On the Art of BuildingFrom Angelo Poliziano to his Patron, Lorenzo de’ Medici, Greetings. Leon Batista che Florentine, of the great Albert can, was man of rare brilliance, acute judgment, and extensive laring. Among the many excel lent works that he left to posterity were the ten books he hed composed on sechitecture, These he had corrected and edited with the utmost cae; he was ‘on the point of publishing them and dedicating them to you! when fe struck hin down. Hiskineman Bernado,?2 wise man nd very devoted to ‘you, waning both to honor the memory and wishes of that grat man, and to acknovledge his gratitude for the fvors you have shoven him, bas had the origisal manuscripts transcribed and gathered into one volume (0 pretent e you, Lorenzo de’ Medic. 1 was hie pascular desice that I should commend both his gift and is suthor, Batista, to you. This did ot sem a ll advisable to me, for Fear ‘hat my own poor talents would only diminish so perfect 2 work and £0 great aman. The work wil gther mich mare prise to itself when itis read than I could bestow on it by any of my words; and my eibuteto the author is constrained by the brevity of le 28 the poverty of my syle Surely the wat no field of knowledge however remote, no discipline however arcane, that escaped his attention; you might have asked yourself whether he was more an orator or 2 port, whether his style was more majestic er graceful So thorough had been his examination of the remains ‘of antiquiy that ho was able wo grasp evry principle ofancient architecture, and renew it by example; his invention was not limited to machinery, ie, 2nd automata. but alo included the wonderful forms of buildings. He bad moreover the highest seputation at boc psiner and sculptor, and since he achieved «greater mastery in all these difetent arts than only a few ean ‘manage in any single one, ic would be more teling, a Salut suid sbout (Carthage! be silent sbot him than to sy itl | would Uke you, Lorenzo, to give this book a place of honor in your library, reid i carefully youself and make sure cat iis widely published For itis worthy to live on the lips ofthe lerned and the patronage of the ats, abandoned by all ther, rests with you alone. Farewell. «Here Begins the Work of Leon Battista Alberti on the Art of Building. Lege Feliciter. ‘Many and various ars, which help co make the course of eur life more agreeable and cheerful, were handed down tous by our ancestor, who had acquired chem by much effort and care? All of them seem to compete ‘oward the one end, co be of the greatest posible ute to humanity, yee we realize dhac each has some integral property, which shows advantage to offer from the others. For we ae forced to practice some of these arts by necessity, while others commend themselves to ws for their utility, and sill others we appreciate because they deal wth matters that are 163 dierent anything ese. If however, you were eventually to find any that proved ‘wholly indispensable and yet were capable of uniting use with pleasure as pn mer wall as howor, I think you could not omit architecure from ehar ate- ory: achieceute f you think the matter over carefully, gives comfort and the gecates please co mankind, to individual and communi alike; nor does she ul lst among the most honorable of the ars. I goay farther, however, Ishould exphin exactly whom I mean by is no carpenter that I would have you compare tthe sche carpenter is swondeefl ason and meth 2 to devise through his wn mind and energy, and to sealze by construction, whatever can be most beautify feed out forthe noble needs of man, by che movement of "weights andthe joining and massing of bodies. To do this he must have an understanding and knowledge ofl che highest and mose noble disciplines “his then the architect. Bu to return tthe discussion. Some have sid hac was ie and water which wer inital resprsible for bringing men together ino communities. but we, considering how useful, even indispensable, a roof and wall are for men, are convinced chat i was they that drew and kept men together. We are indebted o the architect not ‘only for providing tha safe and welcome refuge from the heatof the sun andthe frosts of winter (hat of sels no seal! benefit), but also for his many other innovations, useful to both individuals and the public, which 1 again have so happily satisfied daily needs. “How many respected families both in oue own city and in others through ‘out the world would Rave colly disappeared, brought down by some t= porary adversity, hd not thir family hearth harbored them, welcoming re, into the very bosom of ther ancestors? Daedalus recrved time and from his contemporaries for having constructed a vaule a Selinunte where cloud of wapor emanated so warm and gene that ici viral a role in our everyday ives? What ofthe metheds of drawing up vast _qeanies of water fom hidden depths for so many diferent and essential porposes? And of memorials, shrines, sanctuaries, temples, and the like, ‘exignd by the architect for divine worship and fr the benefit of pseeiy? Finally, ned I tress how, by cutting through rock, by eunneling through ‘mountains or Filing in valleys, by retraining the waters of the sea and Jakes, and by draining marshes, through the the course ind dredging dhe mouths of iver, an cofharborsand bridges, the architect has wot only met the ‘of man