ProAdvice3:AILERONSIZING

Introduction
Thepurposeoftheaileronsistoprovidecontrolabouttheairplanesrollaxis.Therearethreecommontypesof
aileronsusedinmodernairplanes;PlainFlapAilerons,FriseAilerons,andSpoilerFlapAilerons.Schematicsofthese
areshowninFigure1.OtherailerontypesincludetheFlaperon(acombinationofflapsandailerons)andElevon(a
combinationofelevatorsandailerons).

Figure1:Threecommontypesofailerons;PlainFlap(top),Frise(middle),andSpoilerFlap(bottom).

PlainFlapAilerons
The plain flap is the most common type of aileron configuration. They are very effective and inexpensive to
manufacture. For this reason, they can be found on a wide range of aircraft, ranging from primary trainers to
commercialaircraft.AscanbeseeninFigure1theaileronontheupgoingwingisdeflectedTrailingEdgeDown
(TED)andthedowngoingwingisdeflectedTrailingEdgeUp(TEU).

FriseAilerons
TheFriseaileronwasinventedbythefameddesignerLeslieGeorgeFriseBScFRAeS(18971979)1.Theirpurposeis
toreduceoreliminateadverseyaw(seeSection22),butalsotoreducehingemoments.Thiscanbeaccomplished
inseveralways,ofwhichoneisshowninFigure1.Allrequirethehingetobeoffsettothelowersurfaceasshown
inthefigure.

The geometry of the aileron forces the leading edge of the aileron that is deflected Trailing Edge Up (TEU)
downwardandoutsideoftheregularOutsideMoldLine(OML).Thisexposesittotheairstreamandincreasesthe
drag on that side of the wing (the downgoing side). The drag generates a yawing moment and reduces the

Among well know aircraft whose design he contributed to in are the Bristol Fighter, Bristol Bulldog , Bristol Beaufighter, and the Hunting
PercivalJetProvost.

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tendencyofthewingtoyawoutoftheturn,oppositethebank.Iftheleadingedgeoftheaileronisroundlike
the one shown in the figure, a powerful low pressure region is generated that lowers the hinge moment. This
explains its use in both fastand large aircraft beforethe advent ofhydraulically boosted control systems. If the
noseistoosharpthelowersurfacemaystall,whichcancauseseverebuffeting(Reference1).Thistypeofaileron
has seen use on many different aircraft types; among them the B17, Bell P39, Grumman F6F3 and TBF, the
Spitfire,Hurricane,FockeWulf190,CurtissWrightC46,andDC4,andmanyCessnamodels.

SpoilerFlapAilerons
Several airplanes feature this type of ailerons (e.g. Mitsubishi MU2, Boeing B52, and others). This aileron type
usuallyfeaturesaflapdeflectedTrailingEdgeDown(TED)ontheupgoingwingandasmallspoileronthedown
goingside.Asthespoilerisdeployeditreducesliftonthedowngoingside.Theailerononthatsidemayormay
notdeflectTEUatthesametime.Thespoilerincreasesthedragonthedowngoingwingandreducesadverseyaw.
However,acommoncomplaintisthatsuchaileronsystemstendtobesluggishatlowairspeeds,asseparatedflow
creeps forward toward the leading edge of the wing, and reduces the effectiveness of the spoiler. This control
systemmaydisplaypeculiarsideeffectsonsweptwingaircraft.Asanexample,itiswellknownthatB52pilots
complain about a significant nose pitchup moment associated with aileron deflection. It turns out that as the
spoilers are deployed the center of lift moves forward; destabilizing the aircraft such it pitches noseup. An
assertivenosepitchdowncorrectionisrequiredbythepilot.

Aileron Design Requirements

Amongcriticaldesignpointsforaileronsarethefollowing:

1. Responsivenessatslowspeedswithlargedeflections.
2. Responsivenessathighspeedswithlowdeflections.
3. Comfortablestickforcesthroughoutflightenvelope.

Another term for responsiveness is roll authority. Although responsiveness at slow speeds is imperative (low
dynamic pressure requires greater deflection or control surface area, or a combination of the two), high speed
functionalityisofgreatimportanceaswell.Ithasbeenknownforalongtimethatapilotsconceptionofadequate
roll control is tied to the helix angle made by the wing as the airplane rolls at a given airspeed2; pb/2V. In this
expression,pistherollrateinradianspersecondforfullailerondeflection,bisthewingspan(inftorm),andVis
theairspeed(inft/sorm/s).Thisway,itisrecommendedthatforspecifictypesofaircraftthefollowingratiosare
metorexceeded:

Cargoorheavyliftaircraft:

pb
0.07
2V

pb
0.09
2V

Fighteraircraft:

Fortheaircraftdesignerthismeansthatthephysicaldimensionsoftheaileronscanbedeterminedbasedonthe
desiredrollrate.Astepbystepdesignapproachispresentedbelow.

Estimating Steady-State Roll Rate

Whentheaileronsaredeflectedtheairplanebeginstoroll.Themotionconsistsofatransientaccelerationthat
disappearsoncetherollrateincreasesandafterwhichthereisasteadyrollrate.Thesteadystaterollratewhichis
helpfulindeterminingapilotdesiredresponsiveness.

