DEVELOPING A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR ARGUMENT (CHAPTERS ARGUMENT AND CRITICAL THOUGHT (CO-ORIENTATIONAL ARGUMENT VALUES: CULTUREAND CRITICAL THOUGHT CHAPTER OUTLINE eof Creal Thnght sl Thinking kl Cheese. Vik ‘Chance TS Argument (p19 Aagument ences (p20) ‘Samer elds (20). Argonent spheres (p23) Argumentton 1) Aorumptons 2) Chas 19) ones 7) Box 11 "Do Beauty Contests Harm Women? heagreements about sn ise. Each day, we ae fced with many sves—some sll and oth ts more significant, The need for angament artes from oar desire to perside o envince there of point of view or cours of actin. When we perceive that something should be ‘done or that others fl wo understand our views we may choose advocate fr ones and CHAPTER ONE ARGUMENT Tacerpree Contents ning Spero etre Contents Exene (p15) Fd -depetden standards (p29) Fekbinane sande (-23) Personal sphere p25) Pic sre p2) Ressnig p10) Teche sphere .24 strates how arguments can develop aver bielwe make arguments to inspite change, When we advocate for siaifeant change orBOX 1A DO BEAUTY CONTESTS HARM WOMED ach yet, more han 2 billion pple woldwie participate in and atch beauty cates. Ta fic Boyd de my lal an egol cote, ther are pore th werd Bay pag fonts sony Alben Mise esi ating ober pager it experienced dectiing Slaenes aver the at thy eu soe pages sear Mss Worl coningetoae fold stenion and wiovens Addioally youth pepeas ad ‘leon programs sock 5 Fre Tar ata re tenses Ye, deste tse poplar, queso persis abot whetic they harm iad women Te lowing dscssionhereen wo seen aes Kies Benty contests unernine worsen people. They pote an ide of eral teu that are, ad ey vy fx women an ache Ye hi de specu all women conte ti Ths hrm sn nome imei sag Duce “emu aa i pve hax wt eng {furan the eee wha dee comes pom Tagan people wh are wel roportene, od hela de Eli crmcsopSare spesly spore when on con he cs pies ‘esha wef fe Away, bth osc snd jy ety pages tho amen wah hem tan met, Were acheter Bc Noone ‘Prequel pup orth pore a oe choses Popes ven teen radon mnyone ad hey ont fers stew ake bad cer. Kaien: Youaemising te pin Heshy sya rena and we shoal beech Ing noo so behest that ot whe Bry pens de They se ck wma odin from mo, Woe eel sprees rer tn Sty other quit Anus cheng the aloe res por heh hae sch coe estes a deal ening ft hat fcr ot ede heat Then contest et tana of ei cha ceo ‘Whar wero with aging people on pyc pperice? We jade eo on rly abcess the Ste We cen prefers the yt eh [rcgpeune of crate We judge alts on psc ier who a ‘cen fr the inet or enodonl tance. We fudge modal dacs om ‘har sland por om whene hey are ice people We enfate poope all che {nc bandon pyseal mental or emotional wats that are apport Steno, cy compat sary nde son ane oer er and Gort OK Why world we caine ring women reogison for onward apps (oni)4 SECTION DEVELOMNSG ACONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR ARGUMENT BOX 1.1 CONTINUED hs dscson. Both Kaden and Ramona ade lowing quoter Suppor postion you eadyugce with? Or ft hese he hep ya Sotiehing new and ferent thi conned yo? 2 tyon were Kaien, what would your nxt argent be if this conve oe do you think Ramone wool espn? 3 Daou think these ar ond rgments? Are any ues. 4 Bidyou find any angen har were mot Sry dy hae scagtened dhe ds ing? Hy bad een ‘understanding of complex ideas, we may create many arguments a Tink them together to sappore aur ies nd poston “Often, people ase that argues hadthat when we have an argument wich ome ‘one we are having problem with dem, This view Fited. Argumests happen at national nd global levels ove water rights, poverty, and heath caret sus ew. et argue ‘Wearyue about which movie mn vcntion. We adr tiom and avcacy ae eo regular fates of our daily Live See vith our fends what school we wan to sted, oF where to go fate when we negotiate ovee how much to pay fr a er or a house. We erate shea we ty to perade people to think o Dea cilerent. Argumenttion can be use for eicer good or ba, depend by theatvocates This book focuses om how to postive se the sls of agenda (help others understand difering pines of yew, 2) explore ideas and altemates, and (Gheomiace others ofa need to change or act. Consider, for instance, the exchange between sulents in Bor 1, This eoneraton presented serie of arguments tat state how “Sseasin and arguing can work productively in each of these thee was. The student used Stguments to elp define the iss for dsasson, larly perceptions, and advocate for df= ferent points of yew. Throughout ce convertion, they engaged in the processes tha will ‘be the faces of ti hooks eal thinking and argunentaon. on the choices made CRITICAL THOUGHT Many theories have explored cra thinking and the oe plays in ecston, oor unde standing ofthe word, nd our sderssnding of oxrcresS Done wel erica thinking helps ts consider ieues and problems systematics and rigorously. eis fusdamental to oar ai yt learn and make sense f the worl around ws. Some, for istance, have described ra tiki athe roves bray ordinary ele apy these metind the rdinary world {Chacon sins te sly fo say and evalu concn lane wt cereruven oNe ancuamvr ano cameaL moves 5 understanding of eelevan iss, Theorst Joanne Kurs offered the following definition for crea thinking ‘tat hrfee ca be corsa aed” Ofien, when confronted with sehallenge or problem, peuple want to Iep to a sla- ‘ion oe find qi resoaton, Crvealthinkng ac ero pause, People who think etal shout fess il not ste sppatent or cbviou slain, They wll pend judgment while seeking ot relevant opinions, ft, sn reason hat promote good devison-making. Cyele of Critical Thought Cita thought i complex proses and, if done well can help ws examine and explore intricate ess to etter understand Both the iss athand andthe consequences of acing ‘or nor acing. Ae this hook will explore, the world satemicaly shout ating in one aes wil have elects in other toleaviles rays can cae sin cancer Yet as note bythe Skin Cancer Foundation, most people don't ppl enooga sunscreen and should use products wit Sun Protection Factor (SPP rating of 50 or higher® Concern oer skin cancer and skin damage, over tine, hs lod tomore people desing to reduce thr exposure to sunlight and, when nthe su, ws high SPF sunteren for protection. This action makes seas given the rss atsocited with UV rays However, an portant and seldom discussed side eee ofthis decion that many people, particlny children, donot get enough visa D. ‘Normally, slight cases the body t pode sitaminD, which s necessary for bone srowch and strength, Without enough UV ep { nlficiene intake of thie vitamin, The pint mest an decisions reas Forinesance we know that expose it, people ive to take stp to ensare isthe the word is imereonneted and tkecsons offen have consequences and implications beyond themed decison. A peor fess of systematic erie thinking cin help ws uncover connections evaluate options, and Althoug there are many ways to understand crcl thinking, it can generally be considered at eel that moter thraugh four interrelated step (1) Asses. 2) Explore {G) Evulaze, and) Integrate. These are ilusrated in Figure 1.1, "Cycle of Crtel Thought.” Our ability to move dough each of dese tes eflectivey hele ensure quality decson-naking. And, atough each sep ray appear teatively simple they are act ally compler. Each step ake us to cosider «seis of ives and festions so that we can fully explore a given subject. The flowing tee provides greater dat about how we move rough she eta hiking cyte andthe four tops Susp 1. Anes. When we asses, we work to clearly identi the problem or issue and thea dncover the relevant informacion, Spell, sessment includes the following questions 1» Whatis the neod? People reason and ange because «noo arses, The ned for ar rent can be anpthing from "Should I do my homework or go outwith my friends {Should mariana be legalized?” Inthe eve of betty pageants the sident chose $topic for a elssrocm prsentanon: Do besuty contest arm women” hey souldsap rates? mpi? FIGUME LI Cycte of Crit Though Ges hve spoken on any of a numberof possible topics read wo pageants They might have argued, “What shou be done about beauty pageants Or they eld hav asked, “What topic wll get us the best grade on this asignment?"The need fr arguments imply the ips for rita dough and dseasoa. In Chapter 2, when we dtcass Srgument station, we wil ll about the nced asthe “exigence” for argument. The ‘nel ep ts frame the Eonveration so that we know whet incaded and what “xcued from dsessio, Why are we elbing shoot this iasve? What are we ying (© Figure out \Whatis the purpose? Purpose represents he goal ofthe disso. Tecan he as simple ss unlestanng mone about beauty pageants or a5 complicated as sass analy- Sis of how pageants and he “beauty myth lect a groop's denty and felings adequay, The purpose ofingury and argument doesnot ace to focus ons porcular Course of ction or what decion shuld be reached, but does neod to deny the a of the ing” What da we hope to achieve? Why are we having this conver Eston? in Box L, the purpose ofthe conversation was to reach an andersanding Shout the potential harms eee to besuty conte. We need to expbasie here the importance of understanding the purpose of anuing about» subject. Ae we Eying 0 ‘este understanding? Chane belie? Motivate someone to scion? And, even more Signifianly, do all the people engaged in dhe argument share the same purpose? It how dicssing and assing the goals of thse imveved becomes a primary task In Chapter Swe wl discus how propositions frame dscusins and debuts. They verve to define what stalked about and for what purpose. Whacinfarmation i need? Anewering questions and moving a conversation toward tn outcome requtes appeopeate information. With beauty costs, the studentsSNAPTIRONE ARGUNENTAND CRITICAL THOUGHT 7 ‘eoded to early understand what pageant are, how hey werk, and what thee effets lve. The students lo needed to figure out i beans content are different fo other {nds of events and cootet ia which people are judged for their appearance or pa siclar ably Information can tke many forms ncaing sts