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CHAPTER 1

CHAPTER 1
FOSSIL FUELS

1.1 Introduction
The modern world operates largely on fossil fuels, mainly coal and fluid
petroleum hydrocarbons. For almost a hundred years much of the practice of geology
has centered on exploration for such fossil fuels, as well as for the hard or metallic
minerals.
The most used fuels are those produced from fossil resources; coal (solid),
petroleum oil (liquid), and natural gas (gas). Currently, fossil fuels supply over 85% of
global primary energy consumption ( 40% oil, 25% coal, and 25% natural gas),
providing energy transportation, electricity generation, and industrial uses. The air
emissions of fossil fuel combustion are transported by winds and falling to the surface
of the earth. While in the atmosphere, pollutants cause considerable harmful effects on
human health.
Fossil fuels are fuels formed by natural processes such as decomposition of buried
dead organisms. Fossil fuels contain high percentages of carbon and
include coal, petroleum, and natural gas. The theory that fossil fuels formed from
the fossilized remains of dead plants by exposure to heat and pressure in the Earth's
crust over millions of years. Strictly speaking, fossil fuels are a renewable resource.
They are continually being formed via natural processes as plants and animals die and
then decompose and become trapped beneath sediment. However, fossil fuels are
generally considered to be non-renewable resources because they take millions of years
to form,
Origin

1.2 Solid Fuel

Coal, which is available in most of the developing and developed world, has been used as a
major source of fuel even in ancient human civilizations. It also found its use in historic steam
engines at the dawn of the industrial revolution. Coal-fired power plants provided 31% of all
the electricity generated worldwide in 1995 and this percentage is expected to increase to 41%
by 2015 as the worlds population grows . In the United States, coal is, by far, the most
avalible fossil energy resource, producing more than half the electricity needed in the country.
Coal is estimated to last five hundred years at the present rate of use. The U.S. Department of
Energy (DOE) has the goals to use coal more cleanly, more economically, and more
efficiently. Highly advanced coal-fired power generation systems are being developed for the
future. These systems will provide 52-55% plant thermal efficiency (based on coals higher
heating value) and will emit sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and particulates at levels less than
the current U.S. Federal New Source Performance Standards. The efficiency of todays typical
plant is 33-35% (HHV). By increasing the efficiency, carbon dioxide emissions will also be
reduced, while the cost of electricity will be 10-15%
lower than the cost of todays plant.

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1.2.1 Advantages of Coal as Power Plant Fuel

Today, advances in technology have allowed coal to improve living conditions with its current
role in meeting mans fuel needs. Coal has been used extensively in power generation where
better technology is employed to ensure that there is a balance between ecology and economics
in producing sustainable and affordable energy. Some of its advantages include reliability,
affordability, abundance, known technologies, safety, and efficiency.

Reliability.
One of the greatest advantages of coal fired plants is reliability. Coals ability to supply power
during peak power demand either as base power or as off-peak power is greatly valued as a
power plant fuel. It is with this fact that advanced pulverized coal fired power plants are
designed to support the grid system in avoiding blackouts.

Affordability.
Energy produced from coal fired plants is cheaper and more affordable than other energy
sources. Since coal is available , it is definitely cheap to produce power using this fuel.
Moreover, it is not expensive to extract and mine from coal deposits. Consequently, its price
remains low compared to other fuel and energy sources.

Abundance.
There are approximately over 300 years of economic coal deposits still easy to get . With this
great amount of coal available for use, coal fired plants can be continuously fueled in many
years to come.

Known technologies.
The production and use of coal as a fuel are well understood, and the technology required in
producing it is constantly advancing. Moreover, coal-mining techniques are continuously
enhanced to ensure that there is a constant supply of coal for the production of power and
energy.

Safety.
Generally, coal fired plants are considered safer than nuclear power plants. A coal power
plant's failure is certainly not likely to cause bad events such as a nuclear meltdown would.
Additionally, the welfare and productivity of coal industry employees has greatly improved
over the years. In fact, injuries, time lost, and victims have decreased significantly in the past
years.

