Ps

rs

s
st s t s trs r
rr trs
q
q

tr

t
s

tr

st

rtt

tr r

tr
strt r sr st s

s rs Pr srs

X 2 = 5X 6
X

s r s q qrs
trr
tr strt r rsr
sst sr tr
ts s trs

s r r
tr

X 2 5X + 6 = 0
st s rt s q s
st s
sr rs t q r
rr r
st

P (X ) := X 2 5X + 6
X

q s t s ts ts
ts r
rs s tr

sr

ts r P

sst ts trr s rs rs

s r qs rs
s

r s s

ts strt sst trtr trr

st
s rsr r t s r s
q st
s st srs t t
tr r

5
P (X ) = X
2

.2

25
+6=0
4

t ts tr
r rs

a2 b2 = (a b)(a + b)
t
s

.
5 2 1
P (X ) = X
=0
2
4
.
..
.
5 1
5 1
P (X ) = X
X +
2 2
2 2

P (X ) = (X 2)(X 3)
r q rt s rs s r
s s
sr r s q s r
tt

X =2

X = 3 sts

s s s rs rs

s s s q st rtt
tr r
trr s rs rs r
trr
rrs st s t
ss

s strtrs

rs

str rr t sr r r
t

srrs ss
ts r

s stts

ts trs

3X 3 5X 2 + 10X 2

 ts rs

ts r P

3 2 5
X X + 10
2
2
ts rs ts

X2
2
X +

2
2
ts s ts

(2 + i)X 2 (3 i)X + 1
Pr r trtr ts sts ss r
st
rs tr r strtr r
rt

s t
q st s r
s rs
s rst rt t s
r

s t

st s

s
rs

+:AA A
:AA A
q s rq s sts rs
s strtr

Pr st s

(a + b) + c = a + (b + c) a, b, c A
Pr tt s

a + b = b + a a, b A

r t s

+ : A A A

+ t A s tr s q

Pr srrs

a+ b
r

+(a, b)

rt srrs

ab
r

(a, b)

ts r P

st tr r s st
t

0 A

t q

a+0= 0+a = a a A
st rss ts Pr t
st t

a A t

a A

a + (a) = (a) + a = 0
ts q qr s r
r rst

a b s

a b = a + (b)
Pr st rt

(a b) c = a (b c) a, b, c A
st t tr r rt st
t

t q

a1= 1 a = a
Pr
strt

a (b + c) = a b + a c a, b, c A
(a + b) c = a c + b c a, b, c A
s s r q

a b = b a a, b A
rs q
s

tt

s s s

s q trrs ss sr tts
r r

trs r tt

s s tts

Q s rs rs R s rs
C s rs s Zn s ss
trs n
trs
rs

s ss strs r q st

st s s q

trs

nn

s tts s

ts rs r trrs s st rs

ts r P

tt

tr

ab = 0 s

s s

a=0 b

=0

Pr

Zn

Z Q R

s s trs

s s

s r

s t srrs tr s s
s s rs
sts s s s tts s q s s
s

tt

aA

a = 0 t

rs

aa

=a

tt

a1

t q

a=1

t s s r s
s

a:b

b=0

a : b = a b1
Pr

Zn

Q R

s s rs

s r s s s

s r

srs q t r s tr r
r

rr s rt
tr q s

tt

tr
ts
rs r

n
.

P=

ai X i = an X n + an 1 X n1 + . . . + a2X 2 + a1 X + a0

i=0

ai s ts A s ts
P
an = 0 rs q P s r n
rs q an
s t r P ts r(P ) r P
s

an = 1 rs q P
A[X ] t

ts

ts s ss s

tr

ts

ts r P

s s s s q s
trrt

3X 3 5X 2 + 10X 2 Z[X ]
3 2 5
X X + 10 Q[X ]
2
2

X2
2
X + R[X ]

2
2
(2 + i)X 2 (3 i)X + 1 C[X ]
tr
t

Z[X ] Q[X ] R[X ] C[X ]

s r q s s

n
.

P=

ai X i

i=0
m
.

Q=

bi X j

i=0
s s s ai = bi r 0 i m
n(n, m) s ai = 0 r i =
m+1, m+2, . . . , n s q n > m s bi = 0 r i = n+1, n+2,
...,m
n < m
tr srs s s s s
t
r s ss ts r srrs
s s q
r trs ts s

P = 0X 3 + 3X 2 + 2X + 1

Q = 3X 2 + 2X + 1

ts r P

rtrt rtt s
q
rrs tr t s s t
r str

ai

sr s st

A[X ]

ts q r st r

trs s rtts s s s
stts r

a0 X 0

a0 A

ai = 0 s i > 0

rst s

s
r r s

a0 = 0 ts

a0 A

stt

a0 X 0 A[X ] s

sr q

A A[X ]
Pr rr r s
r
s t r

q r rrstr

tr s t r tr
t ss ts

t sr s s s q s
sr
r s st s

n
.

P (b) =

P A[X ] b A

ai bi

i=0

t
q s t s
rs tr

r t
r

ts rs

t s rs

rt

(b) A
P = 3X 2 + 2X + 1 Z[X ]
=
3 22 + 2 22 + 1 = 21

b = 2

ts

Pr
r
r

P A

rst s

P (2)

P A[X ]

Pr r s rst s s
r sr rs
tt rstr s trs rrsts
s t

P = 3X 2 + X + 1 Q = 3X 2 ts

ts r P

P Q = (3 + 0)X 2 + (1 + 3)X + (1 2) = 3X 2 + 4X 1

P Q = (3 0)X 2 + (1 3)X + (1 + 2) = 3X 2 2X + 3
st r st r

s s s

m
.