dts, report rom ‘yewitneses, individual obverations, oF aay number of ether sources of material thac ca help «person anawer the question. Chapter 6, which focases om eridence in frgument,conaders how information can be found ad wed, Information provides ‘ibwtance fr thought Tes the material we draw upon to develop ideas al sitesi new thoughts : Sip 2. Raps Exporition examines the interpretations and connections thi our within Ae bese secre sl sais pate te denon eles a explora tions, bie and the rmliplepoins of wow that allect how we understand und appreach sues and Hea, Specially, thi step inches 1 What ae the deminan concept involved? Comets av be hoi nitions rues and . ovr bar ich el Nbc ne sl wre ere : tian ntrofcson oul iat wie Weert wen ny Fine ade haa hap noni lowing ae : fpr And neo hart en ee or pte ppl Te oc : Soe Cex acoso enn mind They epee meek i ‘tn ch we kad at Pee one ed th ned a te I tamh and angued strongly against those who challenged that belie, such a Galileo, who into aul tt on tratnsl c rtns hy calcd. Cone ce : dw ange anl ernest ato meee bese ee ey ; = Whntermpsinsne the io? drei ar propia icp oe tarp grad Wess risa pole oy ee mee at . dane ote pple ind wet ste the po leh ey pageants, which in ean wl sell adverse! products and secs. Ths sone of the tons contests sich as Miss America and Miss World were started Ie is rmportat 0 ‘understand oar asumpslons because they represent a "basling” or starting point, for ‘ought, and if they are swe or misacestood, the reasoning that tems from them fan alo be awed: Ofte, ssumpions are problematic bau they ae prt of our ‘was of thinking nd are often unknown andunexploed bys, We sine the word is ound, We assume that mose people wil obey laws. And, we act on these sumptions cron if hey are incorrect Revealing, esting, and challenging our assamptions helps, ‘sunderstind our own choices und sual cles, better arguments. The challenge, of ‘ourse isin dentiying them inthe st place. What poins of view ar involved? People reason and dink from diferent pins of vow. Tha is why, for instance, nro people can sce the sane movie and have vastly {deren opinions about ts quality Or why some people soppore and ether oppose ‘beauty pageants, Our point a riew cme from oar indviual backgrounds, thong ‘aperones, and aves: "They Rep ws fame Bowes end iene sens i a‘Winking, The seaden, talking about beauty pagcant,illtste this poine. Two ‘cdcate! people, wih sinus backgrounds interpreted and understood the isses of Ineauty contests diferent, Whenever we work with other people, we encounter di ferent points of view. Part of erceal thought involves a process of interpreting and tundestaning other views a well sour own Sip 3. Boabuat.Tie ep examines the quality of formation and connections among pos Sible sluts and conser how facors such at bits and posts of view afect potential ‘uteomes. Based on this ymthess and inegratin, approaches for adessing sss emerge Su ar ealsted until pefered approach found This step incu What can we interpret and infer rom our exploration? When we think, we Blend new Information and Wes into our exiting pois few, concipts and assumptions. Hom thiscombination of questoning exsmiing, eearching, end understanding we eason toward conclsion We intrpet information and infer fom ie vo reach oor com ‘Sowons, With beauty pageans for instance, based on what te sents knew, thei festarchy and their conversations, they interpreted their daa and infrred conclusions fom Th process of inrerpretation and ferences one of making sense of data and ‘eaoning fom toward goa ‘= Whit implications or consoquenes can we see? Our reasoning and thinking cry wth them implications end consequences If we acon the concasons we draw, what wll appen’ Ife change our belies and atts, what eet wll hat have on fare d= sions we ight make? Eventhough we often consider in-lss presentations a simply nother asgament they have the potential o change atiudes nd actions in cassoney fudkenoes. Ifthe two students convince «group of students to set—or not to aet—t0 boyeot or support beauty pean, there il e consequences. Crea thought snot asl-conaiaed eny, I earies with tpotenal outcomes rom the proves Sip 4 rate The fil tpi the crcl thinking process involves selecting the preferred alerting, monitoring ts efctvenes, and developing sates for continued understnd= {ngandcvinason of how well th slton ses the probe and te conditions cat eased fe Thus sep, then, leads back to the fst step of asesing, exploring, eating, and itera {ag potneal isses and probes, This inal prt ofthe eyelet esporeant. Whatever alooons nvocates chose, they have consequences hat wil use sues that need tobe ass explored ‘halted and negated. This show the rca thinking cle supports ur decison-making ‘ver many ise and lng petiods of time. Box 12, “Apply the Theor” is designed wo help uid you czough ths procs and apply the ee of erica hough. Ung crv thinking skills effectively helps ws understand eltermaties and make resonable decisions. However, when we fil to work throvgh the cele and consider alr tes, we ean make mistake: Skipping steps or fling to exmine our asmptions ca $ickd poor outcomes. Some barter o critica thonght are described in Bax 13, "Bares Effective Cosel Thinking (Critical Thinking asa Skill “Tne xual inking epte we fo expel and foc {nec enti ways of hiking bout the ace, ad then design approaches for addresingCauPTERONE_ ARGUMENT ato cRTICAL THOT ° BOX 12 APPLY THE THEORY: THINKING CRITICALLY | (Consides the topic intosaced in Bas. ap the pistons fe yout aur agen wel aston programs such at Tuer and Tar Vis hin ough the par of eel thinking gle sa newer the following gusto Sip 1. Aaa 1. Isthre eed to dacs this subj? White the ne Ina single semtence, dese 2. Whi the purpose of dicaming thi jt Wie your puss in ase What 3 Wht informacion ean po find to supprt yor purpose? Using any Taser search ‘ging, lene an papas vee sare he appr joas purpose Sig 2, Explor 1. ey and wee down thes cones thet suppor and the concepts thet Jon tsupore 2, Foreschconep, te down at stone ssmption hat supers he conor 3 Branson and ste down the diferent tew shaping the dessin, Hen ats of ett fee shan on 4. alae and Incr 1, Based om what you hae read and what you ve brio, write down thre comes nay can ech 2, Thick shot the impliaons och conson you reached. New write down what you think woul eee toe ted o then, 3 Whaare che impitons, bo ond and had, of tansing al beauty popes Each step you have completed has led you to pine where you can make a chuie Considering the ences yo tv devoped, wish doo thik bet? Why? Te {nsw ib this queso, why one choice eter shan sate informs bow We epee eee el the need. This why erica dhinking is such «vite sli helps prevent people from making bad decisions and helps them solve robles. I allows us to consider seaons sid onseuences in rational and spteaatie ways. This ably bas aplication far beyond ease room applications and homevork ssignment. Richard W, Paul and Geralé ML. Noch, noted eel thinking theorists, obser The kindof wok" inceningly required in istry and busines is tellstal th i it egies workers eo dtne goals and purposes dea sek ot ad ogee recta dhs, concpaie that dah, conserskeausneperpeciven, aj hing to cote am sumptions, nod hnking in igh f the conta ee of ew noon, a nto apne coacsions Future he nls work rel gt ics inp be cordinated with snd mo peor the estes low werk10 socTiowt eveLOMNG CONCEETUAL FRAMEWORK FOR ARGUMENT bons SGRIIERS To Ex¥EC Th yong vee natant rc, | Petre sate preg oe : we 22 Comat Bi: People edo associat with tts who ae smart eer. We cad {o'r books wee and lent concer festoring tae le go € more we ‘Sink we wl coo. General hte habs are ar bail wl they inence on ail iy think ently. When we only rea resich that upg wo ssamgtons when 4 sw only red news esha valate or polical beet, we ae confining mhat me Tend eo bling to apo alse oan sue, When eesti sabe ; [portant ak youre wha snsone lig the oppnte de aig read, research, trgve Understanding othr pt of ei centel telco crit nin | ’ Sig utr wont Csi, On of the reasns we explore and research sus {Scns we sok emt emer who have ore background sd Knowledge than we do. ‘Wenmue da because ory bee tent luis gen pub cares ad Mrvced "alk show ere har efile autores hee eld Bot hi os inclu wer an coment, One ie te pon tht Ang the ely ‘Es pblegy of te world, he Asin confess one of he simples ard us Aurageatle"!Seck ot moe than ne ener and inden she rents ad a ‘eats of ne ou se 4 end Lage hr lo. Resale nora ad they are pare thinking. Roles allow wt ead work togeerand they ae acs erin his 3 “hapten we alk about apres ant le. However ues aod lop: cam pose Feeney hk bees lus wt espe and whatnot ae ‘hips and Comecions song sings tat emit px otherwise pce. So sige and imap appar can be hat Dscverng erate ways of Sng | Ses can ep open aw approaches sd ies. Beng Praca I Be, Sometimes people mae a eco bec they been proc They mighty, "We nee o bay 3 0 prop eumputer becuse tat what we can “Hon” This approch presne a stecsion beat of a sane conse who : ‘Sideving alternatives While fe of pecityuhamatly may peel ry agi sg approtes respective of pes crits Concer hat "shoul be done 5 npn the ety of whet “oul be done 6 ‘Rang dimen. Autbiguy cin be Fighteing becuse i inoduos weeny 4 ira sur deions Mt pole jeter ceresny apd serve for eat, predictable vndanaing of vet and setons Ife don't Eno for sure what wl happen, ea {cde notory. However, the ny ara imposed by ambiguity are where rea a ‘cwnaed) |BOX..3 CONTINUED incre thinking exis. When you fd aig ry imaging the acy posible ot ees associa wit he es or actons tat ea the ry a ung Wrong I Ba Mucho our apaing snd elation onan asumption tht bing wrong bod: Weong anor etn grax Wrong bebo es np, ishment As consequence, people gro ofr ing wrong au work at to to Iceven though tha approach ysl cet ad ia ning sleeves The ‘allenge aba being wrong is tendency odeayor tare avy fro the decton, Or Semeuanis me sinply doi 0 do oteg ou of fof bing wrong laste, wek tnvdestand wha decson was wrong and what oh alternates exsed thet mip ve