bi alo opened up new gateways toll dhe provinces ofthe woeld? nations have been able co serve eachother by exchanging fruit, Asare role :spices, Jewels, experience and knowledge, indeed anything chat might Improve our health and standard of Hiving, [Nor should you forget ballistic engines and machines of war, fortresses and ‘whatever else may have served to proect and strengthen the libery of our country, and the good and honor of the stat, to extend and confirm se dominion. It is my view® moreover that, should you question all the various ces which within human memory have fen ito enemy ands oy siege and inquire who defeated and conquered them, they would no deny ‘hati was the architec and that they could easily have scorned an enemy. ‘armed with weapons alone but could no longer have resisted the power of invention, the bulk of war machines and the force of ballistic engines, with which the architect had harassed, oppreised, and overwhelmed thems. On the other hand, those besieged would consider no protection better than the ingenuity and skill ofthe architect. Should you examine the various miliary ‘mpaigns undertaken, you would perhaps discover thatthe skill an ability, ofthe architect have been responsible for more victoies than have the com ‘mand and foresight of any general: and cht the enemy were more often overcome by the ingeaity of che fst without the other's wespons than by the laters sword without che former's good counsel. And what is more important, the architect achieves his victory with buts hand of men and ‘without loss of life. So much forthe use of srchitectire, But how congenil and instinctive che deste and thought or building may be to our mind is evident~ifonly because you wll ever find anyone whe 's nor eager to build something, s soon as he has the means to do sor nor there anyone who, on making some discovery in the ar of building, would not gladly and willingly offer and broadcast his advie for general ust, asi compelled to do so by nature I often happens that we ourselves, sthough busy with completely diferent things, cannot prevent our minds and imag ination from projecting some building or othes. Or again, when we see some other person's builiing, we immediately look over and compare the individual dimensions, and to the best of our aby consider what sight be taken away, added, or altered, to make it more elegant!” and willingly we end our advice, Bue it hasbeen well designed and properly ‘executed, who would not lok at ie with great pleasure and joy? Need 1 -mention here not only che sntisfiction, che delight, but even the honor that architecture has brought to citizens at home or abroad? Who would not boast of having built something? We even pride ourselves ifthe houses we live in have been constructed with alittle mote care and attendon than ‘sual. When you erect a wall or portico of great elegance and dor it with + door, columns, or roof, good Gizens approve and expres joy for thelr own sake, as well as for yours, because they realize chat you ave used your ‘wealth to increase greatly nt anly your own honor and glory, bt alo that cof your family, your descendants, and the whale iy. “The island of Crete was much celebrate forthe tomb of jp svat rover more for che Beauty ofits city and the mes than forte fame ofthe oracle of Apollo. As co the imperial a tombs and other ruins of past glory 3 taught sto accept much of the historical seemed lest convincing. OF course Thucydides did ancients who had the vision to adorn thei cies with suc arch varity of| a t0 give the impression of having far greater power than really had Has chere been one among the greatest and wisest of princes who did rt consider building one ofthe principal means of preserving his name for sosterty? But enough on this ‘she who is responsible for ur leisure, and our profie and advan- delight, entertainment, and health tage while at work, and in sho that we in a dignified manne, free fom any danger. In view chen of dhe delight and wonderful grace of his Works, atd of how indispensable they have proved, and in view of the benefit and service to poserty, he abe be accorded praise and respect, and be counted among, ‘ote most deserving of mankind's honor and recognition. !* Aware ofthis, we have undersken for ovr own pleasure, to inguire more fa and his business, a o he principles from which they are erived, zd che patts of which they are composed and defined. Finding ‘them to be very diverse in kind, infinite (almos) in number, admirable in nature, and marvelously useful I wondered what human condition, what efor every comfort: wa it prince or private ci ion, busines orIesure, or individuals 2s opposed to mankind therefore decided for many reasons, t00 lengeby to enter into here, collect and commit them to thes fen books, They in this order rst we observed thatthe building is 2 form of body, which lke any other consists of lineaments and matter, the fone the produc of thought the other of Nature; the one requiring the mind and the power of reason, dhe other dependent on preparation an selection bur we razed that neither on its oun would safice without the hand of| {he siled workman to fashion the material according to lineaments, Since bullings ae sto differen use, ie proved necessary to inquire whether the same eype of lineaments could be used for several; we therefore