transverse accelera- tion is exerted is also critical. It is found that an acceleration of 0.05g at a frequency of 1.5 Hz can be tolerated for Sh 30min in the vertical direction and 3h 30min in the horizontal direction, (148). Human physiology considerations, therefore, determine the maximum value of transverse acceleration as well as its rate of change. There is gen- eral agreement that maximum transverse acceleration should never exceed 2/10, i.e. a value of 1 m/sec’, (276). In track layout, however, a considerable reduction of passenger comfort can- not be tolerated. Consequently, the non-compensated centrifugal acceleration b should not exceed a percentage of the maximum transverse acceleration y accept- able by the human body. Many railway authorities set this limit as follows, (279): (14.16) In metropolitan railways, where duration of the whole trip is smaller, a higher value of non-compensated centrifugal acceleration up to 0.8 m/sec” can be con- sidered acceptable. ‘The selected value of b affects the maximum value of cant deficiency. 293Railway Management and Engineering 14.2.5. Cant deficiency variation in time The variation of cant deficiency in time is: : Ah hg (mm /see)= =" (14.17) The parameter hy is expressed as a function of the cant deficiency varia- tion per unit length hg (mm/sec) = 4 = 4d O°. Sa. hg _Ahy Ae _ Ahy VeweCkm/h) O44 1g) At A€ At At 3.6 . 14.3. Limit values of cant and acceleration As will be analyzed in next sections, once values of cant h and non- compensated acceleration b are defined, then for a given value of speed the radius of curvature R can be calculated (see equation (14.36) below). Limit values of cant and acceleration are prescribed by the UIC, (276). Lines are classified in 4 classes: Class I: Vinx: 80 + 120 km/h, Class I: Vmax: 120 + 200 km/h, Class I: Vy: 250 km/h, mixed traffic. Standards of German and Swiss railways are given, Class IV: Vinac: 300 km/h, only passenger traffic (case of the French TGV). For each class, applied, maximum and exceptional values of cant, cant deficiency, cant excess and non-compensated transverse acceleration are given in Table 14.1, (276). Exceptional values can be applied only after the running characteristics of the rolling stock have been verified. 14.4, Calculation of the transition curve In section 14.2.2. we have explained that the value of applied cant h must lie between two limits to ensure that no problems are caused to either slow (freight) or fast (passenger) trains. After the limit values given in Table 14.1, it should be Bin (Vinx) — Nd max < (mm) < bey (Vinin) + Be max (14,19) and in each case

3,000 m, © the calculated values of cant are practically zero, © between two adjacent curves (of the same direction), the variation of ac- celeration has values between 0.2 m/sec” and 0.3 m/sec’. 14.5. Calculation of the circular arc Let f be the shift produced by the cubic parabola between the straight line and the circular arc, (Fig. 14.3). The characteristics of the circular arc are calculated by the following equations, (143), (279): OK =R+f-tanZ +2 (1427) KD=(R+f)-(Geod—D+f (14.28) 1. mao Opp ==-(R- 2242 14.29 2 ¢ 200 * 1 ¢ ) where sec = is the secant ofthe angle & (angle «expressed in grades). cos— 2 The shift f is calculated by the equation = 14.30) YR a3) i.e., in most cases the influence of f on the length OK is negligible com- pared to R. 14.6. Case of consecutive same sense and antisense circular arcs Between two consecutive circular arcs of the same sense with radii R, and Ry, a transition curve is placed adjacent to each circular arc and an interme- 297Track Layout 14.7. Superelevation ramp As explained in section 14.4, the superclevation ramp and the cubic parabola should coincide. In this case, the following cant variation diagram results, (Fig, 14.6): hor VR cant diagram (h) ER B.R.=Beginning of superelevation superelevation ramp E.R. = End of superelevation ramp B.C. = Beginning of parabolic curve E.C.= End of parabolic curve MTeurvature ! {diagram (1/R)! 5 Parabolic circular are parabolic Fig. 14.6. Cant and curvature variation diagram between rectilinear section and circular arc A similar linear variation of cant should be applied between same sense, (Fig. 14.7), or antisense circular curves, (Fig. 14.8). hor1/R cant diagram (h) ° BC See Parabolic” circular are intermediate circular arc. “parabolic curve paraboli Fig. 14.7. Cant and curvature variation diagram between consecutive same sense circular arcs 299Track Layout Table 14.2. Maximum and minimum speeds on a layout Vmax < 100 kavh > Vaia> 60 kmih 100 km/h < Vix < 140 kmh Vain 70 ke/h 140 kf < Vix < 200 = Vigg > 80 an/h For high speeds, coexistence of passenger and freight trains is more complicated. For this reason, some railways have specialized their high- speed tracks only for passenger traffic. 