Ingeovel ee oatome Paul and Nosich go onto commen that supervisors and employers value workers who ean reason well and expres themes clea "Yes, es much as we chim to prize the value of ext thong and inguiry, we are sencrally not very good at it. Crigeal thinking theorist Richand Pau, Linds Elder, and ‘Te Bartll for instance, examined thry-cigh pli universities and eaty-eight pat universities to deren the level aa sualityof ental thinking istewson They found thac although 89 percent of teachers clatned extia hinking was 2 primary component of thei inteutton, only 19 percent ould provide a cee explanations of what they ugh that, 1 rca, and only 9 peroent were actualy teaching crea thought Richard Ars a Josipa Roksan thet book ddl Limited Learning on Calle Cem made the point thu forj-ve percent or more of allege students Jo not achive satel sig fant gins in heir ere thing and complex easing lly the time they graeate from university with an undergraduate degree Most of us recognize te importance of eidcal thought even iit snr slays ugh effecvely." And, as impoctatas itis, etal thinking iota easy sil to develop or we, Te requires time, discipline, and practice. Ae we think, develop ideas, and argu or tant 9 actively approach our questions with an intentional crical eas. We shoul 1 Refine generalizations and avoid oversimpliiestion Generate and apes solrdons to problen Compare pespecives,iterpretons, end theories, ‘Read critealy and sek ou intrmation that dicgrees with our own perspectives. f Listen cially seciody considering views with which we disagree.” ARGUMENTATION AND ARGUMENT Angumentation engages usin the eee oferta thought: Armenian is tbe prs of aking argument tended asi beli, sttude, and ales at inflene ater We see argumentation in edi a for prot, campaign ads for eancdats, newspaper el torial Imcrar sites on public seus, tainess meetings where propa ae mde, and in many other places. Argumentaton occurs ererymbete, ad we del with it as tenders, Tseenes writer, ad speakers on 2 daly basis In fc, argumentation i pethaps one ofthesow mportant sis we can develop. As partcpents a world commonity and members i emratic commute, agumenction isthe seans by which we engage in ders Shot our presen and our future Tei the proces by which we exercise dermocrai igh tu sel dererination. Hugh Fedo, «profesor of publi afi at George Mason University, tok the pos som that Amica pes bs been transformed in recent decades to become hyperexsive {Co publi opinions and anciedes, Unprecedented aces to informacn from homes using ‘Soargiones and abet a well the aby to dsseninate opiiogs tee dhrough the [merge and otice mia have made the indvial voice and opinion more powerful than ter!” We have the ability to access he words information nan unprecedented way. “The importance of his obseration should not be underestimated, We lve in cime het the rle of argument afger and ecpients has eezendous perl power oshape Dae world Technology has allowed ideas and arguniens tn spread sos the word quickly Sad pomerflly. The esth of Neda Aghs-Sotan provides a clear and rage Mlstatio of {his pain In 3009, following an angrty contested presidential election in Iran, Neda was ‘Rorlluing one ofthe demonstations. The event captured on arobile phone and uploaded to de Internet as arguably au Tine Megane pot, “he most witnessed death inhuman Fistor." Ned whic ithe Persian word for voice.” baee 2 symbol for she opposition tnd werk eines for arguments abot the politi and personal outage of» community ‘The video was broadcast around the worlds ailions sand heard a message of violence, [ots andthe sgl to have a voice. To parscpae globally, we nee o fundamentally Atndertand Bow argunent are made and, asta importa, how they ae ested Process Argumentation i significant forthe development and maintenance of 1 healthy soci Te aun occur only when people are interested in hearing or reading what others have to fy and in seviwsly conser others) proporls- When parties engage In argument ‘Sh they spre to crn conventions a ta principls, Communication theorst Susan ‘Stlnanof ae the point chat for people to commoniate they must agree on such matters Sotow to ake tomes speaking, how t be pole or how tm ssl, co get, and s forth, Treverystmbo! wer manipulated symbols arandoms, dhe eeslt would be chaos rather dan Auvomneragre to rules for conducting the discsion, they, make contribtions 8 require an hey seek the approval ofthe oer parties involved.” They agree o what tecepabie and not acceptable forthe eontet, how Tong Wo speak, how to take tims, and stint the proces for devision-rmking i If people ress ever to listen co the othe party Srgumunuido cannot eeu, One of the moe contmeon ex of ues for governing debates i Roberts Roles of Order which ie described in Bax 6, "Roberts Ras of Onde.” Tivacatesbogin by using the etal thinking cycle co ganerate arguments sbout dhe topic being dcwsed.Atgomenttion the procs of selecting arguments rm that set and ‘iRinceing them in wap sha allo arguers fo construct a compen case fr postions oto scared For insanee lye tay all he arguments avaiable in 2 ese chy examine fas exes an precedents, dey slet the best atmo those and den connec the argumens paler wo ronson or defn i soars of I Tegel rruny segments and hen may selec series uf arguments to sepport broad-based policies oranvrerone_axcuwmyr axp emrieaL THOU B BOX La ROBERT'S RULES OF ORDER {oven he proce, In personal converts, thse rls ar fen pcan weed, soermmene proceedings oe comtbunty hearings, the ules tend w bene explicit and eealy Belo Tin mont wily wd ule for debating ae Rafer Rl of Onder Nay Rev” These describe when sn from kong, and about wh re designed ney npucs ont and forse on she gusone bee dace. Tender ac exten and ‘re denlped to ene ht relevant vio art he proctor ging ke fee ‘npc and the oteomes wil sapere both real hough nd erica ean fies! ole change. Busneses nay contder many posible argument fo a pod or sre, {roup the het individ arguments together, ad sdvorte for their product an services in ureting end poble elatons campaigns. A mode ofthe proses of angumetation can be found in Figure 1.2, "Model of Argumentation Process” In ths figure, argues ute the our step ofthe eal thinking cyele to devel ies into potential anguments (Steps 1 and 2). Some of those arguments will be more or ls iniiane than eters (Step 3) ly cae fally selecting the hes argument to suppor the are’ over completion, the proces of peiton Step 4). Speeches, esas, group disusions, legishtion, and politcal campsigns are all placorms where argumentation can take pace. Argumenttin is composed of individual arguments, dn argument sae of tment ohick cei made, spr afd fr ed tees atop a nln seamen aon of geet Teis important to understand argent in hi Sense—a claim pas sport fori in the form of reasoning and evidenco-as disinguished from interpersonal arguments of e“4 putes? Ia this later sense, “angament® is kind of (usally unplestang) interpersonal ‘exchange, as when we say, “John and Mary were having an angument"Sometines described 2 "quticls o squabbles” thee kinds of aguments sly aval ewo or more persons ‘engaged in extended overt sgreement with each ther, Thats aot the sort of angoment with which this oki concerned. Arguments ofthe Lind deserted hee ocr when we sy sthing He “John made an argent in suppor of his proposal forthe new marketing plan.” This view considers wheter an argument ‘ound and effective emphasizes argument as a easning proces and consiers spuments units rather than ab ateracve processes, Arguments ae only one kind of communication. When we greet someone (Hello, how are you"), sue commands Shut the door”), vent cur enotions Cl hate i when you dost! make promises (return your book tomorow), and so fore, we do mot produce arguments. To clarify the dferences betwee rguents and other forms of com ‘munication, we wll describe she important ture of agament according toot defi Characteristics Fis, toe considered an argumene an argue, general, shold make a hi, i ison res pinion or cmv tha he argue wn a fennel wee: edn che heey pageant dsc Beaty contests undermine women a people There is nothing wrong with watching and admiring peopl who are ft, wll propor. tioned nd healthy Judging women on their loks subjugate them ‘Css tke om dierent forms in varias conten they function a cms in relation tothe soppor offered for them. As we vil show in Chapter 5, lms ina given iia ae sent may themselves fmicon as frm of suport for te main clan, or thesis tatents of am extended argument samples of sin claims incude in eininal law the charge troughs agin the defendant by the prosecaton: ia che leiltre the briefer version of» proposed Ilo pees af legion nd im medicine he diagnos nd reommeded eaten re men. In argumenscon apd debate, these aia claims are often elled pap o elton When someone makes s clam he or hei expeted tn offer supra he for ‘of reasons and informacion. f we fue 4 command or make promise C1 wll pick you ‘up 26.109, we commit ourselves by making the statement and no farther prof is nece sary Likewise, pute deseription (The sting an wae reflected in tony hae", sl alk (CTrhings are sos, could be bet"), and other neutral statements Eenetally do not make ‘hms they do ot advance stementson which there is disagreement Sometimes, we can decide whether a statements a claim only by considering its com text Argues often leave thir evidence, resoning, or chim unstated, Do the following ‘When guns ate outlawed only outlaws wll hive guns Coors Ligh, ose co's nas ffer Fob ery time Im nice w hin, he ignores me1 we know dat the frst statement i a bumper sicker displayed by an epponen ‘contol, we can coucude dat a csi, Spelled out it would say, "making guns leg ‘means hat only those who cicunwent the law will have guns.” Knowing thatthe second staerent occurred in a beer a would inden chat the claim is "Duy Coors Light” and that the remainder ra god reason fr doing so, Tes anigaous whether the third statement Jsackaim ornot Kaowing more shoot the person's relationship t hr fiend woul help os ‘0 determine whether ie 4 cm, Some