PerAirplanePerformanceStabilityandControlbyPerkinsandHage,page352.

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Figure2:Changeinliftduetoailerondeflection.

Thesteadystaterollrateisdeterminedfrom:

Cl
pb
a a
2V
Cl p

(1)

(2)

Notethatthesteadystaterollratecanbedeterminedfrom:

Cl

2V
a

Cl p

Rollauthorityandrolldampingfortwospecialbutcommonwingplanformshapes.

CASE1:StraightTaperedWingwithTaperRatio:

Rollauthority:

cl C R 2
4 1 3 3
2
a
b
b
b2 b1

2
1
Sb
3b

Cl

Cl p

Rolldamping:

24S

Unitsforboth: perradianorperdegree

CASE2:RectangularWing(=1):

Rollauthority:

cdo C R b

cl b22 b12

Cl

Cl p

1 3

(4)

(5)

(6)

(3)

b2

Rolldamping:

cl cdo
6

DERIVATION:
Assumethewingisrigidandtherollingmotioniscausedbydeflectingtheaileronstoananglea.Furtherassume
the roll rate p is impeded by the roll damping due to a local change in AOA along the wing (with a minor
contribution from the vertical tail). Therefore we can write the equation of rolling motion for the aircraft as
follows:
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I XX p

L pb L
a

p 2V a

(i)

is the roll acceleration in rad/s, L is the

Where IXX is the aircrafts moment of inertia (in slugsft or kgm) p
rollingmomentinftlbforNm,andaistheailerondeflectionindegrees.

L pb L
a

p 2V a

L a
pb

a

L p
2V

L pb
L
a

p 2V
a

Intermsofstabilityderivativeswecanwrite:

Cl
pb

a a
Cl p
2V

(ii)

So, theproblem boils down to the determination of the two derivatives Cla and Clp, but this will be shown in a
futureProAdvice.
QED

STEP-BY-STEP: Aileron Sizing

STEP1:

EstablishinitialdimensionsbasedonFigure3.Alsodeterminethelikelyailerondeflectionangle,a.
Notethatthecontrolsystemwillstretchinflightreducingthemaximumgrounddeflection.This
meansthatacontrolsystemdesignedforamaximumdeflectionof,say,15ontheground,may
onlydeflectasmuchas75%ofthatinflight.Somecontrolsystemsaresopoorlydesigned3that
they may only achieve 25% of the maximum deflection. At any rate, 75% is a reasonable first
stabestimateforanaveragecontrolsystem.Thiswouldmeanthatamaximumdeflectionof15
iscloserto11.3inflight.

STEP2:

Using the geometry from STEP 1, estimate roll damping,

Cl p . Use Equation (4) for a straight

taperedwing,andEquation(6)foraHersheybarwing.

STEP3:

UsingthegeometryfromSTEP1,estimatetherollauthority, Cl .UseEquation(3)forastraight
a

STEP4:

taperedwing,andEquation(5)foraHersheybarwing.

DetermineadesiredtargetrollhelixangleperSection23.5.2usingEquation(1).Ifthecalculated
value is less than the selected target enlarge b1 or b2, or both. Note that b2 can never be larger
thanb/2and0<b1<b2.

Poorlydesignedheremeanthatitresultsinexcessivestretching.

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Figure3:Definitionoftheailerongeometry.

Special Case Aileron Sizing: Constant Chord Wing

Thefollowingexpressioncanbeusedtodeterminethespanwiselocationoftheinboardedgeoftheaileron,fora
givenoutboardedge.Itonlyappliestoconstantchord(Hersheybar)wings.

Physicaldimension:

pb Cl p
b1
b 2 b22

2V cla a

2
b1
pb Cl p
b1

b
2V cla a b

(7)

(8)

(i)

(ii)

Fractionaldimension:

Where;
b1=Spanwisestationfortheinboardedgeoftheaileron,inftorm.

b2=Spanwisestationfortheoutboardedgeoftheaileron,inftorm.

DERIVATION:
BeginwithEquation(1)andsolveforCla:

Cl
pb

a a
Cl p
2V

pb Cl p
Cl

a
2V a

Rollauthorityforarectangularwingcanbeshowntobe:

C l

2
2
pb Cl p cla b2 b1

b2
2V a

Sinceourtargetistodeterminetheinboardstation,b1,fortheaileronwesolveforitusingEquation(ii):

2
pb Cl p b
b1
b22

2V a cla

(iii)
QED

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EXAMPLE1:
AUAVisbeingdesignedwithaHersheybarwingwhosedimensionsareshowninFigure4.Themaximumaileron
ground deflection is 20. Assuming that 75% of that will be achievable in flight, determine the roll rate for
maximumailerondeflectionatV=100KTASifchangeinliftwithailerondeflection,cla,hasbeenfoundtoequal
3.165perradianandtheairfoilsliftcurveslopeiscl=5.322perradianandsectiondragcoefficientistakenascdo
= 0.010. Compare the results to that obtained from the VortexLattice code SURFACES presented in the same
examples.