14.9. Relationship of train speed with radius of curvature We shall now calculate the maximum permissible speed on a curve of radius R, or, for a given speed V, the minimum required radius of curvature. Obviously, for a given radius R, the speed V reaches a maximum when the margins for cant h, cant deficiency hg and cant excess h, are exhausted. From equations (14.9), (14.15), (14.19), it follows that 118- V2 Bix Vaan _ 1.8- Vin 7 Ramax <118 oe oe +Remax (14.36) Solving equation (14.36) for Vmax we obtain the maximum permitted speed for a given radius R, whereas solving for R we obtain the minimum required radius for a given speed Vinax. With respect to Rain, however, it should be ensured that the maximum cant excess for the minimum speed Vina of slow trains can be applied. Equa- tion (14.36) gives: 11.8-V2 11.8 Vai aaa Saal —Rg mex < Pano + and setting up the maximum values for hg max: he max and solving for R, we take the minimum radius required by slow trains (with Vmin)- With respect to the minimum speed, therefore, equations (14.36) and (14.37) should be simultaneously valid, and the higher value found for Rmin will be used. Whenever possible, railways try to apply the maximum possible value of R. Conceming policy on the lower values of radius, there are great differences among railways, principally due to the mountainous or plane character of the ground. Table 14.3 gives the percentage of tracks curved at 500m or less in some European railways. he max (14.37) 301Railway Management and Engineering Table 14.3. When the radius of curva- Percentage of curves with a radius ture of track is small, tack smaller than 500 m for various gauge is increased, resulting in European railways (metro systems a value higher than in straight are not taken into account), (278) track sections. The increase is applied to the inner rail. For “County ~~—=s%ofcurveswitha -‘Tadius R<400 m, the track ____sradius Rx 500m _-gatuge can be increased up to United Kindom 3.0% 1.455 m (in the case of timber France 9.0% and steel sleepers) and up to Germany 13.0% 1.440 m (in the case of con- Secuzeread 15.5% crete sleepers), (see also sec- Austria 216% tions 7.4 and 16.4.4). 14.10, Gradients Wherever possible, the longitudinal profile of a line follows the ground pro- file. Longitudinal gradients of railways are much smaller compared to those of highways. The maximum value of gradient mainly depends on the characteris- tics and power of the rolling stock. The usual maximum values of gradients on principal lines with mixed traffic and speeds up to 200 km/h range between 12%0+15%0. The maximum gradient on the main lines of German railways is 12.5%o but in the French TGV (with only passenger traffic) it is 35%o (see also section 2.1.5, Table 2.3). For adhesion reasons, maximum gradients can hardly exceed the limit value of 40%o. For instance, some lightweight rail systems, which operate vehicles with 50% of the axles motorized, have gradients up to 40%o, (141). Above this, the use of a rack railway must be considered. 14.11. Vertical transition curves The transition between longitudinal sections with different gradient values is made by interposing a circular arc of radius Ry, whose purposes are: — to limit the vertical acceleration, experienced by passengers, to a com- fortable level, — to limit the wheel unloading of freight vehicles, — to prevent excessive compression of the springs of the inner axles of a bogie or locomotive having three or more fixed axles. The transition curve is not necessary as long as the difference of the re- spective gradients (if of the same sense) or their sum (if of opposite sense) is less than 2.5%, ie. provided that 302aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a 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page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Railway Management and Engineering 25,000 V, a minimum value of 19,000 V, and only a momentary fall to 17,000 V, (348), (349). 