cms ean be ronda ims only whea We know abot the speaker intention, te lin’ elation to Che ther statements made slang wlth i¢ othe stmstional context in whic clan made The second characterise of sn argument is that suppor is offered forthe claim, (Claims at sported oth bythe eridence and reaoning or inferences that connect the ev dence to te aim. Feidence comes in many for, bit it shvays functions a the foundation fr argument or the grounds on which arguments are baed. When we make sh aguatest, ‘we move from statements we believe oar receivers wil accep (evidence) statements that are in dispute cain. Bede amis f fue onda heared ahroab elit or anreer generally mp av re by be ron, or onan preva etd idence does not const only of objectively oervable fc, From tetorical pint ‘few fe, that rguersseck aceptnce for thee clans fom audiences) takes see regard any propostuon, or belief accepted y everyone in the audience av sating point for rypment. Thre are many statements "A peri ianocest unl proven gully” or "One ‘ugh to keep one's promis) eat are not fics bat tat could function a evidence fn rel ‘dontoa cam because the heaters would accepe them a resonable srumpions, The mature of evidence and how Fencions in an argument wil be dicted more fallin Chapter 3 Inthe beauty contest discussion a the begining ofthis chapter, statements viewed st idence by dhe speakers sad accepted by others count eridence, Examples of uch state rents inca We have an obesity epidemic Bo women snd men enjoy beau pageant, We erate teaches, thletes, nd professions on parila, “Tobe counted ss evidence statements should he cepted and viewed ay relevant and trae by the pares ina dispute or andencss to whom arguments ae addressed. (If oaly one prtythe arguer—aceeps a statement, then is + chim, nos evidence) So, fr instance, ‘hen Kaidees says that Pthe ‘beauty myc sso powerful that women willingly risk teit Ineth and even thin lve,” Ramona dos not accept tha a ve andy therefore, i dos ‘ot fonction as evidene; rather i functions 25 a cla. however, Kaien provide cre= ible soppor frm research, expert sources, or ther trast references that was aceptedy Ramona, then thi wtement could be wes evidence, ln ther words if people in an ag rent agree tothe sateen, evden The arguer who begins by esblshing clans based on statements that are ot scceted will no got fr. For statrnents to ction as cedence and provide relale grou for clan, they must be acceptable to theres, For istance if Kaiten could show specific examples of how pageants have heen harmful or present credible sppore for how they hive eroded women's rights, then Ramonu's statements aboot their postive asibuts16 1 be sles fmeton at evidence because they wold bein dspae. The proces of ont what ste for the parte involved mrgumentaion begins with tenting sumptions fn then buling-argvment by argumene—untl a concason i reached ‘Chim ate abo supporeed by th link thatthe arguer makes between the evidence and the ela, The part of the argument containing reasoning i érequendy called the infecene: Ressoning can take vatows form. Thove that occur mos requealy wil be leseribed in Chapter 6, and you wil become experienced at dentying them. Resoing race rational ink heroeon te eciden ad tei and wthoras th ape make en re vntion. Reasoning answers the question, "How dd you ge om the evidence rss of general principles tat explain Bow th to the dain" Te ‘lam are connected Tine stody of Seguntent made al the more teresting because anguers often do no aplily state thir inferences. They provide evidence and make cai ur ofen one ean ‘only gues how the link bermeen the two was made. For example, if we stay the eidence resented bythe pageant discussant long with tei lms, we wl Find that some of thei fd, mee uneoning nthe argument fnfrences, all un ‘Worneainizate beauty behavior seen in pagearts and, as rest, ngage in unhealthy practices in anatempt achive an idealized view of beauty Becnise both women and men enjoy pageants, wamen choose the consequences 28 ‘opposed ro having someone elie impose a standard for beaty om then “aging people based an thei physical beauty the same thing as judging athletes and ‘doctor on ter sills Taferences sally make exit link, which enables the argue wo connect evidence with thins and thus construc an argument The thi and lst characterise of arguments that they are temps ro jnflence someone ina context where people dsigree with one another. The phrase atest inf ay not scceed; The repent ofthe agupent fice” important bons the arguer ay is fre not to agree with the expreeed opinion of the aguer. The per ‘ment addressed may aoepe the an, reec of conunuc to expres doubts abou it Tr ay tha arpuents are cagempes to inflsnce” means tae there mast he epi freee that is capble of responding toi se of the st or arguce” to whom the argent i Argues must be open-auindd and abe to change tee ele or acons b fequment: Furthermore in chosing afgunest instead of commun or coeton, argues ‘ecognize tht the pros of arguments rcprocalthatiniaive and contra pass nck mss an recipient weigh thir support and decide tad fore a argues ate dei ew whether to accep the argument orb This eiprocal naire especialy important because sometimes recipients may deve to accept reject an argument because of the relationships they hase wth the arguer of beens Se argue ils to aes important values or anes even fhe argument ogc and well constrcte, While iscening so arguments, respins retain the option of challenging, questioning. crticaing, or countering the exresed opinions ofthe arguer. The silence that argumentsCousrenone ARGUMENT AND cRmieAL-tHowctET 0 shout an issue on which they are ambivalent or neat, shit favorable to unfvorable attuds or vce vera, orto change behavior Arguments are stempis to itluence mr An argument aay be adresse to one sel, ro smother person, toa small group, tam aunce, orto mltiple audiences Arguments ‘occur in writing, in conversation, n public speeches, and in all fms of eommunietin Argument i complex phenomenon thi ctr in merous forms and ined comm nition and hati adresse wo nan diffrent kinds of audiences Finally ro say tha argument cars ony when there i disagreement or the potenti for disagreement means thatthe topic adresed rst be cotroversnl expube of incing ‘opposing opinions frm the partie volved, Far example, consider the flowing dios Jolin: Should te xo soa movie tong? Mary: Fine, what would you ik tose? John: How shoot Sf Mary: OK, da you want to go to the 7 cock showing? John: Sue Theres no argement here because ther tno opposition. If Mary had eeoecd the whole ies of going to the movies, orf she had proposed another fim an given reasons for pee- fering it, argumentation would have occured. But 2 long a partes toa dscsion agree ‘ith the opinions expresed, they wll ot price asyumets, Box 13, "Apply the Theat? provides you with an opportunity wo work wth argument chersetecinics. APPLY THE THEORY: PROVE THIS IS AN ARGUMENT As discus chi scion, arguments consi of ne meres prs Fs rgument ast mae scam, The cl eee what he argr wats the eps to do or tin, Secon ‘games iste spore. Spon as tw fms evidence sh fesonng, And, Holy mens mst step w ieee someone, Non-cuctmesal atemens aot ee menis—they ae pi descptions, Using thee defining vequrenent he ec of gp ain lace men asin fed dee me tm anteater ain Tasch epee oe Yona ple om dae "en for sing18 SECTION? DEVELOPING A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR ARGUMENT ARGUMENT CONTEXTS Arguments oocur in response «question or nce for inquiry. Tey develop among angu- frees, and lager coromonites. Ths secon focuses on argument contests Will Took at why members fom difreat group and stations ferret argaments difrealy and bow argues can use tir knowlege of consents to craft better argument, Inthe ese tlsveloped in Bor 16, “Coffe Is Hote Lichock and her adhoostes and MeDozal’s and its ndvestes were aot alone exchanging chims and evidence. Public opinion ws involved ‘Congres became involved. Doctors and iyers were involved Each group ae was party 0 the argument had is own background assumptions, and standards for evatating the quality fn valid ofthe arguments produc. The types of arguments created by various ad ‘tes depended onthe concn for which they were aed When most people hea of thi ate, thy conclude the Licheck represents another person wo “eat the sjtem.” Coffe is hot that not MeDowal’s fale. people are Thumed hac their own fat, We live ie Itgios society where examples such this ilustate the need to change the legal system, Sherman Joye, president ofthe American "Tore Refort Association, atgued that Liebe case poied out" loco the problems with the system.It demonstiaty tat the system needs reform." At the same une, Rober. HH. Scot he tial ge in the ease, wane to send MeDonali' a tern warning, He sid tharit "was approprine to pnish an deter” MeDooal’ given ts history of burs And members of Congres more quill o pass elton reduce the amount oF damages Paina coud cole Ticheck’s cave ilhstrates hoor a common set of fics—what happened to Sell Liebeckean be ermine reviewed, aad debated among diferenegroape of people who arrive at very different conclusion, Members of the leg! eommantyehoughe shat punitive ‘Ginages would deter MeDonal’s from amsafe and uanecessary practices. Polite loby= fst wed the case to liste the noe for reform and argve thi the positive award was an sbwse_Poiscen looked for ways atom the perceived abuses and wrote legislation to tunic any fare abuse Cases sich this are nal that uncommon, For insane, when evo teenagers fom the Brows sued MeDonal for making them ess, many responded thats preposterous (0 hold fast-food cain accountable for indvial choice. Ces cad tht te gis were (0 Iie for hele nm ignorance ai ck oF wllpower. Ad some sid, anyone wert lane it shoul be thet parent for flue to exercise resonable contra aswell 5 fly genetics” ‘ough is cave was dismissed, arguments ou the unkealehy consequences of st food continge to make their way int the public sphere. When New York Gay's mayer, Michal Bloomberg, promoted legidation Timing the sizeof