Master of Petroleum Well Engineering

Advanced Drilling Practices

FORMATION FRACTURE GRADIENT

April 2005
Assoc. Prof. Sampaio

jsampaio@peteng.curtin.edu.au

Formation Fracture Gradient

May be predicted from:
Pore pressure (vs. depth)
Effective stress
Overburden stress
Formation strength
2

Rock Mechanics
How a rock reacts to an imposed
stress, is important in determining
Formation drillability
Perforating gun performance
Control of sand production
Effect of compaction on reservoir performance
Creating a fracture by applying a pressure to a
wellbore
3

Elastic Properties of Rock

Elastic Properties of Rock contd

Elastic Properties of Rock contd

The vertical stress

at any point can be
calculated by:

F
a =
A

The axial and transverse strains are:

L2 L1
a =
L1

d 2 d1
tr =
d1

Stress Strain Diagram

B
A

C
D

Hookes and Piossons

Hookes Law for Uniaxial Loading:

=E
Poissons Ratio

E is called Modulus of Elasticity

or Youngs Modulus

a
=
tr

Typical Elastic Properties of Rock

Generalized Hookes Law

1
x = ( x y z )
E

1
y = ( x + y z )
E

z = E ( x y + z )

xy =
yz =
zx =

xy
G

yz
G

zx
G

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Modulus 0f Rigidity
G is called Modulus or Rigidity or Shear Modulus
It can be shown that

E
= 1+
2G

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Volumetric Strain

V =

V f Vi
Vi
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Bulk Modulus
For small Strains

V = x + y + z

For x= y= z= (hydrostatic stress state)

V = 3

(1 2 )

E
=
V
3 (1 2 )

= k V

k is called

Bulk Modulus
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Bulk Modulus contd

Compressibility

1
c=
k

Incompressible material: c = 0

1 3 (1 2 )
c= =
= 0 = 0.5
k
E
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General Elastic Relations:

E
= 1+
2G
E
= 3 (1 2 )
k
G 3 (1 2 )
=
k
2 (1 + )
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In-situ stresses
Vertical Equilibrium in a rock element:

ob = p p + z

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In-situ stresses contd

With increasing depth
pore pressure increases approximately 0.445
psi/ft
overburden stress increases between
0.85 psi/ft to 1.1 psi/ft

Then
matrix stress increases between
0.405 psi/ft to 0.665 psi/ft

ob = p p + z
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In-situ stresses contd

Te increase in matrix stress is the
primary responsible for the decrease
in the porosity with depth.

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In-situ stresses contd

Sedimentary rock is the result of
millions of years of continuing
deposition of sediments that deepens
and compact.
As depth increases, grain to grain
stresses increase.

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In-situ stresses contd

Due to the z, a tendency exists to the
formation to expand laterally
(Poissons ratio).
Lateral expansion is prevented from
occurring by the surrounding rock,
This generates horizontal matrix
stresses (x and y).
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In-situ stresses contd

Simplifying Assumptions:
1. The rock behaves as an elastic material,
2. The horizontal stresses are equal
(x = y = H),
3. No horizontal strain (x = y = 0), and
4. Rock properties are constant with
depth.
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In-situ stresses contd

Using Generalized Hookes Law
1
x y z )
(
E
1
y = ( x + y z )
E

x =

H =

1
( H H z )
E
1
0 = ( H + H z )
E
0=

z
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Pressure Required to
Fracture a Formation
To hydraulically fracture a formation,
the pressure of fluid in a cavity of the
formation
Must overcome the cohesive strength of
the grains PLUS
The matrix stress (and any stress
concentration) at the cavity wall PLUS
The fluid pressure in the pores of the
rock.

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Pressure Required to Fracture

a Formation - contd

For formation deep enough, the

cohesive stresses are much less than
the matrix stresses and are, therefore
neglected.
The same is not true for shallow
formations.
Too shallow (or young) formations are
normally unconsolidated.
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Pressure Required to Fracture

a Formation - contd
A typical circular
hole in an infinite
plate subjected
to an uniaxial
stress causes a
stress
concentration of
magnitude 3 on
the wall of the
hole.

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Pressure Required to Fracture

a Formation - contd
This means that
to initiate a
fracture, the
matrix stress
that must be
overcame is 3
times larger than
the original
undisturbed
matrix stress.