4s displacement (cm) contact force (ke), oom om support ‘support Fig. 20.11. Results of application of the finite element method for the calcu- lation of the overhead contact system of a high-speed track, (350) om 20.8.4. Suspension of overhead contact systems Various suspension methods of overhead contact systems are being used, (Fig. 20.12), depending mainly on train speed, but also on climatic conditions (wind speed and direction) and on pole spacing. With low speeds (up to 120 knv/h), simple suspension is adequate, whereas with medium and high speeds catenary-type suspension is mandatory, (357), (358). ‘However, the contact wire oscillates at the transverse level with a maximum displacement at the order of 20 cm. Thus, a quick wear of the parts of the panto- graph touching the contact wire is avoided. stort or te dN. ff : we eer a. catenary with a b. catenary with a Y suspen- c. simple suspension simple suspension sion form in the poles (for V<120 km/h) (for V<120 km/h) (for V>120 km/h) Fig. 20.12. Suspension methods of overhead contact systems 398and Electric Traction Whenever several tracks are laid parallel (stations, tunnel entrance-exit, bridges, etc.), it is advisable to reconfigure and eliminate certain tracks in order to reduce the total number of tracks to be electrified, (359). 20.8.5. Power transmission by conductor rail As mentioned in section 20.5.1, electric power may be supplied to locomotives using either an overhead contact system or conductor rails (one or two). Conductor rails are mainly used in metros and some suburban railways. Fig. 20.13. Power supply by The conductor rail solution, (Fig. conductor rail 20.13), is preferable in the case of in- creased traffic loads, for which very large overhead line cross-sections would be otherwise necessary. The con- ductor rail is equivalent to an overhead contact system with a 900mm? cross- section and in the case of tunnels allows a smaller load gauge and therefore considerable savings. In the vicinity of level crossings or turnouts, the third rail is interrupted and special insulated cables ensure power supply continuity. Special atten- tion should be paid to safety, possibly covering the conductor rail with insu- lating plates at level crossings, passages, and personnel working areas. Con- ductor rails are more sensitive to snow and frost than overhead systems. In some metros (London underground for instance) two conductor rails are used to avoid earth return on the running rails. Until the early 1950s, steel conductor rails have been extensively used, iron conductors later on and recently aluminium-steel composite rails. Per- missible intensity is 2,800 A for iron conductor rail and 4,700 A for alumin- ium composite rail for a maximum temperature of 85°C, a critical tempera- ture of the environment of 40°C and a conductor cross-section of 5,100 mm? (specification of the metro of Berlin) Because of the great mass of the conductor rail, length variation for ex- treme differences (-30°C + +80°C) becomes high and for this reason joints are placed every 45+60 m. Conductor rail may be placed at the rail level or over the track gauge. 20.8.6. Electrical and power characteristics of some high-speed tracks Table 20.1 recapitulates principal electrical and power characteristics of some high-speed tracks. 399Railway Management and Engineering Table 20.1. 1,000+ ~1,000 1,000 1,000 1500 20.9. Overhead line supporting poles 20.9.1. Pole material The poles supporting the overhead line may consist of cast steel or zinc plated steel or prestressed concrete or reinforced concrete. 20.9.2. Pole spacing Spacing between supporting poles ranges be- tween 50+75m depending on the following factors: pantograph oscillations, locomotive transverse motions, climatic conditions. Figure 20.14 illustrates the transverse dis- placement D of the pantograph, resulting from the addition of, (348), (359): — the horizontal defect HD, ~ the transverse defect TD, which is reflected on pantograph displacement multiplied by t the ratio 1: Fig. 20.14, Pantograph _heigh of contact wire oscillations track gauge and TDP=TD-p 400aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Signaling — Safety — Interoperability A [ep Yr tH . ht ‘A- Middle line force tr B-Core by C-Coil D- Movable armatures ‘A- Fixed part Band C- Contact blades D- Moving blade Fig. 21.5. Parts of a relay (a: Actuator. b: Moving parts) 21.4.1. Light signals A light signal is composed of: the signal mast, the lights, the identification plate, the telephone sets, which enable the driver to call the station dispatcher or traffic controller, provided that the station includes remote control. The light signals are placed at the station entrance and exit. Advance sig- nals are placed to warn the driver of the signals he is about to encounter. eoee 21.4.2. Switch control devices In a signaling system, the switches employed are usually electrically actu- ated but also (though not often) hydraulically or pneumatically and their position is automatically monitored. Certain switches (normally of secondary importance) may be manually operated, but, as a mandatory requirement, their position is again electrically monitored. 