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1.2.2 Disadvantages of Coal-Fired Power Plants

On the other hand, there are also some significant disadvantages of coal fired plants including
Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emissions, mining destruction, generation of millions of tons of
waste, and emission of harmful substances.

Greenhouse gas emissions.

It cannot be denied that coal leaves behind harmful by products upon combustion. These by
products cause a lot of pollution and contribute to global warming. The increased carbon
emissions brought about by coal fired plants has led to further global warming which results in
climate changes.

Mining destruction.
Mining of coal not only results in the destruction of enviroment and scenery, but it also
displaces humans as well. In many countries where coal is actively mined, many people are
displaced in huge numbers due to the pitting of the earth brought about by underground
mining. Places near coal mines are unsafe for human habitation as the land could cave in at
anytime.

Generation of millions of tons of waste.

Millions of tons of waste products which can no longer be reused are generated from coal
fired plants. Aside from the fact that these waste products contribute to waste disposal
problems, these also contain harmful substances.

Emission of harmful substances.

Thermal plants like coal fired plants emit harmful substances to the environment. These
include mercury, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, mercury, selenium, and arsenic. These
harmful substances not only cause acid rain but also are very harmful to humans as well.

1.2.3 Process description of a coal-fired power plant

A coal-fired power plant burns coal to produce electricity. In a typical coal-fired plant,
there are pulverisers to mill the coal to a fine powder for burning in a combustion
chamber of the boiler. The heat produced from the burning of the coal generates steam at
high temperature and pressure. The high-pressure steam from the boiler impinges on a
number of sets of blades in the turbine. This produces mechanical shaft rotation resulting
in electricity generation in the alternator based of Faradays principle of electromagnetic
induction. The exhaust steam from the turbine is then condensed and pumped back into
the boiler to repeat the cycle. This description is very basic, and in practice, the cycle is
much more complex and incorporates many refinements. A typical coal plant schematic is
presented in Figure . It shows that the turbine of the power plant has three stages: highpressure, intermediate-pressure and low-pressure stages. The exhaust steam from the

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high-pressure turbine is reheated in the boiler and fed to the intermediate- pressure
turbine. This increases the temperature of the steam fed to the intermediatepressure
turbine and increases the power output of the subsequent stages of the turbine. Steam
from different stages of the turbine is extracted and used for boiler feed water heating.
This is regenerative feed water heating, typically known as regeneration. The
improvement of the thermal performance of the power generation cycle with reheat and
regeneration is a trade- 4 Thermal Power Plants - Advanced Applications off between
work output and heat addition and it can be evaluated through the efficiency of the
power generation cycle. In a typical pulverised coal power plant, there are three main
functional blocks as shown in Figure . They are (1) the boiler; (2) the turbo-generator and
(3) the flue gas clean up. The boiler burns coal to generate steam. The combustion
chamber of the boiler is connected with the coal pulverisers and air supply. The water
pre-heater (also known as the economiser), the super heater and the reheater are all
included in this block. The steam produced in the boiler is used in the turbine as shown in
Figure . The generator is coupled with the turbine where mechanical shaft rotation of the
turbine is converted into electrical power and supplied to the power distribution grid
through a transformer. The purpose of the transformer is to step up the voltage of the
generated power to a level suitable for long distance transmission. The steam leaving the
turbine is condensed in the condenser as shown in the Figure using cooling water which
discharges low temperature heat to the environment. The condensate produced is
pumped back to the boiler after heating through the feed water heaters. The feed water
heaters use regenerative steam extracted from the turbine. The burning of coal in the
boiler of a power plant produces flue gas. The main constituents the of flue gas are
nitrogen (N2), carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O). It carries particulate matter (PM)
and other pollutants. There are traces of some oxides such as oxides of sulphur (SOx) and
oxides of nitrogen (NOx) depending on the combustion technology and fuel used. The flue
gas clean-up block comprises all the equipment needed for treating the flue gas. The
power plant shown in Figure includes a DeNOx plant for NOx removal, followed by
electrostatic precipitation (ESP) to remove particulate matter (PM), and wet flue gas
desulfurisation (FGD) to remove SOx from the flue gas. An air-preheating unit is situated
between the DeNOx and the electrostatic precipitator (ESP). There is a significant amount
of heat energy leaving through the flue gas, some of which is recovered by using the air
preheater. This improves the thermal performance of the process. The properties of the
coal used in the boiler and the environmental legislation and/or environmental
management policy of a plant are two major factors that determine the nature of the flue
gas treatment process. In some countries, due to stringent environmental regulation,
coal-fired power plants need to install denitrification plants (DeNOx) for nitrogen oxide
(NOx) and flue gas desulphurisation plants (FGD) for sulphur oxide (SOx) removal]. In
Australia, the coal used has a very low sulphur content and therefore, the concentration
of SOx from the burning of coal in Australia is relatively low. Dave et al. report an
absence of tough regulatory requirements for limiting NOx or SOx in flue gas streams in
Australia. Therefore, Australian coal plants in the past have not been required to have
deNOx or deSOx equipment to clean up flue gas. In this research, a pulverized coal-fired
power plant in Central Queensland, Australia has been considered as a case study. One of
the units of the said plant was used to develop a process model and to perform energy
analysis. This unit has Maximum Continuous Rating (MCR) of 280 MW. It spends less that
5% of its operating time at loads greater than 260 MW. Operation of the unit is mostly in
the range of 100 to 180 MW range. The unit plant is a sub-critical powerEnergy Analysis
and Efficiency Improvement of a Coal Fired Thermal Power Plant in Queensland

