________________________________________________________________

____________________ Chng 2 M ha v iu ch II - 1

CHNG 2

M HA V IU CH
PH TN CA TN HIU
Ph tn gin on
Ph tn lin tc

M HA
Cc dng m ph bin
K thut ngu nhin ha

IU CH
Bin
Gc
Xung

Trong truyn thng, tin tc v d liu l tt c nhng g cn trao i, chng c th l

ting ni, hnh nh, tp hp cc con s, cc k hiu, cc i lng o lng . . . c a vo
my pht pht i hay nhn c my thu.
Tn hiu chnh l tin tc c x l c th truyn i trn h thng thng tin.
Vic x l bao gm chuyn i, m ha v iu ch.
Chuyn i l bin cc tin tc di dng khng in thnh ra tn hiu in.
M ha l gn cho tn hiu mt gi tr nh phn v c trng bi cc mc in p c
th c th truyn trn knh truyn v phc hi my thu.
iu ch l dng tn hiu cn truyn lm thay i mt thng s no ca mt tn
hiu khc, tn hiu ny thc hin nhim v mang tn hiu cn truyn n ni thu nn c gi
l sng mang (carrier wave). Mc ch ca s iu ch l di ph tn ca tn hiu cn truyn
n mt vng ph tn khc thch hp vi tnh cht ca ng truyn v nht l c th truyn
ng thi nhiu knh cng mt lc (a hp phn tn s).
Chng ny cp n s iu ch v m ha. Nhng trc tin, chng ta cn nhc
li mt s tnh cht ca tn hiu qua vic phn tch tn hiu khng sin thnh tng ca cc tn
hiu hnh sin v lu n mi quan h tn s-thi gian ca tn hiu.

2.1

ph tn ca tn hiu

Trong mt h thng thng tin tn ti 3 dng tn hiu vi ph tn khc nhau:

- Loi th nht l cc tn hiu c tnh tun hon c dng hnh sin hoc khng. Mt tn
hiu khng sin l tng hp ca nhiu tn hiu hnh sin c tn s khc nhau. Kt qu ny c
c bng cch dng chui Fourier phn tch tn hiu.
- Loi th hai l cc tn hiu khng c tnh tun hon m c tnh nht thi (th d nh
cc xung lc), loi tn hiu ny c kho st nh bin i Fourier.
- Loi th ba l tn hiu c tnh ngu nhin, khng c din t bi mt hm ton hc
no. Th d nh cc loi nhiu, c kho st nh phng tin xc sut thng k.
Cc loi tn hiu, ni chung, c th c xt n di mt trong hai lnh vc :
- Lnh vc thi gian: Trong lnh vc ny tn hiu c din t bi mt hm theo thi
gian, hm ny cho php xc nh bin ca tn hiu ti mi thi im.
- Lnh vc tn s : Trong lnh vc ny ngi ta quan tm ti s phn b nng lng
ca tn hiu theo cc thnh phn tn s ca chng v c din t bi ph tn.
Trong gii hn ca mn hc, chng ta ch cp n hai loi tn hiu u.
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____________________ Chng 2 M ha v iu ch II - 2
2.1.1 Ph tn gin on
Tn hiu c tnh tun hon n gin nht l tn hiu hnh sin
v(t) = Vm sin ( t + ) = Vmsin ( 2ft + )
Tn hiu ny c ph tn l mt vch duy nht c bin Vm ti tn s f (H 2.1)

(H 2.1)

Cc dng tn hiu tun hon khc c th phn tch thnh tng cc tn hiu hnh sin, nh
vy ph tn ca chng phc tp hn, gm nhiu vch cc tn s khc nhau.
Tn hiu thng gp c dng hnh ch nht m bi php phn tch thnh chui Fourier
ta thy ph tn bao gm nhiu vch cc tn s c bn f v cc ha tn 3f, 5f, 7f .... (H 2.2).

(a)

(b)
(H 2.2)

Tn hiu (H 2.2.a) phn tch thnh chui Fourier:

1
1
4V
1
(cost cos3t + cos5t cos7t.....).
7
5
3

Vi = 2 / T = 2 f
T & f ln lt l chu k v tn s ca tn hiu ch nht.
Lu , nu di tn hiu (H 2.2.a) ln mt khong V theo trc tung th ph tn c
thm thnh phn mt chiu (H 2.3)

v=

(a)

v= V+

(H 2.3)

(b)

1
1
4V
1
( cost cos3t + cos5t cos7t.....)