P=

ai X i

i=0
n
.

Q=

bi X i

i=0
s s s

P +Q

m
ax(n,n)

(P + Q) =

(ai + bi )X i

i=0
r s

s q

ai = 0 s i > m m < n

bi = 0 s i > n

n<m

t s r rst s
r

(P Q) =

P Q

m
ax(n,m)

(ai bi )X i

i=0
t

ts q s s sts rs st
s t
r q s rq q

(P + Q)(b) = P (b) + Q(b)

ts r P

(P Q)(b) = P (b) Q(b)

s s tr s t st
s q r
s rst s s s r q
s
rs

Q
r

(P Q) max(r(P ),
r(Q))

st s s r sr strt
str
st

Z[X ] P = X 2 + 3X 1 Q = X 2 + 2 ts
t r 1 trs q P Q t

P + Q = 3X + 1 q
s r

2
ts q
t tr

0 t

s s

P + 0 = 0 + P = P P A[X ]

Prt s
Pr tr rt s t

(X 2)(X 3)
s tr strt

X 2 2X 3X + 2 3
r ss sr s trs s q r
s t

X 2 (2 + 3)X + 2 3 = X 2 5X + 6
st st r

n
.

P=

ai X i

i=0
n
.

Q=
j=0

bj X j

ts r P

P Q

s rt

n+m
.

P Q=

.
ai bj

k=0

Xk

i,j:i+j=k

t st st r q s
sstt
s s r r q s rq
q

(P Q)(b) = P (b) Q(b) b A

q s s rs s rst
rt
s t s

A[X ]

ts

rst s s tr strt
s t
rt

P Q s

t r
r
r

P Q

s rt t

rtr

tr

r s q s s s
ss

K = Q K = R

K = C s

P Q = 0 s

s s

P =0Q

=0
s r q
q

A[X ]

rst s tr

(P Q) = r(P ) +
r(Q)

s
Pr rs ts q rt sr rs rs
tss

q ts
t

r tr
rs q

s sr

s r trs

K = Q K = R

K = C s

P K [X ]

P (b) = 0

b K rs

sr r

r

b
a

1 aX + b

sr t

ts r P

s r

P (X ) = aX 2 + bX + c a = 0 (a, b, c K )
s s sr s r r
trr ss r
s r strrs t
rt
tr r r q s
tr s
qr r

a tr
.
.
b
c
2
P =a X + X +
a
a

Prr ss

..
P =a

.
.2
2
b
c
b
X2+
+
4a a
2a

..
P =a

.
.2

X2+
4a
2a

= b2 4ac s

srt

rt

t r r

s r s st

q rs

X2 =
q rr

s rs rs
s rs

s ts s srr
r rs

sr

.2 . .2
.
b

P =a
X2+
2a
2a
trr

..

b
X2+
P =a
2a
2a

r q
s

K = Z2

.
X2+

2a

1 + 1 = 0 K q rr

2a
K = Q, R

C r

ts r P

P = a(X 1 )(X 2 )

1 =
2 =

s q

X = 2
1 2

s r q

b +

2a

2a

s tt

X = 1

s tt s rs

s str ss s q
s r
t tt s rs sr q s s
trr r r
s srt

= b2 4ac K

rtr st sr sr

0 K = R

r
strs rq s

K = C s

q r rs

tts s t q s rs
r
trrs t rs r
tr rs s
q s str r s rts
st s
s s r s trs tr r s rs
rrsts q
trrs r t s
s stt
s r strrt s q
s r
s rs s tr s s r
s r
r q

sr
r

P R[X ]

strr t tr st
s rss
ss q

tr r r

Pr t s
r

an

s r r s t

st trs

lm P (x) = +

x+

lm P (x) =

a <0

n
st s rs s
r
s st s st
ts

a, b R

ts q

P (a) < 0 P (b) > 0

ts r P

P (x)

s t r r
tr

[a, b]

P () = 0
O
srs X 1 n N

str

t q

C[X ] s rs s ts
nsss

rst s rs

s r

k = e

2ik
n

(0 k < n)

sr r

K = Zp

p r s

r
tr s st s rs
r

P (X ) 0 (mod p)
s

P Z[X ]

ts trs

Pr srs r

X 2 1 (mod 5)
Ps srr

X210

(mod 5)

tr

(X 1)(X + 1) 0 (mod 5)
r rst
s s

Z5

X 1 0( 5)

s r st sr s

X + 1 0( 5)

s s s
s

X 1 ( 5)
s s ss

X 1 4 ( 5)

1 4 s s rs

X 2 1

Z5
st rt s s r
rst
rq ts

Zn

s r Pr

X 2 1 (mod 8)
t tr ss sr
sr sr
s r

X 1, 3, 5 7

ts r P

s s

A[X ]

q t s
s

rs s rst rt q s
strt
r r s str
sts s
tr t rtt
s rs trs
rs q s s tr
tr
s r str r r
trr s rs
rs