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plant having steam outlet pressure of 16.2 MPa. The unit/plant uses thermal coal
supplied fromthe nearby Bowen basin.

1.2.4 Cost Comparison

The US Energy Information Administration provides a comparison of levelized costs
for different power generation sources. Levelized cost represents the present value of
the total cost of building and operating a generating plant over a period of time, and
reflects overnight capital cost, fuel cost, operation and maintenance costs, financing
costs, and an assumed utilization rate for each plant type. To convert from dollars per
megawatt-hour to cents per kWh, move the decimal point in the table below one spot
to the left (for example, conventional coal is 9.48 cents per kWh on average)

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1.3 Liquid Fuel

Crude oil is found in deep, high pressure reservoirs, beneath the earth's
surface. Oil drilling is an expensive process that can be complicated by the location
of the oil in the earth. Therefore, oil companies spend millions of dollars annually
in exploration of new oil reservoirs.
The primary chemical components of crude oil are carbon, hydrogen, sulfur,
oxygen, and nitrogen. The percentage of these elements found in a crude oil is most
used to characterize the oil. Two terms frequently used when referring to crude oil
are "sweet" crude and "sour" crude. Sweet crude is the oil that contains less than
0.5% wt sulfur, while sour crude contains greater than 0.5% wt sulfur. It is
retrieved by drilling deep into the ground and pumping the liquid out. The liquid is
then refined and used to create many different products. Crude oil is a very
versatile fuel and is used to produce things like plastics, artificial food flavorings,
heating oil, petrol, diesel, jet fuel, and propane.

1.3.1 Oil Refinery Process

Refineries are comprised of a number of individual technologies based on

Processing facilities with varying objectives, and integrated as necessary
To meet product targets. The types, size, number and flow sequence of a specific
refinery (i.e., refinery configuration) will vary depending on crude oil quality, required
Product mix and quality, and environmental, safety, economic or other constraints.
The major refinery processing steps or technologies can be categorized into five
Functional areas:
Separation,
Conversion or cracking,
Combination,
Reformulation,
Treating and other specialty or support operations.
Process Objective to distill and separate valuable distillates (naphtha, kerosene, and
diesel) and atmospheric gas oil (AGO) from the crude feedstock.

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CHAPTER 1

Figure (1.1) Products Produced by Refineries

Process steps:
Preheat the crude feed utilizing recovered heat from the product streams.
Desalt and dehydrate the crude using electrostatic enhanced liquid/liquid separation.
Heat the crude to the desired temperature using fired heaters.
Flash the crude in the atmospheric distillation column.
Utilize pump around cooling loops to create internal liquid reflux.
Product draws are on the top, sides, and bottom.