sogary beverages old in the Cys restanran, sports venues, vie theatres, and street cat 16 ounees, exes began Calling hi "Nasoy Bloomberg" snd calle for personal responsibilty and not government regulation. These are eeamples of how arguments abo personal mae and responsibil tdescan move into the rea of public debate Newspaper aries, books, and even am award ‘winaing documentary film, Super Sie Me, made te very echnical arguments of scence, Inedicne court eae, and the role of government part ofthe public debate abo health Manufacturers offs food and sack Kod began olsen to arguments generated in mle contents Kraft Foods, producer of Oren cookies, announcad hat woud edace the BOX 16 COFFEnox16 COFFEE IS HOT The lowing ofan when legend spilled bor cfc it ap and ued Donal’ eee she was bur, Her jens at {82.9 milion daa Many peopl have hea of te exe and rae tink the vee bo ican ofthe Jane of farce the United Stats and ow Lys ring to ake impossible for asines co manuncure anything withoat beng wid “Of crue cae ot yous con yous, you wl wet ume” people wil sy. Hace ofthe cae, mos places tht sere cofiee ogo With pais wl hve sepsnyngwaring tht "Cais Ha Albus port people are probably sane ofthe css they ae oan ren ae vont happened. The secoun or people hae bea dows tee fills ero ‘fy eee and presen «moe cope aesoutng of event make Sta Salar ‘elesed her documentary Hoe Cif at he Sunince Fin Festal ia 2012" Ieplore the se the way ch agunents were mai an how they were nares, Sone of Ke ‘ui surrounding Sls Licker, MeDonald' and ho cle low St Lites ical dramatic on Febuary 27 192: She masa ace an energie ‘pearl woman whoa ured fm ng cae rs depron sae eas wan Spey Fim Sei wet Meri rr iste wt 7 ek co i any cl ea hr tole was no clea he Pre Sedo eat Inpened ee “Dt ans wee tl Cerca se enrten rot, lsh said seen idee res Herat her highs dhs Ashe emer sth pe Aoogh ly aan her S29 ln rp og an jr, x ne Dering at oe be She Pekar apes McDonals ofr hr Sh Ups er ilps elect donee MBs nl re ar ering te th Nes bd ied more ha 0 ba erp over 10 enn fc, verges ont 18 dees20 size of es portions in sngle-servng packages. MeDonali'cridd che super ie mea option find reduced the sizeof seme of es servings Frito-Lay decided to reduce of eliminate ans {Es from thei foods becaseof posible eal sks tocistd wit her People om diferent asactatons and groops often se dierent chings i dhe world round them, That is beens ll of ws te ou assumptions, bei, and experiences t help frame our experi. We vk of many diferent subjects and have our own rales of s+ ‘srs, Lawyers, for instinc, ave very ster rales for what can serve a evidence for a0 frgument. In sien, certain pes of evidence and reasoning are considered superar to ‘ters, For instance, sents er to Jok fr cause and effect and tend aot reson om Analogy or personal Kelings. For tem, clams or hypthess shold be prove objectively Aavotates do nos present tc arent ina vicuum, They draw arguments from Adis Knowledge, Dacron, and research in apse copie wd ape col argument to an audiences need and intrest in that topic. Fm an argu’ sessment of the connec ‘on between an aience ad a sesuage, arguments ae formed. When sents waite shout theie research in academic journal they approuch thet auense difreny than if they tree dicosing the sme research oa national suience ona ste-night eleiion program. ‘When arguing blore thse peers physicists o astronomers tend to erplaytachaicalproos and reasons because the audience expert in the eld Ta front of public audienees of non: ‘apes the san cients ond to employ diferent forms of eric an reasoning so tat general audience can understand he cas Arguments dol nan envionment of dvi that we refer to rumen com text Argument enter row tof the fcc of argue, quien or nek, ond uit. Jost ‘the physical environment iaflaences how plats or annals wil grow, argument conexs fluence how arguments ae developed and communicate. This cantuence, oF relation ship, among auer, ed, an ipa hat creates arguments’ contents canbe described fan understood through wo related concepts: argument Bel ad argument heres, Fields When we dscwsed the eye of eal thinking elie, we noted how important ii for nivocates to explore ad understand sues and subjecs Par ofthat proces volved seek ing out reloant autores that could fame and inform argument development. Argument felis foc on the conte fr expertise. Anstey can speak effectively about the wand ichec’ leg sanding. A doctor could tale abou the severity of her burns. However its anil tha the physician would be abet effetively negotiate legal settlement. Lawyers tna docors are from difeven agument ils. Argument are sage! ents fr sgementr ond are int argo date ed by poten of emanation tat po Fields prove srguers with a cote for exploring an inepretngsobjcets a well framework for interpreting, cresting and eefuating arguments. Argument fields provide fel! members with an understanding of the rues and convetions governing the develop tment of angamencs a5 well a ther interprection, Perhaps argumentation theorist Joseph \Wenvel pu best when he sid to chink of Sess reresenung “some sot of uainese of Aliscourse."™ Differen profesions suchas fw, educrton, medicine, or polss—-ave 2 B dit goes baw angumenta are made and judgedcrMPTERONE_ ARGUMENT AND cRTTCAL THOUGH 2 These rales may be external to he arguersin the phere and they pr theargument can be developed and erate The very fic that an argument takes piso in lw o ila bass by which 2 corporate boardroom, medical care setting, or an at cass nay in lvnce the procedures tht are used and the ‘tandarde that are applied to make agummets and judgments about arguments, Argument Fels define doe rules for engagement and eslation, In ether word they determine wat Kind of evidence and support wll be considered appropiate fora aim, Thi why ator ney medical doctors flakes, ad Congres oul al reach diferen: conclusions about ‘uhetherLiebek scammed” he sytem or was a vit of comport exces. Each wed if erent standards and assumptions to fame tit opinions. Some lds are highly defined swith rigid ules, whereas over Bld are loosely defined with nor for arguing. In he Un of gunn i work, pike mr sied the importance of argument Geld tn underetending and interpeting argument” The tren in which argument ae develope! influence the forms of agement, the bases on Which inferenow ae tad, and ube me foe deciding disputes. These elds are both soil nl communicative phenomena. In oder words, people, throng interscton, make Ricks for trgument, thy ata the source Sor the conventions and eiteria wed in conducting ange ment, and they are an importan esture of argumencation. (Characteristics Argument fel ince sch examples a law ethics, medicine, science, and sextet ies. Furthermore, cach of these Hels has subfiele (eq. the sblelde of la inch tt law, family lw, nmin law) that Scion at elds forinreasingly specie argument, Desig wha lds ert a any given moment can be diffeat beeause we ste contatly sorounded by and involved in many differen lds Neverteless, the Bld in which argu rent ate produced affects the nature ofthe argument the Beld changes, so does the way the argument consructed. Robert Rowland made the point that i scems obvious that angumneats vey by Bell” Although thy ean be complex and dificult isolate, generally elds share ive com 1 They area human eeaon.* This means thf develo overtime through socal interaction, People create tem, shape then, and change them, 1 People with shared gals develo chem." People sustain interaction and develop fields when hey share objectives and purposes. Inacence, for ample the parpore ta en the laws of mire; in ethics, he purpose is wo dvtngish what i good end moral igh fron whatnot and io odicne, the ppone i co promote heath by preventing and curing les «They develop specialized tmguage ad rules ® When people converse vo achieve their abjecives, thee ae certain rules of conduct as wells language ha flat their fobjecsves. We may cal rach specialized langaage jargan, bot fr the members of Tele language caries unique meqning 1 People may belong to many Beds Hmane share many diferent objecves and22 ——SSCHONT DEVELOPING CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR ARGENENT he rales of he legal profession who ls reach sn flow those rules. They may also iclong to «politcal party aad fallow the ideology ofthe organivaton, Any single ng t and practice the standard of ay diferent elds. We ca be rembers of 5 may fl. serve our interests objectives Feld survive only as lng 2 they serve che common purpose of thee members and as long a they can adap co changing objectives." When s field 2 longer serves its ‘members and canao ape to meet their needs, wil dspeae “These fve dimensions can dseibe any eld, Fr example, if we Tok the Geld of law, we would says thet wi aan renon. Lawyers were not needed wt human teins begin developing rules and laws for govemance and discovered a need to have 2 troup of pooole interpret and aoply the ules Send, lel Sl consists of people with Seta gon Lawyers and judges work to apply the law in civil and rina onters £0 Drtish wrongdoers and sck asdce. Third members ofthe Iga fe develop thei owe Specilzed language to deseribe scivies and directions in their field, The alk abou tres (ony Tegal documents used for court action), habeas corpus (type of document ssed Tb release soteone fom unlawfl imprisonment esente of lack of due proces), priccpe {wt that command 4 defendant co do the thing required or show just reson way he oF ‘he cannot) nd estoppel (a dociment that prevents smeone fom seg in eoatadctney traysto the detriment of nother pry) among many other ers, A feld develops «unig [Enguage that unites and binds ts members on gives them a lngege within Language Cn this case alg lingge within Ens) ehat identifies them as members of community or fs. Fourth, members ofthe legal ede may ale long to many ater els For stan many politcians are ether practicing or former attorneys and judges. Some lawyers move into edacaon and teach a iw schools, Finally, lawyers need o be sbleto adapt changing ‘conditions and times