21.4.3. Train integrity detectors Entry of the first axles of a train in a track circuit does not guarantee that the entire train has entered the circuit, because part of the train may have been 413Railway Management and Engineering cut off. The integrity of the train as a whole is verified by the following pro- cedure. A permanent magnet is mounted at the rear end of each train. At the entrance to each station, a so-called tail detector is located. This is an elec- tromagnetic device mounted on the track and activated when the permanent magnet at the rear of the train is passing above it. Use of this, rather obso- lete, equipment permits to check the integrity of the train. 21.4.4. Approach locking detectors Traffic safety is ensured when successive trains cannot get closer than the braking distance. The pertinent check is made by the so-called approach locking technique. 21.4.5, Local operating and display board Each railway station, depending on its track configuration, its importance and the estimated traffic, is provided with a suitable local operating and dis- play board. On this board, the track and switch layout are displayed in clear sche- matic form and, by suitable luminous indications, the state of the light sig- nals and the free or occupied condition of the tracks or track circuits are in- dicated. Finally, defects or failures, if any, of the signaling system are shown by luminous indications on this control board. The various operations of the local board are carried out by operating specific keys, whereby the station operator specifies a route, assigns a track, locks an exit light signal, etc. The local board includes certain controls, which are sealed under normal conditions. In a malfunction emergency, however, it is possible to restore normal system operation by unsealing and operating these controls. 21.4.6. Remote monitoring and control 21.4.6.1. Operating principles The remote monitoring and control system, enabling central traffic supervi- sion, is used for better coordination and monitoring of a track section or of several successive trains. It is thus possible to a few operators to regulate the densest traffic. All information of a remote controlled station is transferred by suitable devices and displayed on the central control board. Thus, the central opera- tor has a complete picture of the situation at all stations in his area as well as of the various tracks situation (train locations, light signal status, occupied 414aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Signaling — Safety — Interoperability Line-side Electric Unit Balise ]. European Rail Traffic Management System (ERTMS) Level 1 an antenna and a reception system, known as Balise Transmission Module (BTM), which ensures exchange of information between soil and board. Signals sent from the Eurobalise to the balise use the fre- quency of 27.095 MHz (very close to the frequency of 27.115 MHz of KVB and EBICAB systems), whereas signals from the balise to Eurobalise antenna are sent at a frequency of 4.234 MHz., © an on-board computer (Eurocab), in constant interface with the driver, for the continuous calculation of the position of a train, correlation be- tween permitted and actual speed, eventual emergency braking, etc. If we want to work ERTMS Level | in a semi-continuous way, then it is necessary to install the Euroloop system, which consists of a cable running along the track and receiving messages, which have been sent at frequencies between 1.8+7.2 MHz. ERTMS Level 1 can be used by itself or in superposition of a usual sig- naling system. — ERTMS Level 2. In addition to the functions of ERTMS Level 1, in ERTMS Level 2, transmission of data along the track is done by the radio (GSM-R), (Fig. 21.8). The detection of trains is achieved