B2 FANS & AIR HANDLING Fans are essential and ubiquitous gas handling equipment in modern cement plants and consume some 30% of total electrical power used for cement manufacture, Rotation of the fan impeller increases gas pressure at the discharge and the resulting pressure drop across the fan causes gas flow. The design of a fan involves the required ranges of gas flow and static pressure, gas density and the optimisation of efficiency. The fan operation point is at the intersection of the fan curve and the system curve and control of fan performance is achieved by changing the fan curve and/or the system curve. The fan curve can be changed by varying fan speed or by using an adjustable inlet vane. Change in gas density also affects the fan curve but is not a means of control. The system curve can be changed using a damper at the inlet or outlet. Fan performance can be controlled in decreasing order of efficiency by adjustment of rotation speed, inlet vane, inlet box damper and, dis- charge damper. The operation point should be significantly to the right of the curve apex as the fan will become unstable if operated to the left of the apex. The most generally useful rule of thumb for gas handling is that system pressure drop is proportional to the square of gas volume. B2.1 Fan Laws Shaft kW = Qx dp / 367,000 xn where Q = gas flow, AMP/H 4p = fan static pressure, mmH,0 n = fan efficiency - ca 0.68 for radial tip - 0.80 for backward curved Selection of fan motor size should consider in addition to base ‘test block’ power, reserves for possible change in gas density, dust loading, increase of fan speed or subsequent tipping. Typically, some 33% may be added to base power. Cement Plant Operations Handbook * 221 rs 2 ~”n od s a = = SS) a 4 ra)For a fan with fixed inlet and discharge resistance, the effects of chang- ing rpm are: Q/Qi = (rpme/epm1) pap = (rpma/rpmy)?_—_ kWefkWy = (rpma/rpm:)? For a fan with fixed speed and fixed resistance, the static pressure and KW increase in proportion to gas density (p): P2/pi = (p2/p1) kWolkWi = (p2/p1) For a fan with fixed speed and fixed resistance, the effects of changing impeller diameter (D) are: Qu/Q2 = (D2/D1> palpr = (D2/Di)?_— kWo/kWi = (D2/D1)5 Fan curves are determined by rotor speed, impeller size, and gas den- sity only. Curve shape depends upon impeller blade shape. Two identi- cal fans in series will give a doubling of static pressure for the same flow while two fans in parallel will double the flow at the same static pres- sure. A typical fan curve is shown in Figure B2.1. ap) Figure B2. The two impeller geometries most common for large fans in the cement industry are: Radial blade which show relatively little variation of static pressure with flow over the operating range. Efficiency is 55-60% increasing about 5% if the impeller is closed sided, and decreasing by 5% with dust entrainment. BE Backward curved blade which provide the relatively low static pressure for a given wheel diameter. They are typically 75-8 /o efficient. 222 © Cement Plant Operations HandbookDue to rising power cost, high efficiency backward curved fan wheels are largely replacing the traditional paddle wheel design. Experienced fan suppliers can design a high efficiency impeller to withstand temperature surges and the heavy dust loading pertaining to many cement plant applications. The outline of a double inlet fan is shown in Figure B2.2. | [NEE oe \ ines rate KISS L SHROUD use Figure B2.2: Double Inlet Fan B2.2 Fan Mechanical Fan shaft diameter is generally designed to give a rigid rotor critical speed at least 1.4 times the maximum operating speed which, in most cases, will provide adequate shaft strength. Anti-friction bearings with a bore size to match such a shaft will usually have load carrying capac- ity far in excess of that required for fan service and would have too high a peripheral speed for bearing service. Often, therefore, the diameter of the shaft at the bearings is reduced significantly to reduce shaft periph- eral speed resulting in less heat generation and easier lubrication. While this may give bearings loaded only to about 2% of their dynamic rating, it is considered that loading of less than 1.5% of the bearing's rating may