P, Q

K [X ] rs

sr
rs

P |Q s st

K [X ]

t q

Q=P

X 1 X 3 1 Q[X ] q st

t
t tr

X 3 1 = (X 1)(X 2 + X + 1)
sr q r tss

s r s

stts

s
ss s stts
ts s
s s r rtt
s q s
rs

1 1

rtt

s q s

s s

K [X ]

s tr r
rr q
s
r
rtt

r s r

P K [X ]

stt rs

s rr
trr r

P =QS

K [X ]

s s s

s s

K [X ]

tts

rr r sr s
rr

s r sr
rr
s t rs

Pr srs

P = X 2 + 1

ss

R[X ] s rr s tr
tr
rt s trs r

X 2 + 1 = k(X a)(X b)

ts r P

k, a, c R P

tr s rs rs
ss q

a, b

C[X ] P

s tr r

X 2 + 1 = (X i)(X + i)
ts s rr
s t rs q r q
t rs

sr rr

K [X ]

q s t
rr s
r s s t r r
rtt

rtrs s s s tr
tr
rt s rrs rs q
rsst s rt
r r r r strr st tr s
rr
tr s s rtt

rt s r s
rs s
rsts

r strr s

ts q r tr tr
rs q
s rtt
s Pr t

st rt

st rtrs s str t r
s
s s s

D = 0

rs rtrs s s s srr r

P = QD + R
rst s q r
tr s

Pr q

s r trs r r
rrs st s
t st tr

r ts

K [X ]
D = 0 st

s s

s
s

ts

P = QD + R

s s

P, D

rst

R = 0

s r

(R) < r(D)

ts r P

rt r r s s
s s s
r str st s
r rt

Pr strs rr st Pr
s

P = 0

s r

(P ) = 0

s tts

Q=0

R=P

rt s tr

s r s t s s q

grP = n

s str tr r
s r q

n
.

P=

ai X i

an = 0 (r(P ) = n)

i=0
m
.

D=

bj X j

b = 0 (r(D) = m)

j=0
t s

n < m s tr Q = 0 R = P
n mts s trr

s s q
rr

t r

P an X

Q0

bm X m

Q0 =

Q t

an nm
X
bm

q s s tss q
r s r q

ts

s r

R 0 = P Q0 D

ts rr

rst r
r

R = R0

R0 = 0 r(R0 ) < r(D) s tr

t Q = Q0

ts q qrs

s r tr rs Pr ts q
r

(R0 ) < r(P )

q r q s

Q0

s trs

rrsts
t

n s ts rt
tss

str

Q1

R1 t

rst rstt

R0

R0 = Q1 D + R1

R1 = 0

(R1 ) < r(D)

ts

P = Q0 D + R0 = Q0 D + Q1 D + R1 = (Q0 + Q1 )D + R1

ts r P

ts t
qrs

R = R1

Q = Q0 + Q1

ts q

st str rt st
r strr Pr ss q
ts s
ts

s rsts

P = QD + R

R = 0 r(R) <
(D)

D + R
R
= 0 r(R
) <
P=Q
r(D)
ts ts q

D + R

QD + R = Q
s

)D = R
R
(Q Q

)D = 0
trs q (Q Q
R = R
0
= 0 s Q = Q

QQ

s s rr q

r tt

D=

Pr s st

R =
= 0 Q Q
= 0 r
sr R R

sr q
rrr

rs ts
tr s

)D] = r(Q Q
+ r(D)
[(Q Q
r(D)

r tr
rt

R) max(r(R), r(R
) <
(R
r(D)
s s sr
st tr r sr R
q R =
stt Q = Q
st r
R=R
r

t
rst

tr rst
s rtt s s s
s

s r s r

r r st

X a

rst s

P K [X ]

X a a K

X = a

P (a)

ts r P

Pr

X a

srs

P (X ) = Q(X ) (X a) + R
R

rst
sr stt
s st
rs

X = a ts
P K [X ]

rr

s r

X a a K s

s s

P (a) = R

ts

s r

srs

P (X ) = X 3 6X 2 + 11X 6 = 0
X = 1 s

q
s

Q[X ]

r ts

X 1 t

sr

s s

ts
tr

P (X ) = (X 1)(X 2 5X + 6) = (X 1)Q(X )
ts r q X s r P sr X 1 = 0
Q(X ) = X 2 5X + 6 = 0
st s rt q rss
tr ss rs s

X =2

X = 3

tr r

Q(X ) = (X 2)(X 3)
s

Pr tt s rs
tr

X = 1 X = 2 X = 3 s

P (X ) = (X 1)(X 2)(X 3)
s q r rr s t r
rsr
s rq s q q trs
r

r s r rsr
r

X a
n
srs P = X 1 Q[X ]

r t s

tr

r
t

1 s r

P s P

s s r

1 t
s s s q
st r

s tr

ts r P

X n 1 = (X 1)(X n1 + X n2 + . . . + X 2 + X + 1)
rt srs
r s q

s r

s s s

tr

st r

s r

Q = X n + 1

st s

X n + 1 = (X + 1)(X n1 X n2 + X n3 X n4 . . . + X 2 X + 1)

rr

ts

rr

K [X ]

s rr

tr rs

rr

P K [X ]

K [X ]

rs

Pr

Pr

rr

trr

rr

sr

st
q

rr

rr tr rs Pr s trs
q

P = RS R S
R S sr

stts

ts s

trs

rr r s r

(P ) =

(R) + r(S)

ts

tr r

O
srs

P (X ) = X 3 2 Q[X ]

s rr

t rs

rr

Q[X ]

tt r
strr s

rr

P K [X ]

1 , 2 , . . . , r

rs
stts

P ts P

t tr

st

P (X ) = (X 1 )(X 2 ) (X r )Q(X )

r s rs s rs st
ts
st s rtt

rr
r

s r

P K [X ]

tr s

rs

ts r P

tr rr s

rr
r

s r

P K [X ]

n
n
.