forthe Rel to survive. AS ew fas ae passed, members ofthe egal omsmunity need to remain eatrest so thatthe correct cues and precedents ae applied 0 their eae, As lava become more complex, atorneysofen find themselves in specialized sos within che Held They a, or instance, speiaize inlaws pertaining to inlet property or the preservation ofthe enironment, emong many other areas Fale adapt to changing rule and laws can lead individ members ofthe il being disbarred o the diulution ofthe die Box 7, "Apply the Theor,” ides you ebrough 3 process ‘of understanding how Fields work BOX17 APPLY THE THEORY: WHAT IS YOUR FIELD? As this seson pind et, we all belong to many lds And, a we die, fel can be eSned along Be dnetions buman crea, sealed Lnguage nd ules, ober in imoleple Bel, and oommon purpose. Using the segs 1. Canyou demons ta “higher cation” sa ll 2, enti an cumple theses how ee el oF higher education in cach category.Standards Argument felds ate important for argcrs and etic alike because they provide ws witha means of understanding end interpreting arguments When we evaluate arguments to ‘determine whether they ae tre o false, good or ba, valid or iva we apply two se of test field lependene standard and invariant standard Pine andor ae eae, nrms, an preston guiding tbe prado of rgements in a parte i. These sre he sandards that the panicle eld identifies ve appropriate for evaluating argunns. Therefore, legal sandals peraning to hearay evidence applied tp legal arguments would ‘onsite ed-deperlent stands Mos argument nthe tech phere rly on ede Aependen standards Fi insrionttmdant ply gma, mares of the fal of rgoment Regul of she feld in which an argument presented there are certain standard that apply regadlss ofthe particular contr For iste, an avocie sbould not tempo daceive repent Argucts should not seek vo undermine or diminish other advocate, Arguments should be resented that have al the required pats af an argument cai evidence easing nd an stempt 0 inflence The non of m argument field is valuable because understanding shes ares sundereand many of the roles and conventions for judging between competing cas in ‘controvery, They define che saunyions wed by atvortes inthe stvatin. Depending on hich tadards rom which elds re appli to arguments the esuls cane very deen Tiss why itis import for adsoetes to he aware ofthe Bel frm which they argue and to lea much abou he field for argument ath subject of argent Spheres “The concept of angunent spheres prondes ws with « way of understanding argument st ations by considering the cement of argue, recipient, and messige. Argument sper ae ‘cil contr thet gue hos arguments ar predud nd ose. Thomas. Farell and ‘Thomas Goodnight, in their lcusion of argument spheres suggest that argument coneas cs be described a belonging to one of thre yper_ persona, echnical abd public. Thi Sounds very sila othe discussion about fields with an important diference. While elds 14 onthe experts ofthe members argument spheres are broader ad consider how dhe lationship among arguer, recipient, and situation starve Personal sphere arguments are made and evaluated by poople who are engaged in a personal relatonship. Techacal sphere arguments are made among people who ate "experts in thee respective fields. Publi sphere arguments ae arguments made to general tdiences that are evaluated utag standards created by the general audiences. hey are intended to be understood and evaluated using the general tool an abies of larger, Public audiences Of the three spheres, the technical sphere isthe one most rigidly ‘Sefied by fields "The Three Argument Spheres” illesrtes the connections among the three sypes eis important ro note thatthe tne spheres can overlap. Thats becase some ‘nes echnical arguments become personal nd eh personal arguments may bec publi And, as we have deus with Liebe’ cae, some technical angen can become publ24 secrioN DEVELOPING CONCEPTOAL MRANESORK FOR ARGUNEST ue Spree “femora emamaity | tibaseere (reset eome | \ i eoeocemrens | eee | ‘Mméess wna) “tpnators sa \Giteaainans \ / fete / FIGURES ‘TheTinee oS y Argument Spheres Se SS The variables of anguer, audience, and messoge are inflenced by the sphere in which the arguments ake place. Whereas some audiences, such algal judge, require precie rewsoning fom specific Kinds of evidence, other audiences may be moved snore personally by their passions and feelings toward isu such a gun contol or aborion and may apply ery diferent standards to sadge the value ofthe argument. The contest forthe argument Informs the sdrocte of the rales, conventions, end coatson that should gover the devel pment of the arguments, Tick’ ce provides some important cis a wo bow argument contents Fancon Lishecl’s expetonce defined cetel se of ues sound which sponte for andl gaint tort reform were debated. Athough tort reform hed heen an itu foraeverl yess, her tse provided an oppornnity to bring the debate nt the open. Fuher, showed lash terwoen teo powerful communities of people lnyers and poiticins, Many members of the Tegal pelea sw this aan exanpe af how wel the tice jstem works in Americ A single lerly woman can beat giant nnpontion when the corporation Joc something verong The political eonsmeniy, however sa ts ease as another abuse of legal power ‘Technical The tebe sporecomtine arguments that dere ty rae thet ve mre formic and rigor and tnd ob genrated by partir gop of psp, rch at dats ods. Argument inthis phere might inlade the argument sna im asec papers ard ey legal angunents, seatfie arguments and religious arguments. They tend to be special Eid and focused toward # vndicnc inn particle Fielded, shail| ‘WDTERONE. ARGUMENT AND CEREAL THOUGHT 2s arguments tend to influence anguments inthe other spheres because when we research a Subject and evaluate the qulty of erence we lost, we tend to rey on authority and {pert opinions which are grounded inthe techni epee, Pathups oar most common exposire to technical argument i in the workplace, where people develop a Inguage and st of rules that are unique to their own profession tod interes. Profesional in any given field, rom law, eo mein, to comaracton and inbfacturing share an understanding of what i ceasonble or untesonable argument CConsequenty, arguments that are coberent snd well ngucd bythe member ofthat ld ‘may be meaningless to other rcpients who are nt members ofthat Bed ‘This i whe happened in Lishodks cae. Once atomeys became involved, the ed rom the peronal experience af being burned un in pun tothe legal legal precedent, and dierent roles fer arguing applied tothe more specialized argurs and rneplents, The language ofthe arguments changed, a did rule of erence, eaning and presentation of argument, Unlike personal argument, she coma 9 of people hat uses the standards ofthe commanity evaluates these arguments. Arguments inthis sphere are ow often judged using ld depondene andar Personal The pasa sper contains the relat infrmat arguments mong pple in pica casual ting, Personal arguments ate those among rend an family govemed by the ter pesonal rls for arguments generted inthe relationship. ‘Typically, personal rguments fo not pay carl attention 4 esdence, easoning, or well-fed claims. The rales ad procedures for personal argument are determined by dhe ltonship and not by external Forces.” For insane, whe Licbeckand her daughter discus howto arrange forin-homte care while she revered rom her bars, the argoments were peesona and sed on a priate Understanding ofthe reaioship and ies needs Personal sphere arguments are best onder ‘Noo bythe prscpunts beens of the nature of thei relationship wth cine another, And herefore, personal spre argument reevaluated sing the standard st by the rember tof theeelatonship and fld-mvaiane andar Public The pubic spore contin argos thar are intend fr publi o general ani: These arguments are evaluated by pulily mderstool and accepted standards for eruesn and tals Pablicanumtentsialude the Kinds of arguments polcine might make or that 2pulicrelaoas ofcer for a corprstion might present. Etorals in newspapers yp {ly are writen forthe public sphere. Whereas che public sphere ha relate orale rules for appropriateness eg, ne cannot make slanderous comments about smother), the rules are anders nd ws hy 4 roade public than those ofthe technica phere, which focuses oma particule community of poople, Most often, then, they are cralied through fickivarantstandacds The concept ofthe public sphere, a opposed to cider che technical or persona spheres, as «dul meaning. Ft, the ter pub suggests tat is open and avaliable for26 ‘hey ae issues of common concern tha ate dhe subject of much public discourse. Politi ‘n-erample of publi dicoure, as consumer rode safety and forign eid agreements, The pubic sphere slat» Bend often related to pest ech, and pbc concems. Individual vals are offen debe inthe public arena, for example we experience arguments aver the ned for gun cntol or dhe legion of certain cone sulances These might spicy be sen ss persona arguments show personal choices, yee the argues Gnd dee way into the pli ra ata mena to create ocelot tt pro tote cern vais, Sirs, technical srguments become de subsance for emended public ‘debe The eases of cancer or AIDS th are ssemnatcally nied and reseiched Wy sien tins Become the sujet of public debates about ple atl programs o remedy the discs "The peblc sphere provides an importa enue fr ane Te offers chem oppor in echnical spheres my hihlisheisues for the public sphere by ereting “evens” that cleat sues toa public lee. John W. Delcath and Kevin Michel Deca offered an ‘example of this when they wrots ofthe pote to create image rents” aged pots tal into the pobbe sphere" Former U.S. presidental candidate and eneironmenaist Al Gore ated sila srategy wi is documentary ln Taconic Tat, which was intended to crea public discourse over echnical aguas This is importan, beemse once bes reach the public phere they canbe heard by a ‘mas audience. David Zarety noted thatthe ble sere "epresens thee of fall nd ‘al parciption and deliberstion by those with