distin= guished the various types of buildings and noted the imporeance ofthe con- nection of thei lationship to eachother, a che principal sources ofbesuty: we began therefore to inquire further into the natare of beautycf what kind it shouldbe, and whats appropriate in each case, As be deat wi ines and thein all hese matters faults are occasionally found, we investigated how to amend and core them, Each book, then, has been given tile according to is varying contents as follows: book 1, Lineaments; book 2, Matertlt; book 3, Consructon, book 4, Public Works; book s, Works of Individuals; book 6, Ornament ook 7, Ornament ro Sacred Bruldings; book 8, Ormament cP Here Begins the First Book on the Art of Building by Leon Battista Alberti. The Lineaments.! Since weare pate, andextract nto our own work ll the soundest and most wef avice that our karedsncestors have handed down tus in writing, and whatever principles we ourselves have noted in che very exeeuion of thee works. We 0 that the dicatson that Let ux therefore begin thus: she whole matter of building is composed of lineamens and structure. All che intent and purpose of lineaments es in finding te correct, inilible way of joining and fing together those lines and angles which define and enclose the surfces of the building. I isthe Funeion snd duty of linesments, then, to prescribe an appropriate place,* ‘eae numbers" a proper scale* and 2 graceful order for whole buildings and for eich oftheir constituent parts, so thatthe whole form and appeat- ance ofthe building may depend on the lineaments alone. Nor do lines- ments have anything eo do with materi, but they are of such a nature Phat ‘ve may recognize the same lineaments in several diferent buildings that well the ine and angle. I ‘quite posible to projeet whole forms inthe mind without any recourse ta the material, by designating and determining a fixed orientation and con- {unetion forthe vations ines and angle, Since thats the cae, le lineaments ‘be the precise and covrect outline, conceived in the mind, made up of lines and angls, and peefected in che learned intellect and imagination. Now. as xe wish to ingireinto the inner natare of building and constc- whole, it may be of some relevance to consider what were the 3 evolution of those dwelling places we call buildings ‘And, ifm not mistaken, what follows may be aken 8 the correct acount ‘ofthe whple matter. ¢ sae from they sere In the baginning, men soughe « place of rest in some te danger? naving found a place both suitable and agreeable “The conponting (lie inthe ado prinaps appear atthe begining of ead chapterdown and took possession of the ste. Not wishing to have all their house- hold and private ars conducted inthe same place, they set aside one space for sleeping, another forthe hearth, and allocated other spaces (0 ferent uacs. Afr cis men began to conser how ¢o build 2 roof, a5 2 sete from the sun andthe rai, For this purpose dey bul walls on which 2 roof could be Iaid—for they resized thie inthis way they would be the beter protected fiom iy storms and fosty winds; Fnly they opened win- dows and doors inthe walls, fiom floor to roof, 30 a8 ro allow entry and socal right 25 to let out any moisture and vapor that may have formed inside the house. Whoever ie was who frst stated to do these hings, the goddes Veva, daughter of Satu, ofthe brothers Heurahs and Flperbius, or Glo, or Taras, othe Cyclops Typhincius,* believe chat such were the orginal accasion and the original ordinance of building, The business has grown, Ibeleve, through experience and sil so that its now almost withour bounds, what withthe introduction ofthe various building types of which some are publi, others private, some sacred, others pro-, fae, some of pracial necesiry, others merely forthe permanent adorn ment ofthe city, while yet others are for more temporary pleasures, But no ‘one will question our account of thee origins thering within, and also to let athe sunlight and the brezes a the Since dis tthe cat, the clements of which the whole matter of building is composed are clearly six: locality, ae? co roof, and opening. if heseclements are clearly recognized, what we have to say wil be understood more easily. We shall therefore define themn as follows: by locaiey we mean all that land which essen to surround the prospective building: the ares is 2 part ofthis locality. We shall define che area as that cersn, particular plot of land which isto be enclosed by 2 wall for a ssignated peaccal se inched inthis defnicon is any eurice within the building on which our fer may tread. Compartition isthe process of divid- ng up teste into yer smaller unis, so that the building may be considered 2s being made up of dse-fiting smaller buildings, joined rogether like members of the whole body." The wall we a ‘which rises from the ground upward in order to support che weight ofthe rm all that structure of, or which ats sa sereen to provide privacy forthe interior vokumes of the building. We shall refer o the roof, not only a that uppermost part of the building which fends off the rain, but also, in general, at whatever is ‘extended in length and breadth above the head of anyone walking below, such a clings, vaults, arches, and so forth, We shall all an opening any ‘thing within the building alfording etry or exit to man or ching ‘We shall