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Pressure Required to Fracture

a Formation - contd
However at a
short distance
from the wall of
the hole, the
matrix stress
reduces rapidly
to the
undisturbed
matrix stress

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Plane of Fracture
The plane of fracture is perpendicular
to the direction of the least principal
matrix stress.
In a geologically relaxed region
fractures tend to be horizontal.
In regions subjected to tectonic
forces, things may be much more
complicated.
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Plane of Fracture contd

Rock properties
assumed
constant with
depth

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Plane of Fracture contd

ob is the max.
principal
stress
Failure occurs
perpendicular to
the least
principal stress

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Plane of Fracture contd

H > ob can be
created by
Tectonic forces
Post-depositional
erosion
Glacial action or
melting of glacier

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Plane of Fracture contd

Effect of
tectonic
stresses on
fracture plane
direction

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Plane of Fracture contd

Effect of
topograph
y on ob

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Formation Fracture Pressure

Fracture Pressure:

p ff = p p + min

Least Matrix Stress:

min = H

Horizontal Matrix
Strtess:

H =

z
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Formation Fracture Pressure

contd
Combining

p ff = p p +

Matrix Stress:

z = ob p p
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Formation Fracture Pressure

contd
Combining again

1 2
ob +
p ff =
pp
1
1
or

1 2
p ff = ob +
z
1
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Fromation Fracture Gradient

Gradient at a given depth D

p ff =

p ff
D

(psi/ft)

p ff = 19.25

p ff
D

(lb/gal)
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Rock Poissons Ratio

This is a key parameter.
Poissons Ratio is depth dependent
A great deal of data from hydraulic
fracturing treatments and leak-of test
in nearby areas are needed to obtain
accurate values of

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Rock Poissons
Ratio contd

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Example
Calculate the formation fracture
gradient at 10,000 ft depth for the data
in Example 7 in Pore Pressure.
Use pore pressure calculated using
both (a) Equivalent Matrix Stress
model and (b) Empirical Correlation
model
Assume Poissons ratio for
overburden gradient equal to 1.0 psi/ft
in shales.

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Solution
a) Equivalent Matrix Stress
From Example 6 results
(pp)10,000 = 7,669 psi
(ob)10,000 = 10,378 psi
From graph: = 0.423
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Solution contd
p ff =
p ff =

ob +

1 2
pp
1

0.423
1 2 0.423
10,378 +
7, 669 = 9, 655 psi
1 0.423
1 0.423
p ff 9, 655 psi
p ff =
=
D 10, 000 ft

p ff = 0.966 psi/ft = 18.6 lb/gal

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b) Equivalent Matrix Stress

From Example 6 results
(pp)10,000 = 8,100 psi
(ob)10,000 = 10,378 psi
= 0.423
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Solution contd
p ff =
p ff =

ob +

1 2
pp
1

0.423
1 2 0.423
10,378 +
8,100 = 9, 770 psi
1 0.423
1 0.423
p ff 9, 770 psi
p ff =
=
D 10, 000 ft

p ff = 0.977 psi/ft = 18.8 lb/gal

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Leak-Off Test
Purpose
1. Test the casing couplings sealing,
2. Test the sealing of the annular between
the casing and the cement, and between
cement and cased formations,
3. Test the resistance of the formations
below the last casing shoe (normally the
formation right below the casing shoe
and also the first sand below the casing
shoe).
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Leak-Off Test contd

Remarks:

a) casing tests are performed before the cement is

drilled from the bottom joint.
b) the annular sealing and leak-off test are
performed simultaneously, after the formation is
drilled about 10 ft below casing shoe. A large
departure from the expected pressure increase
line indicates a fail in the cement bonding.
Cement must be squeezed in order to promote
sealing.
c) fracturing the formation will not decrease the
resistance of the formation, since the stress due
to the surrounding rocks and pore pressure are
the responsible for the formation fracture
resistance.

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Calculation of the Leak-off Pressure

pLO = p ff g D + p f
pf = frictional pressure loss (small)
Gel strength may be large.
track pressures in both annular and
drillstring gages noting the maximum
difference as the gel strength
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Calculation of the Leak-off Pressure contd

Circulate the fluid before the test to

Homogenize the fluid,
Break the gel, and
Remove solids in suspension and
contaminants.

Pump Rates for shales in the range of

0.25bbl/min to 0.5 bbl/min. For Porous
sandstones, 1.5 bbl/min.
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Calculation of the
Leak-off Pressure
contd
Graph the surface
pressure vs.
injected volume.
Include the
anticipated leak-off
pressure and
anticipated slope of
the pressure line.
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Slope of Pressure Line

Equivalent compressibility of the fluid ce

ce = cw fw + co fo + cs fs
Component

Compressibility
(psi-1)

Water

3.0x10-6

Oil

5.0x10-6

Solids

0.2x10-6

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Slope of Pressure Line contd

By definition

1 dV
ce =
V dp

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Slope of Pressure Line contd

The injection if a volume Vi into a
constant well volume V0 corresponds
to reduve the volume from V0+Vi to V0,
that is a change of volume equal to Vi
Therefore the anticipated slope is

dp
1
=
dVi ce V0
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Leak-Off Test contd

After the end of the test, measure the
volume of mud that is bled from the
well. The volume should be very close
to the injected volume (the difference
is the amount of filtrate lost in the test).
If fracture occurred, or leak due to bad
cementing job, this difference will be
larger.
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Leak-Off Test contd

Poor cement
bonding in the
annular between
casing and borehole
This behavior is an
indication that fluid is
seeping between the
casing and cement
layer of between the
cement layer and the
formation, or both.

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