interest decson, Ke shues between Unbridled individualism and unchecked collec, ween rampant selene and caliarian rl, between frecdom an sacal odes" No matter how one considers the pblcspher i signcant dona for arent hat have the potential o affect ee, Is inedtuons os people. Zarfdy’s challenge to all anger is ofind way co cobanc® ‘ezine for deleraon—o sek veaes for ming arguments that bave the potential to transform and change culture and society by bending angurent rom the prsal he technical andthe publ.” The Licbeck casei a good example of how pubic aygumentsion works. Inthe begin~ ning, Stella Libeck ale with her dghver and MeDonal'on a personal or private level, ‘dng tha he hoopita ils be covered. When se was unsuccemful she sought the ec {al athe of profesonals who puryed the casein the technical sphere of lw. Following her award for damages poicans created series of public arguments to inspire tae refor snd stempe to impose contol on a legal sytem hat secre to have gone ot of conta The sume event generated arguments in all dhe spheres an moved from the personal to the technical othe public. Box 1.8, “Apply the Theory," develops how spheres canbe sed A understand the diferences in everyday anges, USING ARGUMENT CONTEXTS: The preceding discussion of argument lds and spheres developed the idea that arguments are contained bythe norms oe rules for appropeate argument as established by the Bld tnd pre In Uli words argues de pent plere are lspe Uy salar fr ROX! APPL6 APPLY THE THEORY: SPHERES OF EDUCATION “What do they look like? “ evaluation that the prtcpams decide ro use. Technial angumeats however, reshaped and salute by external eld -based rites generated by the menses ofthe echnical sphere. Ana public arguments are evaluated fy standards appropriate fr judging common ae tment rgeted she general populace Using Fields to Interpret Contexts Toni, among other, concede that arguments ae judged according tothe stanants ofthe Feld for which they are produced” This ocears in the techs sphere. Diferent Stands reapplied in he id of aw han in he fl of poles. And standards used in titer ofthese felis ae diferent rom thos in medicine or educxtion, But these tanards influence public aad personal sphere arguments 5 wel Tor eximple, coe she dclte that fas surrounded Presiden Joba F. Kennedys sssination for decades. The FL and promotor’ fice (eal Bel) in 1963 believed there teas sufiient evidence to indice Lee Harvey Osvald for he murder. Witness saw hin run by with «panicked expression. He fi the general description of a man wio lef the ‘choulbook depenitory bing, and when he was aeeted Oswald yelled, “Well, ici ll ‘ver now, and teed to shoot one ofthe aces officers” The Iga eld has roles for fraence ands swayed patel by physi evidence eel, Oswald's ingerprnts) and tyenitnes testimony (whit he sid Before the shooting, his bebavior afer che shooting). In the legal ld, hese were enon for at indceent Yer the iienifie community id nor think Oswald could have ated alone An 8-rum home movie ofthe asassinatin rounded by Abraham Zaprode showed precisely when the how were fied and showed which bullet hit de prsidene. Rifle experts timed the lapse teoweon the sos and con eed the il allegedly sotminate Kesey. Thethey concned, required « minima of 2.3 ssoonds berween shot to operate the bole and evs, Recae Oswald shoe three ines--and assuming the Be bullet win the chamber te toa sme required by Orwald i he acted alone was a minimum of 45 second ye apr’ fi shows that 48 seconde were necessary, which made it posse bat not very lle) that Oswald cou! hoe relonedy sited, and Sed inthe time llowed. Furermor dhe ceo ule ved has been dibed by conspire hectic bales” What ‘made this bllet appear magia is thai appoared wo srike Kennedy and then change direc ton and bie Governor fata Coal. Beene bullets rel in sagt ines and beezuse few though cat one bullet con do a uch damages histone ppested to have done, the nti coramunty was unconvinced ofthe single asain theory Ta 196 the Warren Commision (polital Geld) was convened odin 1978 she House Select Committee Asastaatlon wis erent Both groups were Chae wilt ives ing and reaching conclusion regarding who asasinated Kennedy Thee thscone man hae tame to aman re nl that even the "magic bullet” could have passed through both President Kennedy and Governor Conall. Tee was no second gunmaa, the tro panels ford, and here was noone acer than Oswald who could lave come ‘Personal sphere anguments often concluded thit an extensive congpcacy must have been valved. Public arguments swayed back and forth around which Geld was mos ikly omect A few years a, a Brith television company pradaced a publi sphere argument when i atempeed a sage te tial of Loe Harvey Orval, which never acral took place "The program's producer few al the rmsaing, ving partcpants to London forthe mock al Defending Osvald wis Gerry Spence, wi wa + highly snc defense anoeney tn! iowa for defending high profile cents su a8 Karen Sikwood and Imelda Marcos Vincent Buglios the proscar inthe Chles Manson se, prosected Orval The ur ‘vas drawn trum a pool of Dallas voters and the judge was aso drawn fron Tess. Th Witnesses inthe case were either eyevitnesss atthe time, the reconed weioay of eye wtneses, or experts who had tested in ether the Warren or House Select Commitee Tearing. Ar the conlosion of te tll the jury coladed hat Opal wae dhe asain ad reared «unanimous verdict of guy Tis inceresing that for several decades, mee than n mentary fms ands Holywood feature film have heen dedxted to his ne event in history. Aldhough there are many capanation forthe comtinu interest in Kennedys asinason, fone ron is that members of diferent elds and argmens i deren spheres contin © ‘fer eondlicting opinions snd sappot chem with dierent forms of evidence and rexsoning. In the field of medicine, paholoyats have suggested that the bullet's path is inconsistent vith the lone asasn theory. Yet, lel and polteal elds sear to have enough evidence to {onclade Osvald’s gui. And members of the scenic community argue that one person {id nor ave ie of al ofthe shots. Cones amon elds ar brought about by dif Ferenrules of what onstntes accep reasoning oe erence and can lead to confsion song diferent audience hundred books, x dozen doen Using Spheres to Interpret Contexts ‘Understanding the ole play by press porane sn wndertading how to produc and recive argumtens, Arguments need tobe alate to the appropriate sphere for which theyGUPTERONE ARGUMENT AND cureAL HORA 29 ar intended. Arguments ae shaped, anderson and judged diferenly depending onthe Sphere in which they operas, Notice for example, ov anguments changed a Lisboa case wes placed into diferent spheres a well the role ferent Be played inthe interpret Hin of agament IniallyLicbeck had no iatenton of suing MeDona’, She weote tara er aking them wo reinbure her for ontof pocket mil expenses (abou 2,000) and to reduce the tmperiare oftheir coffee. This was a personal argument: Teas gered by the rues ceed by the relationship between MeDonali's and tsebeck MeDenali's offered $90, which was nor an acreptable aru Acthat pint, Liebeck ‘ured «oa profesional who might help her persole McDonalds to py for het teat ment. The professional was a member of te legal fel who worked to focus the arguments ata technica evel toward judge and jury. The profesional argued hat the cofle ss 2 elective prot and that I was nsalescording tothe ln The fury sand Lisheck 52:9 milion on eh suenge of technical arguments. The veri and he award were based fn the rules established in che legal profesion. These were highly formalized cules deve oped and understood by a highly specialized eam The media then cried de story to the public which heard that» person was awarded slmoseS$ malin or beringherst wits hot offs. The standards for judging the tgutent at public level were very dierent and he award seme! unessonale becuse commonly ‘eld public standards and belies are thac eae i oe. This is why pro-tort efor potest. rs later cried sign saying, "She spilled fon herself” To the publi the tril an award ‘noe ake seo ‘Certain arguments have an appeal beyond the sphere in which they were produced In ch ass angurens may be eriszed and evaluated by mull sets of standards a di ferent conmanitieratempe to ndertsnd and evihate them, An interesting example of ‘argument that was adapted vo both the rechnial and public spheres isthe one presented in ‘Rachel Carson's hook Sent Spring2® This book was written intall for atechniealauience shout the dangers of paste, DDT, in the envionment, Carson warned that DDT was sksteoyng the inogriy’ of robin eggs and pone «serious long-term test othe cee tem, Her argument was heard beyond the techni comunity wo which it was addressed the book soon found is way to bookstore shelves, and er agumtentsbectne the bass for Dbl legislation co han the pesticide in the Unite Stats. Sly, echnical works suk a dsertations or academic papers may occasionally asrce «general reader when they pu forth ideas ha appeal differen communi Arguments da noe reside in 2 pven sphere forever For any subject of argument, he sphore can become larger or smaller a ie progres. Arguments may move from publi iscusion co echnical to personal dicomom and back agin. Argument contexts change ‘over tne, depending onthe audiences andthe sent or imporznt tess tht affect them, CGason's book today would recvve les attention than i did in 1970 hecanse the public sphere for that argument is very small DDT has already been banned, and the tie for the argument has passed. Saniiry she arguments in the book would exist ina relatively small echnical sptere because the cains in the book have already been accepted, Other Sngument, however, ay find th their opportunities within any given sphere ae age ‘Groups of people interested in similar topics and sues say be able o identify and facitsteargumenc eussitons among spheres. These groupe which Archon Fung ofthe John F Kennedy School of Government at Haratd Univers cere toa in publes” att,can elcatioal frum, a prscipory and advisory group, oa