7
5
3

Xt trng hp chui xung ch nht vi rng << T , ta c tn hiu v ph

(H 2.4).
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____________________ Chng 2 M ha v iu ch II - 3
v=

sin3x
sin2x
V 2V sinx
cos3t.....)
cos2t +
cost +
(
+
3x
2x
x
T
T

vi x = / T

(a)

(b) Ph tn trong trng hp = 0,1T

(H 2.4)

2V sinnx
T
nx
(H 2.4.b) l ph tn ca tn hiu (H 2.4.a) cho trng hp = 0,1 T. Trong trng hp
ny tn s u tin ca tn hiu c bin t tr 0 l 10f.
Nu xem bng thng BW ca tn hiu l khong tn s m bin tn hiu t gi tr
0 u tin (v nng lng tn hiu tp trung trong khong tn s ny) ta c:
BW xc nh bi:
sin(nx) = 0
nx = n / T = n / T = 1/
hay
BW = nf = n/T = 1/

Nhn thy bin ca ha tn th n xc nh bi Vn =

2.1.2 Ph tn lin tc
i vi chui xung trn khi T cng ln khong cch ph vch cng thu hp li v
khi T , chui xung tr thnh mt xung duy nht v ph vch tr thnh mt ng cong
lin tc c dng bao hnh ca bin ph trc y (H 2.5).
ng cong xc nh bi:
V(f) = V

sinf

(a)

(b)
(H 2.5)

2.2. M ha
Vic to m c tn hiu trn cc h thng s c th thc hin mt cch n gin l
gn mt gi tr in th cho mt trng thi logic v mt tr khc cho mc logic cn li. Tuy
nhin s dng m mt cch c hiu qu, vic to m phi da vo mt s tnh cht sau:
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____________________ Chng 2 M ha v iu ch II - 4
- Ph tn ca tn hiu:
Nu tn hiu c cha tn s cao th bng thng ca tn hiu v ca h thng phi rng
Nu tn hiu c thnh phn DC c th gy kh khn trong ghp ni, th d khng th
ghp tn hiu c thnh phn DC qua bin th v kt qu l khng cch ly in c.
Trong thc t, s truyn thng xu nht cc cnh ca bng thng.
V cc l do trn, mt tn hiu tt phi c ph tn tp trung gia mt bng thng
khng qu rng v khng nn cha thnh phn DC.
- S ng b
Thng my thu phi c kh nng nhn ra im bt u v kt thc ca mt bit
thc hin s ng b vi my pht. Nn nh l trong ch truyn ng b, my pht v thu
khng to ra xung ng h ring r m my thu phi phc hi xung ny t chui d liu pht
s dng. Nh vy tn hiu truyn phi to iu kin cho my thu phc hi xung ng h n
trong chui d liu, c th l phi thng xuyn c s bin i gia cc mc ca tn hiu.
- Kh nng d sai
tin cy trong mt h thng thng tin s l rt cn thit do my thu phi c kh
nng d sai sa cha m vic ny c thc hin d dng hay khng cng ty vo dng m.
- Tnh min nhiu v giao thoa
Cc dng m khc nhau cho kh nng min nhiu khc nhau. Th d m Bipolar-AMI
l loi m c kh nng pht hin c nhiu.
- Mc phc tp v gi thnh ca h thng
Cc c tnh ny ca h thng cng ty thuc vo dng m rt nhiu

2.2.1 Cc dng m ph bin

Di y gii thiu mt s dng m thng dng v c s dng cho cc mc ch
khc nhau ty vo cc yu cu c th v cc tnh cht ni trn (H 2.6)
- Nonreturn - to - zero - Level (NRZ - L)
0 = mc cao
1 = mc thp
y l dng m n gin nht, hai tr in th cng du (n cc) biu din hai trng
thi logic. Loi m ny thng c dng trong vic ghi d liu ln bng t, a t . . . .
- Nonreturn - to - zero inverted (NRZI)
0 = chuyn mc in th u bit
1 = khng chuyn mc in th u bit

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____________________ Chng 2 M ha v iu ch II - 5

(H 2.6)