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CHAPTER 1

Figure (1-2) Refinery Flow Diagram

Gasoline
Its major purpose: Gasoline is a crude oil derived liquid mixture of refinery
streams.
It is used as a fuel for today's vehicle's internal combustion engines, better known as
"gasoline engines".
How is it made: The gasoline components are produced from crude oil through a
variety of refinery processes and are subsequently mixed in such a way that the final
gasoline blend meets the mandated quality requirements.
The chemical composition of a gasoline blend consists of hydrocarbon chains
including paraffin (alkenes), Naphthenic (cycloalkanes), aromatics and olefins
(alkenes). They have between five and twelve carbon atoms per molecule (C5 C12).
These molecules also contain heteroatoms such as oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur,
which cause the formation of pollutant emissions upon combustion.

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Performance characteristics:
Modern gasoline for use in the internal combustion engine exhibits the following key
characteristics:
The fuel has a high energy density.
It has good ignition properties.
It contains low concentrations of pollutant precursors.
It allows the use of advanced exhaust treatment equipment.
It allows easy and safe handling, transport and storage.
Its use leaves a small environmental and climate footprint.
Diesel
Its major purpose: Diesel fuel (also known as AGO) is a crude oil derived liquid
mixture of refinery streams. It is used as a fuel to propel today's compression ignition
engines installed in passenger cars, vans, trucks and buses. It is also used for railways
and for shipping (smaller engines/ships).
How is it made: The diesel components are produced from crude oil through a variety
of refinery processes. Whereas initially most of the diesel was produced from crude oil
distillation, with the growing demand for diesel fuels, diesel components are now
increasingly produced through refinery cracking processes, converting heavy refinery
streams into lighter fractions suitable for use as diesel blend components.
The composition of a diesel blend consists of a mixture of saturated hydrocarbon
chains and aromatic compounds with a boiling range between 200 and 350 oC.
The diesel blends generally contain a significant concentration of saturated
hydrocarbons (approximately 75%) to meet modern diesel fuel requirements.
Performance characteristics:
A suitable diesel fuel for modern compression ignition engines would exhibit the
following key characteristics:
High energy density.
Good ignition performance reflected by a good cetin quality.
Contains low concentrations of pollutant precursors and polyaromatics to allow
optimal functioning of the engine and advanced exhaust emission treatment equipment.
Exhibits good cold weather operability performance.
Has good storage stability at ambient temperatures.
Allows easy and safe handling, transport and storage.

LPG (liquefied petroleum gas)

Its major purpose: Apart from its use for heating and cooking, as feedstock for
petrochemical processes and as feedstock to produce high octane gasoline components
through refinery alkylation, LPG has also limited use as fuel for internal combustion
engines.
How is it made: Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) refers to mixtures of petroleum gases
released during the production of crude oil and natural gas and during the refining of
crude oil. The quantity of automotive LPG produced in refineries is generally very
small (approximately 15%). Mixtures of propane and butane are normally used for
automotive LPG. Automotive LPG often contains small quantities of other components
such as pentane, ethane, and propene.

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Performance characteristics:
LPG's energy content on a volume basis is considerably lower (approximately 80%)
than the gasoline it replaces, leading to increased vehicle fuel consumption.
LPG has good ignition properties and a high octane number (RON: 90110). LPG has
also shown to increase diesel burning efficiency when mixed with diesel fuel from
75%85% to 95%98%.
LPG contains very low concentrations of pollutant precursors thus facilitating the use
of advanced exhaust treatment equipment.
LPG vehicles produce 90% less particulate emissions, 50% less NOx, 75% less CO
and 87% less ozone compared to gasoline. Relative to diesel, LPG vehicles produce
120 times less particulate matter and 80% less NOx.
The carbon footprint for LPG is approximately 3.02 CO2/kg. This is approximately
17% less CO2 compared to gasoline and approximately 2% less CO2 compared to
diesel, on a well to wheel basis.
LPG is heavier than air and ignites more easily than gasoline or diesel and therefore
requires careful handling, transportation and storage.
LPG also requires adaptations to the vehicle engines or the installation of dedicated
LPG engines and the installation of dedicated fuel tanks.