deal with dhese maters and their every aspect, but fst we will make some observations, which ae fundamental to, and so much part of, the whole subject that they are highly elevant to our argument. If we were ‘0 consider those aeibuts with which each ofthe parts we have enumer- sted shoud be be overlonked, and which are most Becoming to roof, openings, and 50 on, ‘That is thir individual pars should be well suited t0 the tsk for which they were designed and, aboveall, should be very commodious; as regards strength nd endurance, they shoul be sound, frm, and quite permanent, terms of grace and elegance,” ehey should be groomed, ordered, fatlndec,! as ie were, in their every par Now that we have set down the roots and foundations of ove discussion, lt us continue oar argi= ndowed, we would come up with three that should never put mach effort into ensuing that it bl) nothing harmful and cha ie should be supplied with every convenience. Above all, ehey took the greatest care to avoid a cimate that might be disagreeable or unwholesome; i was avery a indispensable one, For while there sno doubt should contin (as fir 35 prudent precsution, that any defect of land ar water could be remedied by skill nd ingenuity, no device of the mind or exertion of the hand may ever improve climate appredially: or soi is sud. Cerainly the aie that we breathe and that pays such a val role in masntsining and preserving ife (as we ein ourselves bere) when ely pre may hive an extraordinarily benef eon heath ‘Who can hve filed 0 notice the extensive nen hat climate bas on meron, growth, nourshment and preservation? As you may have Seen thw who enjoy a pre cinate opus in bility thes subjected toa hey and dp fe for th very reson, 50 was si, the Athenians ‘were much harper han he Thebans Climate, we may therefore agree, depen onthe the lindeapes some eon fr this vartion wile oer, bea oftheir very obra a Iyevade ur We shall ecsmin th obvow oc 1 nd formation of and then thote which ar obsctre, so that we will know how to select the most advantageous and in which olive sologians called the atmosphere Palle Homer makes her pletely ennsparent by naure cis quite spparent shat eh healeiese form of ‘purest and lest pollute, the most easly pierced by 5 most transparent and light, and which s always serene and largely hereas we term as pestilenial any form ofr whose consistency js so cloudy and vaporous as to render ie dense and fetid, 20 tht it hangs heavy of the brow and dus cha keenness of sight. I believe that the san and the wind, more than any other factor, are responsible for determining ‘these ro conditions. We shall not, however, discuss questions of physics Ihere—that i exactly how the force of the sun manages €o daw up‘vapors fom the innermost hovrels ofthe earth and then raise chem to igh | heaven, or how once guthered together nto a huge cloud in the vastness of the sky, ether through thei immense weight or from being dried out by the action ofthe sun's ays o one side, they topple aver in that direction, ‘hereby producing a great rash of sr and arousing the winds, and driven by thirst, plunge into the ocean; finally, replenished by the sea and pregnant th moisture, wandering o inthe atmosphese, they ae propelled boy che winds and squeezed lke sponges, and. discharge the droplets of ‘meistare they ae carrying to form ran, chus renewing the vapors on nd Whether this theory we report i correct, of whether wind is some dry ‘exhalation of the euth, or hot vapor expelled by the force of eld, or jst ‘breath of ir, or yet ar hat hasbeen disturbed by the movement ofthe earth for by the course and radiation ofthe stars, or whether it is that general animating 5 hat moves of ts own accord, or even something that isnot 2 separate enti in itself bu eather consist of ac that has been burt by the heat of the highest ether and reduced to liquid form, or whether there is any further theory or explanation, sounder or based on more ancient authority, I suggest we should past by, ait may dete from the main srgument All chs will, sm not mistaken, help us to appreciate the reason why some pats ofthe word are seen € enjoy the most delghtfl of climates, while others, which may be their very close neighbors, are marred by sloomy weather and murky days. I must suppose that the reason for this ‘hie unfavorable position as regards the sun and the winds. Cicero says that Syracuse was sited so that there was not single day in che whole yest on ‘hich ee inhabitants could nor see the sn" such a situation is very ear, however, and if there are no strong seasons or grounds for avoiding i, fe §s the location to be soughe in preference to any other ‘The locality to be chosen, therefore, should be quite free of raging clouds and all the dense thickness of vapors, Those who investigate such matters have observed chat the rays and heit ofthe sun act more fiercely on dense than on rarefied materials, as they do on oil compared to water, oF om iron compared to wool. From this they deduce that the aris chick and heavy wherever the heat is more oppressive. The Egyptians striving to prove ‘heir ascendancy overall other nations ofthe world, boasted that man was Sia created in their countey, and that he could oly have becn ereated ina land where he would be able ro liv in the best of hel for they had been endowed, above: certain favors by the