NRZI l mt th d ca m vi phn: s m ha ty vo s thay i trng thi ca cc

bit lin tip ch khng ty thuc vo bn thn bit . Loi m ny c li im l khi gii m
my thu ch cn d s thay i trng thi ca tn hiu th c th phc hi d liu thay v phi
so snh tn hiu vi mt tr ngng xc nh trng thi logic ca tn hiu . Kt qu l cc
loi m vi phn cho tin cy cao hn.
- Bipolar - AMI
0 = khng tn hiu (hiu th = 0)
1 = hiu th m hoc dng, lun phin thay i vi chui bit 1 lin tip
- Pseudoternary
0 = hiu th m hoc dng, lun phin thay i vi chui bit 0 lin tip
1 = khng tn hiu (hiu th = 0)
Hai loi m c cng tnh cht l s dng nhiu mc in th to m (Multilevel
Binary), c th l 3 mc: m, dng v khng. Li im ca loi m ny l:
- D to ng b my thu do c s thay i trng thi ca tn hiu in mc d cc
trng thi logic khng i (tuy nhin iu ny ch thc hin i vi mt loi bit, cn loi bit
th hai s c khc phc bi k thut ngu nhin ha)
- C iu kin tt d sai do s thay i mc in th ca cc bit lin tip ging
nhau nn khi c nhiu xm nhp s to ra mt s vi phm m my thu c th pht hin d
dng.
Mt khuyt im ca loi m ny l hiu sut truyn tin km do phi s dng 3 mc
in th .
- Manchester
0 = Chuyn t cao xung thp gia bit
1 = Chuyn t thp ln cao gia bit
- Differential Manchester
Lun c chuyn mc gia bit
0 = chuyn mc u bit
1 = khng chuyn mc u bit
Hai m Manchester v Differential Manchester c cng tnh cht : mi bit c c
trng bi hai pha in th (Biphase) nn lun c s thay i mc in th tng bit do to
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____________________ Chng 2 M ha v iu ch II - 6
iu kin cho my thu phc hi xung ng h to ng b. Do c kh nng t thc hin
ng b nn loi m ny c tn Self Clocking Codes. Do mi bit c m bi 2 pha in th
nn vn tc iu ch (Modulation rate) ca loi m ny tng gp i so vi cc loi m khc,
c th , gi s thi gian ca 1 bit l T th vn tc iu ch ti a (ng vi chui xung 1 hoc 0
lin tip) l 2/T

2.2.2 K thut ngu nhin ha (Scrambling techniques)

khc phc khuyt im ca loi m AMI l cho mt mc in th khng i khi c
mt chui nhiu bit 0 lin tip, ngi ta dng k thut ngu nhin ha. Nguyn tc ca k
thut ny l to ra mt s thay i in th gi bng cch thay th mt chui bit 0 bi mt
chui tn hiu c mc in th thay i, d nhin s thay th ny s a n cc vi phm lut
bin i ca bit 1, nhng chnh nh cc bit vi phm ny m my thu nhn ra c bin
php gii m thch hp. Di y gii thiu hai dng m c ngu nhin ha v c
dng rt nhiu trong cc h thng tin vi khong cch rt xa v vn tc bit kh ln:
- B8ZS : l m AMI c thm tnh cht: chui 8 bit 0 lin tc c thay bi mt chui
8 bit c c bit 0 v 1 vi 2 m vi phm lut o bit 1
- Nu trc chui 8 bit 0 l xung dng, cc bit 0 ny c thay th bi 000 + - 0 - +
- Nu trc chui 8 bit 0 l xung m, cc bit 0 ny c thay th bi
000 - + 0 + -

Nhn xt bng m thay th ta thy c s vi phm lut o bit 2 v tr th 4 v th 7

ca chui 8 bit.
- HDB3 : l m AMI c thm tnh cht: chui 4 bit 0 lin tc c thay bi mt chui
4 bit c c bit 0 v 1 vi 1 m vi phm lut o bit 1
S thay th chui 4 bt ca m HDB3 cn theo qui tc sau:
Cc tnh ca xung trc
+

S bt 1 t ln thay th cui cng

L
chn
000+00+
000+
-00-

S vi phm lut o bit xy ra bit th 4 trong chui 4 bit.