P=

ai X i

an = 0

i=0
q t tt

rs stts

1 , 2 , . . . , n

ts q

P (X ) = an (X 1 )(X 2 ) . . . (X n )
s

an

t r

Pr r s rs rr s q
st s

Q sr r r

s r stt
ts

O
n
s rr P = X 1
C[X ]
s rs s s n rs n ss
s ts rs s q

k = e
ts

2ik
n

Q = an

(0 k < n)

t tr

Xn 1=

n1
Y
(X k )

k=0

s s
r r s r t st
t r

r trr ss rs
ts rs

q r s

st ts rs r trrs
rt tt
rs s s s st r
qr r

t
r st t r r trr
ts s ss rs rs
ts rs

P Q[X ]

st r rs ts r r
tt
t s rs r t

ts r P

P (X ) = an X n + an 1 X n1 + . . . + a2 X 2 + a1 X + a0
t
rs

a Q

r t s

s
i s s r q ts ss ts s
trs s r q
ts s t
sttr

P Z[X ]

r rtr ss
r
rs

P srt

P Z[X ]

a=p Q

s r

r rr s

s t srt q

rtr s

p|a0

q |an
s an = 1 s

p q

ss

rs rs

sr trs

Pr

P (a) = 0 trs

an pn + an 1 pn1 q + an2 pn2 q 2 + . . . + a2p2 q n2 + a1pq n1 + a0qn = 0

p(an pn1 + an 1 pn2 q + an2 pn3 q 2 + . . . + a2pq n1 + a1 q n1 ) = a0q n

rtr

p|a0 q n

Pr
s r
s

q p s

qn

tr t rtt Pr tt
r

a0

rt

q(an1 pn1 + an2 pn2 q + . . . + a2 p2 q n3 + a1 pq n2 + a0 q n1 ) = an pn

Pr
tt
Pr

s r

q |an pn
p q s r

pn

q |a n

O
rtr ss rr r
q s

dN

s t

ns

tr

d s

rr

r rtr ss s ss rs rs

Xn d

sr trs
s

d s tr

t sr

ts r P

r Prr q s ss tss tr
s

q p|P (1)
q + p|P (1)
st sr s r t q
r r ss
tr r rtr ss

t s rs

Pr r rsr s rsts
sts trr

trrs

t r Pr tr
st t rr
s q s s s rts

P = aX 2 + bX + c = 0
s s rs

1
2 q rr r r
rsr s

s r srt

4ac

= b2

s ts st s

1 = 2 =

b
2a

s tr r

P (X ) = a(X 1 )2
s st s q
r

r st trs
st

P K [X ]

aK

P
s q

s r

m m N s

tr

P (X ) = (X a)m Q(X )

m=1
q

X = a

Q(a) = 0

s r s s

m = 2 q s

r t s

ttr

ts r P

Prs

s q t

s rs

a1 , a2 , . . . , ar
ts

m1 , m2 , . . . mr ts P

tr

P (X ) = (X a1 )m1 (X a2 )m2 (X ar )mr Q(X )

Q(ai ) = 0 r 0 i r

Pr s

r srrr

str

O
rs t tr rtr
t s rs

Pr

strs tr r t r

K = R st

t r
t r
st s rss ss r
r qr
s

trr

ttt

st

ts ts

t
s

rr

t t

st r

P K [X ]

n
.

P=

ak X k

k=0
ts

Pt

Pt =

n
.

kak X k1

k=1
q strrs
s rr q

s rtt

st r rt r sr s
rs ss
r r r rr s
rt

(P + Q)t = P t + Qt
(P Q)t = P t Q + P Qt
tt s r t r

ns P (n)
P st

K = C s

s t r trrt t

 t
r r st s rs ss

ts r P

P (0)

= P
= (P n )t

P (n+1)

rs t ss tr tss
rtr t sr q s s tr

1 ts

r s

n
s

,
xz. ,
1 + 1 + + 1 = 0 K
st tss
ss

rt s s s

K = Q K = R

K =C

r s r s
r

K = Zp

strs t st rs r
r r

P K [X ]

(P ) n

a K

ts q

P (X ) =

n
.
P (k) (a)

k!

k=0

(X a)k

Pr Pr strr r r rr
strs r
s r

P = X m

st s s rs

P t (X ) = mX m1
P (2) (X ) = m(m 1)X m2
P (3) (X ) = m(m 1)(m 2)X m3
s st r s strr
tt q

P (k) (X ) = m(m 1)(m 2) . . . (m k + 1)X mk

km

r s st s r
rtrst r

tss s sr
rs
s sr q

r st tr q

ts t st r r

k!

s rs

trs

nN

st ts

,
xz. ,
1+1+
+ 1

s ts

K Pr

s r
r

K = Zp tss
k! sr 0 Zp

k p strs

r r

ts r P

trs
q

P (k) (X ) = 0 s k > m

ts rr rs s rs
trs

. .
m
m(m 1)(m 2) (m k + 1)
=
k!
k

(0 k m)

tr t s q

n
.
P (k) (a)
k=0

(X a)k =

k!

m . .
.
m

X k (X a)k = (X + (X a))m = X m

k=0

Pr str tr r srs q
qr

s ts
q
rs q r
s r r r s

m
.