gods—a wondefil cl mate and a perpetual spring, But even smong the Egyptians, writes Hera rus, those who live nearest Libya, where the wind never vis, are by fr the healthiest. Certainly various towns inlay, and other nations, appear to have become unhealthy and pestle places for no other reason than ‘heir sudden temperature changes fom hot to cold Boot One nod ng, then cnt he guy and angle of te sun co which ‘nea exponed, oa hr smo exc of sani o shade the ‘Grane cued th an itt a sting, so soe were they by te ecive pre of kay whe tho ats apport Fem ving nls erp night Thi ation oso mich de FPenenton hele or rer inno thers (thogh Ellinor aco son the configuration o te fowd ia snd See: epoure othe an andthe wins Penal por gene bres toms cough wold conser winds, owes ere a he tery, site thn sage a ey stops. Wate ht dos fovimoe Ovid sus sor tes Wha oa? mig dns sy es plus in movement Fort my view at movement i that tes the vapors that rise from the earth, and movement consumes them | would 2efer, however, that these winds reach me broken down by in tervening woods and mountains or exhausted by the length oftheir jour: sy and would ensure that they do noe pas ove land where they mig Pick up snd bring us anything harm. For this reaton itis advisable co void any location in whose neighborhood anyehing noxious i given of n vapor sing [Rom marshes, and in par- toch eve el aa fom poled waters and ches Nica gre thay ver by te meking now brings wih 2 oles bu of wate, sone canbe fl os ch po free te ee othe conagion on the neghborkeed. The winds tey Sp canes clase ar ey bey of ci tre, Py, on the auth of Theophran and Hip the mow vor for the extoring and maining Be I decare Auster the mow anging fo aking nd thy pov even cout if lev atl grag ‘nd apn the sok wl ever fad ying et Aue Blows phn ea cs ing wih the ind, bu wh Aas they Bear uch est wel, nd ony apt wind. They sa too sa hen ‘Ao revi, elt may survive for six ay uc of wae, ough sch Sot the csewith Asc so dee it ands power 0 anbey.As ‘ses bigs es nd eel car, s Coto makes ough, remaining stagnant the lit is dispersed by favorable winds, the ralise South-facing coastlines are not recommended, primarily because the reflected rays of the son atic chem with two suns, in effect: one burns ddown fem the sky, the other up out ofthe water. Such places are subjeceed to sharp changes in temperature, a the chilling shades of night draw in 3 sunset, Some are even af che opinion that t surest che overall eee of the sun, ott direct and reflected of che water, s€3, or mountains, is 3 i most hacmfil since a place that has already been heated by the sun all day is made sweltering by th additional ext produced by the election. [Fen top ofallde these eects you ate also exposed to oppressive winds, what could be more hacmful or intolerable? Morning breess too have been rightly reproved, op they bring with thee awe vapors they We have discussed che sun and the winds, and the obvious influence we fel they exert Dorey, as seemed relevant o ae argu renter det healthy or not; we have done £0 t and we shall deal with hem in their appropri place” ‘When selecting the locality, it is worth ensuring that everything is tothe ing of those who are to live thee, be company they will have to keep ‘ature of the place ot Inno way would build city on a steep and inaccessible ridge of the ls, 5 Caligula had intended, unlest compelled by the utmost necessty.2" ‘would alo avoid the uninhabitable wilderness that Varro deserbes in Rhineland Gaul and Caesa in contemporary Britain. Nor would | like ‘0 lve om birds’ eggs alone, as they used c on the island of Oene inthe 's time in some regions of Spain would not wish the locality to lack anything that might prove lack Sea or on acoens, ain Phi Alexander did not want to found a city on Mount Athos: the project ofthe architect Polycrates, although splendid in other respects, could not supply the inhabitants with suicient provisions.» Yee Aristotle ight have found a ste with dificult seces particularly pleasing forthe ndation ofa city, while notice hate was the practic of some nations to leave vast expanses on the borders deserted and forsaken, so as to deny any advantage roan enemy. The question of whether such methods shouldbe condoned or not shall be deal find no reason to ndemn thie adoption, rowever, I would prefer to'site buildings ina locality that as ‘many diferent points of acess, to allow the easiest possible provision by Ship, car, oF bess, both in summer and in winter. The locality should not betoo damp with exess of waters ner to parched by drought, bu i ought to enjoy a comfortable, temperate climate, Ifthe ideal condition is not possible rather let it be somewhat cold and sid than coo ho ad hui, for 's possible to counteract the cold with roof and wall, chrough clothing and the heat of the fre, or by moving about, dryncis, meanwhile, isnot «considered parcicularly harmfil co body or sou indeed, they say that dry fess may harden a man and cold make him ragged, but motsture will always make the body languid, and heat cate it to wilt One may sce how ‘men are physically strong and free ofdivease during the eold season ot in ‘old climates, alehough itis generally conceded that while those in cold places have superior physiques, those in warm places have sharper wits Book One From Appian, {have leened tht the main