Figure (1-3) Refining Configurations and Their Yields

1.3.2 Crude Oil Properties

the properties of the spilled oil must be known immediately. the
properties routinely measured by oil producers and refiners are not the ones that onscene commanders need to know. Oil producers and refiners typically do not know to
what extent or at what rate their oils will evaporate; the viscosity of the oil at ambient
temperatures as it evaporates; if the oil is likely to sink or submerge; the health hazard
to on-site personnel from volatile organic compounds. Crude oils from the same region
are often given the same name even though oils from different wells can have
markedly different properties. Oils that are transported are often blends of different

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crude oils, and the relative proportions of component oils frequently change.
Therefore, the physical and chemical properties will vary. Similarly, the properties of
oil taken from an individual well can vary with the depth of the well and the year of
production. Also, different authors may refer to the same crude oil by different names,
or to different crude oils by the same name. Differences in reported values may be due
to the variance of samples and inherent differences in measurement techniques.
Sulphur
The sulphur content of a crude oil is important for a number of reasons.
Downstream processes such as catalytic cracking and refining will be adversely
affected by high sulphur contents. During an oil spill, the sulphur content becomes a
health and safety concern for cleanup personnel. In addition, if high sulphur oils are
burning, they can produce dangerous levels of sulphur dioxide.
Flash Point
The flash point of a fuel is the temperature to which the fuel must be heated to
produce a vapour/air mixture above the liquid fuel that is ignitable when exposed to an
open flame under specified test conditions. In North America, flash point is used as an
index of fire hazard. As such, shipping regulations use flash point as a criterion to
establish labelling requirements.Flash point is an extremely important factor in relation
to the safety of spill cleanup operations. Gasolines and other light fuels can be ignited
under most ambient conditions and therefore pose a serious hazard when spilled. Many
freshly spilled crude oils also have low flash points until the lighter components have
evaporated or dispersed.
Flammability Limits in Air
The percent concentration in air (by volume) is given for the lower and upper
limit. These values give an indication of relative flammability. The limits are
sometimes referred to as lower explosive limit (LEL) and upper explosive limit
(UEL).
Ignition Temperature
Sometimes called autoignition temperature, this is the minimum temperature at
which the material will ignite without a spark or flame being present.
Fire Point
Fire point is the lowest temperature, corrected to one atmosphere pressure
(101.3 kPa), at which the application of a test flame to the oil sample surface causes
the vapour of the oil to ignite and burn for at least five seconds. For ordinary
commercial lubricating oils, the fire point usually runs about 30C above the flash
point.
Equations(s) for Predicting Evaporation
Evaporation is a major process that contributes to the weathering of spilled oil.
While pure compounds evaporate at constant rates, oils, which are composed of
thousands of compounds, do not. Rapid initial loss of the more volatile fractions is
followed by progressively slower loss of less volatile components. It is not uncommon
for 25% of the total volume of an oil spill to evaporate within one day of the spill.

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CHAPTER 1

1.3.3 Performance of a Power Generator System Using Crude Plant Oil

Blend with Diesel Fuel
Under the variation of crude oil price and the impact of greenhouse effect, it is
urgent to find a potential alternative fuel. Among these alternative fuels, non edible
plant oils are the most potential ones, because they dont have the problem of food and
cropland competitions. Among the non-edible plant oils, Jatropha oil is the most
potential one. Jatropha oil is non-eatable oil and has good oil quality and low
temperature performance. It has potential to become one of the most competitive
biomass crude oils.
The crude plant oil will be blended with diesel fuel to be tested in a power generator.
the international price of crude oil are unstable from the year of 2000, the price
increased year by year, and reached the new record in 2008, the average price
of the crude oil almost near 100 USD per barrel at that year, especially in July, the
average price of the crude oil is 130 USD per barrel, but it decrease to 40 USD per
barrel in the end of that year, the difference between these two prices is around 90
USD. Its not only effect the economy trend in the word, but also the life of ordinary
citizens. And, the wide applications in fossil fuel, cause climate and geographic
environment changed by greenhouse effect. From the point of view of global
environment protect and energy sustainability, it is urgent to find a new alternative
fuel. And the alternative fuels should have the characteristics of low cost and friendly
to the environment.