P=

ai Xi
i=0

P (X ) = X i

ts
i
ts

.m
.
n
.
.
k
1
n
.
P (k) (a)
ai Pi(k) (a) (X a)
k
(X a) == k=0 k! i=0
k!
k=0
m
.

ai

. n (k)
. P (a)
i

i=0

k=0

k!

.
(X a)

q r s trrt str tr s

m
.

ai Pi (X ) = P
i=0

O
r s strr

q sts t tr

ts

K [X ]

r tr s qr
tt

ts r P

P K [X ] a K ts a
P t m s s s P (a) = P
t
(a) = P (2) (a) = . . . = P (m1) (a) = 0 r P (m) (a) = 0 tr
t a

r
P r r rr
r P q
r

s r

ss

X = a

r s srs

P (X ) =
aX + bX + c ts P t (X ) = 2aX + b
rt

q s

2a

X =

ts
st tr

q trs
rst st
r s

2a

q tt s

srs

= 0

P (X ) = X 3 5X 2 + 7X

3
P t (X ) = 3X 2 10X + 7 P (2) (X ) = 6X 10 ts X = 1
t
t
s P (1) = 0 P (1) = 0 P (1) = 4 = 0

ts
s r

trs q

s r s q

P (3) = 0

P t (3) = 4 = 0

s
tr

P (X ) = (X 1)2 (X 3)

1 C[X ]
nss k
n1
t
P (k ) = n
= 0 s q

s rr
s

rs

s s rs

ts
s

P t (X ) = nX n1

s rs ss t

s rtr tr
r strs tr

Pr s rr q P (a)

= P t (a) = P (2) (a) = . . . = P

(m1)

(a) =
0 r P (m) (a) = 0 ts

t r r

ts q

P (X ) =

n
.
P (k) (a)
k=0

k!

n
.
P (k) (a)
(X a) =
(X a)k
k!
k=m
k

ts s tr

(X a)m

P (X ) = (X a)m Q(X )

s srr

Q(X )

n
.
P (k) (a)
Q(X ) =
(X a)km
k!
k=m

ts r P

Q(a) =
s q

a s

P (m) (a)
=0
k!

r t

r rrs r rr sr q s
s r
t

m ts P (a) = P t (a) = P (2) (a) = . . . = P

(m1)

(a) = 0
(m)
r P
(a) = 0 Pr trs m
N
m = 1 sts s q a s r s P
ts
tr

P (X ) = (X a)Q(X )
Q(a) = 0

s r r
rt

P t (X ) = Q(X ) + Qt (X )(X a)
ss

X = a ts

P t (a) = Q(a) = 0
r s s t s r ss
q tr s
rt r rs t

m 1

rs q

ts t

m
m ts P

s rr r rs t

s r
t
t tr

P (X ) = (X a)m Q(X )

Q(a) = 0

r t r rt

P t (X ) = m(X a)m1 Q(X ) + (X a)m Qt (X )

tr

(X a)m1

ts

P t (X ) = (X a)m1 Q1 (X )

Q1 (X ) = mQ(X ) + (X a)Qt (X )
Q1 (a) = mQ(a) = 0

a s r

t
r tss

t s rs

Pt

m 2
(P t )t (a) = (P t )(2) (a) = . . . = (P t )(m2) (a) = 0

m 1 P t
st r

ts r P

(P t )(m1) (a) = 0

Pr st rst s q

P (a) = P t (a) = P (2) (a) = . . . = P (m1) (a) = 0

P (m) (a) = 0

r
rt r st
str
tr r t

m N

r t r
s st q s s rts
sr t ss

s rs s r st s
st r
st

r r t r

t s

P C[X ]

stt t r

r
s rs s s r st

t q

P () =

0
st rs strs rts st
tr s st
ts tt r srt rs r
s rrr r
s rst r rs r
Pr
rs str st tr
r s r q s r
q s
st tr s s strr s tr
r
ts ts t

r
str

z C

P (z)

s rtt

s s strt s r rr
rt t
r trr r
sr s

s q str r

t r s q st
ts
sr
str rtt t

q s

trrs t s tr
str rt

sst st strr q
r

zC

s s t

|P (z)|

t s t

|z |

t t rr

P (z)

rs

r r sr q

ts r P

s s
s st

trs rts t

r t r r
r
rr rtt tr s st

rr

t s

n
.

P=

ai X i C[X ] (ai C, an = 0)

i=0
stt s tr rt s s
r

P (X ) = an (X 1 )m1 (X 2 )m2 (X r )mr

1 , 2 , . . . , r

s s stts

rs s

P m1 , m2 ,

. . . , mr
s s rrsts ts

an

t r

Pr Pr rr

P (X ) = (X 1 )m1 (X 2 )m2 . . . (X r )mr Q(X )

Q(i ) = 0 r 0 i r
rs q Q sr stt s ss q
r Q
tr r C r t r Q s r P
= i
r i q s tr s Q(i ) = 0
Q sr stt r s ts

rs
s rs s q
t r

r s rs s rs
ss
rr trr s q

n = r(P ) = m1 + m2 + . . . + mr
srs q st s rrst t
rs

P s ts

s rs ts r s t
st s rr
st rr

rr

P C[X ]

t tt

rs
s s s ts r s t

 rtr str
s s

rrs s s s r

C[X ]

ts r P

s s s rs

rs q s

z s

z = a + bi s

r s

z = a bi r

tr

t rs rs rtts

z=z

s s s

z, w C

zR

ts

z+w = z+w
zw = zw

z + z = 2(z)

z z = |z |2

rs q s
rt

s rs rs

P = aX 2 + bX + c

ts rs srt

= b2 4ac

t s rs

s s s r s

1 =

b +

2a

2 =

i
2a

s s s rs s rt
r r
rs s
r rrs st s
ts rs
r r srs r
ts
s

n
.