Ngoi ra h thng Telco cn c hai loi m l B6ZS v B3ZS da theo qui lut sau:
- B6ZS: Thay chui 6 bit 0 bi 0 - + 0 + - hay 0 + - 0 - + sao cho s vi phm xy ra
bit th 2 v th 5
- B3ZS: Thay chui 3 bit 0 bi mt trong cc chui: 00 +, 00 -, - 0 - hay + 0 +, ty
theo cc tnh v s bit 1 trc (tong t nh HDB3).
Lu l k thut ngu nhin ha khng lm gia tng lng tn hiu v chui thay th
c cng s bit vi chui c thay th.
(H 2.7) l mt th d ca m B8ZS v HBD3.

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____________________ Chng 2 M ha v iu ch II - 7

B = Valid bipolar signal; V = Bipolar violation

(H 2.7)

2.3 iu ch
Bin iu hay iu ch l qu trnh chuyn i ph tn ca tn hiu cn truyn n mt
vng ph tn khc bng cch dng mt sng mang chuyn ch tn hiu cn truyn i; mc
ch ca vic lm ny l chn mt ph tn thch hp cho vic truyn thng tin, vi cc tn s
sng mang khc nhau ngi ta c th truyn nhiu tn hiu c cng ph tn trn cc knh
truyn khc nhau ca cng mt ng truyn.
Mt cch tng qut, phng php iu ch l dng tn hiu cn truyn lm thay i
mt thng s no ca sng mang (bin , tn s, pha....). Ty theo thng s c la
chn m ta c cc phng php iu ch khc nhau: iu ch bin (AM), iu ch tn s
(FM), iu ch pha M, iu ch xung PM . . . ..

2.3.1 iu ch bin ( Amplitude Modulation, AM )

Xt tn hiu cao tn
e(t) = Ac cos(ct + )
Tn hiu AM c c bng cch dng tn hiu g(t) lm bin i bin ca e(t).
Biu thc ca tn hiu AM l:
eAM(t) = [(Ac +g(t)]cosct
n gin, ta b qua l lng khng i trong AM.
Nhng tnh cht c bn ca AM d dng c xc nh nu ta bit tn hiu g(t).
Xt g(t) l tn hiu h tn:
g(t) = Em cosmt
Nh vy:
eAM(t) = (Ac +Em cosmt)cosct = Ac[ 1 + (Em/Ac) cosmt]cosct
= Ac[ 1 + ma cosmt] cosct
Trong ma = Em/Ac gi l ch s bin iu
(H 2.8) v dng sng v ph tn ca tn hiu AM.

(1)
(2)

(3)
(4)

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____________________ Chng 2 M ha v iu ch II - 8

(a)

(H 2.8)

(b)

thy c ph tn ta trin khai h thc (4)

eAM(t) = Ac cosct + (maAc/2)cos(c + m)t + (maAc/2)cos(c - m)t

(5)

T (H 2.8b) ta thy bng thng ca tn hiu iu ch bng hai ln tn s ca tn

hiu h tn v c chia ra lm hai bng cnh. iu ch bin l mt qu trnh tuyn tnh
nn mi tn s ca tn hiu h tn to ra mt bng thng v trong trng hp tn hiu h tn
gm nhiu tn s khc nhau th bng thng ca tn hiu bin iu l:
BW = 2fm(max)
fm (max) l tn s h tn cao nht.
D liu s c th c truyn bng phng php iu ch AM, trong trng hp ny
gi l k thut di bin (ASK, Amplitude- Shift Keying). Bit 1 c truyn i bi sng
mang c bin E1 v bit 0 bi sng mang bin E2. (H 2.9) minh ha tn hiu ASK

(H 2.9)

2.3.2 iu ch gc (Angle modulation)

Ta cng bt u vi sng mang cha iu ch:
e(t) = Ac cos(ct + ) = Ac cos(t)
(6)
Nu c thay i tng ng vi ngun thng tin, ta c tn hiu iu ch tn s (FM) v
nu (t) thay i ta c tn hiu iu ch pha (M).
Hai k thut iu ch ny c bn ging nhau v c gi chung l iu ch gc.