reason why the were so long-lived was tha they never had to endure any cold ‘winters. The best locality of al, however, is a ‘moist one fort will produce men all and cepa character, The next most convenient are the sunniest parts of snowy woderaely waem and ature and cherfl in counties or the most mois, shidy zones of aid, sunburt regions, ‘Bur there's no site les suiable or eemly for any building whatsoever than fone that i hidden away in some valley; for (Co pass over such obvious reasons asthat, being ot of sight, ican enjoy ruinous tarents of rsin and swirling Goods; by absorbing too much damp, i€ will always ros and i will constantly exhale easthy mists 50 damagingto man's hal. Ix such s place no man could retain any strength, a5 che spit wis, nor any body show stamina, a8 ts joints are weakened ‘mold will row on books; ool wil tse away, and everything in the stores ‘wil decay from excess of mois, unc iti all ruined. Furthermore, should the sun break through, reflectd rays would cause the heat grow more intense, but if kept out, the shade will make the ae coarse and stag inant. What is more, should the wind penetrate as fr as tha, it would only ‘more violence and fury by being forced through fixed channels, not reach there, the aie would become a5 thik as mud. It consider sucha valley a puddle or stagnant would not be unr the pool af az et the site therefore have a dignified and agreeable appearance anda loca ‘ion neither lowly mor sunk ina hollow, but elevated and commanding, ‘where dhe air is pleasane and forever enlivened by some breath of wind. I should, moreover, be well endowed with all ehe weful and pleasurable things off, such as water, ice, and food. Care shouldbe taken, however, to ensure chat it contains nothing that might prove harmful tothe inhabi- ‘ants or their possessions, Springs should be laid bare and sampled, and hele water tested by fre to check that it contains nothing sticky, putid, or Aigicale eo digest hat might make the inhabitance il. shall not duel here fn the goers and stones for which water may be responsible, {shall pass lover the more remarkable and miraculous effects t may have, since the axchitece Viruvis has alveady sted ehem in a most lered and elegant There is 2 aphorism of the physician Hippocrates, that those who drink untreated water thats heavy and unpleasant co ase will develo 3 hot and sovolen bly, while the rest oftheir bodies, eheir elbows, shoulder, and become remarkably weak and emaciated.®” They will also suller ting ofthe blood from defecive spleens, fling prey to many infecious diseases; in summer nanny bowsl movements caused by bile secretion ind dlcharge of humors will weaken them; and then all year foes, adverseround they will be troubled by more aggravating and such as dropsy, asthma, and pleursy. The young wil go mad because of black bile while older people will be consumed by burning, humors, ‘women will have dicuky in conceiving and great couble giving birth, while everyone, of whatever age or sx, will be plagued by disease and ” We say that water has the best @avor when itis none, and the most pease ing color, when is quite devoid of am fs considered that which s cleat, transpacent, and ight—so that when strained leaves no mark, when boiled no sediment—and 5, leaves the riverbed fre of moss and the rocks ‘without sain. Good water should also produce tender vegetables when used for cooking, and good bresd when wed in baking ine the water d ln the same way, great cate should be taken to ensure thatthe loca is not ing infectious or poisonous, which might put the 18 a¢ risk, There are wellknown ancient instances, hardly worth such a5 the te leaves of Colchis, which oozed + honeylike substance; anyone who tated ie would fll unconscious for + whole day, ‘sit dead. Or the disaster thc they say befell Anthony's army, because of ant thatthe soldiers at for want of gain, which drove them insane nt on digging up stones, until ther frenzy reached such 4 pitch that chy collapsed from disturbance of the bile, and perished, there being (according to Pluseeh) no antidote, except drinking wine: all well known tals, ‘But good heavens, what about our own times in Apulia, herein Ia, ‘where small lnd-spiers are common," with a incredibly poisonous bite that can send men into various forms of delirium, as though driven mad? “Mose surprisingly, there is no swelling, no telltale mark appears anywhere Bost One i —————_-_________.. fon the bady to show the bite or sting of a poisonous insect; but to begin ‘with mea lore consciousness, fainting from the shock, nd then i tere i no one tohelp them, they soon die. They may be treated with 2 remedy of ‘Theophrastus, who maintained char snake bives could be healed by the sound ofthe fate-* Musicians caress the ers ofthe aflicted with various forms af Larmony, and when they hit the ight one, che victim wil leap up ‘hough oy, straining every nerve and muscle, 1 to the mii in whatever manner takes his fincy. Some of as you may se, ty to dance, others to sing, while others ‘exert themselves stempting whatever their passion and frenzy dicate, u ‘they are exhausted they continue wo sweat for several days moe, and only recover wien dhe madness, which had taken rot, has been totally satiated. ‘which would cause the death of anyone who touched them, ether by augh- ing or by crying." ‘When selecting