P (X ) =

ai X i C[X ]

i=0
s

n
.

P (X ) =
i=0

ai X i

ts r P

s s rs ts s

s

zC

ts q

P (z) = P (z)
s

P, Q C [X ]

s s

P +Q =P +Q
P Q=P Q
rtr s s ts

P R[X ]
trs q P = P rst

s rs

st

P (z) = P (z)
rtr s
r s

P (z) = 0 ts

P (z) = 0 s

str q s rs s
ts rs s
rst rs rs s

Prs

P R[X ]

ts
rs

z = a + bi

s r

s r

P ts
z = a bi

rt s strr

Prs

z = a + bi

P R[X ]

ts
rs

s r
t
ts s

z = a bi

s r

m
Pr

s r
t
t tr

m P

P (X ) = (X z)m Q(X )

Q(z) = 0 t

r tr

q s ts ts

P (X ) = (X z)m Q(X ) = (X z)m Q(X ) = (X z)m Q(X )

Pr

t ts rs

P (z) = 0, Q(z) = 0

P =P

ts r P

st q

s r

Ps tr st r tr
tr

R[X ]

rtr s tr

P R[X ]

ts
rs rs

1 , 2 , . . . r

ss

stts srs ss rs s
rt r
q r rt trr s rst
rs rs
s

1 , 1 , 2 , 2 , . . . , s , s
Pr tr rt s
r

mi

q r

rs t
s t

ts

C [X ]

tr
r rr

P = an (X 1 )m1 (X 2 )m2 (X r )mr

(X 1 )f1 (X 1 )f1 (X 2 )f2 (X 2 )f2 (X s )f2 (X s )fs
Pr tr s tr
s trs

R[X ] s

rr

rrsts r rs s r
srs q

Qi (X ) = (X i )(X i ) = X 2 2 (i )X + |i |2
s rt ts rs
srt t
s t rs rs
t s str tr st

rs t
s

P R[X ]

s ts

t tr

P = an (X 1 )m1 (X 2 )m2 (X r )mr Qf11Q 2 Qfss

an s t r P s i s s rs
rs P
s Q s s rts ts rs
i

srt
t rrsts r rs s

rtr s q
rrs s s
s r

1 s

R[X ]

s s

s rts r

 srt
t

ts r P

srs r

1 s rs

P = X

s s rs sts

k = e2ik/6 (k = 0, 1, . . . , 5)
s tt s r

0 = 1,

1+ 3
1 =
,
2

2 =

1 +

1 3
3 = 1, 4 =
, 5 =
2
2
ts tr P C[X ] s
3

P (X ) = (X 1 )(X 2 )(X 3 )(X 4 )(X 5 )

Pr
1
q

s rs rs

5 = 1 4 = 2

r r s s
ts
s s rts

Q1 = (X 1 )(X 5 ) = X 2 X + 1
s rs st s s rs sts
rts

Q2 = (X 2 )(X 4 ) = X 2 + X + 1
s rs st s s rs s
rts
ts

t st tr

R[X

]
X 6 1 = (X 1)(X + 1)(X 2 + X + 1)(X 2 X + 1)

s rrs rts

Prs

P Q[X ]

ts

rs

d N tr q s
s 1 =

a + b d a, b Q b = 0 s

r tr tr ts

P 2 = a b d

ts r P

Pr ts q

s r

d Q

st

s s
r rr s
rrs q

d=

s t

1 a 2 a
=
b
(b)

sr r r

D(X ) = (X 1 )(X 2 ) = X 2 2aX + a2 db2

t ts rs ts
s s

Q[X ] t
P = QD + R

rst

R = 0 r(R) < rD =
2
R

ts q ts

t ts ts
rs q

t r

1 0 r

srrs r

R(X ) = cX + d c, d Q
ss st
tss

X = 1

1 r str D(1 ) = 0 ts

R(1 ) = 0
Pr st sr s

R = 0 s s

d
1 = Q
c
s

c = 0 sr

c=0

r
r sr
tt t

d = 0

R = 0
qr s s q
tt q

R = 0

Q
P = QD
2
= 2 t
r

t s r

s q q

s r

P (2 ) = 0
O

r r str rt rs

t r rs

ts r P

rt s

K [X ] ts

s
s

rt

s tr s s rt s
r
sr s st
r
rtr sr q
ts s trs

A, B

s s

K [X ] rs

D K [X ]

s sr tr

B s

sts s

s sr

s tr
D
|D

sr

s r

D |A

|A
D

D |B

|B
D

ts

sts s tr t
sr
q s

s s s srs tr

q s r s q s
rr t s

D |D

r tt r stt
tr

srs

Q[X ] s

|D

A(X ) = (X 1)(X 2) = X 2 3X + 2

ts

B(X ) = (X 1)(X 3) = X 2 4X + 3
D = X 1 s sr tr A

=
D
2X 2 = 2(X 1)

s tr

Pr r st s s rqr

s st sr s
st s
r q sr rr q t
tr
r s r rt s
t
rtt

s s s

A, B K [X ]

 ss q r

(A) r(B)
R0 = A

sr s

r r s

ts r P

R1 = B
rst R2
r

rr t

rr

A = Q1 B + R2

R2 = 0 r(R2 ) <
(B)