2.3.2.1 iu ch tn s (FM)
Tn s (t) l gi tr bin i theo thi gian ca (t), ngha l:
d (t )
(t) =
dt
Vy tn s ca tn hiu cha iu ch l:
(t) =

(7)

d (ct + )
= c
dt

(8)

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____________________ Chng 2 M ha v iu ch II - 9
Gi s tn hiu iu ch l g(t), theo nh ngha ca php iu ch tn s, tn s tc
thi ca sng mang l:
(t) = c [1 + g(t) ]
(9)
Thay (9) vo (7):
(10)
(t) = c [1 + g(t)].dt = c t + g(t).dt
Thay vo pt (6):
eFM(t) = A c cos{ c t + c g(t).dt}

(11)

Biu thc (11) cho thy tn hiu g(t) c ly tch phn trc khi c iu ch.
Xt trng hp g(t) l tn hiu h tn c dng hnh sin:
g(t) =

cosm(t)
(12)
c
l di tn v m l tn s ca tn hiu h tn

(t) = c t + c
cos m t.dt
c
= ct + mf sinmt
vi mf = / m l ch s iu ch. l t s ca di tn v tn s ca tn hiu
iu ch (h tn).
(13)
eFM (t) = Ac cos{ ct + mf sinmt}
thy ph tn ca sng FM ta trin khai biu thc (13):
eFM (t) = AcJ0(mf) cosct + AcJ2n(mf) [ cos(ct + 2ncosmt) + cos(ct - 2ncosmt)]
(14)
AcJ2n+1(mf) { cos[c t + (2n+1)cosmt] - cos[ct - (2n+1)cosmt]}
J l hm Bessel theo mf v n c mi tr nguyn t 0 n .
T (14) ta thy sng FM gm thnh phn c bn c tn s ca sng mang v bin
cho bi s hng th I , J0(mf) , v cc bng cnh cho bi cc s hng cn li.
V n ly mi gi tr t 0 n nn ph tn ca sng FM rng v hn, tuy nhin do
nng lng tn hiu gim rt nhanh vi tn s cao nn ngi ta xem bng thng trong FM xp
x bng:
BW = 2(mf .m + m ) = 2( + m ) rad/s
(H 2.10) cho dng sng v ph tn ca sng FM

(H 2.10)

Cng nh trong trng hp AM, tn hiu d liu s cng c truyn bng phng
php FM. K thut ny c gi l k thut di tn (FSK: Frequency- Shift Keying).
FSK c dng rng ri trong truyn s liu. Trong FSK bit 1 c truyn i bi tn
s fm v bit 0 bi tn s fs v d, trong h thng truyn s dng tiu chun ca hng Bell bit 1
c truyn bi tn s 1070 Hz (fm) v bit 0 bi tn s 1270 Hz (fs).
(H 2.11) minh ha tn hiu iu ch FSK

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____________________ Chng 2 M ha v iu ch II - 10

(H 2.11)

2.3.2.2 iu ch pha ( M )
T phng trnh (6) nu gc pha (t) thay i theo tn hiu thng tin ta c iu ch
pha. Vy:
ePM (t) = Ac cos[ ct + mp g(t)]
(15)
Trong mp l di pha cc i

Tn s tc thi cho bi:

i(t) = d(t)/dt

= c + mp

dg( t )
dt

Nu g(t) c dng cosmt th:

i(t) = c - mpmsinmt
(16)
(17)
ePM (t) = Ac cos[ ct - mpmsinmt ]
So snh (17) v (13), xem mp l ch s iu ch pha, tng ng vi mf trong FM,
ta c th xc nh c bng thng ca tn hiu M
(18)
BW = 2(m + mpm) rad/s
mpm = ep l di tn tng ng ca M
So snh (11) v (15) ta thy k thut ca FM v M c cng c s. im khc bit l
trong FM ta ly tch phn ca tn hiu h tn trc khi iu ch cn trong M th khng.
iu ch pha l k thut rt tt truyn s liu. Trong k thut di pha, PSK
(Phase-Shift Keying), cc bit 1 v 0 c biu din bi cc tn hiu c cng tn s nhng c
pha tri ngc nhau.
(H 2.12) m t mt tn hiu PSK.

(H 2.12)

2.3.3 iu ch xung ( Pulse modulation)

y l phng php dng tn hiu h tn iu ch sng mang l tn hiu xung (c tn
s cao hn), cn gi l phng php ly mu tn hiu h tn. Mc d cc tn hiu tng t
c ly mu bi cc gi tr ri rc, nhng cc mu ny c th c bt c gi tr no trong
khong bin i ca tn hiu h tn nn h thng truyn tn hiu ny l h thng truyn tng
t ch khng phi h thng truyn s.