the locality, itis not enough to consider only thos nica tions which are obvious and plan tose, but theless evident should aso be noted, and every fctr taken into account 1 sign of good sit and pure water, ifthe locality produces 2 fine and abundant marve ber of men to ripe old age, ic there are frequent and successful, provided they are all natural Tmyselthave seen cts (which out of respect smeless) in which there no a single woman bisth doesnot realize thie she has become the mother of ‘man nd monster. know of another town in Italy where there ae so many Lorn either with tumors, squint, and limps, or who are crippled, ‘tha theres scarcely a family that does net contain someone deformed or handicapped in some ways and it sa sure indication, when many marked in elevane a heavy atmosphere wil educe the appetite, increase hit. [Nor woullit be wrong to take the physical appearance of animals as 2 guide tothe likely condition of men who are to ive in the locality. For should the ‘atle appar sturdy, with long, well-developed limbs, iis not unseasonable to expect wuman offspring o be similaly endowed, Nor is it nappropriae to tke inanimate objects into consideration when looking for indications of the climate and winds: we may deduce from cighborng buildings, for example, that if they are rough and eoting, its 2sign of some adverse outside infivence. If ees shoulda ean in one parti ‘ilar dtecton, ax though by common consent, or have broken branches, Clearly they have salfeed the violence of the wind, Similatly, when the ‘upper surfaces of tough stones, whether locl oe imported, ate unusually ‘roded, they betsy sharp changes in empeature between hot and cold Above all, any region beset by these storms and temperstre_changsr Should be avoided: exposure to extremes of ot aid cold weakens an isthe strcture and composition ofthe body and its parts and may lend to disease and premature old age indeed the main reason why a the foot of mountains tha fce west is considered especially ues that it is partially exposed to sudden nocturmal exkaations and the chilling darkness Itisalsousefil co take careful account oF any unas feature ofthe locality, vents of he pas has imbued some places sith hidden propetis, which may benefit or dis by consulting what wise men have recorded of advantage the citizens; ii aid, for example, that Loci and Croton have never suffered plage, that poisonous animals are never found on the island of Crete, and that deformed children are seldom born in France. In some pacts, according to the naturale, lightning occurs neither in the Inet ofthe summer nor in wine, yetin Campania, Pliny tells ws, flashes of| iar sen in all south-facing Ges during both these seasons‘ the Cerai= nian mountains in Epirus, meanwhile, are sid to be nated after the frequent thunder they sufer and the continval thunder on the island of | [Lemnos has, according to Servius, prompted the poets to claim that Vulean (2 to eat there. I's sid tha under and lightning have never been seen « ‘inthe Bosphorus and amongst the Insodones sidered 2 mirace, but on che banks of dhe Hydaspes, a the beginning of summer, tains continuously 52 The wind blows so rarely Libys thatthe thickness of the atmosphere causes diferent shapes formed of condensed ‘vapors to appeat inthe sky; onthe other hand, ina lage pat of Galatia the they say that the northweter= welhladen cars. The south wind does not ‘low overall of Ethiopia, yet historians wovld claim that this isthe wind that dries up all he vegetation in Arabia and in the land of che Troglodytes. ‘Teyides writes that Delos has never sufered any earth remors but has always stood firm on the same rock, alhough earthquakes have brought ruin to all the surrounding islands. We ourselves have seen that stzetch of along the whole range of the Hemician mountins, from Algids® near Rome as far at Caps, repeatedly shaken and all but destroyed by ‘arthquakes. Some believe chat Achaia cakes its name from the frequent Aloods it sur. Thave ditcovered that Rome bs slraysbechtioubled by some sort of fever, which Galen diagnosed as + form of semitertian age, and whicr requires the application of various and almost conta methods af weatment acording wo che diferent hours ofthe day.” ancient peetc legend tha whenever the giant Typhon, whois buried on the island of Procida, ors in his grave, the whole island shakes from its very foundations * “The poets have sung about this because of che violence of the zarthgukes and eruptons that plagued the place, and that fored the Eretrans and the CCaleidisas, who had once sealed dete, wo Mee; similarly och colonists, set there sometime later by Hieron af Syrscute to found a city, also ed through te continual ear of danger and disaster, [Al hese things shouldbe examined repeatedly and over long periods they should be compared withthe characteristics of other places, co provide full understanding ofthe locality. « Inquiry sould also be made inp whether the locality suffers anyother, less ‘obvious, disadvantage; Platd believed that some places would occasionally be ruled by some divine power or demonic government, which might be ther favorably or ill disposed toward the inhabians.