R =0

s r r
2
t
t

Q1

Q2

rst

B = Q2 R2 + R3

R3

R1 = B

R2

q s r

R3 = 0 r(R3 ) <
r(R2 )

R = 0

trs
s tr st rs
i
tt
s

Ri1

Ri

Qi

rst

Ri+1
Ri1 = Qi Ri + Ri+1

Ri+1 = 0 r(Ri+1 ) <

(Ri )

q ss s rsts t r
strtt rt
r

(A) r(B) > r(R2 ) > . . . > r(Ri ) > r(Ri+1 ) >
...

q s rs s trs rt r
tr tr
tr s tr q

Rn = 0 s r

rt s tr ss r
t ss st rr s
strr rt tt t q
s r rtt

Rn1 =

(A, B)

tt q

s trs s
t tr st

sr

A, B K [X ]

s s ts

D = (A, B)

sr st s
r t

rt s s st s

, K [X ]

ts q

A + B = D
s r q sr s sr

B r

s ts

s r rs s
s

 s sr tr

A = X5 1
B = X 1 s
3

ts

st t r r sr
ts ts

rts q

r rt s s rs trs

ts r P

X 5 1 = X 2 (X 3 1) + (X 2 1)
Q1 = X 2 R2 = X 2 1 r s

X 3 1 = X (X 2 1) + (X 1)
Q2 = X R3 = X 1 t

R2

R2

R3
X 2 1 = (X + 1)(X 1)

Q3 = X + 1
s D =
(A, B) = X 1

R3 = 0

Pr trr s ts
rs

ts q

st

A + B = D

s s s trrs ts q

D = (X 1) = 1 (X 3 1) + (X ) (X 2 1)
r

X 2 1 = 1 (X 5 1) + (X 2 ) (X 3 1)

stt

.
.
X 1 = 1(X 3 1) + (X ) 1 (X 5 1) + (X 2 ) (X 3 1)

= (X ) (X 5 1) + (X 3 + 1) (X 3 1)
(X ) = X (X ) = X 3 + 1
A, B K [X ] D = (A, B) s
ts a K s r A B s

sr
sr
s

Pr Pr rr

a s r

s s s

X a

D
rr s s s

X a

stt

s
s s s s

a s r

trr s q (X

s s

1, X

1) =

X 1 st s rst
tr sts
s q

G3 G5 = {1}

1 s r

ts r P

tr rt s
rrs

s rt s ts
s
rtt s trs s sts
ss

rr
ts

rr
ts

P, Q, R K [X ]

P |QR

s r

P |R
P, Q, R K [X ] P |QR P
P |R

P |Q

s rr

K [X ]

ts s tr t rt
q s s
trs st tr tr

P K [X ]

s trr

r
r

P = kP1 P2 Pr
s

stt

Pi

rrs

K [X ]
tr s st q qr
tr tr
s rr r s trs r
stt

t s trs

Pi

stt

st t r stt

r srr r t st
tr

str tr tr r s
trs
Ps r tr
q sr
tr r q s s tr
tr

Pi

stt rtrr

st r

rqr

q s s
i s s st r s
t
st

P K [X ]

r
r

P = an P1 P2 Pr

s trr

ts r P

an

t r

P s Pi

s rr
s

K [X ]

tr s st q qr
tr tr
s rr r s trs

K = C[X ]

rrs

s s s

s s

s s t tr r tr

K = R[X ] s

s rrs s s

s
s rts srt t s t
tr
r tr

K = Q s

s rtr

s q s s rrs

s tr ts rs

srs t rt

P (X ) = aX

+ bX +
c C[X ] s 1 , 2
q P t

ss rs ts ss

tr

P (X ) = a(X 1 )(X 2 )
ts rt t r
strt ts q

P (X ) = a(X 2 (1 + 2 )X + 1 2 )
s ts ts s sts
rs tr
ts rs

1 + 2 =
1 2 =

b
a

c
a

r rrs st r s
r r
s sr

P (X ) = a3 X 3 + a2 X 2 + a1 X + a0

s
1 2 3 ss rs q
t tr

P (X ) = a(X 1 )(X 2 )

ts r P

t strt ts q

P (X ) = a(X 3 S1 X 2 + S2 X S3 )
s

S 1 = 1 + 2 + 3
S2 = 1 2 + 1 2 + 2 3
S 3 = 1 2 3

s ts ts q

a2
S1 =
a3
a1
a3
a0
S3 =
a3
S2 =

Ps rr st r s
r rtrr
st

P C[X ]
n
.

P (X ) =

ai X i (an = 09

i=0
s

1 , 2 , . . . , n

ss
rs
r ts r

tts s q s t ts

tr

P (X ) = an (X 1 )(X 2 ) (X n )
ts r strt Pr ts
q tr

Xk

st r t s rr s
r ts q s

X k

t tr

tr

nk

ts s

s trs

s trs s r q t

sr

(1)nk Sn k

Xk

ts r P

ts r
rr

Sk s ts s rts q s

1 , 2 , . . . , n s r
.
Sk = Sk (1 , 2 , . . . , n ) =
i 1 i 2 i k

sr

rs

i1 ,i2 ,...,ik

1 i1 , i2 , . . . , ik n s

i1 , i2 , . . . , ik

s ts

stts Pr

Sn = 1 2 . . . n
s rt ts s rs

S 1 = 1 + 2 + . . . + n
s s ts s rs

.
S2 =

i j

i<j
s s ts s ss rts s s rs
s s
r

Sk

s s rs rs

k s
1 , 2 , . . . , n

rs

t r q s r

s
rts qr r s rs s s
strs
r s strs ts
ts ts

n
.