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____________________ Chng 2 M ha v iu ch II - 11
Ty theo thng s no ca xung thay i theo tn hiu h tn, ta c : iu ch bin
xung (pulse amplitude modulation, PAM), iu ch v tr xung (pulse position modulation,
PPM), iu ch rng xung (pulse width modulation, PWM)

2.3.3.1 iu ch bin xung ( PAM)

Khi mt chui xung hp vi tn s lp li cao p(t) c iu ch bin bi tn hiu
sin tn s thp m(t), ta c s iu ch bin xung. Tn hiu sau khi iu ch l tch ca hai
tn hiu m(t).p(t) c dng sng l cc xung vi bin thay i theo dng sng h tn m(t) (H
2.13).

(H 2.13)

a-/ Mu PAM t nhin (Natural PAM sampling)

Khi bin xung iu ch c nh theo dng ca tn hiu m(t), ta c mu PAM t
nhin (H 2.13).
Kt qu ca phn 2.1.1 cho thy tn hiu p(t) c th phn tch thnh cc thnh phn:
Vo + Vn.cos(nst)
vi Vo = V/Ts l thnh phn DC v s = 2/Ts l tn s ca p(t).
Nh vy, m(t).p(t) bao gm:
m(t).Vo = m(t).V/Ts v m(t).Vn.cos(nst)
Tm li, tch m(t).p(t) c cha dng sng ca tn hiu iu ch (tn hiu cn truyn)
trong thnh phn tn s thp m(t).Vo v c th phc hi bng cch cho sng mang iu ch
qua mt mch lc h thng.
Thnh phn ha tn c dng Vnm(t)cos(nst) tng t nh tn hiu iu ch 2 bng
cnh trit sng mang (Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier, DSBSC).
Ph tn ca tn hiu PAM vi h tn l m(t) = sinmt c dng nh (H 2.14)

(H 2.14)

Trong (H 2.14) M(f) l ph tn ca tn hiu di nn v fm l tn s cao nht ca tn

hiu ny. T (H 2.14) ta cng thy ti sao tn s xung ly mu fs phi t nht hai ln ln hn
fm . Nu M(f) c phc hi t mch lc h thng, phn cch t M(f) ti di tn k cn
phi ln hn 0, ngha l W > 0
W = fs - fm - fm > 0 hay
fs > 2 fm
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____________________ Chng 2 M ha v iu ch II - 12
b-/ Mu PAM nh phng (Flat-top PAM)
y l mu PAM c dng rng ri do d to ra sng iu ch. Dng sng cho (H
2.15) cc xung sau khi iu ch c nh phng ch khng theo dng ca h tn.

(H 2.15)

Mc d khi phc hi tn hiu t mch lc h thng s c bin dng do on nh

phng nhng v b rng xung thng rt nh so vi chu k Ts nn bin dng khng ng k.
Nu s bin dng l ng k th cng c th loi b bng cch cho tn hiu i qua mt mch
b tr.
Tn hiu PAM t c dng pht trc tip do lng thng tin cn truyn cha trong
bin ca xung nn d b nh hng ca nhiu. PAM thng c dng nh l mt bc
trung gian trong mt phng php iu ch khc, gi l iu m xung (pulse code
modulation, PCM) v c dng trong a hp thi gian truyn (TDM).

2.3.3.2 iu ch thi gian xung (Pulse -time Modulation, PTM)

iu ch thi gian xung bao gm bn phng php (H 2.16). Ba phng php u tp
trung trong mt nhm gi l iu ch rng xung (Pulse-width modulation, PWM) (H
2.16d, e, f), phng php th t l iu ch v tr xung (Pulse-position modulation, PPM) (H
2.16g).
Ba phng php iu ch rng xung khc nhau im cnh ln, cnh xung hay
im gia xung c gi c nh trong khi rng xung thay i theo tn hiu iu ch.
Phng php th t, PPM l thay i v tr xung theo tn hiu iu ch trong khi b
rng xung khng i. (H 2.16) minh ha cho cc cch iu ch ny.
Lu l k thut PTM tong t vi iu ch FM v M, tn hiu c bin khng
i nn t b nh hng bi nhiu.
Ph tn ca tn hiu iu ch bng phng php PWM, PPM ging nh ph tn ca
tn hiu iu ch FM (H 2.16h), ngha l c nhiu ha tn nn khi s dng PWM v PPM
ngi ta phi gia tng tn s xung ly mu hoc gim di tn ( gii hn bng thng ca
tn hiu v tng s knh truyn).

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____________________ Chng 2 M ha v iu ch II - 13

(H 2.16)

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