Figure4:Examplegeometry.

SOLUTION:
DeterminethederivativeCla

Cl

6
b2
dCl 2cla
23.165 y 2
1

0.5936 /rad
c y dy
12 12 2 3
d a
Sb
b1

STEP2:DeterminethederivativeClp

Cl p

cl cdo
6

0.01036 /

5.322 0.010
0.8887 /rad
6

STEP3:Determinetherollhelixangle
Basedonthistherollrateat100KTAScanbefoundfromEquation(1),wherethemaximumachievabledeflection
amountsto20x0.75=15:

Cl
pb
0.5936

a a
15
10.02 deg
Cl p
2V
0.8887 180

STEP4:Determinetherollratep

Cl

Cl p

2V
a
b

0.5936

15 2 168.8 282.9 /s

0.8887
12

AmodelofthiswingwasconstructedinSURFACES.Oncecomplete,theTasks>StabilityDerivativeswasselected
on the VLM Console and the two options checked as shown in the image below. The aileron authority and roll
dampingwherethendeterminedandfoundtoequal:
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Cl 0.4134 /rad and Cl p 0.6336 rad/

a

Therefore,SURFACESpredictsthefollowingrollrateforthewing:

Cl

Cl p

0.4134
2V
15 2 168.8 275.3 /s
a

- 0.6336
b
12

Ascanbeseen,thesolutionfromSURFACESaccountsfortipeffectsbothfortherootandtipoftheaileron,aswell
asthatofthewing.Thatinteractionisquitecomplicatedanditisanimportantdetailtocapturesothatonedoes
notoverestimatetherollrate.

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Maximizing Responsiveness
Some airplanes require flap span to be maximized to meet requirements for stall speed. This means that the
aileronspanislessthanideal.Thedesignercanattempttoimprovetheeffectivenessoftheremainingaileronsby
positioningthecentroidoftheaileronplanformascloseaspossibletothelocationwheretheirspanwisesection
momentreachesmaximum.

Considerthetaperedwingplanform(halfspan)below:

Figure5:DefinitionofaninfinitesimalsegmentSonthewing.

Spanwisesectionmoment(analogoustosectionliftorsectionliftcoefficient)isdefinedasfollows:

Cm y Cl

M X y q Cl S

Where;
Cm=Spanwisemomentcoefficient

Cl=Sectionliftcoefficient

MX=Elementalrollingmoment

y=Spanwisestation

q=Dynamicpressure

S=Areaofelementalstrip

Considerthewingshownbelow,whichshowthedistributionofsectionliftcoefficients:

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Figure6:Distributionofsectionliftcoefficientalongthewing4.

Letszoominandshowthesectionmomentsforastrip:

Si

yi

Figure7:Generationofspanwisesectionmoment.

Letsplotthesectionmomentsforeachstrip.

GeneratedwiththeVortexLatticecodeSURFACES.

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Maximum section moment. This is where

we should try to place the centroid of the
aileron. This will achieve maximum
responsiveness.

Figure8:Distributionofsectionmomentsalongthewing.

TheeffectofdeflectingaileronsonthedistributionofsectionliftcoefficientscanbeseeninFigure9below.The
aileronsaredeflectedsome15andthewingsAOAamountsto8at100KCAS.

Figure9:Typicalimpactofdeflectingaileronsonthesectionliftcoefficients5.

GeneratedwiththeVortexLatticecodeSURFACES.

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Figure10:Impactofailerondeflectionontheflowfieldbehindtheaircraft.Notethedifferenceinthewingtip
vortices6.

Aileron Stick Forces

Inaconventional,humanoperatedaileroncontrolsystem,thepilotmustreactthehingemomenttheresultsfrom
deflectingthecontrolsurface.Thisisdonebyapplyingaforcetothepropercontrol(astick,yoke,orasteering
wheel).

Figure11:Thehingemoment(HM)isreactedasaforce,eitherdirectlybythepilotorbyacontrolsystem
(typicallyhydraulicorelectric).

Hingemomentsarehighlyaffectedbythegeometryofthecontrols,includingthehingelocationandshapeofthe
control.Ageneralexpressionforthehingemomentisgivenbelow:

HM

1
V 2 C f S f C h
2

(9)

Where;
Cf=Flapchord(aftofhingeline)

Ch=Hingemoment

GeneratedwiththeVortexLatticecodeSURFACES.

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Sf=Flaparea(aftofhingeline)
V=Airspeed,
=Densityofair

Figure12:Geometrydefinitions

Thehingemomentcoefficientisgivenby:

C h C h0 C h C h C h t
t

(10)

WHATISProAdvice?

ProAdvicesareshortandsimplifiedexcerptsfromProfessorGudmundssonsdesignhandbookAircraftPreliminary
DesignHandbookandareintendedtoprovidetheaircraftdesignerwithclearandconciseanalysismethodsforthe
aircraft designer. This handbook is currently in development. Snorri Gudmundsson is an Assistant Professor of
Aerospace Engineering at EmbryRiddle Aeronautical University in Daytona Beach, Florida, where he teaches
AircraftPreliminaryDesigntoseniorengineeringstudents.

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