® There are indeed some plcs where men ate mor they wil sck selEdestocton, and others where they are more kely to go mad, others wire, for take their own ives by hanging, or leaping from height, or bythe sword and poison, After a close serutiny ofall the most hidden, obscure evidence thar natte has to ee, you mus weigh up anything ele that may seem relevant traced back as far as Dem Ieisan ans ou inspect the color snd condition ofthe livers of eatle grazing on the ste when founding a city ‘or 8 town, oF even When just seting cut a temporary miliary camps” should ey show signs of infection, che place is maniesdly unhelehy and should beavoided, ‘Varro informs us of inyatomlike exestares that he has detected, which fit lou in the atmosphere, enter our lungs as we breathe, and stick 0 our central they gnaw away a chem, causing violent and wasting disease, ‘which leas to plague and destretion, [Nor should you fil to consider tht some places may notin themsclves be pistcuary inconvenient or wescherous, but are so unprotected chat when serangers arrive from some foreign land, they often bring with them plagus, snd misfertan; and this may be c2used not only by ams and violence, or ‘he workof some barbarian or savage and: fiendship and hospialicy may slko prov: harmful, Some whose neighbors desired poical change have themselves been puta isk by the upheaval nd turmoil, The Genoese col ‘ony of Per, on the Black Sea, i always prone to disease, because slaves aredally brought there sick of soul and neglected of body, wasting away from idleness and file, is sid tobe che matkof prudence and wisdom to examine the destiny of locaiy by interpreting auspices and chrough observation ofthe heavens 4 not think hese methods should be despised, provided they accond wi in. Who would deny the importsnce ofthat which we cll cance in Fhuman airs, whatever ic may be? Can we deny that the public fortune of the city of Rome greatly favored the expansion af the empite? The town of Tolaus in Sicily, which was founded by the nephew of Hercules, although fiequently assaulted by Carthaginian and Roman forces, remained forever fice; and can che illfortane atached to the place have had no connection with the temple at Delphi, burt down fst by Phlegyas, and 3 itd ime destroyed by fire atthe time of Sulla? And what ofthe Capitol? How often id it burn? How often was ein ames? ‘The town of the Sybartes, after being arassed agnn and again, and hav ing been repeatedly destroyed and deserted, was tally abandoned inthe «end. Misforeune dogged che inhabitants, even when they had led the pices for although they moved ekewhere, and changed the original natte ofthe ‘own, they could in no way escape disaster: they were atticked by the natives of their new land, and ehe members ofall the chief and most an. Gient families were put to the sword and slaughtered, they were anni Jnted together with their temples and the entire town. Bue theve is no need {0 go on: history books are fill of such example, fs no mark of a foolish man to make sure of the care and expense of construction, and to tesure chat the work selfs as lasting and salbrious as possible; tis surely the dy of eat wise and sensible man no to overbok anything which might bbe of use ro this end Is an undercakng tha leads to your own we that favors 2 feof dignity and pleas ‘name to posterity not one of great be haere you may devote you children and your dear family; here you may ass your deysin business or at leisure here you may pass every period of yout life. 1am of the opinion, therefor, that theres nothing, aside Fem virtue. to which a man should devore more eare, more effort and attention, 00d home to shelter himself and his family: and who would expect to achieve this if he ignores the advice chat we have just given? But enough of ‘his: we will ow move on a discus the area ¢ being, 1 chat entrust the fame of your In choosing the ares, whatever advice we gave on the locality should also be respecte for just asthe locality isa particular pit selected out of some Jarge territory, s0to0 che oer ia precisely limited and defined section of the overall locality taken for fare building. For this reason the eree will ont int stent cen recs igs toner he Spe {Sowing te al er bts uns ste To tol sche he allowing ve av, wheter faced or Pine, and ete och exper ihe pproprie pla. For, Eyota antral equine utero tesa condom and so She shape nd poston ofthe ar old doped on he purpose nd se whch ito bepu i 0 ep the dsuston gener, we lon el wih ois that we comer be cre br Kt sy fo ors sear bes, ch tint hp tos ur agument more in mind the work we are undertaking, whether ti cing ou of ace, i wil be usefl to des ines make up the outer perimeter which encloses the whole extent of the ares. Any part of the contained between two intersecting surfice within ehie perimeter that icrsce, four angles ate formed: if lines sealed an angle. When any one ef them equals the her thee, they will e ermed sight ang ‘Those which are smaller d greater, ebuase. A here co dal with lines cha spi straight tne isthe Shortest poss points. The curved line is part of 2 circle # A circle isthe ine made by ‘one of exo points moving on ane plne, so that chowghout the operation tance set between its course remains no father or closer than thei ic and theother, the fxed and central point, which ie ireumseribes. a pare of I be known a8 an are or bow (because it resembles one) co us curved line, which we el 1 drawn between twa separate pois on curve that extends perpendicu-