by track-based equipment, usually track circuits or axle counters. Information is communicated to the driver by cab-signaling. In ERTMS Level 2, lateral signaling is no more necessary, but may continue to co-exist with cab-signaling. Co- existence, however, of the two modes of signaling may cause confusion or contradiction to the drivers. Authorization for the movement of a train is done continuously thanks to a transmission radio-soil-train. In addition to ensuring interoperability, ERTMS Level 2 implemented in tracks with a dense traffic may augment track capacity by 10+15%, (365). — ERTMS Level 3. Transmission of data along the track is done by radio (GSM-R). The detection of trains is achieved by train-based equipment reporting to the command-control data processing system. Information is communicated to the driver in the cab. In ERTMS Level 3, there is no more need for track circuit, (Fig. 21.9), which is replaced by a system of detection of the position of the train and of its integrity, (364). 423Railway Management and Engineering Radio Block Center Fig. 21.8. European Rail Traffic Management System (ERTMS) Level 2 GSM-Radio No track circuit Fig. 21.9. European Rail Traffic Management System (ERTMS) Level 3 Until early 2006, many European and non-European (among them: United States, China, India) countries are applying to their tracks Level 1 and Level 2 of ERTMS, but none of them has tried (even at experimental stage) Level 3. Installing ERTMS on a new train costs 0.5 million €, whereas on an old one it costs 1.5 million €. 21.10. Safety measures at level crossings Level crossings often become the places where a number of accidents may occur. Level crossings with no technical protection should not be allowed in lines operated by speeds above 120 km/h, (361). Level crossings should be eliminated at the following cases: crossings with heavy and slow-moving road traffic, crossings with heavy vehicles passing with a statistical frequency, private or rarely used level crossings, crossings reserved for pedestrians. 424Signaling ~ Safety — Interoperabili Safety measures at level crossings may include one or more of the fol- lowing: road light signaling, half barriers, full barriers. Automatic equip- ment should be exclusively used. The type of warning device adopted will depend on the train speed, the type of vehicles crossing (slow, heavy), etc. Automatic equipment consisting only of a road light signaling, without barriers, should be permitted only exceptionally and under very restrictive conditions for speeds up to 140 km/h. The solution of half barriers, shutting off a part of the road (the driving direction), can be used in combination with road light signaling for speeds up to 160 km/h. Full barriers, shutting off the whole width of the road and combined with a road light signaling, are recommended for speeds above 160 km/h, (361). 21.11. Managing railway safety While the safety level of rail transport is far higher compared to other trans- port modes, there exist possibilities to further increase railway safety. Accord- ing to the Intemational Organization for Standardization (ISO), safety can be defined as the release from unacceptable risks, a risk being a combination of harm probability and of gravity of harm, (362). In the railway sector, the risk can be defined in relation to the events that damage safety (fatalities or injuries of passengers or employees) or transportation stability (delay). Accidents are the result of complicated combinations of various factors such as the number of trains, the number of passengers and freight, safety equipment (signaling and speed control), surrounding environment and hu- man factors. Usual forms of rail accidents are: collision, derailment, fire, during maintenance works, with pedestrians at platforms, etc. Accident analysis and modeling aim to quantify the degree of influence of various factors to the probability of occurring the specific category of accident. Railway accidents analysis requires analytical and accurate data and proceeds with the use of stochastic methods. As a result, the appropriate measures to be taken are suggested, e.g. in order to avoid in a platform colli- sion or accidents with pedestrians, warning systems detecting pedestrians or other trains can be installed on a train. In European Union countries, a railway undertaking in order to be granted access to the railway infrastructure must hold a safety certificate, which is a responsibility of each member-state, (see also section 3.6). An essential aspect of safety is the training and certification of staff, particularly of train drivers. The training covers operating rules, the signaling system, the knowledge of routes and emergency procedures. The railway undertaking should also prove that its rolling stock has been properly checked and approved. 