Figure (1-4) 5 Year Crude Oil Prices

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EXPERIMENTAL SECTION
A. Materials
Jatropha curcas oil in this study is from India, and fossil diesel is from gas station
in Taiwan, named super diesel.
B. Apparatus
The diesel generator for electrical power in this study is from Yanmar Company,
its an air cooled diesel generator, and the model is YDG2700E.E. There are two
Halogen lights that we use is for the engine load, and with an electric meter to measure
The generators power output. Other apparatus that we use for physical property test,
like calorimeter, to measure fuels heat value, kinematic viscosity meter can get fuels
kinematic viscosity, we use an automatic cold filter plugging point analyzer to get the
cold filter plugging point (CFPP), which is from Herzog, with Herzogs Flash point
tester, we can get fuels flash point, and use front view distillation apparatus to get
fuels boiling point, the Portable density/specific gravity.
C. Experimental Process
Our study is to make sure the maximum percentage that Jatropha oil blends can let
diesel generator run and has a stable power output for at least 1 hour under different
conditions, therefore, we blended Jatropha oil with diesel fuel follow these volume
ratio: 10%, 30%, 50%, then we compared the physical properties like: flash point,
kinematic viscosity, heat value, boiling point with super diesel and crude Jatropha oil
to find the difference between different ratio.
The performance test of the diesel generator was conducted after finishing the
physical property study of oil blends. Before the experiment, we tried a very short term
test, two halogen lights were used as an engine load, then tried six different fuels,
including super diesel, 10% Jatropha blends till 50% Jatropha blends for 30 minutes,
and calculated the combustion efficiency, Lertsathapornsuka and his colleagues used
heat value and fuel consumption to calculate combustion efficiency. For heat value we
can get by the instrument that we mentioned in last part, and for fuel consumption, we
measure test fuels consumption under 1000w load after ran for 30 minutes. From the
result, we found that they showed almost the same efficiencies, so we moved to 1
Hour test. Because from the results we already found that even Jatropha oil blends, can
show similar efficiency with diesel, so, in order to make sure if the Jatropha oil blends
can conform the laws of National Fire Agency, to be an alternative fuel for diesel
generator and offer stable power output for 1 hour in emergent situation. And this is
one of our research goals, wed like to know how many percent Jatroph blends is, can
let diesel generator offer stable power output for 1 hour.
In 1 hour operation, we chose super diesel, and Jatropha oil blends as a test fuels
in diesel generator and run for 1 hour with the same engine load, and measure power
output.
D. Results
In this study, the physical properties of oil blends were measured, like: kinematic
viscosity, flash point, gravity, heat value, mid boiling point.

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CHAPTER 1

Figure (1-5) Physical Properties of Oil Blending

E. CONCLUSION
The major objectives of this study is to find out whether Jatropha oil blends can
let diesel generator run and has a stable power output. From the results, we found that
crude Jatropha oil blends, even 50% can let Yanmar diesel generator has a similar
power output with fossil diesel, including voltage, frequency, ampere, power, and run
for 1 hour.

Figure (1-6) Diesel generator power output

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1.3.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Crude Oil

Advantages
a- Oil is one of the most abundant energy resources.
b- Liquid form of oil makes it easy to transport and use.
c- Oil has high heating value.
d- Relatively inexpensive.
e- No new technology needed to use.
Disadvantages
a- Oil burning leads to carbon emissions.
b- Finite resources (some disagree).
c- Oil recovery processes not efficient enoughtechnology needs to be developed.
d- Oil drilling endangers the environment and ecosystesm.
e- Oil transportation (by ship) can lead to spills, causing environmental and ecological
damage.
Issues
- The world consumes more than 65 billion barrels of petroleum each day.
-By 2015 the consumption will increase to 99 billion barrels per day.
-Fossil fuels such as oil take billions of years to form.
-Fossil fuels time left for oil estimated to be 50 years.
-During 2005-2006 oil consumption is estimated from 1.119 billion barrels to 1.137
Billion barrels.

1.4 Gas Fuel

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Jatropha oil(preheated and blends) in a direct injection compression ignition engine.
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