problen- sling enti." Sh plier worn hc overip beeen spheres. In any ese, hee is that sal groups aaa help rasiuon Hen om ecical and on biden arenas vo public spheres See andonel or glebal stention Skilled arguers have his ypc Tee ay conducted by sociologist Gianpaolo Batch examined his ien A et hw smal publics groups of people wih snr interests can work UaSther to rete an ingens or change m8 ar, woader pubic eso. Hs stu ea patoy governaace in Bra and is conelsion demoted an important Fa rial and public spheres: People say band ogeher tight poverty of dee eircom neighborhood and community hey saya rain sufi et ERS en ake hose ios to the larger, policy-making phere. SUMMARY This book focuses on eiclehinking and angumencation. Creal ehinking, aval lin care kceay enables + petson to invessgate a sntion, problem, question, or phsnoa ra oe ale pothesis or coaexon- Te iplodes sucks sls as clearly stating « ao eam daeing dhe meaning of tenes, developing and applying eval sae eg de ce of sources. Once you Have gathered information 00% canada cing dhe processes you ns communis your reaming woes. Fae re read argumentation, which ivelves making arguments vended joss) Deighton and values vo a 0 influence others, Argumentation s dhe second a ee kt males comsrocing cases for oF against proposal Argumentation a rt caves, goveronentallegilaton, marketing campaiznsy and bases eo (oat Suck cnended cue are made up of indvdal argument An argument 9 ro oe inch acai fr nade, suppor offered fort and dere i an atempx co aera Wn vote ofdisgreement, A esson aking a chin isexpeee to fe Fae emt by wing evidence an Tesoning, Evidence const of facs a conditions aan ee tely abner belies or setememts generally aceeped as tru by the ei Pa ee peo enblshed: Reasoning is Frequently expressed in the frm of sso cones Yasue ink between te evidence and the claim, and uthorzes the ep we make wen we dew aconchsion rake wen prod for particular contests and they are generally evaluated with sespe hlraine and plas "Thse conte infence che way argument te ert a and erated, Contexs ate an smportant par of she arguments development Pr the way arguers atte inure recipients. General, argeent ea ae prrscton of eo cones: argument els and argument spheres. These cre es lp understand how to produce and evaluate argumens. a a al provide a conten for making and interpreting argument. elds arespe ina onan tht trite the aes fr accep evidence, they oe 10 Narecerret eraler or procedures fo ondacting arguments, dhe equremens for prow aaa rend een the speared lngnage in which argument ae expres amples i a ye ln, malin, and scence, Fields re important ia judging betwee com OE ate beens they ove the asc pine in which many forms of rewoning re ee das for ising arguments are field dependent and anse fom teParccaar comet in which the argument ie rade. Other standards are fd invariant and py eo all arguments egnrdless oftheir coment Argument spheres are the spec contets in which people argue, Reps understand arguments and coordinate them through heir own fae Of reference ough the ne of argument spheres. Generally, argument spheres are of thre tes perma teen, ad able. When people ague in prsomal sere, dhe argunens are realy sora tc ‘awl. Arguments in he technical sphere ae gonerad by igorous an speed rales whch sve to specify the types of seceezble evince and rtsoning, Public spare arguments are argument that are produced and essed in a public aena They are intel for pol 2ndiences and are tiie using puble standards Depeiingon the sphere the ange ope ates in argumenss ae aad an eee wing dn le ot souidons ofthe gree spe EXERCISES (Plea note: Throughout the hook, exercise items marked with an ates have asswers provided in Appendix A) eerie I etiing Arment Co nub teens chat a that sno Remember haan arpenen Pas th ci Offers support frit (C Maker an sempre itrins emer, Fa going hoe iss ota argument because te speaker of miter ai no support fr. Rath, she ‘merely sas her imento, which nes no depend ua the ther peas seein, Fares ‘espe doesnot plc yo inoence anyone es bat restates whats henna todo. Consider he llowing stems, dsde wheter ot they are argent sal copa rena enalyveweloagemnes "Le Theses plethora of rede scenarios or aching horned intelligence ina acho We wl te ale to cure and gains sytem combining mainly pall curl nets with oer pratgns to anders language sn nde wedge, nceing te sty ssa and understand writen caren. Wes then have bur competes ea al of he worl iterterebooks, magazine, scene anny nd ober valle mater Ulin, he chines wl gather inowieige onthe om by venturing ins the pyseal we, delng Som he all jecarum of mela and inkematon serie, using tows wth ek er vhich aches a do mor ely un he aman enters ead! Why re yo ling ety forthe meeting? Gale. Sue sted wet pk her p onthe ny, Are yo going to wath tha mene at Gile Be Vac oan the moeningade’ sues are no longer the pop ur educational system was designed tps det in Prion anda diferen fom thee proce Thee ifrenccs oar rer a deeper than moveedocor supe or reali. Dire Lin of experiences lead to fret rin sears” js Dr. Brace D. Perry of Bplor llega. ivey Heb a ae ris esl hed —an ae ‘eres rom oure—ac a ea oho hey re op. Bat weer or at seal Ce ie ay atthe Satay ener ee dang Trnyeo somite when hs rivlrybeween uy dager and me ise bean- eat Isome- nc aca tht we have ays bent wy with sc ote, dat weave never goten Sg any here rhe, T wr ie ake my duc oe erable Ta, to Her be keppice and ck sore led wih esl doe Eo ow Sonn He, Somig Herd Men Yr: alain ks 197). 19 Ae linguist, Ms, MeWhore (eprfenor of linguist the Unies f California at Beil and aco fellow sche ata naa» ply serch group in New Vr in) tows ae rama rules ae ahrary and icin cos aaron peopl ave fever sled by hem, Rates he argue, she ft es wh do alps of he dinton enecan Be writen andthe cra Woee forma, wel-honed Engl was once de rigueut ipoble life, he ages ths ll bu ispeard, planted bye nilerent eadetes of ‘pecch id line pig our sly ota Cini sink tudeuts cae more shoo ols and esis of igh educson han aan ine th pat Fret: You ae wrong Stoeats have tele ong arnt they dot ead acwp Tie more {each alge siden, te more I bg vo ht Maybe thee pls expression mo inthe esroom. Takao tn T hear ther comerasons Fc prtezs ad acs how sealers age Thome anti. thik ts posable the we hae ned in econ Ses Ire Leming thelr own bocce me hayes digo’ cri ifm dnp Seen tenn [nt do tsk we seal he Tone shink anyone would dingee tac amis ac difeen fom han beings: Bu, des tha get height tn sb en To sues hem 0 psf exerts ott We can reat pet comets? We ne anal o ake oor Eves eer Sometimes we oe thaw [hig cso Scsines we we eno et ew tl estmen and dap. TF tro thc human being eth toa ele beings he plane, Jos ett mean we ave thatch mone sonality to envore ta lig bags are care or Jal Shon me figure ou olay ris om 33 pezeet east of Tring incese ps Tease pele prtoned xceponall Judy: That orcs ong we ve enough nthe badge cover ie How much trait Jone elk we ive a reserve fas cover ay exces think we should tart out shin wha he uf oght to ocean conesn ounces wih wha sible Joly) Thavsounds ioe so me, aang We ve wore excem,uarren on ARGUMENT ND cRTICAL THOGEAET 2 9. Nenspapes, my fend, ae «thing ofthe ps. People wo longer rea in linet fishin hey pick and chore, They jmp around. The old se gone reac wih eens People want wo cnn ntrmuron difercty tani the pase digi video teers (DVR) goes cheay to watch wiur we waned when ve mute The eater the ae ‘hing. We pick oorarikes, ne pk wht we evinced in feng Tews tae when [ope would sit and read ah entize newspaper. Noe now. We want healings nd some thing puts oo meres we might read ores om word The eames as banc thet ove tor what irelerar and what noe {hk ats gl ‘Chevele: Lam rly wore abou staden dee. Too many young people are aed with hig and sccmigly nsrmontse de ato ih ch bachelors dee sets though or edaatosl em fae ts ch pessoa fern sagee so then hat poe the ih engh sures omen Totes the de ight? Degree sens, Why shoul he government he cons? Welw tht cobege education wiles ei at ing ap be sos Clg rte cen mh te an her po sho they py for thio sas? That oss, doen Chee: ht if ego Sa cout ly stlent wth reso and wenly fais wll ver gee aellgecdveston, Wh owt ll ose who dont hae the money Tesees wo meth yon ae saying we sol go shea at et wel and pee decries we prvi: acces al ofr ade das ca bp al nar oct be hero. Ednetn a publ god, nota priego When recone dt pene qatied sets na sso el all beer Eerie 2 Desig Cia Tiking. The Uaied Stasi sfesing rom an oeewegh and obsty pei and ic not alone. The Wool Health Orgiiiton (WHO) hs reported chat toe tha 1 lon de age 20 and older, worldide r reread mee tha 0 milion ‘of these people are clase (p/w sehoin/ncdicenfiateen/sI ev) Heal ae ‘sen in may cours are bing ovrebelned by weghented ness Wha should be ‘hne? Using the etl thinkin cyl en hichape ow would you peach answering {hs guetion 1. Quoin ain: What ithe need ata 2. Parga: Whatis oor goal with his inguin? 3. Imation: Watnfoneation do you eed reich a eon concn 44 Compas Wha laws, rules, and pines guide your ings ax you ok fran anon 5. Amp: What out pesapporions? Do ay ee te quetione 6, Pun of View: What perspectives come nto ply bere? Ae indvidas response? Shook! ‘alo sary heute rte 7 Ingres and Infiease What ciao can you reach given the material you have 8 plain ond myn Wha would be yt happen if our solations were abe Whatwoud ec sey or dst What would spores sn de “trie 3 Fle. We ave diced the oe of angement eld Proving grounds or eso {npn equremens or wha ausencs eet agement 1 pling rs args wl flow nagamenation34 SECTION DEVELOMING A CONCEFTUAL AMEWORK OR ARCUMEN : ‘One explo ofa ld in which agunen ees acne Based on what yo ko sho are of Angamens36 secIONT DEVELOPING A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR ARGKMENT The Proluae and Pre of Haman Don ing ew sed ce aa fe een Fe "rue Plead The tive es ors Smile Se Compa So Te Ro “ih ne’ pe SE Rowlnd“epeent il” 6 i Com emg) Mil, Ange Fe Ars of Dcuie image Events the Pac Sphere. and. Aryumertaie Sita von. ast, Cl Wolke nd Des Si icp ncn CHAPT KEY ce