yield abnormal rolling element motion and excessive heat generation. This problem is of most concern with the spherical roller bearings gen- erally used on heavy-duty fans to accommodate the combined thrust and radial loads. It is also common to encounter fan bearings mounted on tapered adapters; these are easily maintained but can be prone to failure. The inner race run-out measured axially on these bearings can be up to 200u which may cause excessive vibration, heat generation and abnormal Cement Plant Operations Handbook * 223 > = rn go ba °) == = = S = = aroller motion even though the bearing loading is light. The risk of this problem is most severe with spherical roller bearings. Hot bearings with early failure may sometimes be remedied by switching to split race cylindrical roller bearings though the bearing manufacturer may need to be consulted for help to accommodate the thrust loading. Larger fans are normally supplied with fluid film bearings (eg Dodge Sleeveoil) which are reliable and have high load carrying capacity. Such bearings, however, do not like low speed operation where the lubricant film between shaft and bearing may be deficient. Higher viscosity lubri- cant may help for low speed operation when drafting a mill or kiln dur- ing maintenance, but baghouse and kiln ID fans should not normally be operated below the bearing supplier’s recommended minimum speed. Lubricated couplings are not usually suitable for kiln system ID fans as they require periodic recharging of lubricant which may not be feasible with long kiln runs. Such couplings should be replaced by elastomeric or disk-pack types which require only occasional inspection. B2.3 Impeller Build-up Deposits can be a serious problem for fan impellers driving dust-laden a8, particularly kiln ID fans where hard build-ups can form and spall throwing the fan into catastrophic imbalance. The problem can usually be corrected by consideration of impeller material, blade design, or the addition of guide vanes (Krift; ZKG; 9/1994, pg E235: Gutzwiller & Banyay; CA; 11/2000, pg 39). Backward curved impellers are signifi- cantly less prone to build-up than are radial. Failing prevention, BalaDyne offers an automatic balancing system which mounts to the fan shaft and continuously monitors and corrects balance (Rizzo; ICR; 1/1999, pg 61). Fan vibration which cannot be attributed to build-up or loss of balance weights, may be caused by cracks in the welding of armour plate to the impeller. Such cracks may either allow dust to become trapped under the armour plate or, more probably, can change the structural stiffness of the fan wheel resulting in asymmetric deflections under load. This type of problem is extremely difficult to diagnose and should be referred to a fan expert. 224 © Cement Plant Operations HandbookB2.4 Gas Properties Density g/L SH cal/g/'C LH Evap calig Air 1.293 0.237 C02 1.977 0.199 2 1.429 0.218 No 1.250 0.248 S02 2.927 0.154 H20 (100°C) 0.581 0.482 539.5 B2.5 Plant Air Distribution The production of compressed air is energy-intensive and air is best conserved using a decentralised system of screw compressors. Recommended pressures are: Air-slides 0.4-0.6kg/icem? (6 -8psi) Controls 6-8kg/cm? (80-110psi) Cleaning 8-12kg/em? (110-170psi). For controls (instrument air) and for baghouse pulse cleaning, the air should be cooled, dried, and de-oiled (Guilman; ZKG; 5/1994, pg E131). Jack-hammers and air-lances should have a separate air supply. B2.6 Pitots, Orifices & Venturis Gas velocity, V (M/sec) = 4.43 K Vép/p_ where K = coefficient 8p = differential pressure, mm H20 p = gas density, kg/M? Gas flow, Q (M3/H) = 3600.A.V where A = orifice area, M? K values for conventional pitot tubes are 0.98-1.00. For gas flows with high dust loading, ‘S-type’ tubes may be used with K values of about 0.8 (Perry; Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, 6th Ed, pg 5-10). K values should be provided by the pitot manufacturer. K values for orifice /ven- turi with constriction diameter d and pipe diameter D: ap Orifice K Venturi K 07 0.731 06 0.683 05 0.658 1.012 04 0.646 0.993 03 0.640 0.984 (Note: venturi recovery cone of 15” assumed) Cement Plant Operations Handbook * 225 > = ~n g = ] es Pd 4 o a = ra)Determination of air flow in ducts using a pitot tube involves measure- ment at several points across a section of the duct to allow for non-uni- form flow and is described in detail for regulatory practice in the United States by EPA 40 CFR Part 60, Appendix A (EPA Reference Methods are available at www.epa.gov/ttn/emc/promgate.html). Measurement should be, if possible, at least 8 diameters down-stream and 2 diame- ters up-stream from any bend or irregularity. Measurements are tra- versed across two diameters at right angles, with 12 points per traverse for diameters greater than 0.6M, and 8 points for diameters 0.3-0.6M. Closer proximity to disturbances is compensated by additional traverse points. This procedure cannot be used when the flow is cyclonic and no point should be less than 2.5cm from the wall. Note that flow should be calculated from the arithmetic mean of all velocity measurements, not the mean of pitot velocity pressures. For approximate process, as opposed to regulatory, measurements fewer points may be used. Insertion distances should be: 12 pointsftraverse —_—‘8 points/traverse 6 points/traverse 0.021D 0.644D 0.032D 0.677D 0.0440 0,704D 0.067 0.750 0.105 0.806 0.147 (0.853 0.118 0.823 0.194 (0.895 0.296 = 0.956 0.177 0.882 0.323 (0.968 4 points/traverse 0.250 0.933 0.067D 0.7500 0.356 0.979 0.250 0,933 PITOT TRAVERSE FOR GAS FLOW MEASUREMENT IN CIRCULAR ‘AND RECTANGULAR DUCTS LARGER THAN 0.64 DIAMETER. Figure B2.3: Pilot Traverse Rectangular duct of section length L and width W yields an equivalent diameter: D = 2Lw/(L+W) 226 * Cement Plant Operations HandbookThis diameter is used to determine the number of measurement points (12/traverse above 0.6M, 9 below). The section is then divided into that number of equal areas and measurement made at the centre of each area. B2.7 False Air Air inleakage through an aperture of area A (M2) with pressure differ- ential dp (mmH20) can be approximately calculated from: Volume, Mh = 8,900 x Ax vap_ Air inleakage between two points in the kiln exhaust system can be determined by oxygen measurement. Then, relative to initial volume: Inleakage, % = 100 (G2 - G1) / (20.9 - G2) where Gy = initial % O2 G = final % O2 B2.8 Dew Point of Moist Air at Atmospheric Pressure Moisture mg H20/L, % of Dry Vol % of Wet Vol 10°C 9.35 1.16 118 20 17.23 2.14 2.19 30 30.18 3.76 3.90 40 50.69 6.31 6.71 50 82.14 10.22 11.27 60 128.88 16.04 18.61 70 196.13 24.41 30.36 80 290.07 36.10 49.13 H20 content of saturated air: mg/L = 3.84 x 10°x T4 + 2.93 x 105x T? + 0.014 x T? + 0,29T + 4.98 where T = temperature, °C B2.9 Stack Draft Theoretical draft, mm H20 = O.AGHP (1/T - 1/15) where H = stack height, M P= atmospheric pressure, mm Hg Ta = ambient temp, “kK T. = average stack temp, °K Note: there will be some reduction for friction losses. Cement Plant Operations Handbook * 227 > = nn r a ) es PS - iS] Ja 4 ra)B2.10 Spray Cooling of Gas Water Uh = Q.p.S.8T/ [(100 - Tw) + 539] where Q_ = gas flow, M°/h p= gas density, kg/M? S = specific heat of gas 8T = gas cooling, °C Tw = water temperature 0 More approximately, for kiln exhaust gas with 5% Oz, water required to reduce gas temperature by 81°C is: Umin water = th clinker x kcal/kg/1000 x 8T/66 B2.11 Abrasion Resistance Air entrained particulates are liable to abrade fan impellers and hous- ings, particularly in cooler exhaust or recirculation fans. Apart from hard facing, the impeller vanes can also be protected by guide vanes located near the hub which act to deflect particulates away from the main vanes (Godichon & Revillot; WC; 1/1999, pg 57). Fan housings together with cyclones and pneumatic conveying lines can be protected by lining either with fused cast basalt or, for high tem- peratures, materials made by fusing alumina, zirconia and silica (ICR; 7/1991, pg 52). Pneumatic conveying lines are prone to failure at elbows. It has long been standard to embed the elbow in a concrete-filled box. However, as the pipe wears, increased turbulence accelerates and extends the wear. T-bends have been found to simplify construction of pneumatic lines, reduce wear, and do not increase pressure drop but should not be used close to the pump where velocity is low. oe 228 © Cement Plant Operations Handbook