P (X ) = an

(1)nk Snk X k

k=0
s t ts
st r q r
s ts
strs ts
ss rs

s s

Snk = (1)nk ak
an

rtr r s s rs ts
t

k = n 1

r
q

S1 = 1 + 2 + . . . + n = an1
a0
r t t k = 0
S1 = 1 + 2 + . . . + n = (1)n

a0
an

ts r P

ts q r s tt

.n.

trs

Sk ts

P = (X )n
s r s s
q

rs s

trs

. .
n k
Sk =

an = 1 r

s q

(X )n =

n
.
(1)nk nk X k
k=0

s r q s t
r

s rtr

t
s s strs ts
trs r r trs
s strs s rs Pr
srs s s
rs s rs

C=

n
.

i2

i=1

C s str 1 , 2 , . . . , n
2Ps rsr st C
trs S1 S2 s
. n
.2
n
.
.
.
=
i2 + 2
i j = C + 2S2
S 12 =
i

st rs
r

i=1

i=1

1i<j n

C = S12 2S2
C

r tt
rsrs s
ts

P
C=

an21
a
2 n2
2
an
an

r s s rr q qr
str
s rs rsrs s s
strs

ts
i r st
r

r s t
s

s
ts

ts r P

s rs

s rsts s trr t t r
r s
rt s rs
r s

nss

nss
Xn 1

q s rs

s tt s rs

r s t

.
S1 = 0 + 1 + . . . + n1 =

1
0

s
s

n=1
n>1

s rst r s s rs
rts

nss

r r s st s
s s rs

nss
ts r Gn t s rs
nss r G
rs n ss rts rrs
ss Gn

f (n)

rts

n s
q ts

st

[
Gn =

Gd

d|n
s t t

.
f (d) =

1
0

d|n

s
s

n=1
n>

st r rt r rrst s
rs

f (n)

s r s ss q r
r rt

f (1) = 0
f (1) + f (2) = 0 f (2) = 1
f (1) + f (3) = 0 f (3) = 1
f (1) + f (2) + f (4) = 0 f (4) = 0
f (1) + f (2) + f (4) + f (8) = 0 f (8) = 0

r rt
r r rt

ts r P

f (1) + f (5) = 0 f (5) = 1

f (1) + f (3) + f (5) + f (15) = 0 f (15) = 1
r Prr q

s
s rs t trs r

1
0

(n) =

n=1
s n s

s
s r r
r

(1)k

n = p1 p2 . . . pk

s s

pi

rs

stts
r rr q r t
r

t s

ts r rtr s rr
r q

f (n) = (n)

r t

n N

Ps rs rts

Pr s sts s t r q
sts
s rs rts

n

s
s rs s tt s rs

(X )

rts

nss

n (X ) =

(X k )

k Gn
Pr

1 (X ) = X 1
2 (X ) = X + 1
4 (X ) = (X i)(X + i) = X 2 + 1
trrt s q s rs s
rts
s rs

3 (X ) = X 2 + X + 1

st t s

tr

tr r

rr

rrts q sr ts

rs

rs rts

t st t

rs

n (X )

ns

ts r P

q s rs rts sts s rs

6 (X ) = X 2 X + 1
r r rr
tr

Xn 1=

d (X )

d|n
Pr ts trs tr

X 6 1 = (X 1)(X + 1)(X 2 + X + 1)(X 2 X + 1) = 1 (X )2 (X )3 (X )6 (X )

q r ss

G6 = G1 G2 G3 G6

G6

r s

n = 4 ts

tr

X 4 1 = (X 1)(X + 1)(X 2 + 1) = 1 (X )2 (X )4 (X )
q rrs ss

G4 = G1 G2 G4
(X )

s s
s r
n
rrst rtr
r Pr s

5 (X )

15 (X )

X 5 1 = 1 (X )5 (X )
ts t s s q q

5 (X ) =

X 5 1
=X4+X3+X2+X +1
X 1

X 15 1 = 1 (X )3 (X )5 (X )15 (X ) = (X 5 1)(X 2 + X + 1)15 (X )

ts q

X 10 + X + 1
X 15 1
15 (X ) =
= 2
X +X +1
(X 5 1)(X 2 + X + 1)

ts r P

t s s t
trs q

15 (X ) = X 8 X 7 + X 5 X 4 + X 3 X + 1
strr r rtr q
sr

n (X )

ts trs
ss q tt
rts

(n)

rs

r s q r

n (X )

s tt

(n)

s s r q t s
s

n q

n
1
2
3
4
5
6
15

n (X )
X 1
X +1
X2+X +1
X2+1
X4+X3+X2+X +1
X2X +1
X8X7+X5X4+X3X +1

r tr t s rs
r

n (X )

n 15

srs r rsr r r
rt tr
r rtr r

rs
r
r r
Pstr P P r ss
tt
t rt r t

rt s s
tt tr r