42522 Environmental Effects of Railways 22.1. Increasing threats for a harmful change in earth’s environment and railways Every human activity has a minor or major effect on the environment. Up to a certain level of industrial production, the environment absorbed through natural procedure effects of human activities. Beyond this level, climate changes be- come irreversible. Have we reached this level? Ever since 1995, the United Na- tions intergovernmental panel on climate change concludes that the balance of evidence suggests a discernible human influence on global climate. Analysis of world climate data makes clear that, (378), (385): — between 1900 and 2000, average global temperature has risen by 0.7°C and if this tendency continues average temperature will rise by 2.674.7°C in 2100, — between 1900 and 2000, global sea level has risen by around 20cm and if no change occurs, a further rise of 10+90cm should be expected in 2100, due principally to the melting of polar ice caps, - among 600 vital beings tested, 450 present evidence compatible to an effort of adjustment to an increase in external temperature, ~ there will be major shifts in the world’s vegetation zones, deserts will become hotter and desertification will increase, — known oil reserves will be exhausted at the latest by 2050-2060. The transport sector has together with the industry and the domestic and tertiary sector a number of bad effects to the environment, which concern air and noise pollution, consumption of energy, accidents and safety, land use, (375). Within the transport sector, however, railways are the least harmful to the environment transport mode and this could prove in the distant future a critical element for the development of railways, (387), (388). Figure 22.1 illustrates forecasting of an eventual evolution of key factors of human activity until 2100. 426Environmental Effects of Railways Fig. 22.1. Evolution of key factors of human activity between 1900 and 2100, (385) Economic activity will continue to expand, at least as long as there are enough natural resources and energy. However, individual consumption for transport C,, is causally related to GDP, (Fig. 22.2), by the relation C, = AxinGDP+B (22.1) 2,500 (buen edeeeatsen 008) ouK 2.000 wee on 1,500 1,000 500, Individual consumption for transport C y= 981.362 x INnGDP - 8,161.7 (R2= 0.85) 0 a 0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 30,000 35,000 40,000 G.DP. per capita (in Euros) Legend: AT: Austria, BE: Belgium, CZ: Czech Republic, DK: Denmark, Fl: Finland, FR: France, DE: Germany, GR: Greece, HU: Hungary, IT: Italy, LT: Lithuania, PT: Portugal, ES: Spain, SE: Sweden, NL: The Netherlands, UK: United Kingdom, EU15: European Union of 15 countries, EU25: European Union of 25 countries. Fig. 22.2. A causal relationship between per capita GDP and individual consumption for transport, (377) It is found that for many decades and all over the world the amount of time that people are willing to spend on travel has remained remarkably 427Railway Management and Engineering 31.3% of the total energy worldwide, the industry consumed 40.3% and the do- mestic and tertiary sector consumed 28.4%. World energy demand is satisfied from five main sources: oil 37%, gas 22%, coal 26%, renewable energies 8%, nuclear 7%. Railways have the lowest unit energy consumption compared to other transport modes, (Fig, 22.3). Taking into account all known oil reserves (in 2006) and with a moderate assumption conceming future energy requirements of China and India, all liquid fuels will be exhausted at the latest by 2050+2060. s4o00 EASE? consumption ni perpasenger km etn ton aa" T T T Aicplane Pipeine Railway Small Medium Large Ship Airplane Railway Bus Private Motor- Bicycle cok mek te = oe Freight transport Passenger transport - Fig. 22.3. Unit energy consumption of railways and other transport modes (387) In electrified railways, energy can come from clean forms (like hydro- power, nuclear stations) other than oil. Politicians and citizens have not yet assessed the advantage of electrified railway, which will continue to exist when oil will be exhausted. ‘Due to the increasing oil demand from China and other emerging economies and to the political instability in the Middle East, oil prices are climbing in the second half of the first decade of the 21" century to values from 45+70 US dol- lars per barrel, while for the two preceding decades the price was 2+3 times lower, (see Figure 1.3, section 1.2.2). However, the effect of this increase is rather marginal to economics of transport modes. The cost of fuel amounts only to 6+10% of total operating costs of railways and trucking companies and to 20% of airways, (388). Thus, even a further increase in fuel prices may not greatly affect the present competitive position of transport modes. 22.5. Accidents, safety and railways Safety can be examined in two ways: 430Railway Management and Engineering ing stock, to orient procurements for more ecological protection and to con- trol weed along the track without doing harm to the environment. index (rail = 1) 20 + 17 16 4 re 124 a 8 _ ~ _ | 44 Le 1 02 ‘i — ———J —> 7 7 7 ~ Private car Bus Rail Airplane Fig. 22.4. Land occupancy by various transport modes for transporting ‘one person, (391) 22.7, Congestion Railways, owing to their great carrying capacity, (sce section 1.2.1), can al- leviate traffic congestion. The total annual congestion cost has been evalu- ated for the 15 countries of European Union + Norway + Switzerland at ap- proximately 63 billion € (values of year 2003), (101). Congestion cost is the sum of time losses by passengers and of increase of operating cost, due to low speeds. A critical assumption in the calculation of congestion costs is the value of time per man-hour (for passenger) or per wagon or ton-hour (for freight). The following values (converted in € of year 2006, based on initial values and inflation rates) of travel time have been used in some studies for railways, (101): — business travel 16.50+24.00 €/man-hour, — commuting travel 8.50 €/man-hour, — leisure travel 5,80+6.70 €/man-hour, — freight transport —1.00+1.25 €/ton-hour, Congestion issues are influenced not only by assessment of technical and economic factors from users, but also of users’ choices for the preferred life- style, which during the last three decades favours the use of the private car and of the airplane. 432Wide separ ana ent and Engineering Paesoy ao Lae i cicen VA. PROFILLIDIS Democritus Thrace University, Greece TEM eon UL A odd MLM ete eel cL Con Ste CLM MUS Lo LCT NSC UNM ee Reelin Rule EU ule crated ere aN uma aed of organization are introduced, commercial and tariff policies change radically, a more CCU are OCC A URE RRA LL Ce CrCl Uc Tae) constructed and old tracks are renewed, high-comfort rolling stock vehicles are being introduced, logistics and combined transport are being developed. Awareness of CU eS OCU. eile oo esos OU Cen) the transportation system. Meanwhile, methods of analysis have significantly evolved, Pace Okie RUM NUMA UTS Loelcer- oe Rol.) Piel Tura Therefore it becomes necessary to come up with a new scientific approach to tackle PUUr ue Ure Sl solar UCN OMI Lene MIE (ar Relate La and inter-relationships of the various situations and phenomena and to suggest the EEC Une onan eh RMU RCL i Mel me Teele aims to cover the need for a new scientific approach for railways. It is written for railway DEG ee eee Ur ele ulemco st item runes eet Rent Taam ett of Schools of engineering, transportation and Management. The book is divided into three CS ited ci Mem Re TMU nn eel CNC MeL Cm eta TI) with the track, and chapters 18-22 deal with rolling stock and environmental topics. See mane oun eect Gee ager ieutrueae? Be moon eee eRe Kone at asta Pe aM MCN a rR ee Ue ee CC ee Ue Neate a En Cairn EOL Cac uC Curiae ac mee eerie cues etc. is satisfied. Railways in Europe have separated activities of infrastructure from those of operation. In other parts of the world, however, railways remain unified. The book Br lelectra eres COMM sna tle Cn M IM ata are eel MeL TCLS MCV eR ele R el RelgT=4 STs Cite Semel ele Ue aM CORN COM MCL mE ole a International Union of Railways (UIC) as well as European Standardization (CEN) have been used to the greatest extent possible. Whenever a specific technology or method is UT Clee Toy or een me UT erate Ashgate Publishing Limited Gower House, Croft Road Cees GU11 SHR, England ASHGATE it | | Roe